Иностранный язык для научного общения. Английский

Министерство образования и науки Российской Федерации Сибирский федеральный университет Магистратура

ИНОСТРАННЫЙ ЯЗЫК ДЛЯ НАУЧНОГО ОБЩЕНИЯ. АНГЛИЙСКИЙ Учебно-методическое пособие для самостоятельной работы

Электронное издание

Красноярск СФУ 2013 1 

УДК 811.111(07) ББК 81.432.1я73 И683 Составитель: Алмабекова Ольга Алексеевна И683 Иностранный язык для научного общения. Английский: учебнометодическое пособие для самостоятельной работы [Электронный ресурс] / сост. О. А. Алмабекова. – Электрон. дан. – Красноярск: Сиб. федер. ун-т, 2013. – Систем. требования: PC не ниже класса Pentium I; 128 Mb RAM; Windows 98/XP/7; Adobe Reader V8.0 и выше. – Загл. с экрана. Учебно-методическое пособие содержит материалы для организации и выполнения самостоятельной работы. Направлено на закрепление умений письма статей и документов различной направленности, характерных для научной коммуникации. Развитие умений критического чтения мышления и письма способствует интеграции коммуникативных умений чтения и письма, а также переносу информации из оригинальных англоязычных источников и учебных умений в практику научного общения в рамках изучения маркетинга и менеджмента, а также проведения научных исследований и презентации их результатов в письменном виде. Предназначено для студентов магистратуры направления 080200.68 «Менеджмент» программ подготовки 080200.68.06 «Маркетинг», 080200.68.07 «Управление развитием бизнеса», 080200.68.08 «Инновационный менеджмент».

УДК 811.111(07) ББК 81.432.1я73 © Сибирский федеральный университет, 2013 Учебное издание Подготовлено к публикации ИЦ БИК СФУ Подписано в свет 26.03.2013 г. Заказ 595. Тиражируется на машиночитаемых носителях. Издательский центр Библиотечно-издательского комплекса Сибирского федерального университета 660041, г. Красноярск, пр. Свободный, 79 Тел/факс (391)206-21-49. E-mail [email protected] http://rio.sfu-kras.ru

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ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ ВВЕДЕНИЕ .............................................................................................................. 4 PART 1. WRITING FOR SCIENTIFIC PURPOSES .............................................. 8 Unit 1 ..................................................................................................................... 8 Unit 2 ..................................................................................................................... 9 Unit 3 ................................................................................................................... 10 Unit 4 ................................................................................................................... 11 Unit 5 ................................................................................................................... 13 Unit 7 ................................................................................................................... 19 Unit 8 ................................................................................................................... 20 Unit 9 ................................................................................................................... 21 Unit 10 ................................................................................................................. 23 PART 2. MODELS AND SAMPLES OF LETTERS AND OTHER MATERIALS FOR SCIENTIFIC COMMUNICATION .............. 26 PART 3. ACADEMIC PHRASEBANK ................................................................. 39 SOURCES ............................................................................................................... 60

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ВВЕДЕНИЕ Cамостоятельная работа по иностранному языку для научного общения нацелена на формирование и развитие у студентов магистратуры компетенций, позволяющих применять иноязычные речевые и умения, а также знания английской грамматики и лексики для успешной коммуникации в ситуациях самостоятельного изучения английского языка, применения этих знаний и умений на практике как во время обучения в условиях вуза, так и при проведении научных исследований. Предлагаемое учебно-методическое пособие для самостоятельной работы разработано в соответствии с типовой программой по иностранным языкам для неязыковых специальностей магистратуры. Оно предназначено для студентов магистратуры по направлению «Менеджмент» со средним и высоким уровнем владения английским языком, продолжающих изучать английский язык в рамках университетской программы. В основе данного издания лежит идея интегрированного изучения лексики и взаимосвязанного развития иноязычных коммуникативных навыков чтения, говорения и письма. Предложенные учебные материалы представляют собой тексты и задания рефлексивного и проблемноориентированного характера. В методическом плане пособие описывает структуру и содержание самостоятельной работы, а также предлагает методы работы с разными ее видами. По содержанию пособие в основном ориентировано на формирование и развитие умений письма для научного общения, поскольку это самый трудоемкий и затратный повремени вид работы, и основная его часть выполняется студентами дома. Структурно пособие разделено на три части. Первая часть состоит из 10 юнитов по два на каждый раздел в пособии для практических занятий. Каждый юнит представляет собой текст информативного характера и задания к нему, имеющие проблемную и практическую ориентацию. Во второй части предложены модели различных видов научной корреспонденции и структуры для самостоятельного написания писем и других жанров научного общения. Третья часть представляет собой банк наиболее частотных выражений научного характера, сгруппированных по функциям для удобного и легкого использования студентами магистратуры при написании аннотаций, статей и тезисов по тематике индивидуального научного исследования на английском языке.

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Методика организации самостоятельной работы Значение самостоятельной работы в курсе обучения иностранному языку, нельзя переоценить, поскольку именно она позволяет сделать процесс формирования иноязычной коммуникативной компетенции непрерывным и развивать у обучающихся потребность в постоянном самообразовании. Эффективной может быть только правильно организованная и оперативно контролируемая самостоятельная работа. Для успешного управления самостоятельной работой необходимы: - учебные материалы для самостоятельной работы, адаптированные к потребностям курса иностранного языка на уровне магистратуры; - готовность преподавателя постоянно направлять и оценивать самостоятельную работу; - умение студентов выбирать адекватные способы и приемы самостоятельной работы и оценивать результаты своего труда. При организации самостоятельной работы студентов магистратуры необходимо нацеливать их на регулярное выполнение домашних заданий – повторение пройденного лексического и грамматического материала, чтение специальных текстов и письменное выполнение заданий научного характера. Условиями эффективности самостоятельной работы является ее правильная методическая организация, при которой на занятиях в аудитории преподаватель дает четкую инструкцию к домашнему заданию, а также мотивирующее к изучению содержание и форма самостоятельной работы. Домашние задания по самостоятельной работе могут выполнять следующие функции: - повторение, расширение или углубленное изучение материала, пройденного на уроке (домашние упражнения) - практическое применение языковых или речевых умений в реальных ситуациях бытовой или профессиональной коммуникации (проекты по темам курса) - практическое применение языковых или речевых умений для расширения знаний по направлению подготовки (поиск и извлечение информации при чтении иностранных источников, использование полученной информации для создания докладов на конференции и т.п.) - развитие творческих и рефлексивных умений (анализа, синтеза, классификации, оценки) - укрепление междисциплинарных связей (выполнение проектной работы) - усиление автономии студентов (привлечение к созданию учебных материалов, иллюстративного и информационного сопровождения). Самостоятельная работа составляет 63 % учебных часов, то есть 208 часов всего объема времени, предназначенного для изучения предмета.

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Для создания условий эффективного выполнения самостоятельной работы преподаватель знакомит студентов с разнообразными источниками дополнительной информации, структурой и стратегиями выполнения задания. Для повышения автономии студентов, создаются условия для самостоятельного выбора источников, оценки достоверности и актуальности информации, формы предъявления творческой работы. Организация самостоятельной работы по иностранному языку для научного общения подразумевает внедрение мультимедийных технологий, сети интернет. Широкий доступ к информации лингвострановедческого и специального содержания на иностранном языке способен повысить мотивацию студентов к изучению иностранного языка, стимулировать творческий подход к формированию коммуникативных умений, позволит индивидуализировать способ получения необходимых знаний. Самостоятельная работа существует в 2 видах взаимодействия – индивидуальном и групповом. Подготовка к самостоятельной работе и ее предъявление проходит индивидуально, но такие ее формы, как выполнение учебных и научных проектов, требуют групповой организации и предъявления самостоятельной работы. Согласно субъект-субъектной модели учебного процесса и личностно-ориентированному обучению, и преподаватель и студент берут на себя ответственность за результаты подготовки и выполнения самостоятельной работы. Структура и содержание самостоятельной работы Таблица 1 Описание каждого вида самостоятельной работы: объем в часах (зачетных единицах) ВИД УЧЕБНОЙ РАБОТЫ Самостоятельная работа:

Всего зачетных ( ) 5,6(208)

9 сем

10 сем

11 сем

2(72)

1,7(60)

1,9(66)

1,63(58) 1,33(46) 0,1(4) 0,1(4)

1,53(52) 0,1(4)

подготовка к практическим занятиям работа с аудио и видеоматериалами

4,49(156) 0,3(12)

чтение научных журналов

0,3(12)

0,1(4)

0,1(4)

0,1(4)

работа с Интернет-ресурсами

0,51(18)

0,17(6)

0,17(6)

0,17(6)

Подготовка к практическим занятиям (ППЗ) проводится к каждому занятию и предполагает активизацию лексических и грамматических навыков в упражнениях, широко представленных в учебном пособии, а также выполнении заданий на письмо для научного общения.

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Задания для аудирования выдаются преподавателем, и студенты могут прослушивать тот же самый материал, который они слушали в аудитории, либо дополнительные источники, имеющиеся в наличии в ресурсном центре. Просмотр видеоматериалов приходится на 4 и 12 недели семестров. Здесь есть риск выполнения задания не по образцу, так как студент имеет полную свободу действий в отличие от регламента аудиторного ПВ. Однако в самостоятельном ПВ гораздо шире возможности для выполнения творческих заданий. Работа с интернет-ресурсами дает возможность формировать и развивать автономию студента и умения критического мышления, а также предполагает выход из аудитории на выполнение заданий практической значимости. Интернет ресурсы могут использоваться как справочные или в качестве текстового или иллюстративного материала для выполнения заданий и развития умений поиска информации или ее оценки. Список интернетресурсов находится в учебной программе. Тренировка умений устного и письменного общения научного и профессионального характера (писем по эл. почте, деловых писем, факсов) происходит на занятиях, но выполнение заданий в полном объеме производится самостоятельно, при подготовке домашнего задания. Коммуникативные умения тренируются на аудиторных занятиях, в то же время теоретический материал в виде пояснений и примеров к разным жанрам письма для научного общения приводится в настоящих методических рекомендациях и изучается при подготовке к практическим занятиям. Для создания прочной лексической базы и развития основных коммуникативных навыков: чтения и устного общения, рекомендуется работать с темами в той последовательности, в которой они представлены в программе. Для определения оптимального объёма материала для самостоятельной работы для каждого занятия необходимо брать во внимание количество часов и уровень подготовки группы. Требование индивидуализации работы студентов учтено в определении видов, содержания и объема тренировочных работ, разной степени сложности речевых заданий и заданий для самостоятельной работы, но в то же время подготовка проектов или тематических вечеров, конференций на иностранных языках осуществляется под руководством преподавателя и самостоятельно. Применение технических средств, информационных ресурсов и средства представления материалов позволяет организовать и выполнять самостоятельную работу более эффективно. Подготовка к практическим занятиям, входной контроль (тестирование), промежуточный контроль (тестирование) невозможно без компьютера и/или Интернет. При определении итоговой оценки за курс иностранного языка оценка самостоятельной работы студентов должна составлять не менее 60%. 7 

PART 1 WRITING FOR SCIENTIFIC PURPOSES Unit 1 Task 1 Read the text about thesis and find the thesis in the text from the unit Initial contacts across cultures in your Student book. Thesis The most important part of any argument is the thesis (also called a claim, a position, and a central argument). A thesis will usually do one of three things: make a judgment about something, offer a solution or recommendation, or explain something. Let's take a look at some examples: • Adding a "multiracial" category to the U.S. Census would be harmful to the African-American community. • Electronic invasion of privacy endangers American families. • Distance learning is good for students and institutions, but it may not be good for faculty. These statements make judgments about the value of certain actions. But with these topics, as with many others, a thesis could also make recommendations: • The United States Census should add a "multiracial" category to the next census survey. • Internet users should never send personal information, such as credit card numbers, social security numbers, or even home addresses, through the internet. • In order to be effective, distance learning programs should provide opportunities for interaction among students and between students and faculty, technical Support, and easy, flexible access. Or a thesis could present an argument that explains why something has happened or (what it means, like this: • The call for the addition of a "multiracial" category to the U.S. Census shows that Americans are getting tired of strict racial divisions and becoming more aware of how complex racial identity can be. • Privacy problems on the internet are inevitable because of the technical format, human nature, and the realities of contemporary life. • Distance learning works well for today's college students, who may be working full time, raising families, returning to college after years in the work force, or unable to afford to go to school in the traditional way. Task 2. After reading think about the essay you are going to write. Make a thesis according to the rules given below. Be ready to support your choice. 8 

Unit 2 Task 3. Read the text to figure out how you can try to formulate your thesis in different ways and supply your thesis with more information to develop your main idea. Planning Your Argument In planning an argument, the first step is to define your thesis or central argument. While you could present almost any topic with almost any kind of thesis statement, some topics lend themselves better to one kind of statement than another. Think about the sources you've been reading. What kind of arguments do they offer: evaluation, recommendation, or explanation? You probably want to make a similar kind of argument, though you'll present your own opinion, not someone else's. Once you know what kind of statement you want to make, you need to figure out where you stand. One of the best ways to do this is free writing. Just sit down and start writing about your topic. Don't worry about grammar or even writing complete sentences. If you start running out of steam, refocus by asking yourself "What do I think about this issue?" This kind of writing, the kind in which you focus on the ideas rather than on how you're phrasing things, can help you sort out your own opinions from all the things you've been reading. Now that you know where you stand, spend some time working on your thesis statement. Try different ways of phrasing it. Test it out on some friends to see if it's clear. You might try using it as the starting point for some more free writing. If the thesis statement you've developed works well to get you started writing about your topic, that's good. If you find yourself going off in another direction, though, you might want to rephrase your thesis. But an argument requires more than a good thesis. You also need to provide supporting ideas and evidence. Keep your audience in mind as you develop your supporting arguments. What do they know about your topic? What do they think about it? What kinds of ideas and evidence will they find most persuasive and interesting? What questions would they ask, and would they challenge any part of what you have to say? From there, you can create a rough outline, listing your main supporting ideas, the evidence you want to use to explain those ideas, and any questions or challenges you need to answer in order to persuade your readers. It's important to start with your ideas and audience, not with your sources. If you start with sources, it's easy to fall into the trap of writing a paper that mostly summarizes what other people think. To avoid this, start planning your essay by listing your supporting ideas. Under each idea, list the information you need to provide in order to explain the idea. Some of this information will be evidence from your outside sources, but some of it could be stories of your own experience or explanations of why you think something is important. 9 

You should also consider including a section in which you discuss the opposing position and explain why you disagree with it. This can be tricky, because you don't want to sound like you're being disrespectful or snide. You do want to show your reader why your position is better, and you may need to show the pitfalls of the other side in order to do this. Creating a rough outline can help you in a couple of ways. First, it can help you figure out what kind of research you still need to do. You may notice sections of your argument that need more support, and you'll see that some parts of your argument already have plenty of evidence. Second, the rough outline can be your guide as you start writing. Sometimes, writers feel stuck when they face an empty page or blank computer screen, but an outline can help you remember what you meant to write. It can also help you keep your writing organized, since it will help you remember what ideas and evidence goes where. Task 4 After reading, do some freewriting on the theme you have chosen according to the rules you have been presented. Reflect on the type of the essay you are writing – is it descriptive, analytical, or has a chronological structure? Should it summarize the sources or contain your own opinion or compare different opinions? Make a draft outline of the paper. Unit 3 Task 5. Read the text and learn how to choose and structure arguments to support you thesis. In the text for the unit Negotiations Across Cultures in your Student book find the thesis and analyze the arguments. Supporting Ideas and Evidence Thesis is supported by more specific arguments and evidence that will support those comments. For instance, you could support an argument about the value of distance by using the following ideas: Today's college students need access to education at times and places that are convenient to them, so distance learning may work better than traditional courses. Students need to work on school projects at different paces since their schedules are not steady. Distance learning can allow them to do this. Students who have already been in the work force are well prepared to work independently, and individualized education will work better for them. Distance learning could be more affordable for schools and students than traditional methods. Some of these ideas would be supported by examples and evidence. Some of the evidence could be facts and statistics, but most arguments also need other kinds of supporting information. After all, if an issue could be resolved simply by looking 10 

at facts, people wouldn't be arguing about it. Usually, supporting evidence includes ideas and quotes from experts, examples of cases related to your topic, and ideas from people who are affected by it. For example, the distance learning argument could be supported by information about what today's college students are like, descriptions of distance learning programs, quotes from reports/articles by educators researchers, and quotes from students. Evidence doesn’t work by itself, though. A good argument will explain how each piece of evidence relates to the argument and why the evidence is valuable and credible. For supporting idea in an argument, the following pieces should appear: Supporting idea (Distance learning allows students to fit college into their busy schedules). Explanation of the idea (Why are students' lives so busy? Why is it easier to fit distance learning into a busy schedule than it is to fit traditional courses?) Evidence (quotes from students about their schedules, statistics on the number of Students working full-time, descriptions of how distance learning programs are set up). Explanation of the value of the evidence (information on the people you're quoting, comments about what the increasing number of non-traditional students means, explanation of how distance learning is more convenient). Pay attention to how the articles and books you're reading make their arguments. Try to create an outline for the arguments you read, identifying their thesis and the main supporting ideas. Look closely at the supporting ideas and evidence, and ask yourself how well they work. Practicing with this can help you become more aware of how arguments work. Task 6 Write a short paragraph containing the thesis and the supporting arguments for the chosen theme. Be ready to present it in class with explanation about the type of the article. Unit 4 Task 7 Read the text to find out about making definitions. Why we need to be able to make definitions of key words for our academic writing? Writing Definitions Definitions occur frequently in many types of scientific writing because it is often necessary to define certain operations, substances, objects or machines. When you define anything the first part of the definition should be general. The details should be left until later. In other words, the thing to be defined should be

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described first in terms of its general class, then in terms of particular properties, qualities, uses or origins. This could be expressed as: T + G + (da + dc +…+ dn) where T equals the thing to be defined where = equals "be" where G equals a general class word where da, db, etc. are the details which distinguish T from the other numbers of G. (From Writing Scientific English) Here is an example: Epiphyte (T) is the plant (G) that grows upon another plant (da), but is neither parasitic on it (db) nor rooted in the ground (dc). i.e. T = G + da +db +dc Although there are several possible ways of writing definitions in English, here are two ways which are much commoner than the others: Formula I An (x/y) is a/an.. .general class word + wh- word… where x is a countable noun. where у is an uncountable noun. Here are some examples: An x/y is a/an class word wh- word A robot is a machine which can be programmed to performed specific mechanical functions in the manner of a man. An expert is an AI computer which is designed system to represent human expertise in a particular domain. Jet stream is a narrow wind which occurs in the current earth's atmosphere above the lower troposphere and flows towards the east at speeds of between 60-125 km/h. Gunpowder is an explosive which consists of a mixture of potassium nitrate, sulphur, and charcoal. Points to remember: 1. "the" is not used with the subject because definitions are general statements. 2. It is possible to use a reduced relative clause. In a reduced passive relative clause bath the "wh-word" and "be" are omitted. e.g. An expert system is an AI computer program designed to represent human expertise in a particular domain. In a reduced active relative clause the "wh-word" is omitted and the verb is changed to a present participle (verb + ing). e.g. Gunpowder is an explosive consisting of a mixture of potassium nitrate, sulphur, and charcoal.

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Formula II А/ an....general class word + wh- word.... is known as (an x/y). is called is termed Here are some examples: Class word wh- word is called /is known as a(n) x/y is termed A machine which can be programmed to perform specific mechanical functions in the manner of a man is known as a robot. An AI computer (which is) designed to represent human expertise in a particular domain is called an expert system. An explosive which consists of a mixture of potassium , nitrate, sulphur, and charcoal is termed gun powder. So far the general class word has always been followed by a wh- word or by a reduced relative clause. However, there may be a preposition before the wh- word. This happens when the subjects of the two parts of the definition sentence are not the same. Task 8. Try to recall which formula for making definitions is more popular in the articles you have recently read. Which one do you prefer and why? Make up a list of key words for your article and make definitions for them. Use the formulas you prefer. Task 9. Try to recall the articles you have read focusing on their structure. Did all of them contain introductions? Read the text about introductions: functions and types. Did you get any new information about the role introduction can play and the form it can take? Unit 5 Task 10. Read the text about functions and types of introductions. Find the function for each type of introduction. Add to the list of functions if appropriate. Introductions FUNCTIONS: • Give background information; let the readers know what led you to consider the point you are treating in this essay. • Mention other viewpoints besides the one that you wish to support; use a transition to make your readers aware of which viewpoint is yours: "Most people think that American education is going downhill. National test results indicate that this may be true. I, however, have found that today's students are far better prepared academically than we have been led to believe." 13 

• Ask questions that will interest the readers and keep them reading. • Use an interesting, relevant quotation to introduce your topic. • Use an anecdote, a brief story that sets the stage for your topic. • Tell briefly what each body paragraph will deal with; don't go into so much detail that the readers don't need to read the rest of the paper. TYPES: Direct Announcement: "A Solution to Graffiti Problems" There is no one complete method of solving the graffiti problem. Increased lighting of streets and buildings at night, limited spray paint cans, and new graffitiproof building materials can all help to decrease the graffiti problem. Graffiti removal is a costly process and all of these methods should be used to try to decrease the problem of graffiti. Question and Series of Related Facts: What do Cornbread, Cool Earl, and Rembrandt have in common? "Nothing," say the mil lions who are appalled at the notion of graffiti by the first two wellknown Philadelphia graffiti "artists" whose work has defaced many city buildings. "Quite a bit," argue the defenders of this unusual kind of "folk art." While a vocal minority champions the spray paint "artists," concerned citizens are banding together to find a solution to problems created by such "creative expression." Definition: "Graffiti" is an Italian word that refers to words or phrases written On public sidewalks or buildings. Ancient examples of this "public writing" were found on the walls of the: city of Pompeii when it was unearthed. Today the term often signifies the spray-painted slogans that "decorate" urban schools, houses, and even subway cars. To some people psychologists and sociologists for the most part such graffiti are a valid-and even artistic means of self-expression. To most people, however, graffiti represent an ever-increasing urban problem calling for immediate solution. Quotation: In a national symposium on graffiti, David Adams, noted art historian, stated: "Time was when 'Kilroy was here' decorated many out-of-the-way places, but now it has been replaced by more exotic signatures, and the penciled comments have given way to spray-painted slogans." As Dr. Adams pointed out, once graffiti writing moved out of the rest rooms and onto the streets, it immediately became an object of concern among citizens trying to solve our urban problems. Elimination of this unsightly blight presents a real problem.

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Anecdote: Yesterday Billy Barnes came home at 3:30 and let himself into his house with the key he carries to school every morning. After fixing himself a snack of five Oreo cookies and a glass of grape Koolaid, Billy watched television (MTV) for two hours. When the doorbell rang, Billy didn't answer it. Instead, he peered out the window from behind the living room curtains and waited anxiously until the stranger on his front porch walked away. At 5:30 Billy remembered that he was supposed to call his mother when he got home from school, but when he telephoned her office, she was in a meeting and couldn't talk to him. Billy is seven years old; he represents a growing number of latchkey children who pay the price for their parents' changing lifestyles. Refutation: Many people (among them, many legislators) believe that the legalization of marijuana would cause a widespread Increase in drug addiction and crime. Actually, as moderate legalization is beginning to show in some states, legalization probably will create a drop in crime as marijuana ceases to be contraband and a black-market product. Also, is reported that as its use has increased, use of hard drugs and the crime associated with such drugs have decreased. Presenting a New Slant: Sickle cell anemia, a serious disease that mainly threatened blacks, has recently become the target of an extensive health campaign on both state and federal levels. This campaign has been received by the public with tremendous approval. It's about time, however, that the other side of the story was revealed. For, although the program to test for and treat the disease has undoubtedly been undertaken with good intention they have had some decidely negative effects. Task 11. Scan the text from the unit Management Across Cultures in your Student book and find the introduction, decide on the type and function of it. Decide on the function of introduction in your own article. Write at least 2 types of introductions to your paper. Choose the best to present in class. Unit 6 Task 12. Before reading the text below, make a definition for conclusion. Now read the first sentence and paraphrase it into a definition. Compare your own definition of a conclusion and the one the text offers. Are there any similarities? Task 13. Read the list of advice to make good conclusions and add to it by reading the information from the text and your own ideas.

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Strategies for Effective Conclusions The conclusion needs to let the readers know that the essay is coming to a close and that you have accomplished what you intended. DO NOT: • start a whole new topic. • contradict your entire point. • make obvious statements. • repeat your exact words from the thesis. DO: • summarize the main points of the essay. • point out what has been learned from the information provided in the essay. • supply the possible solutions for problems you have raised. From one point of view, the conclusion of your essay is its most important part. Why work so long and hard at composing a stimulating introduction and welldeveloped body paragraphs if your effect is to be weakened by your conclusion? Your conclusion is your last, word on the subject, a last chance to make your point to your readers. A weak, abrupt, or uninteresting conclusion can detract greatly from what would otherwise be a memorable essay. Hence, a strong concluding statement is essential. It should focus your reader's attention on your main points and hold that attention as effectively as the introduction does. A conclusion should sum up, give readers a sense of completeness or finality, and perhaps help convince them. A common way to achieve these goals is to restate the essay's controlling idea, thereby underscoring the points the entire essay has made and presenting them one final time. Often this restatement appears in the first sentence or two of the conclusion. You can then expand your discussion by making some general concluding remarks, perhaps ending with a strong emphatic statement as a climax. In general, the conclusion can be said to be shaped like this: Restatement of controlling idea General concluding remarks Final statement. Task 14. Read the text below to get acquainted with different types of conclusions. In each example find signal words helping you to differentiate one type from another. Six Commonly Used Conclusion Types Restatement- This is the most familiar type of conclusion. The controlling idea is repeated in different words, and the main points of the essay's argument are 16 

reviewed or restated. A straightforward essay, whose introductory paragraph is a direct announcement, will often end this way. Restatement has the advantage of reinforcing one last time all major points. For this reason, it can be an excellent concluding strategy for an essay which seeks to prove a point. The following example illustrates a conclusion using the restatement technique: It is clear from even a casual trip through much of Appalachia that this region presents a challenge to a social planner. But before any Utopian schemes can be considered, basic needs must be met. The region's main problems remain very basic: adequate housing, poor nutrition, and a lack of educational facilities. Chronological Wind-up - when a piece of writing is narrative, it is natural to have its final paragraph tie up all loose ends by ending with what happened last. Personal experience essays and stories narrated in the first person normally use this method. For example, this student ends a personal experience essay with a chronological wind-up: The next few years of my life passed quickly, probably because I was so busy. In the space of three years, I got my equivalency diploma and held down three jobs— in sales, in the restaurant business, and in a men's clothing store. I also hitchhiked around the country. When I came back from my trip, I decided to return to school, and that's how 1 ended up in this English class, taking the first step toward getting a college degree. Illustration - To make an abstract or general conclusion more concrete and specific, you may choose to follow a broad restatement of your controlling idea with an example to illustrate it. A relevant news item can often serve this purpose. Similarly, a personal experience essay—or any story told in the first person—may conclude with an example that strikes a personal note. You can make a general or abstract conclusion more convincing if you provide an analogy with another situation. A student essay about the perils of living at college concludes with this analogy: In many ways, learning the "ins" and "outs" of living on campus is almost like taking a survival course. This training is not as thorough as what the army would put you through, but it comes close; it is learning survival in society instead of in the wilderness. Prediction - Writing designed to convince of persuade your readers may very naturally end with a prediction that takes the conclusion a step further than a summary. This type of conclusion does sum up the essay's main points, but it also enables the writer to make certain additional projections on the basis of those 17 

points. For example, a nursing student ended his paper for a public health course with this prediction: Even though there has not been a case of smallpox in the United States for years, children should still be vaccinated against this disease. Despite the assurances of many doctors to the contrary, some physicians still recommend this course of action. As far as this vocal minority is concerned, it is extremely likely that failure to immunize against smallpox could result in an outbreak of epidemic proportions, just like the one that recently occurred in Somalia. Recommendation of a Course of Action - When you feel you have convinced your readers, you may want to recommend action. In persuasive writing, it can be psychologically very effective to conclude by appealing to the reader for action. For example, note how this student concluded his essay which discussed the harmful effects of food additives: Every month, the Food and Drug Administration finds that another food additive has harmful effects on humans. In spite of this, food processors seem reluctant to eliminate additives from their food. It seems as if the only way we, the consumers, will be able to make our desires felt is to stop buying food that contains artificial preservatives and flavor enhancers. It is time for us to take an active part in determining what we eat. Note: The writer's use of "It is time" is characteristic of this type of concluding strategy. Quotation and Dialogue - As in the introduction, a quotation can lend authority to a conclusion. Quotations by well-known authors can sometimes sum up your essay handsomely as well as enable you to use their distinctive writing styles to add variety and interest in your conclusion. This conclusion uses the words of a character from literature to sum up: In its tone and its theme, The Lost Days illustrates Dickson's mixed attitude toward capitalism. On the one hand, he felt that the ideal represented by capitalism was good and fair-minded. On the other hand, Dickson could not ignore the many inequalities being perpetuated by that system, inequalities best expressed by the character of Jacob when he said, "The unfairness I have seen in my life became more bitter when I realized that it was done in the name of fairness; it was done in the name of equal opportunity and of capitalism".

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Task 15. Label conclusion for the text Marketing across Cultures from your Student Book. Recall articles you have recently read Can you find any relations between a type of the article (e.g. discursive, descriptive, informative) and a type of conclusion? Choose the best type of conclusion to your own article. Explain your choice. Unit 7 Task 16. Make a list of authors who are gurus in your field. Are going to refer to their ideas in your article? Why? What is the difference between fair borrowing ideas and plagiarism? Are there any rules to do against it in Russia? How we can include someone’s ideas in our work and build on them fairly? Using Sources Fairly and Accurately You will be borrowing material from other people's work as you write your research paper. To avoid plagiarism, the unfair use of someone else's words or ideas, you must properly integrate and credit all quotes and paraphrases and include a works-cited page at the end of your paper. Follow a standard documentation style when citing sources and writing your bibliography. Most disciplines prefer a particular documentation style. For example, some humanities follow Modern Language Association (MLA) standards while social sciences follow American Psychological Association (АРА) standards. If you are unsure which style to use, ask your instructor. Various style manuals are available in the reference area in your library, or consult our on-line guides for АРА or MLA examples. For information on quoting and paraphrasing, link to these pages. • Introducing Quotations and Maintaining Coherence by William Greenway, Youngstown State University • Paraphrasing For information on citing electronic sources, link to these sites. Please comply with any individual copyright notices: • Bibliographic Formats for Citing Electronic Information (MLA and АРА Styles) by Xia Li ([email protected]) and Nancy Crane ([email protected]) from the University of Vermont • MLA-style Citations of Electronic Sources by Janice Walker ([email protected]), Department of English, University of South Florida. • Footnote and Citation Style Guides by Lehigh University Libraries (http://www.lib.lehigh.edu/). This page contains information on how to cite both electronic and print sources in these styles: MLA, АРА, ACS (American 19 

Chemist Society) and Chicago Manual of Style. It also contains a link to information on citing electronic sources in Turabian/Chicago-Style in History and Humanities by M. Page. Task 17. Find examples of references in the text of Negotiation Across Cultures from your student book and the articles you read. Give samples of references you are going to use in your article, including quotations and paraphrases. Unit 8 Task 18. Read the first paragraph of the text below and find out decide which of two ways of integrating the author’s ideas is mentioned. Task 19. Now read the whole text and explain why some words are highlighted Writing a Summary To summarize an essay, article, or book, you should not include your own thoughts on the matter, but describe the essay as objectively as possible, whether you agree with it or not, though you may suggest what you think the author is up to, what their agenda or strategy is, at the conclusion of the summary. Try to use pertinent quotations by the author, working them in gracefully where appropriate. Also, any important or conspicuous words, phrases, or terms should be put in quotation marks. You can model your summary on the structure of the original, keeping the size of your paragraphs in roughly the same proportion as the paragraphs of the original. But you do not need to follow the author's organization slavishly. You might want to use your own organization based upon what you think the point of the essay is. A good summary of something is a critique of it because it makes explicit what has only been implicit. Understanding an argument is halfway work toward refuting or confirming it, so summary is а crucial first step toward using information, expertise, or opinion. It is essential that you read about paraphrasing, summarizing, and quoting in your handbook before you begin your summary. You must understand the differences between paraphrase, quotation, and plagiarism. So a summary is intended to highlight objectively the main points of another writer's work. Although written in your own words, the summary does not include your opinions of the piece you are considering. Since the summary eliminates those details that are not needed to convey the major points, it is naturally shorter than the original. In general, a summary is from one fourth to one half the length of the original.

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The problem we face when attempting to summarize a piece of writing is figuring out what to include and what to leave out. Below are some tips on how to choose material to include in your summary. Cross out the less important details. • Underline topic sentences and key ideas. • Take notes on those key ideas - jot down the information that clarifies the topic sentence, for example. When you summarize, you might try following these steps: • Read the piece for understanding first. Never summarize as you read the article for the first time. • Before you begin to write, check the topic sentences and key words (words that are underlined, italicized, or capitalized). These will clue you in on main ideas. Topic sentences often provide a good starting point for writing a summary. You can sometimes build a summary of a text simply by combining paraphrases of the topic sentences. • Jot down the organizations of the original and follow that pattern in your summary. • Check your summary to be sure you have been objective. Your opinions are not part of the original • Check your summary to be sure that you have properly documented any words or phrases that you have taken from the original. • Identify your summary and its source. Some instructors will ask that you do this as part of the title of the piece; others will request a footnote. Task 20. Follow the tips for summary writing and the words in bold and write a summary for the text above and on-sentence summary for the text of your choice. Unit 9 Task 21. Read the text to find devices that can be used for different functions. Transitional Devices (Connecting Words) Transitional devices are like bridges between parts of your paper. They are cues that help the reader to interpret ideas in the way that you, as a writer, want them to understand. Transitional devices help you carry over a thought from one sentence to another, from one idea to another, or from one paragraph to another with words or phrases. And finally, transitional devices link your sentences and paragraphs together smoothly so that there are no abrupt jumps or breaks between ideas.

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There are several types of transitional devices, and each category leads your reader to make certain connections or assumptions about the areas you are connecting. Some lead your reader forward and imply the "building" of an idea or thought, while others make your reader compare ideas or draw conclusions from the preceding thoughts. Here is a list of some common transitional devices that can be used to cue your reader in a given way. To Add: and, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further, furthermore, nor, too, next, lastly, what's more, moreover, in addition, first (second, etc.). To Compare: whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however, nevertheless, on the contrary, by comparison, where, compared to, up against, balanced against, vis a vis, but, although, conversely, meanwhile, after all, in contrast, although this may be true. To Prove: because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously, evidently, furthermore, moreover, besides, indeed, in fact, in addition, in any case, that is. To Show Exception: yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, of course, once in a while, sometimes. To Show Time: immediately, thereafter, soon, after a few hours, finally, then, later, previously, formerly, first (second, etc.), next, and then. To Repeat: in brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as has been noted. To Emphasize: definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, indeed, in any case, absolutely, positively, naturally, surprisingly, always, forever, perennially, eternally, never, emphatically, unquestionably, without a doubt, certainly, undeniably, without reservation. To Show Sequence: first, second, third, and so forth. А, В, C, and so forth, next, then, following this, at this time, now, at this point, after, afterward, subsequently, finally, consequently, previously, before this, simultaneously, concurrently, thus, therefore, hence, next, and then, soon. To Give an Example: for example, for instance, in this case, in another case, on this occasion, in this situation, take the case of, to demonstrate, lo-'illustrate, as an illustration, to illustrate. To Summarize or Conclude: in brief, on the whole, summing up, to conclude, in conclusion, as I have shown, as I have said, hence, therefore, accordingly, thus, as a result, consequently, on the whole. Task 22. Now scan two first paragraphs of the text and find all transitional devices and label them. Do the same with the article of your choice.

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Unit 10 Task 23. Scan the types of punctuation devices and compare them with Russian. Are there any differences? Choose purely English punctuation mark and explain why we do not need it in Russian. PUNCTUATION Why use it? Its purpose is to guide the reader in the natural pauses in writing. It is also there to show how the grammar of a sentence is supposed to work: a capital letter at the beginning of a sentence and a full stop at the end. Punctuating your sentence may involve: a selection of the following: • Colon (:) Is most often used to introduce a quotation or a list. • Full stop (.) Use full stops more than you expect to. When in doubt, your instinct should always plump for a full stop. • Semicolon (;) Represents a pause longer than a comma but shorter than a full stop. (If in doubt about its use don't use it.) It is used between clauses when the second clause expands or explains the first e.g., Neither of them moved; they waited to see if the intruder made a quick exit. It is also used before clauses which begin with 'nevertheless','therefore','even so', and "for instance" e.g., He looked before he leaped; even so he landed in the water. It is used to mark off a series of phrases or clauses which themselves contain commas, e.g., You will need the following ingredients: four eggs, preferably size 3; 4oz caster sugar; a few drops of vanilla essence; and 2oz almonds, which must be ground. • Question mark (?) Use a question mark every time there is a genuine direct question.That means Are you going? but not / asked if he was going? (wrong because it is a reported question). • Dashes (-) Use dashes but don't overdo them.You can use a pair of dashes - in place of brackets - or a single dash to mark a break in the sentence before a punch line or a throwaway remark: In life, two things are never with us - death and taxis. • Apostrophes (') They should not be used to make things plural e.g., I990's, MP's HQ's. The general rule is: if something belongs to someone you write someone's or e.g., the student's. 23 

If it belongs to several people (the students), you write the students'. Plurals like people and children, that aren't made with an s, take apostrophes i.e., children's. Apostrophes are also shown where letters are missed out - can't play, won't play. It's is short for it is. Beware of: its, (meaning "of it") yours, hers, ours, theirs, and whose. None of them takes an apostrophe. • Commas (,) Commas, like buses, often come in pairs. It is wrong to write The reason is as it always was, to save money. Two commas should be used, like brackets, either side of the phrase as it always was. The test is whether, grammatically, the sentence would hold up if the section between the commas were removed. The common mistake is to forget the second comma. Commas are needed, and are not optional, when someone or something is being addressed. Kiss me, Hardy must take the comma after me. Yes Minister should have Yes, Minister. Pairs of commas should be used when however, say, meanwhile and for instance are interjected into sentences - he might be paid, say, £50,000 a year. At the beginning of a sentence, these words or phrases need to be cordoned off with a single comma - However, investigations into..., For instance, if we look at..... Commas are used to mark off separate items in a list, except between the last two items. You can put a comma in before and if it's needed to make the sentence clear - Goods are transported by lorry, horse and cart, and even handcart. A strong adjective usually takes commas after each one except the last - old, crabby, pedantic Dr Johnson. • Quotation marks (") Use double to enclose direct speech. Use a colon, not a comma before quotes - Mr Smith said:"This is good news for all poor students." Use a comma after quotes (before the second quotation marks) - "It will help many students," said Jim. Quotations direct from a book or journal also need to have double quotation marks (") -Davis et al.(l99l, p243) stated that "Equilibrium is the sense which tells you when your body is balanced and when it is tipping, turning or inverting." Unless the length of the quotation is more than three lines of your text, in which case it is indented and no quotation marks are necessary. • Brackets () The use of brackets (whose technical term is parenthesis) should be kept to a minimum.They are used to indicate a supplementary remark, or a qualification of some sort. Grammatically they work like commas, but the remarks inside the brackets tend to be less important than those inside commas. Brackets are always used in pairs.

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If the brackets surround an entire sentence then the full stop at the end of the sentence stays within the brackets. (This is the procedure you should follow.) If the brackets only surround part of the sentence, the full stop goes outside. This is the procedure you should follow (under normal circumstances). • Square brackets [like these] Square brackets are used to indicate your changes or your own comments on somebody else's writing. The report that 25000 had been killed in battle [a figure shown to be greatly exaggerated] changed the course of the war.  Capitalization Capitalization is tricky unless you adhere to some basic rules of thumb. First of all, capitalize proper nouns and common nouns used as proper nouns. 1. Specific persons, races, and nationalities: William, Mary, American, Asiatic 2. Specific places: Dallas, Iran, Peoria 3. Specific organizations, historical events, and documents: Democratic National Committee Taft-Hartley Act Civil War NAACP 4. Titles when they precede a proper noun: Professor Wilson Dr. James Arlington President George Bush When titles follow the name, capitalize them only if they represent a title and not a job description. John Smith, President, Bank of the North John Smith, the president of the Bank of the North, was conspicuously absent from the meeting. 5. Common nouns when used as an essential part of a proper noun. University of Delaware (Not in "The University was overrun with bigots.") General Motors Corporation (Not in "The Corporation stands to lose millions this year.") 6. An exception is usually made for state and federal governments. The state encompasses some three-million square miles. (Speaking of the state as a land mass.) Task 24. Test your punctuation ability. A. Look through any text and circle examples of these forms of punctuation; * , (comma) * ? (question mark) * - (dash) * "... ." (quotation marks) * ( ) (parentheses) * : (colon) * ; (semi-colon) 25 

B. Work with a partner. For each example that you circled in step 1, discuss why the writer used this punctuation mark. At least twice a week@ he works from his Ohio home on a computer that is linked to his office. C. Read the paragraph below and punctuate it, using the ideas from your discussion above. Put in capital letters where necessary. It may be extremely important to have a job but does it bring happiness in many studies over the last two decades workers have been asked whether they would continue to work if they inherited enough money to live comfortably without working more than 70 percent replied that they would asked how satisfied they were with their jobs even more 80 to 90 percent replied that they were very or moderately satisfied but asked whether they would choose the same line of work if they could begin all over again most said no only 43 percent of white-collar workers and 24 percent of blue-collar workers said yes and when asked do you enjoy your work so much that you have a hard time putting it aside only 34 percent of men and 32 percent of women said yes in short most people seem to like their jobs but are not too excited about them.

PART 2 MODELS AND SAMPLES OF LETTERS AND OTHER MATERIALS FOR SCIENTIFIC COMMUNICATION CVs & Resumes in English 7 Tips for CVs & Resumes in English by Josef Essberger Your CV/resume has one mission and one mission only: to get you a job interview. Your CV is usually the first impression an employer has of you. And as 'you never get a second chance to make a first impression', you'd better get it right first time. Tip 1: Use design that demands attention Employers don't have time to read through each of your job descriptions to know if you have the skills they need. The design of your CV must do it for them. Your CV should be concise, well-organized and relevant. It should emphasize the most important and relevant points about your experience, skills and education. Tip 2: Use 'power words' To control the image that an employer has of you, use power words that match the position you want. Certain words are used frequently by recruiters in their job descriptions. You should study recruiters' advertisements and job descriptions and use these words in your CV and covering letter. 26 

The most powerful words are verbs. And the most powerful verbs are action verbs (describing dynamic activity, as opposed to state). If, for example, you are applying for a management post, you should use as many management skills power words as possible - and use them in the active form, not passive. Here are some teaching skills power words: • advice, clarify, coach, elicit, enable, encourage, explain, facilitate, guide, inform, instruct, persuade, stimulate, train Tip 3: A number is worth 1,000 words People react to numbers! Numbers are alive and powerful. They create vivid images in our minds. General statements are easy to ignore. Be specific and use numbers when describing your duties and achievements. Don't talk about 'managing a major turnover'. Talk about 'managing a $27,000,000 turnover'. Don't talk about 'extensive teaching experience'. Talk about 7,000 teaching hours'. Better still; talk about 7,300 teaching hours' - the more precise a figure, the more real it becomes. Tip 4: Put important information first List important information at the beginning of your job descriptions. Put statements in your CV in order of importance, impressiveness and relevance to the job you want. A powerful statement with numbers and power words influences every statement that follows. Tip 5: Sell benefits, not skills Holiday companies don't sell holidays. They sell relaxation, adventure, sun, sea and sand (the benefits of a holiday). You should not sell your skills (many other people have the same skills). You should sell the benefits of your skills. When you write your skills and past duties, be careful to explain their benefits to the employer. Tip 6: Solve your employer's (project manager) needs Employers want people who can solve problems, not create them! Your CV and cover letter should show how you can solve the employer's problems and needs. And in addition to the skills or needs shown in a job advertisement, an employer may have other needs. You should identify these additional needs and show how you can satisfy them too. But concentrate first on the needs listed in the job advertisement. Your additional solutions should come later, after you already have the employer's attention. Tip 7: Target your aim (job, project participation, etc) You will have more success if you adjust your CV and cover letter for the specific skills an employer is seeking. This means that you would write one CV for one particular job and a different, modified, CV for another job. You ’re-package' yourself. In that way, an employer will see immediately that you correspond to the job description. It is not dishonest to 're-package' yourself. You are simply presenting yourself and your skills in the best light for a particular employer. This will help you to get more interviews and allow you to apply for a wider range of jobs. 27 

Look through the skills below and find those you consider you have yourself I am a person who: With respect to execution of a task, and achievement Takes initiative Is able to handle a great variety of tasks and responsibilities simultaneously and efficiently Takes risks Takes calculated risks Is expert at getting things done With respect to time, and achievement Consistently tackles tasks ahead of time Is adept at finding ways to speed up a task Gets the most done in the shortest time Expedites the task at hand With respect to working conditions Maintains order and neatness in my workspace Is attendant to details Has a high tolerance of repetition and/or monotonous routines Likes planning and directing an entire activity Demonstrates mastery Promotes change

Meets deadlines Delivers on promises on time Brings projects in on time and within budget

Enjoys a challenge Loves working outdoors Loves to travel Has an unusually good grasp of. . . Is good at responding to emergencies Has the courage of his or her convictions

Works well under pressure and still improvises I am VERY: □ Accurate □ Achievement-oriented □ Adaptable □ Adept □ Adept at having fun □ Adventuresome □ Alert □ Appreciative

□ Creative □ Decisive □ Deliberate □ Dependable/have dependability □ Diligent □ Diplomatic □ Driving

□ □ □ □ □ □ □ □

28 

Independent Innovative Knowledgeable Loyal Methodical Objective Open-minded Outgoing

□ □ □ □ □ □ □ □

Realistic Reliable Repeatedly Resourceful Responsible Responsive Safeguarding Self-

□ Assertive □ Astute □ Authoritative □ Calm □ Cautious □ Charismatic □ Competent □ Consistent □ Contagious in my enthusiasm □ Cooperative □ Courageous

□ Dynamic □ Extremely economical □ Effective □ Energetic □ Enthusiastic □ Exceptional □ Exhaustive □ Experienced □ Expert □ Firm □ Flexible □ Humanly oriented □ Impulsive

□ Outstanding □ Patient □ Penetrating □ Perceptive □ Persevering □ Persistent □ Pioneering □ Practical □ Professional □ Protective □ Punctual □ Quick/ work quickly □ Rational

motivated □ Self-reliant □ Sensitive □ Sophisticated, very Sophisticated □ Strong □ Supportive □ Tactful □ Thorough □ Unique □ Unusual □ Versatile □ Vigorous

Task 2. All these words can be used in writing personal documents for scientific communication. Scan the model of curriculum Vitae below and look for the mentioned characteristics Curriculum vitae Personal information First name / Surname Address Telephone E-mail Nationality Date of birth Gender

Lyudmila Lebedeva 1 Borissov Street, Krasnoyarsk, 660074, Russia 89061901493 [email protected] Russian 14.06.1990 Female

Work experience: Dates Occupation or position held Main activities and responsibilities Name and address of employer

2010-2012 Marketing Department, Engineer Administering programmes of additional professional education Siberian Federal University 26 Kerensky Street, Krasnoyarsk, 660074, Russia

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Dates Occupation or position held Main activities and responsibilities Name and address of employer

2008-2010 Business Foreign Languages Department, office manager Administering programmes of additional professional education Siberian Federal University 26 Kerensky Street, Krasnoyarsk, 660074, Russia

Education and training Dates Title of qualification awarded Name and type of organization providing education and training

2007-2012 Diploma of Higher Education in Economics

Dates Title of qualification awarded

2009-2012 Diploma of Higher Education in Interpreting and Translating in Professional Communication, translator and interpreter from the English Language Siberian Federal University Institute of Business Process Management and Economics Program of additional qualification “Interpreting and Translating in Professional Communication”

Name and type of organization providing education and training

Siberian Federal University Institute of Business Process Management and Economics

Computer skills and competences

MS Office (Word, Excel, Access, Visio, FrontPage), Project Expert

Additional information

PUBLICATIONS: Abstracts of "The Role of Russia's WTO accession in the development of machine-building industry of the Krasnoyarsk Territory." Proceedings of the XI All-Russian Olympiad of economic development The article "Formation of the information economy in Russia." Proceedings of V All-Russian conference of students and young scientists "Youth and Science" EXPERIENCE IN PROJECT PARTICIPATION: Development of the project "Analysis of the fiscal capacity of Taseevskii district the Krasnoyarsk Territory and the development of scenarios of its development," presented at the competition of students projects commissioned by Administration of the Krasnoyarsk Territory, organized by the Krasnoyarsk Regional Fund to support science and scientific and technical activities

30 

Task 3. Follow the structure and use characteristics you have from the list filling in the form for a CV below .

Europass Curriculum Vitae

Insert photograph. Remove heading if not relevant (see instructions)

Personal information First name(s) / Surname(s) Address(es) Telephone(s)

First name(s) Surname(s) (remove if not relevant, see instructions) House number, street name, postcode, city, country (remove if not relevant, see instructions) (remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Fax(es)

(remove if not relevant, see instructions)

E-mail

(remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Nationality

(remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Date of birth

(remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Gender

(remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Desired employment / Occupational field

Mobile:

(remove if not relevant, see instructions)

(remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Work experience Dates

Add separate entries for each relevant post occupied, starting from the most recent. ( remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Occupation or position held Main activities and responsibilities Name and address of employer Type of business or sector

Education and training Dates

Add separate entries for each relevant course you have completed, starting from the most recent. (remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Title of qualification awarded Principal subjects/occupational skills covered Name and type of organisation providing education and training Level in national or international classification

(remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Personal skills and competences 31 

Mother tongue(s)

Specify mother tongue (if relevant add other mother tongue(s), see instructions)

Other language(s)

Social skills and competences

Replace this text by a description of these competences and indicate where they were acquired. (Remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Organisational skills and competences

Replace this text by a description of these competences and indicate where they were acquired. (Remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Technical skills and competences

Replace this text by a description of these competences and indicate where they were acquired. (Remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Computer skills and competences

Replace this text by a description of these competences and indicate where they were acquired. (Remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Artistic skills and competences

Replace this text by a description of these competences and indicate where they were acquired. (Remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Other skills and competences

Replace this text by a description of these competences and indicate where they were acquired. (Remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Driving licence

Additional information

Annexes

State here whether you hold a driving licence and if so for which categories of vehicle. (Remove if not relevant, see instructions) Include here any other information that may be relevant, for example contact persons, references, etc. (Remove heading if not relevant, see instructions) List any items attached. (Remove heading if not relevant, see instructions)

Task 4 Analyse the structure and the language of the RESUME below. How different it is from CV sample above. LYUDMILA LEBEDEVA 1 Borissov Street Krasnoyarsk 660074 Russia 89061901493 [email protected] WORK EXPERIENCE:

2010-2012 Siberian Federal University Marketing Department, Engineer 2008-2010 Siberian Federal University Business Foreign Languages Department, office manager

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EDUCATION:

2007-2012 Siberian Federal University Institute of Business Process Management and Economics Diploma of Higher Education in Economics 2009-2012 Siberian Federal University Program of additional qualification “Interpreting and Translating in Professional Communication” Diploma of Higher Education in Interpreting and Translating in Professional Communication, translator and interpreter from the English Language

PUBLICATIONS:

2011 "The Role of Russia's WTO accession in the development of machinebuilding industry of the Krasnoyarsk Territory", abstract in the Proceedings of the XI All-Russian Olympiad of economic development 2009 "Formation of the information economy in Russia.", article in the Proceedings of V All-Russian conference of students and young scientists "Youth and Science"

EXPERIENCE IN 2011 Development of the project "Analysis of the fiscal capacity of PROJECT PARTICIPATION: Taseevskii district the Krasnoyarsk Territory and the development of scenarios of its development," presented at the competition of students projects commissioned by Administration of the Krasnoyarsk Territory, organized by the Krasnoyarsk Regional Fund to support science and scientific and technical activities SKILLS:

Computers MS Office (Word, Excel, Access, Visio, FrontPage), Project Expert Languages Spoken and written English at intermediate level

 

Task 5. Now write your own RESUME following the advice, model and language presented RESUME Name Telephone Number Address Date of birth Summary More than___________ years experience in_______________________ including management pests as a ________. Currently employed as____________________ at _____________________ . I am now looking for an opportunity with a multinational company that________________________________________ .

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EMPLOYMENT Current employment ______________- present (years) _______________(company name) ____________ (job title) During my ________________ years at ____________________ I have been responsible for:  supervising a team of___________people  negotiating contracts worth______________ with ____________________  managing the accounts of ____________________  planning and coordinating marketing campaigns for ___________________  preparing reports analyzing___________________  increasing sales of___________________ by ___________ % over two years  achieving _____________% savings in the cost of__________________  obtaining______________% market share for_______________within one year. Previous employment ___________- ___________ (years) _____________(company name) _____________ (job title) While at _________________________ I was part of a team which:  _________________ planned the launch of ________________  _________________ developed a new ________________  ___ achieved_______________% brand recognition for___________after two years.  ___ organized the installation of_________________  _________________ initiated a new system for___________________ _______________ __________(final (establishment) __________(final (establishment)

year)

EDUCATION __________________(qualification)_______________

year)

__________________(qualification)_______________

OTHER EXPERIENCE Computer Skills. Comprehensive knowledge of_______________________ _________________________________ Languages. Spoken and written English to________________________level. Personal and Professional References provided on request 34 

Covering letter   Your  CV/Resume  will  have  a  covering letter. The paragraphs of this letter might follow the pattern below. 1 Subject heading at the top of the. letter: Vacancy for a Marketing Director 2 Introduce yourself and mention the purpose of your letter. If you saw an advert in a newspaper/specialist journal, say which one. 3 Give your background and experience, and emphasize why you are suitable for the job. Refer to your abilities and achievements, perhaps linking directly to things mentioned in the advert. 4 Ask the reader to look at your CV/Resume, and focus on one or two key points. 5 Close by thanking them for taking the time to read your CV/Resume and say when you are available for interview.   Task 6. Choose a job advert from a newspaper/specialist journal or think of a real job that you would like to apply for. Write the covering letter for your CV/Resume. Letter of motivation can be a part of a pack of documents for project participation. Task 8 Read the first paragraph of the letter below and try to guess what is the aim of the writer’s application. Then make up the structure of a letter of motivation. Letter of motivation

  Dear Sir or Madam,    It’s a big pleasure for me to express my highest motivation to apply for  the Eranet Plus programme, scheduled to start in fall, 2013.  First  of  all  I  would  like  to  introduce  myself.  My  name  is  Elizaveta  Gavrikova  and  I’m  currently  completing  a  comprehensive  undergraduate  degree in the Institute of Business Process Management and Economics  at the  Siberian  Federal  University  (Russia).  My  major  field  of  study  is  Applied  Computing  in  Enterprise  Management.  Also,  I’ve  just  completed  a  degree  in  Translating  in  the  field  of  professional  communication  in  Spanish  and  expecting to complete a similar degree in English in April, 2013.  I  have  a  sufficient  knowledge  of  Information  Systems  and  Management  since  it  was  essential  during  my  studies.  Due  to  the  wide  range  of  different  35 

disciplines  that  Enterprise  Management  involves,  soon  after  starting  my  studies  I  was  interested  in  various  subjects,  such  as  Marketing,  Business  Process  Management,  Strategic  Management  and  I  realized  that  I’m  really  interested  in  continuing  my  education  further  by  completing  a  master  programme.  Since I have been reading a lot on the topic I am really impressed  with  the  achievements  in  marketing  and  management  of  those  huge  and  famous  European  corporations.  As  I  see  it,  the  problem    with  Russian  economy  is   though we have a wide range of resources,  in the last 20 years we have been  facing  the  challenge  to  come  up  with  the  world’s  economic  trends  and  to  become a full‐fledged participant of the international market. Surely, that calls  out for the collaborative and efficient work of professionals who have gained  international  experience  and,  therefore,    are  able  to  propose  solutions  and  design alternatives for Russian companies.  I am confident in my decision to apply for the programme as it will give  me  a  strong  background  and  high  level  of  knowledge  in  economics  through  different  disciplines.  Owing  to  my  academic  achievements  I  was  selected  to  spend  one  semester  abroad  at  the  University  of  Cadiz,  Spain.  While  studying  there  I  took  several  elective  courses  in  Translating  in  Spanish  and  English  to  improve  my  language  level  and  also  attended  some  lectures  on  management  and  marketing.  Through  this  experience  I  became  fascinated  with  the  possibilities  that  may  provide  an  international  student  exchange  program.  Together  with  my  international  colleagues  we  worked  on  some  tasks  and  projects and it helped us to share knowledge gained in different countries and  work out creative solutions.  In  fact,  during  my  studies  in  the  university  and  especially  after  my  semester  in  the  University  of  Cadiz  I  became  passionate  about  making  researches  and  investigations.  I  believe  that  to  understand  how  the  world  economy  is  changing  through  the  time  we  have  to  learn  how  to  analyse  the  experience and then use it in a proper way.   Moreover, this spring the Santander Bank announced a competition for  those  who  study  Spanish  and  I  was  selected  as  one  of  the  grantees.  I’m  convinced  to  take  a  higher  level  course  of  Spanish  in  winter  again  in  the  University of Cadiz (level B2).   I consider the opportunity of taking part in the Eranet Plus project as a  great chance for self‐development, broadening of my horizons and gaining life  experience  and  surely  master  my  language  in  application  to  the  scope  of  economics.  Enterprise  management  is  a  discipline,  which  requires  interpersonal  abilities  and  skills  for  working  with  people  and  delegating  decisions.  In  my  opinion,  studying  abroad  in  a  multicultural  environment  is  exactly  what  demonstrates  and  improves  such  skills.  Another  important  matter for me when living and studying in Spain I understood that the culture,  36 

traditions, mentality and way of life of the Spaniards impressed me deeply and  I have a great desire to  know more about this fascinating country.   Given my past history of commitment to the overall self‐development, I  am  confident  that  I  will  bring  a  high  level  of  energy  and  enthusiasm  to  your  programme.  I  will  enrich  it  by  enabling  fellow  students  and  professors  to  benefit  from  my  ambitious  and  open  nature.  Furthermore,  my  international  background will help me to bring more diversity to your programme.  Once again I am grateful to you for considering my application and I am  looking forward to a favourable reply!  Sincerely, Elizaveta Gavrikova  Task 8 Think of a potential opportunity to participate in a programme or a project and write your own letter of motivation. Use strong languge to describe your strong points Recommendation (reference) letter can be a part of a pack of documents for project participation. Task 9 Read the letter below, analyse its structure and decide what type of information should be included in it. What is the tone of the letter? Is it emotional or reserved and full of facts and evidence? Recommendation letter Dear Sir/ Madam, I have known Anastasia Pavlova, as my student at Siberian Federal University, for 5 years. I taught her General and Business English and I was her thesis supervisor in the context of the special academic course “The Translator in the Sphere of Professional Communications”. It is my pleasure to recommend her in getting the IMRCEES scholarship. During her studies, Anastasia showed herself as being an active, self-sufficient and hardworking student. She was always extremely interested in the things she was doing. I think that was the reason why she chose such a specific problem as a theme for her graduation work: “Casino management”. While she was working on this paper, there were very few publications on the problem in Russian, so she had to use literary sources published abroad. To be successful in her research, she read a big amount of overseas literature, analyzed in details the management principles of this business, and consulted some experts and practitioners in this area, particularly, casino managers and directors. As a result of her strong effort, the academic paper was extremely interesting, full of new information and deep in analyses and conclusions. In addition, Anastasia is a creative person. She used to participate in competitions which evaluated imagination and ability in translating lyrics and

37 

poems. One of her poetical works was regarded with high esteem by the commission and she won a prize in inter-university competition in translation. Anastasia was respected by her peers. She easily became a leader by her peculiar ambitiousness and determination; in group tasks she was able to distribute roles and take responsibility for the group work result. She was always ready to help her classmates in their problems with everyday issues and studies, trying to understand them and suggesting an advice. Anastasia was always interested in studying very hard, sometimes in strict time limits and took her work very seriously, and as her mentor I would rate her knowledge in the field of technical translation, economics and management, as excellent. Perhaps, just one of her weaknesses is lack of organization, time management in particular. But during her studies she did show the progress in overcoming this weakness. As her mentor I have had the opportunity to observe her overall progress, and I’m sure that the commission would make the right decision if they approved her in getting a scholarship. She would benefit greatly from the experience at IMRCEES and would use her skills and knowledge to achieve excellent results in studying her field. If you have any further questions with regard to her background or qualifications, please do not hesitate to contact me. Yours sincerely, Dr. Olga Almabekova Siberian Federal University Phone number: +79233094121 E-mail address: [email protected] Task 10 Whom will you ask to give you recommendation when you apply for a project in management? Personal Statement is a part of a pack of documents used for project participation. Personal Statement (model) Have strong background and good professional experience in…... An outgoing personality having good professional contacts with …. in Krasnoyarsk and other regions of Russia Good at planning and time management but at the same time works well under pressure and in strict deadlines. Responsible and energetic, self-confident and can motivate myself and take responsibility for my decisions. A successful organizer, able to be in charge of projects. Good at establishing close cooperation of colleagues and team members with each other.

38 

Like people and is good at handling both peers and subordinates. Friendly and sociable, honest and reliable. Work well in a team, listen to other people’s advice and is ready to contribute my ideas. Open to new ideas, highly motivated, creative and innovative in trying out new practices. Welcome criticism and listen to it carefully, recognize it as necessary in order to learn and develop. Ready to grow and develop, learn new skills, get experience in different areas, meet challenges. Task 11 Follow the structure of a personal statement below. Insert your own characteristics and achievements and write a personal statement for yourself. PART 3 ACADEMIC PHRASEBANK Academic phrasebank is a result of thorough investigation of thousands of articles and essays written in various fields of research. It is a collection of phrases most frequently used for the purposes stated as the title of each section. Each section starts with a short explanation of the functions of phrases given below. Master students can use academic phrasebank as a learning tool to study and practice English for science and studies and as a manual for practical writing articles, abstracts and project proposals. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Introducing Work Referring to the Literature Being Critical Describing Methods Reporting Results Discussing Findings Writing Conclusions General Functions

   

1. Writing Introductions  There are many ways to introduce an academic essay or assignment. Most academic writers, however, appear to do one or more of the following in their introductions:  establish the context, background and/or importance of the topic  indicate a problem, controversy or a gap in the field of study  define the topic or key terms  state of the purpose of the essay/writing  provide an overview of the coverage and/or structure of the writing Phrases which are commonly employed to realise these functions are listed below.

39 

Establishing the importance of the topic:

One of the most significant current discussions in legal and moral philosophy is ...... It is becoming increasingly difficult to ignore the ..... X is the leading cause of death in western industrialised countries. X is a common disorder characterised by ...... X is an important component in the climate system, and plays a key role in Y. In the new global economy, X has become a central issue for ...... In the history of development economics, X has been thought of as a key factor in ....... Xs are one of the most widely used groups of antibacterial agents and ......

Establishing the importance of the topic (time frame given): Recent developments in X have heightened the need for ...... In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in ...... Recent developments in the field of X have led to a renewed interest in ...... Recently, researchers have shown an increased interest in ...... The past decade has seen the rapid development of X in many ....... The past thirty years have seen increasingly rapid advances in the field of...... Over the past century there has been a dramatic increase in ...... One of the most important events of the 1970s was ...... Traditionally, Xs have subscribed to the belief that ...... X proved an important literary genre in the early Y community. The changes experienced by Xs over the past decade remain unprecedented. Xs are one of the most widely used groups of antibacterial agents and have been extensively used for decades to .......

Highlighting a problem or controversy in the field of study: However, these rapid changes are having a serious effect ...... However, a major problem with this kind of application is ...... To date there has been little agreement on what ...... More recently, literature has emerged that offers contradictory findings about ..... There is increasing concern that some Xs are being disadvantaged ...... Despite its long clinical success, X has a number of problems in use. Despite its safety and efficacy, X suffers from several major drawbacks: Concerns have been raised by several relevant bodies about the poor ...... One of the most significant current discussions in legal and moral philososphy is ...... One observer has already drawn attention to the paradox in ...... In many Xs a debate is taking place between Ys and Zs concerning ...... The controversy about scientific evidence for X has raged unabated for over a century. The issue of X has been a controversial and much disputed subject within....... The issue has grown in importance in light of recent ...... Highlighting a knowledge gap in the field of study: So far, however, there has been little discussion about ...... However, far too little attention has been paid to ...... Most studies in X have only been carried out in a small number of areas. The research to date has tended to focus on X rather than Y. In addition, no research has been found that surveyed ....... So far this method has only been applied to ...... Several studies have produced estimates of X (Smith, 2002; Jones, 2003), but there is still insufficient data for ..... However, there have been no controlled studies which compare differences in ...... The experimental data are rather controversial, and there is no agreement about ......

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Focus and aim: This paper will focus on/examine/give an account of ...... This paper seeks to address the following questions: This essay critically examines/discusses/traces ...... The aim of this paper is to determine/examine ...... The purpose of this paper is to review recent research into the ...... This paper will review the research conducted on ...... In this paper I argue that ..... Outline of structure: The main questions/issues addressed in this paper are: a), b and c). This paper has been divided into four parts. The first part deals with ...... This paper first gives a brief overview of the recent history of X. This paper begins by ...... It will then go on to ...... The first section of this paper will examine ...... Finally, ....... Chapter 2 begins by laying out Chapter 3 describes the design,… The last chapter assesses the ......

Explaining Keywords While a variety of definitions of the term X have been suggested, this paper will use the definition first suggested by Smith (1968) who saw it as ....... Throughout this paper the term X will refer to/will be used to refer to ....... In this article the acronym/abbreviation XYZ will be used.

Research Questions or hypotheses The central question in this dissertation asks how ...... In particular, this dissertation will examine six main research questions: The hypothesis that will be tested is that ...... The key research question of this study was thus whether or not ......

Synopsis of the method This dissertation follows a case-study design, with in-depth analysis of ...... The approach to empirical research adopted for this study was one of a qualitative, semi-structured interview methodology. By employing qualitative modes of enquiry, I attempt to illuminate the ...... This work takes the form of a case-study of the ...... Qualitative and quantitative research designs were adopted to provide both descriptive, interpretive and empirical data. A holistc approach is utilised, integrating literary, numanistic and archeological material to establish ......

  2. Referring to Literature  One important characteristic of academic writing is that all the sources of information that the writer has used need to be indicated, not just as a bibliography or list of references, but also in or alongside the text. In some cases the source will be the main subject of the sentence, in others the sources may be mentioned parenthetically (in brackets) or via a notation system (eg. footnotes). The more common verbs and verb phrases used in academic writing for referring to sources are given below. Note that different referencing systems are used in different

41 

disciplines. In the examples, the Harvard in-text referencing system has been used. Also note that the "author as subject" style is less common in the sciences. General reference to previous research/scholarly activity (usually more than one author) Recent evidence suggests that ....... (Smith, 1996; Jones 1999; Johnson, 2001) Recently, in vitro studies have shown that T.thermophylus EFTu can ...... (Patel et al., 1997; Jones et al., 1998). Several attempts have been made to ....... (Smith, 1996; Jones 1999; Johnson, 2001) Several studies have revealed that it is not just X that acts on ...... (Smith, 1996; Jones Several studies investigating X have been carried out on ...... Previous studies have reported ...... (Smith, 1985; Jones, 1987; Johnson, 1992). Xs have been identified as major contributing factors for the decline of many species (1). X has also been shown to reverse the anti-inflammatory effects of …. It has conclusively been shown that X and Y increase Z (Smith et al., 1999; Jones, 2001 It has been demonstrated that a high intake of X results in damage to ...... (Smith, 1998;

Reference to current state of knowledge A relationship exists between an individual's working memory and their ability to ...... (Jones et al.,1998). GM varieties of maize are able to cross-pollinate with non-GM varieties (Smith, 1998; Jones, 1999). There is an unambiguous relationship between spending on education and economic development (Rao, 1998).

Reference to single investigations in the past Smith (1968) found (analysed investigated interviewed demonstrated studied carried out) that as levels of literacy and education of the population rise .............

Reference to what other writers do in their text In her major study, In her seminal article, In her classic critique of ......, In her case study of ......, In her review of ......, In her analysis of ......, In her introduction to ......,'

Smith (2004) identifies five characteristics of ....... lists three reasons provides in-depth analysis traces the development defines evidence highlights the need discusses the challenges and strategies uses examples of

Reference to other writers' ideas According to Smith (2003), preventative medicine is far more cost effective, and therefore better adapted to the developing world.

Smith (2003)

points out argues maintains claims concludes suggests

that

Smith (2003)

argues for offers proposes suggests

an explanatory theory for each type of irrational belief.

preventative medicine is far more cost effective, and therefore better adapted to the developing world

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Some ways of introducing quotations In the final part of the Theses, Marx writes: "Philosophers have hitherto only interpreted the world in various ways; the point ......." Sachs concludes: "The idea of development stands today like a ruin in the intellectual landscape…" (Sachs, 1992a: 156). As Smith argues: "In the past, the purpose of education was to ......" (Smith , 2000:150).

  3. Being Critical  As an academic writer, you are expected to be critical of the sources that you use. This essentially means questioning what you read and not necessarily agreeing with

it just because the information has been published. Being critical can also mean looking for reasons why we should not just accept something as being correct or true. This can require you to identify problems with a writer's arguments or methods, or perhaps to refer to other people's criticisms of these. Constructive criticism goes beyond this by suggesting ways in which a piece of research or writing could be improved. ...... being against is not enough. We also need to develop habits of constructive thinking. Edward de Bono Introducing questions, problems and limitations (theory) However, all the previously mentioned methods suffer from some serious

limitations weaknesses disadvantages drawbacks.

Identifying a study's weakness: the main weakness of the study is the failure to address how ....... the study fails to consider the differing categories of damage that ..... the research does not take into account pre-existing ...... such as ...... the author offers no explanation for the distinction between X and Y. Smith makes no attempt to differentiate between various different types of X. (However,) Jones fails to fully acknowledge the significance of ...... the paper would appear to be over ambitious in its claims the author overlooks the fact that X contributes to Y. what Smith fails to do is to draw a distinction between ...... another weakness is that we are given no explanantion of how ......

Offering constructive suggestions: Smith's paper

Her conclusions The study The findings

would have been

might have been

more

much more far more

useful

included ......

convincing if he/she had interesting if the author persuasive had original

considered ...... adopted ...... used ......

A better study would examine a large, randomly selected sample of societies with ...... A much more systematic study would identify how X interacts with other variables that are believed to be linked to ......

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Introducing other people's criticisms: However, Jones (2003) points out that ..... Many analysts now argue that the strategy of X has not been successful. Jones (2003), for example, argues that ..... Non-government agencies are also very critical of the new policies. The X theory has been / vigorously / strongly challenged in recent years by a number of writers. Smith's analysis has been criticised by a number of writers. Jones (1993), for example, points out that …… Smith's meta-analysis has been subjected to considerable criticism. Critics question the ability of poststructuralist theory to provide ......

  4. Describing Methods  In the Methods section of a dissertation or research article, writers give an account of how they carried out their research. The Materials and Methods section should be clear and detailed enough for another experienced person to repeat the research and reproduce the results. Typical features with examples of this language are listed below.

Describing different methods To date various methods have been developed and introduced to measure X: In most recent studies, X is measured in four different ways. Radiographic techniques are the main non-invasive method used to determine .... Different authors have measured X in a variety of ways.

Previous studies have based their criteria for selection on ...... A variety of methods are used to assess X. Each has its advantages and drawbacks. Giving reasons why a particular method was adopted The semi-structured approach was chosen because ...... Smith et al (1994) identify several advantages of the case study, ....... It was decided that the best method to adopt for this investigation was to ...... A case study approach was chosen to allow a ...... The design of the questionnaires was based on ...... The X method is one of the more practical ways of ......

Indicating a specific method X was prepared according to the procedure used by Patel et al. (1957). The synthesis of X was done according to the procedure of Smith (1973). X was synthesised using the same method that was detailed for Y, using ...... This compound was prepared by adapting the procedure used by Zhao et al. (1990). For this study the X was used to explore the subsurface ……

Indicating sample size and characteristics The initial sample consisted of 200 students of whom 13 did not complete all of the interviews All studies described as using some sort of X procedure were included in the analysis. All of the participants were aged between 18 and 19 at the beginning of the study..... A random sample of patients with ...... was recruited from ....... Forty-seven students studying X were recruited for this study. The students were divided into two groups based on their performance on ......

Indicating reasons for sample characteristics A small sample was chosen because of the expected difficulty of obtaining ...... The subjects were selected on the basis of a degree of homogeneity of their ....... Criteria for selecting the subjects were as follows: 44 

Describing the process: infinitive of purpose To enable the subjects to see the computer screen clearly, the laptop was ...... To see if the two methods gave the same measurement, the data was plotted and ...... To control for bias, measurements were carried out by another person. To measure X, a question asking ...... was used. In order to identify the T10 and T11 spinous processes, the subjects were asked to ..... The vials were capped with ..... to prevent volatisation. In an attempt to make each interviewee feel as comfortable as possible...... To determine whether ......, KG-1 cells were incubated for ...... To establish whether ......, To increase the reliability of measures, each X was tested twice with a 4-min break between the trials.

Describing the process: other phrases expressing purpose For the purpose of height measurement, subjects were asked to stand ..... For the purpose of analysis, 2 segments were extracted from each ...... For the estimation of protein concentration, 100 µL of protein sample was ......

Describing the process: typical verbs (note use of passive form) The experiments were carried out over the course of the growing period from ....... Injection solutions were coded by a colleague to reduce experimenter bias. Drugs were administered by icv injection under brief CO2 narcosis; The mean score for the two trials was subjected to multivariate analysis of variance to determine ...... The subjects were asked to pay close attention to the characters whenever ...... Prompts were used as an aid to question two so that ...... The pilot interviews were conducted informally by the trained interviewer ...... Blood samples were obtained with consent, from 256 caucasian male patients ...... Independent tests were carried out on the x and y scores for the four years from ...... This experiment was repeated under conditions in which the poor signal/noise ratio was improved. Significance levels were set at the 1% level using the student t-test. A total of 256 samples were taken from 52 boreholes (Figure 11).

Describing the process: sequence words/phrases Prior to commencing the study, ethical clearance was sought from ...... In the end, the EGO was selected as the measurement tool for the current study. After "training", the subjects were told that the characters stood for X and that their task was to ....... After collection, the samples were shipped back to X in ...... After conformational analysis of X, it was necessary to ...... Once the Xs were located and marked, a thin clear plastic ruler ...... Once the positions had been decided upon, the Xs were removed from each Y and replaced by ..... Once the exposures were completed, the X was removed from the Y and placed in ...... On completion of X, the process of model specification and parameter estimation was carried out. Following this, the samples were recovered and stored overnight at ...... These ratings were then made for the ten stimuli to which the subject had been exposed The analysis was checked when initially performed and then checked again at the end of The subjects were then shown a film individually and were asked to ...... The soil was then weighed again, and this weight was recorded as ......

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The results were corrected for the background readings and then averaged before being converted to...... Finally, questions were asked as to the role of ......

Describing the process: adverbs of manner The soil was then placed in a furnace and gradually heated up to ..... The vials were shaken manually to allow the soil to mix well with the water. The medium was then aseptically transferred to a conical flask. The resulting solution was gently mixed at room temperature for ten minutes and ...... A sample of the concentrate was then carefully injected into ...... The tubes were accurately reweighed to six decimal places using ......

Describing the process: passive verb + using .... for instruments 15 subjects were recruited using email advertisements requesting healthy students ...... All the work on the computer was carried out using Quattro Pro for Windows and ......l. Data were collected using two high spectral resolution spectroradiometers. The data was recorded on a digital audio recorder and transcribed using a ....... Semi-automated genotyping was carried out using X software and .... Statistical significance was analysed using analysis of variance and t-tests as appropriate. Using the X-ray and looking at the actual X, it was possible to identify ...... Using an Anthos Microplate Reader were able to separate single cells into different ......

Indicating problems or limitations In this investigation there are several sources for error. The main error is ...... Another major source of uncertainty is in the method used to calculate X.. It was not possible to investigate the significant relationships of X and Y further because the sample size was too small. Further data collection is required to determine exactly how X affects Y.

  5. Reporting Results  The most common way of presenting results is through tables and figures. Figures may include anything that is not a table, such as: graphs, photographs, diagrams, and any other sort of visual information. Writers usually comment on the significant data presented in the tables and figures. This often takes the form of the location /summary statement, expressed in general terms, followed by a statement or statements which highlight or point out the significant information. Discussion of the results is normally, though not always, restricted to the Discussion section. Reference to method To assess X, the Y questionnaire was used. In order to assess Z, repeated measures of ANOVA were used. Regression analysis was used to predict the ...... Changes in X and Y were compared using ...... The average scores of X and Y were compared in order to ...... 9 items on the questionnaire measured the extent to which ...... The correlation between X and Y was tested. The first set of analyses examined the impact of ...... Simple statistical analysis was used to ...... A scatter diagram and a Pearson's product moment correlation were used to determine the relationship between ...... T-tests were used to analyse the relationship between ...... 46 

Location and summary statements: shows Table 1

Figure 1

compares presents provides

the experimental data on X. the results obtained from the preliminary analysis of X. the intercorrelations among the nine measures of X. are shown

The results obtained from the preliminary analysis can be compared of X are presented

in Table 1.

in Fig 1.

As shown in Figure 12.1,

As can be seen from the table (above), the X group reported significantly more Y than the It can be seen from the data in Table other two groups. 12.1 that From the graph above we can see that The table below illustrates The pie chart above shows

some of the main characteristics of the the breakdown of

Highlighting significant data in a table/chart It is apparent from this table that very few ...... This table is quite revealing in several ways. First, unlike the other tables ...... Data from this table can be compared with the data in Table 4.6 which shows ...... From the data in Figure 9, it is apparent that the length of time left between ...... From this data we can see that Study 2 resulted in the lowest value of ...... The histogram in Fig 1. indicates that ...... What is interesting in this data is that ...... In Fig.10 there is a clear trend of decreasing ...... As Table III shows, there is a significant difference (t = -2.15, p = 0.03) between the two groups.

Statements of result (positive) Strong evidence of X was found when ...... This result is significant at the p = 0.05 level. There was a significant positive correlation between ...... There was a signifcant difference between the two conditions ...... On average, Xs were shown to have ...... The mean score for X was ...... Interestingly, for those subjects with X, ...... A positive correlation was found between X and Y. Further analysis showed that ...... Further statistical tests revealed .....

Statements of result (negative) There was no increase of X associated with ..... There were no significant differences between ...... No significant differences were found between ..... No increase in X was detected. No difference greater than X was observed.

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The Chi-square test did not show any significant differences between ...... None of these differences were statistically significant. Overall, X did not affect males and females differently in these measures;

Highlighting significant, interesting or surprising results The most striking result to emerge from the data is that ...... Interestingly, this correlation is related to ..... The correlation between X and Y is interesting because ...... The more surprising correlation is with the ......

Reporting results from questionnaires and interviews The response rate was 60% at six months and 56% at 12 months. Of the study population, 90 subjects completed and returned the questionnaire. Of the initial cohort of 123 students, 66 were female and 57 male. The majority of respondents/those who responded felt that ..... Over half of those surveyed indicated that ...... 70% of those who were interviewed indicated that ..... Approximately half of those surveyed did not comment on ...... A small number of those interviewed suggested that ...... Only a small number of respondents indicated that ...... Of the 148 patients who completed the questionnaire, just over half indicated that ....... In response to Question 1, most of those surveyed indicated that ...... The overall response to this question was very positive. When the subject were asked ......, the majority commented that ..... Other responses to this question included ...... The overall response to this question was poor.

Transition statements Turning now to the experimental evidence on ...... Comparing the two results, it can be seen that ...... A comparison of the two results reveals ...... If we now turn to ......

  6. Discussions The term discussion has a variety of meanings in English. In academic writing, however, it usually refers to two types of activity: a) considering both sides of an issue, or question, b) considering the results of research and the implications of these. Discussion sections in dissertations and research articles are probably the most complex in terms of their elements. The most common elements and some of the language that is typically associated with them are listed below: Background information A strong relationship between X and Y has been reported in the literature. Prior studies that have noted the importance of ...... In reviewing the literature, no data was found on the association between X and Y. As mentioned in the literature review, ...... Very little was found in the literature on the question of ..... This study set out with the aim of assessing the importance of X in ...... The third question in this research was ...... It was hypothesized that participants with a history of ......

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Statements of result (usually with reference to results section) The results of this study show/indicate that ....... This experiment did not detect any evidence for ...... On the question of X, this study found that ...... The current study found that ...... The most interesting finding was that ...... Another important finding was that ..... The results of this study did not show that In the current study, comparing X with Y showed that the mean degree of ...... In this study, Xs were found to cause ..... X provided the largest set of significant clusters of ...... It is interesting to note that in all seven cases of this study......

Unexpected outcome Surprisingly, X was found to ....... One unanticipated finding was that ..... It is somewhat surprising that no X was noted in this condition ...... What is surprising is that ...... Contrary to expectations, this study did not find a significant difference between ....... However, the observed difference in between X and Y in this study was not significant. However, the ANOVA (one way) showed that these results were not statistically significant.

Reference to previous research (support) This study produced results which corroborate the findings of a great deal of the previous work in this field. These findings of the current study are consistent with those of Smith and Jones (2001) who found ...... This finding supports previous research into this brain area which links X and Y. This study confirms that X is associated with ...... This finding is in agreement with Smith's (1999) findings which showed ....... It is encouraging to compare this figure with that found by Jones (1993) who ..... There are similarities between the attitudes expressed by X in this study and those described by (Smith, 1987, 1995) and Jones (1986) These findings further support the idea of ..... Increased activation in the PCC in this study corroborates these earlier findings. These results are consistent with those of other studies and suggest that ...... The present findings seem to be consistent with other research which found ......

Reference to previous research (contradict) However, the findings of the current study do not support the previous research. This study has been unable to demonstrate that ...... However, this result has not previously been described. In contrast to earlier findings, however, no evidence of X was detected. Although, these results differ from some published studies (Smith, 1992; Jones, 1996), they are consistent with those of ......

Explanations for results: There are several possible explanations for this result. These differences can be explained in part by the proximity of X and Y. A possible explanation for this might be that ..... Another possible explanation for this is that ...... This result may be explained by the fact that ...../ by a number of different factors.

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It is difficult to explain this result, but it might be related to ...... It seems possible that these results are due to ...... The reason for this is not clear but it may have something to do with ...... It may be that these students benefitted from ...... This inconsistency/discrepancy may be due to ...... This rather contradictory result may be due to ...... These factors may explain the relatively good correlation between X and Y. There are, however, other possible explanations. The possible interference of X can not be ruled out. The observed increased in X could be attributed to ..... The observed correlation between X and Y might be explained in this way. .....

Suggesting general hypotheses and implications The value of X suggests that a weak link may exist between ..... It is therefore likely that such connections exist between ..... It can thus be suggested that ...... It is possible to hypothesise that these conditions are less likely to occur in ...... It is possible/likely/probable therefore that ...... Hence, it could conceivably be hypothesised that ...... These findings suggest that ...... It may be the case therefore that these variations ...... From the above it can be concluded that ..... In general, therefore, it seems that ...... It is possible, therefore, that ...... Therefore, X could be a major factor, if not the only one, causing ...... It can therefore be assumed that the ...... The findings of this study suggest that ......

Commenting on findings However, these results were not very encouraging. These findings are rather disappointing. The test was successful as it was able to identify students who ......

Suggestions for future work However, more research on this topic needs to be undertaken before the association between X and Y is more clearly understood. Further research should be done to investigate the ...... Research questions that could be asked include ..... Future studies on the current topic are therefore recommended. A further study with more focus on X is therefore suggested. Further studies, which take these variables into account, will need to be undertaken. Further work is required to establish this. In future investigations it might be possible to use a different X in which ...... This is an important issue for future research.

  7. Writing Conclusions Conclusions usually serve two functions. The first is to summarise and bring together the main areas covered in the writing - this might be called "looking back"; and the second is to give a final comment or judgement on this. The final comment may also include making suggestions for improvement and speculating on future directions. In dissertations and research papers, conclusions tend to be more

50 

complex and will also include sections on significance of the findings and recommendations for future work. Summarising the content This paper has given an account of and the reasons for the widespread use of X ...... This essay has argued that X is the best instrument to ...... This assignment has explained the central importance of X in Y. This dissertation has investigated ......

Restatement of aims (research) This study set out to determine ...... In this investigation, the aim was to assess ...... The purpose of the current study was to determine ...... This project was undertaken to design ...... and evaluate ..... Returning to the hypothesis/question posed at the beginning of this study, it is now possible to state that .....

Summarising the findings (research) This study has shown that ...... These findings suggest that in general ...... One of the more significant findings to emerge from this study is that ..... It was also shown that...... This study has found that generally ....... The following conclusions can be drawn from the present study ...... The relevance of X is clearly supported by the current findings. This study/research has shown that ...... The second major finding was that ........ The results of this investigation show that ....... The most obvious finding to emerge from this study is that ...... X, Y and Z emerged as reliable predictors of ...... Multiple regression analysis revealed that the ......

Suggesting implications The evidence from this study suggests that ...... The results of this study indicate that ...... The results of this research support the idea that ....... In general, therefore, it seems that ...... Taken together, these results suggest that ......

Significance of the findings (research) The X that we have identified therefore assists in our understanding of the role of ...... These findings enhance our understanding of ...... This research will serve as a base for future studies and ...... The current findings add substantially to our understanding of ...... The current findings add to a growing body of literature on ...... The study has gone some way towards enhancing our understanding of ...... The methods used for this X may be applied to other Xs elsewhere in the world. Taken together, these findings suggest a role for X in promoting Y.

Recommendations for further work (research) This research has thrown up many questions in need of further investigation. Further work needs to be done to establish whether ...... It is recommended that further research be undertaken in the following areas: Further experimental investigations are needed to estimate ...... What is now needed is a cross-national study involving ......

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More broadly, research is also needed to determine ..... It is suggested that the association of these factors is investigated in future studies. Further research might explore ...... Further research in this field/regarding the role of X would be of great help in ....... Further investigation and experimentation into X is strongly recommended. A number of possible future studies using the same experimental set up are apparent. It would be interesting to assess the effects of ...... More information on X would help us to establish a greater degree of accuracy on this matter. If the debate is to be moved forward, a better understanding of ...... needs to be developed. I suggest that before X is introduced, a study similar to this one should be …Implications/recommendations for practice or policy These findings suggest several courses of action for ...... The findings of this study have a number of important implications for future practice. There is, therefore, a definite need for ...... There are a number of important changes which need to be made. Another important practical implication is that ......

  8. General Functions  8.1 Writing Definitions In academic work students are often expected to give definitions of key words and phrases in order to demonstrate to their tutors that they understand these terms clearly. Academic writers generally, however, define terms so that their readers understand exactly what is meant when certain key terms are used. When important words are not clearly understood misinterpretation may result. In fact, many disagreements (academic, legal, diplomatic, personal) arise as a result of different interpretations of the same term. In academic writing, teachers and their students often have to explore these differing interpretations before moving on to study a topic.

Simple two-part definitions A university is an institution

where knowledge is "produced" and passed on to others.

Social Economics may be broadly defined as the branch of economics

[which is] concerned with the measurement, causes and consequences of social problems.

Research may be defined is a systematic process

which consists of three elements or components: (1) a question, problem, or hypothesis, (2) data, and (3) analysis and interpretation of data.

General meanings: The term X has come to be used to refer to ...... The term X is generally understood to mean ...... The term X has been applied to situations where students ...... In broad biological terms, X can be defined as any stimulus that is ....... The broad use of the term X is sometimes equated with ...... The term disease refers to a biological event characterised by ....... In the literature, the term tends to be used to refer to ......

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Specifying terms that are used in an essay/thesis: In this essay the term overseas student will be used in its broadest sense to refer to all students who ...... Throughout this thesis, the term education is used to refer to informal systems as well as formal systems. While a variety of definitions of the term X have been suggested, this paper will use the definition first suggested by Smith (1968) who saw it as ....... In this paper, the term that will be used to describe this phenomenon is X In this dissertation the terms X and Y are used interchangeably to mean ......

Referring to people's definitions (author prominent): Smith (1954) was apparently the first to use the term ...... Chomsky writes that a grammar is a 'device of some sort for producing the .....' (1957, p.11). According to a definition provided by Smith (2001:23), fluency is 'the maximally ...... The term "fluency" is used by Smith (2001) to refer to ...... Smith (2001) uses the term "fluency" to refer to ...... For Smith (2001), fluency means/refers to ....... Macro-stabilisation policy is defined by Smith (2003: 119) as "......................" Aristotle defines the imagination as "the movement which results upon an actual sensation." The term "matter" is used by Aristotle in four overlapping senses. First, it is the underlying ....... Secondly, it is the potential which ...... Smith et al. (2002) have provided a new definition of health: "health is a state of being with physical, cultural, psychological ....."

Referring to people's definitions (author non-prominent): Validity is the degree to which an assessment process or device measures what it is intended to measure (Smith et al., 1986)

8.2 Giving Examples Writers may give specific examples as evidence to support their general claims or arguments. Examples can also be used to help the reader or listener understand unfamiliar or difficult concepts, and they tend to be easier to remember. For this reason, they are often used in teaching. Finally, students may be required to give examples in their work to demonstrate that they have understood a complex problem or concept. Many paragraphs in academic writing show development from general statements to specific details or examples. In most paragraphs, therefore, examples usually come after a more general statement, as in the short extract below.

Many words can often acquire a more narrow meaning over time, or may come to be chiefly used in one special sense. A classic example of this practice is the word doctor. There were doctors (i.e., learned men) in theology, law, and many other fields beside medicine, but nowadays when we send for the doctor we mean a member of only one profession. Examples as the main information in a sentence: For example / instance, the word doctor used to mean a learned man. For example, Smith and Jones (2004) conducted a series of...... By way of illustration, Smith (2003) shows how the data for ..... A classic / well-known example of this is ....... An example of this is the study carried out by Smith (2004) in which .......

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X is a good example / illustration of ....... X illustrates this point / shows this point clearly. This can be illustrated briefly by ....... Young people begin smoking for a variety of reasons. They may, for example, be influenced by their peers, or they may see their parents as role models. Another example of what is meant by X is ...... Diseases that can result at least in part from stress include arthritis, asthma, migrane, headaches and ulcers.

Examples as additional information in a sentence Young people begin smoking for a variety of reasons, such as pressure from peers and the role model of parents. Pavlov found that if some other stimulus, for example the ringing of a bell, preceded the food, the dog would start salivating. In Paris, Gassendi kept in close contact with many other prominent scholars such as Kepler, Galileo, Hobbes, and Descartes. The prices of resources, such as copper, iron ore, oil, coal and aluminium, have declined in real terms over the past 20 years. Many diseases can result at least in part from stress, including: arthritis, asthma, migrane, headaches and ulcers.

8.3 Classifying and Listing When we classify things, we group and name them on the basis of something that they have in common. By doing this we can understand certain qualities and features which they shares as a class. Classifying is also a way of understanding differences between things. In writing, classifying is often used as a way of introducing a reader to a new topic. Along with writing definitions, the function of classification may be used in the early part of an essay, or longer piece of writing. We list things when we want to treat and present a series of items or different pieces of information systematically. A list is series if items. The order of a list may indicate rank importance.

General Classifications X may be divided into

three main

classes sub-groups categories

X may be classified

on the basis of according to depending on in terms of

Y

into Xi and Xii

Specific Classifications: according to whether ..... on the basis of ...... in terms of

In the U.S. system, X is graded

Smith (1966)

divided classified grouped

Thomas and Nelson (1996) describe

Xs four basic types of

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into two broad types: Xi's and Xii's validity: logical, content, criterion and contruct.

Smith and Jones (2003) argue that there are two broad categories of Y, which are: a) ...... and b) .... For Aristotle, motion is of four kinds: (1) motion which ......; (2) motion which ......; (3) motion which ......; and (4) motion which.......

8.4 Describing Causes and Effects A great deal of academic work involves understanding and suggesting solutions to problems. At postgraduate level, particularly in applied fields, students search out problems to study. In fact, one could say that problems are the food for a significant proportion of academic activity. However, solutions cannot be suggested unless the problem is fully analysed, and this involves a thorough understanding of the causes. Some of the language that you may find useful for explaining causes and effects is listed below:

Verbs expressing causality Lack of protein

may cause can lead to can result in

Low levels of chlorine in the body Much of the instability

mental retardation. can give rise to

the economic effects of the war.

stems from

Kwashiorkor is a disease Beri-beri is a disease Scurvy is a disease

high blood presssure.

caused by resulting from stemming from

insufficient protein. vitamin deficiency. lack of vitamin C.

Nouns expressing causality The most likely causes of X are poor diet and lack of exercise. A consequence of vitamin A deficiency is blindness. Physical activity is an important factor in maintaining fitness. Many other medications have an influence on cholesterol levels. Another reason why Xs are considered to be important is that .......

Sentence connectors expressing causality Therefore, when they grow up, it will If undernourished and retarded children do Consequently, survive to become adults, they have decreased Because of this, probably be difficult for them to find work. learning ability. As a result (of this),    

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Phrases expressing causality owing to because of as a result of

200,000 people per year become deaf

Malnutrition leads to illness and a reduced ability to work in adulthood, The warm air rises above the surface of the sea,

thus/thereby thus/thereby

a lack of iodine.

perpetuating the poverty cycle. creating an area of low pressure.

As a consequence of X , it appears that winds alone are not the causative factor of....... Due to X and Y inflowing surface water becomes more dense as it ....... X and Y are important driving factors of Z The mixing of X and Y exerts a powerful effect upon Z through ......

8.5 Comparing and Contrasting

By understanding similarities and differences between two things, we can increase our understanding and learn more about both. This usually involves a process of analysis, in which we compare the specific parts as well as whole. Comparison may also be a preliminary stage of evaluation. For example, by comparing specific aspects of A and B, we can decide which is more useful or valuable. Many paragraphs whose function is to compare or contrast will begin with an introductory sentence expressed in general terms. Note the introductory sentences below: Introductory Sentences: Differences

X is different from Y in a number of respects. There are a number of important differences between X and Y. X differs from Y in a number of important ways. Smith (2003) found distinct differences between X and Y. Women and men differ not only in physical attributes but also in the way in which… Introductory Sentences: Similarities The mode of processing used by the right brain is similar to that used by the left brain. The effects of nitrous dioxide on human health are similar to those of ground level ozone. Both X and Y generally take place in a "safe environment". There are a number of similarities between X and Y. Numerous studies have compared the brain cells in man and animals and found that the cells are essentially identical.

Comparison within one sentence In contrast to oral communities, it is very difficult to get away from calendar time in literate societies. Oral societies tend to be more concerned with the present, whereas literate societies have a very definite awareness of the past. Women's brains process language simultaneously in the two sides of the brain, while men tend to process it in the left side only. 56 

This interpretation contrasts with that of Smith and Jones (2004) who argue that ......

Comparison within one sentence (comparative forms) Women are faster/slower than men at certain precision manual tasks, such as placing pegs in holes on a board. Women tend to perform better/worse than men on tests of perceptual speed. Further, men are more/less accurate in tests of target-directed motor skills. The corpus callosum, a part of the brain connecting the two hemispheres, may be more/less extensive in women. Women are more/less likely than men to suffer aphasia when the front part of the brain is damaged. Adolescents are less likely to be put to sleep by alcohol than adults. Women tend to have greater/less verbal fluency than men. Men learned the route in fewer trials and made fewer errors than did women.

8.6 Writing about the Past Writing about the past in English is made diffcult by the rather complex tense system. However the phrases grouped below give an indication of the uses of the main tenses in academic writng. For a comprehensive explanation of the uses of the various tenses you will need to consult a good English grammar book. A good recommendation is Practical English Usage by Michael Swan, OUP.

Time phrases associated with the use of the simple past tense For centuries,

In the second half of the 19th century, At the end of the nineteenth century,

church authorities placed restrictions on academics.

During the Nazi period,

Between 1933 and 1945, From 1933 to 1945, In the 1930s and 1940s,

restrictions were placed on German academics.

Time phrases associated with the use of the present perfect tense: Over the past few decades, the world has seen the stunning transformation of X, Y and Z. Since 1965, these four economies have doubled their share of world production and trade. Until recently, there has been little interest in X. Recently, these questions have been addressed by researchers in many fields. In recent years researchers have investigated a variety of approaches to X but .... Up to now, the research has tended to focus on X rather than on Y. To date, little evidence has been found associating X with Y. So far, three factors have been identified as being potentially important: X, Y, and Z.

The present perfect tense may also be used to describe recent research or scholarly activity with focus on the area of enquiry - usually more than one study There have been several investigations into the causes of illiteracy (Smith, 1985; Jones, 1987). The relationship between a diet high in fats and poor health has been widely investigated (Smith, 1985, Jones, 1987, Johnson, 1992).

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The new material has been shown to enhance cooling properties (Smith, 1985, Jones, 1987, Johnson, 1992). Invasive plants have been identified as major contributing factors for the decline of many North American species (1). A considerable amount of literature has been published on X.

8.7 Describing Trends and Projections A trend is a description of change over time. A projection is a prediction of future change. Trends and projections are usually illustrated using line graphs in which the horizontal axis represents time. Some of the language commonly used for writing about trends and projections is given below.

Describing trends

slight gradual steady marked steep sharp

The graph shows that there has been a

increase rise decrease fall decline drop

in the number of divorces in England and Wales since 1981.

Describing high and low points in figures The number of live births outside marriage reached a peak during the second world war. The peak age for committing a crime is 18. Oil production peaked in 1985. Gas production reached a (new) low in 1990.

Projecting trends

The number of Xs The amount of Y The rate of Z

is projected to is expected to is likely to will probably

decline steadily drop sharply level off

after 2010.

8.8 Describing Quantities Describing ratios and proportions The proportion of live births outside marriage reached one in ten in 1945. The annual birth rate dropped from 44.4 to 38.6 per 1000 per annum.

Describing fractions Of the 148 patients who completed the questionnaire, just over half indicated that ....... The response rate was 60% at six months and 56% at 12 months. Over half of those surveyed indicated that ...... 70% of those who were interviewed indicated that ..... Approximately half of those surveyed did not comment on ...... Nearly half of the respondents (48%) agreed that ...... Less than a third of those who responded (32%) indicated that ...... The number of first marriages in the United Kingdom fell by nearly two-fifths.

Describing percentages 13.1% of young men and 23.1% of young women who had married said that they ...... Returned surveys from 34 radiologists yielded a 34% response rate. 58 

The response rate was 60% at six months and 56% at 12 months. East Anglia had the lowest proportion of lone parents at only 14 per cent. Since 1981, England has experienced an 89 % increase in crime. A study in Java found that of 2,558 abortions, 58% were in young women aged 15-24, of whom 62% were ..... He also noted that less than 10% of the articles included in his study cited ...... In 1960 just over 5% of live births in 1960 were outside marriage.

Describing averages This figure can be seen as the average life expectancy at various ages. The proposed model suggests a steep decline in mean life expectancy ...... Roman slaves probably had a lower than average life expectancy. The average of 12 observations in the X, Y and Z is 19.2 mgs/m ..... The mean score for the two trials was subjected to multivariate analysis of variance to determine ...... The mean income of the bottom 20 percent of U.S. families declined from $10,716 in 1970 to .......

Describing ranges The evidence shows that life expectancy from birth lies in the range of twenty to thirty years. Between 575 and 590 metres depth the sea floor is extremely flat, with an average slope of only 1 : 400 The mean income of the bottom 20 percent of U.S. families declined from $10,716 in 1970 to $9,833 in 1990. The respondents had practiced for an average of 15 years (range 6 to 35 years) They calculated ranges of journal use from 10.7%–36.4% for the humanities, 25%–57% for the ...... Rates of decline ranged from 2.71– 0.08 cm day-1 with a mean of 0.97 cm day-1.    

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SOURCES 1. Brown Kristine & Hood Susan. Academic Encounters. Life in Society. Reading and Writing. McMillan Heinemann, 2005. 2. Cotton David. Market Leader: Business English: Intermediate: Course Book. Longman, 2006. 3. Dignen Bob & Flinders Steve. English 365-2. Cambridge University Press, 2004. 4. Dignen Bob & Flinders Steve .English 365-3. Cambridge University Press, 2006. 5. Mackenzie Ian. Management and Marketing. LTP Business, 2007. 6. Mascull Bill. Test your Business Vocabulary in Use. Cambridge University Press, 2007. 7. McCarthy Michael& O’Dell Felicity. Academic Vocabulary in Use. Cambridge University Press, 2008. 8. Mascull Bill. Business Vocabulary in Use. Cambridge University Press, 2002. 9. Wilson Andrew. Academic Phrase Bank. 10. Болсуновская Л. М., Демченко В. М. Учебное пособие по аннотированию и реферированию научно-популярных текстов. Томск: ТПУ, 2005. 11. www.cambridge.org/elt/english365 12. www.presentationpowerpoint.com/easy-steps-to-become-an-expert-onpresentation 13. www.presentationstraining.net/presentation_skills_delivering_your_speech 14. www.businesstown.com/presentations/

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