Английский язык

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ СИБИРСКИЙ ФЕДЕРАЛЬНЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ  

АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК Рекомендовано Сибирским региональным учебно-методическим центром высшего профессионального образования для межвузовского использования в качестве учебного пособия для студентов, обучающихся по специальностям направлений подготовки 230200 «Информационные системы» и 261200 «Технология полиграфического и упаковочного производства» 01.06.2009

Красноярск СФУ 2010

УДК 811.111(075) ББК 81.432.1.я73 А64

Рецензенты: И. В. Ковалев, д-р техн. наук, проф. кафедры системного анализа и исследования операций СибГАУ; Л. С. Вавилова, канд. пед. наук, доц., зав. кафедрой лингвистики, теории и практики перевода СибГТУ А64

Гришина, Г. В. Английский язык : учеб. пособие / Г. В. Гришина, Д. В. Личаргин, Н. Ф. Паникарова, Н. В. Ратина, Е. Б. Чубарева. – Красноярск : Сибирский федеральный университет, 2010. – 120 с. ISBN 978-5-7638-2021-8 Представлены оригинальные тексты на английском языке по темам «Информационные системы и технологии в экологии», «Технология полиграфического производства». Приведены упражнения и задания для формирования языковой коммуникативной компетенции студентов в области специальности. Предназначено для студентов неязыковых вузов укрупненных групп направлений подготовки 230200 «Информационные системы и технологии» и 260500 «Технология полиграфического и упаковочного производства». УДК 811.111(075) ББК 81.432.1.я73 Учебное издание

АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК Гришина Галина Викторовна, Личаргин Дмитрий Викторович Паникарова Надежда Федоровна, Ратина Наталья Викторовна Чубарева Елена Борисовна Учебное пособие Редактор Т. М. Пыжик Компьютерная верстка: Д. Р. Мифтахутдинова Подписано в печать 22.11.2010. Печать плоская Формат 60×84/16. Бумага офсетная. Усл. печ. л. 7,5 Тираж 100 экз. Заказ № 2246 Редакционно-издательский отдел Библиотечно-издательского комплекса Сибирского федерального университета 660041, г. Красноярск, пр. Свободный, 79 Отпечатано полиграфическим центром Библиотечно-издательского комплекса Сибирского федерального университета 660041, г. Красноярск, пр. Свободный, 82а ISBN 978-5-7638-2021-8

 Сибирский федеральный университет, 2010

ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ

Владение иностранным языком является актуальным требованием времени. В современном мире контакты в профессиональной сфере с зарубежными партнерами стали требовать более высокого уровня языковой компетенции выпускника вуза. Высокий уровень коммуникативной компетенции необходим и магистрантам, и аспирантам для изучения и осмысления передового зарубежного опыта в области научного исследования и смежных областях науки и техники. Предлагаемое учебное пособие состоит из предисловия, введения, двух частей, глоссария и библиографического списка. Первая часть состоит из пяти тем, раскрывающих различные вопросы экологии. В каждой теме есть набор оригинальных текстов англоязычных авторов, освещающих тему с разных сторон. Список слов Vocabulary (вокабуляр), необходимый для понимания прочитанного и выполнения заданий, находится в разделе Glossary (глоссарий). Каждый текст сопровождается определенным набором заданий, направленных на развитие языковой компетенции. Содержание речевых заданий связано с темой текста. Вторая часть состоит из четырех тем. Каждая тема, в свою очередь, содержит несколько текстов. Все тексты являются аутентичными. После текстов следуют лексические задания, даны упражнения в форме ролевых игр и дискуссий, приведены таблицы терминов специальности, которые закрепляются в речевых упражнениях. Работа с данным пособием предполагает групповые аудиторные занятия с преподавателем и самостоятельную работу студента по подготовке к занятиям. Пособие может быть использовано и как основное по дисциплине «Английский язык» для студентов-бакалавров и специалистов, и как вспомогательное для самостоятельного внеаудиторного чтения, причем студенты более высокого уровня подготовки могут использовать это пособие для самостоятельной работы с текстами по специальности и изучения терминологии специальности. Полезно оно будет и для студентов, получающих дополнительную квалификацию «Переводчик в сфере профессиональной коммуникации», а также для аудиторных занятий и самостоятельной работы аспирантов и соискателей указанных направлений подготовки. Поскольку курс иностранного языка в неязыковом вузе решает также образовательные и воспитательные задачи, то студенты при чтении текстов пособия знакомятся с современной экологической ситуаци3 

ей в России и за рубежом, экологическими проблемами и способами их решения, а также с информацией по видам печати, особенностям книгопроизводства в разные исторические периоды у нас в стране и за рубежом. Изучение материалов этого пособия даст студентам не только новые сведения в области специальности, но и новые знания, которые расширят их общий кругозор, помогут сформироваться их гражданской позиции, помогут продолжить в дальнейшем самостоятельную работу над английским языком.

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ВВЕДЕНИЕ

Цель данного учебного пособия – формирование у студентов языковой коммуникативной компетенции в области специальности. Для реализации этой цели представлен оригинальный материал, связанный с вопросами и проблемами, встающими перед студентами данных специальностей. Уровень сложности текстов и заданий к ним подобран с учетом знаний и навыков, полученных студентами во время первого года обучения по дисциплине «Английский язык» в вузе. Предполагается, что базовая терминология специальности уже усвоена студентами. Новые слова и выражения, не относящиеся к базовой терминологии, но встречающиеся и употребляющиеся в областях специальностей студентов и в текстах, включены в глоссарий. Задания, вопросы, упражнения к текстам направлены на развитие всех видов речевой деятельности. Текстовые задания разработаны с учетом коммуникативной методики, широко используемой в современном мире для обучения иностранному языку. Такие коммуникативные задания помогают студентам выразить свою точку зрения на поставленную проблему или актуальный вопрос, которые относятся не только к области специализации студента, но и связаны с любой повседневной, либо научной сферой деятельности человека. Пособие содержит задания, развивающие навыки чтения, понимания прочитанного, перевода. В пособии есть упражнения, которые учат составлять аннотации к текстам на русском и английском языках. Лексические текстовые задания направлены на обогащение словарного запаса студента, развивают умение студента использовать синонимы и антонимы в устных высказываниях, при переводе и составлении аннотаций. Грамматические упражнения помогают организовать ранее полученные знания о строении английского предложения, видовременных формах английского глагола, морфологических особенностях английского языка. Грамматические упражнения организуют письменную и устную речь студента. Учебное пособие «Английский язык» предназначено для студентов 2-го курса неязыковых вузов, чья специальность связана с изучением информационных систем и технологий в экологии и полиграфическом производстве. Для перевода текстов по специальности пособие может быть использовано на занятиях по дополнительной квалификации «Переводчик в сфере профессиональной коммуникации», а также магистрантами, аспирантами и соискателями указанных направлений подготовки. 5 

Part 1. INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND TECHNOLOGY IN ECOLOGY

Unit 1. ECOLOGICAL PROBLEMS. OVERVIEW Text 1. ECOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 1. Since ancient times Nature has served Man, being the source of his life. For thousands of years people lived in harmony with environment and it seemed to them that natural riches were unlimited. But with the development of civilization man's interference in nature began to increase. 2. Large cities with thousands of smoky industrial enterprises have appeared all over the world today. The by-products of their activity pollute the air we breathe, the water we drink, the land we grow grain and vegetables. Every year world industry pollutes the atmosphere with about 1000 million tons of dust and harmful substances. Many cities suffer from smog. Vast forests are cut and burn in fire. This disappearance upsets the oxygen balance. As a result some rare species of animals, birds, fish and plants disappear forever, a number of rivers and lakes dry up. The pollution of air and the world's ocean, destruction of the ozone layer is the result of man's careless interaction with nature, a sign of ecological crises. As a result of the Chernobyl tragedy the Belarusian people faced the most horrible ecological disaster. About 18 % of the territory of Belarus was contaminated with radioactive substances. A great damage has been done to the republic's agriculture, forests and people's health. The consequences of the atomic power station explosion are tragic for the Belarusian nation. Only a small per cent of Belarusian land remains uncontaminated. Today we have a great increase in children cancer and leukaemia. New spots of radioactive contamination are being discovered every year. Not only Chernobyl but many of our «peaceful» factories and towns cause a great damage to the environment. Dangerous dust and blow-outs of the enterprises are being carried out by winds for long distances destroying the life around. People all over the world are worried about what is happening to the environment. They understand that the Earth is their common home, a big green home. The environmental protection should be our universal concern. Serious joint measures to create a system of ecological security should be taken. Some progress has been already made in this direction. As many as 159 countries-members of the UNO-have set up environmental protection agencies. Numerous conferences have been held to discuss questions of ecologically poor 6 

regions including the Aral Sea, the South Urals, Kuzbass, Donbass, Semipalatinsk and Chernobyl. An international environmental research centre has been set up on Lake Baikal. The international organization Greenpeace is also doing much to preserve the environment. But these are only the initial steps that must be carried forward to protect nature, to save life on the planet not only for the sake of the present but also for the future generations. Assignments 1. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text: Источник, окружающая среда, вмешательство, возрастать, побочный продукт, электростанция, загрязнять, причинять вред, загрязнять, дышать, вредный, беззаботный, вещество, предотвращать, содержимое, нарушать, высыхать, редкий, животное, разрушение, бедствие, вред, последствие, защита, взрыв, забота, безопасность, исследовательский центр, спасать, принимать меры, заботиться. 2. Translate from Russian into English: 1) Взаимодействие человека и природы неотделимо от самой истории человечества. 2) Экологические изменения – одна из важнейших проблем, с которой столкнулось человечество. 3) Загрязнение воды и воздуха является результатом небрежного отношения человека к природе. 4) Планета Земля – наш общий дом, поэтому охрана окружающей среды должна стать нашей общей заботой. 5) Международное сообщество предпринимает конкретные меры для охраны природы. 3. Match the following headings to the appropriate parts of the text. Retell the text according to the plan. 1) The Chernobyl tragedy. 2) The impact of industry. 3) Man and Nature in ancient times. 4) Environmental protection progress. 5) The Earth is a common home. 4. Answer the following questions: 1) Is nature the source of people's life? 2) For thousands of years people lived in harmony with nature, didn't they? 3) Has man's interference in nature increased with the development of civilization? What has it led to? 4) Why did some species of animals, birds, plants disappear from the Earth? 7 

5) What is the result of man's careless interaction with nature? 6) What do you know about the Chernobyl ecological disaster? 7) What are the consequences of this tragedy? 8) Environmental protection is a universal concern of everyone, isn't it? 9) Has anything been done to solve ecological problems? 10) Is international cooperation necessary to create a system of ecological security? Why do you think so? 5. Work with a group mate. Ask your friend:  What do you know about the ecological problems in Russia?  What nature polluting sources do you know?  What consequences of man’s destroying activity can your name?  What do you know about Chernobyl zone?  Can you describe ecological situation in any Russian region? (Baikal Lake, Aral Sea, etc)  Why does ecology concern everyone?  What measures are taken to prevent ecological disasters and catastrophes? Text 2. CONTROL OF POLLUTION IN GREAT BRITAIN Government measures to control environmental pollution are long established, and are complimentary to the planning system to conserve the country's heritage. The Control of pollution Act 1974, which applies to England, Scotland and Wales, sets out a wide range of powers and duties for local authorities, including control over wastes, air and water pollution and noise. It contains important provisions on the release of information on environmental conditions to the public. The Act also increases the penalties for a large number of pollution offences. The provisions relating to noise and air pollution are fully in force, as are a substantial number of those relating to waste on land. Similar legislation applies in Northern Ireland. Assignments 1. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text: rubbish, actions, include, local power, solid. 2. Answer the questions: 1) What are the government measures to control environmental pollution in Great Britain? 2) Are there any similar measures taken in our country? 3. Translate the text using a dictionary. 4. Explain to your group mates all the measures taken by the British Government. 8 

Text 3. THE ACUTE PROBLEMS OF ECOLOGY Our ancestors considered the Earth's resources to be boundless and endless. We have no right to blame our ancestors for their ecological ignorance: they fought to live. Even in the 19th century when the word «ecology» was born people continued to use nature as consumers (1). In the 20th century with the rapid growth of science and technology human achievements in conquering nature became so great that man's economic activities began to produce an increasingly negative effect on the biosphere. People's striving to reach an immediate objective, their consumer attitude to nature in disregard of natural laws break natural balance (2). 76 species of animals and some hundred species of plants have disappeared from the planet in the course of the last 60 years. 132 mammal and 26 bird species face extinction (3). The destruction of nature gradually led to the loss of the most essential element of existence, a healthy biological habitat. Environmental pollution increases the case of disease, raises the cost of medical services, reduces the lifespan of a man (4). Environmental pollution has become a significant obstacle to economic growth. The discharge of dust and gas into the atmosphere returns to the Earth in the form of «acid rain» and affects crop, the quality of forests, the amount of fish (5). Economic, social, technological and biological processes have become so interdependent that modern production must be seen as a complex economic system. It is wrong to see economy and ecology as diametrically opposed: such an approach inevitably leads to one extreme or the other. Assignments 1. Find the English equivalents in the text: безграничные и бесконечные, винить кого-то за что-то, пользоваться природой в качестве потребителей, достижения человека, достигать непосредственной цели, потребительское отношение к природе, сталкиваться с вымиранием, самый важный элемент жизни, место обитания, уменьшать продолжительность жизни человека, становиться значительным препятствием, кислотный дождь, становиться взаимосвязанным. 2. Find the synonyms in the text: unlimited, think, quick growth, purpose, without paying attention to natural laws, during the last 60 years, thanks to, element of life, a place of living, cases of illnesses, life duration, an important obstacle, the quantity of fish, kinds of pollution, a complicated system. 3. Find sentences with Past Simple and Present Perfect tenses in the text and translate them. Explain the difference in their using. 4. Put the following sentences into the text instead of numbers: a) not so much due to hunting as due to the pollution of the biosphere. b) considering Man to be "lord and king" of nature and not the child. 9 

c) By now the pollution and poisoning of the soil, water and air have reached a critical level. d) According to the International Union for the protection of Nature e) To this we can add the rise of chemicals, radioactivity, noise and other types of pollution. 5. Answer the following questions: 1) What did our ancestors think about the Earth's resources? 2) How did they use nature? 3) What happened in the 20th century? 4) What breaks natural balance? 5) What does the International Union for the Protection of Nature worry about? 6) What are the consequences of environmental pollution? 7) How does the discharge of dust and gas affect the Earth? 6. Speak up about the acute problems of ecology using the words and expressions: acute problems, an obstacle, health(y), a natural habitat, natural laws, to lead to, significant. Text 4. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION – NATIONWIDE CONCERN As a highly industrialized state Britain cannot ignore the problem of environmental protection. The practical results of the state policy in environmental protection include the development of technology to control atmospheric (air) and water pollution, agricultural pollution control, the study of man's influence on the climate, the forecasting of earthquakes and tsunamis, the biological and genetic consequences of pollution, protection of rare and vanishing plants and animals as well as a whole lot more. The Control of Pollution Act 1974, which applies to England, Scotland and Wales, sets out a wide range of powers and duties for local and water authorities, including control over wastes, air and water pollution and noise, and contains important provisions on the release of information to the public on environmental conditions. The main risks of land pollution lie in the indiscriminate dumping of materials on land, careless disposal of pesticides and chemicals, fall-out of materials from atmosphere and the disposition of materials from flood-water. The use of sewage sludge on farms, too, involves risks as well as benefits to the land. The Government encourages the reclamation and recycling of waste materials in order to reduce imports and to help to conserve natural resources. Industry already makes considerable use of reclaimed waste materials such as metals, paper and textiles. In an increasing number of areas there are "bottle banks" where the public an deposit used glass containers. 10 

There has been a steady and significant improvement in water quality; the level of pollution in the tidal Thames has been reduced to a quarter of the 1950s level and 100 different kinds of fish have been identified there since 1964. Discharges of polluting matter into rivers, lakes and some coastal waters are already controlled by law. Control of marine pollution from ships is based largely on international conventions drawn up under the auspices of the International Maritime Organization, a United Nations agency with headquarters in London. In dealing with spillages of oil or chemicals at sea the main treatment method is to spray dispersant from aircraft or surface vessels, and emergency cargo transfer equipment is available to remove oil from a damaged tanker. Considerable progress has been made towards the achievement of cleaner air and a better environment. Total emission and average concentration of smoke in the air have fallen by 80 % since 1960. London no longer has the dense smoke-laden "smog" of the 1950s and in central London winter sunshine has been increasing since the 1940s when average hours a day were about 40 % less than at Kew in outer London; the levels are now virtually the same. Transport is one of the main offenders in noise pollution, and control measures are aimed at reducing noise at source, through requirements limiting the noise that aircraft and motor vehicles may make, and by protecting people from its effects. In Britain radiation resulting from industrial and other processes represents only a small fraction of that to which the population is exposed from the natural environment. Nevertheless, that fraction is subject to stringent control because of possible effects on health or longer-term genetic effects. Various methods are used to store radioactive wastes, depending primarily upon their physical form and radioactivity. Wastes of sufficiently low radioactivity are dispersed safely direct to the environment. For those of higher radioactivity a comprehensive, international research programme is being carried out with government assistance and with the participation of the nuclear industry into methods of treatment, storage, transport and disposal. Assignments 1. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text: игнорировать, государственная политика, включать, влияние, предсказание, землетрясение, применять к, неразборчивый, свалка (мусора), удаление, освоение, для того чтобы, выбрасывать, распыленный, исследование, автотранспортное средство, хранить. 2. Open the brackets. Put the verbs into Passive form. 1) Wastes (to recycle) already. 2) Last year this river (to clean) using new technology. 3) Next year all the old trees (to replace) by the new ones. 11 

4) Rubbish usually (to destroy) in special places. 5) Old plants and factories should (to reorganize) to use new cleaning filters. 6) Special equipment (to place) here to protect soil from pollution. 7) Computers widely (to use) to forecast earthquakes. 3. Tick the sentences as True (T) or False (F). 1) As a highly industrialized state Britain can ignore the problem of environmental protection. 2) The Government doesn't allow the reclamation and recycling of waste materials. 3) There has been a steady and significant improvement in water quality: the level of pollution in the tidal Thames has been reduced to a quarter of the 1950s level and 100 different kinds of fish have been identified there since 1964. 4) Industrial enterprises are the main offenders in noise pollution. 5) Various methods are used to store radioactive wastes, depending primarily upon their physical form and radioactivity. 4. Match two columns A and B (table 1). 5. Answer the following questions: 1) What are the major environmental problems Britain is faced with today? 2) What powers and duties for control authorities are set out by the Control of Pollution Act 1974? 3) What measures are taken to fight land pollution? 4) What are the main treatment methods applied to reduce water pollution? 5) What facts prove that a certain progress has been made towards cleaner air? 6) What operational measures have been introduced to reduce noise disturbance? 7) What operational measures have been introduced to store radioactive waste? 6. Summarize the text in English. Make up an oral report of 150–200 words. Table 1 Сопоставление вариантов двух колонок A 1) The practical results of the state policy in environmental protection 2) Total emission and average concentration of smoke in the air 3) The main risks of land pollution 4) Control of marine pollution from ships

В a) lie in the indiscriminate dumping of materials on land b) is based largely on international conventions c) include the development of technology to control atmospheric (air) and water pollution d) have fallen by 80 % since 1960

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Unit 2. TYPES OF POLLUTION Text 1. POLLUTION AS IT IS Environmental pollution is a term that refers to all the ways that human activity harms the natural environment. Most people have witnessed environmental pollution in the form of an open garbage dump or a factory pouring out black smoke. However, pollution can also be invisible, odourless, and tasteless. Some kinds of pollution do not actually dirty the land, air, or water, but they reduce the quality of life for people and other living things. Environmental pollution is one of the most serious problems facing humanity and other life forms today. Badly polluted air can harm crops and cause life-threatening illnesses. Some air pollutants have reduced the capacity of the atmosphere to filter out the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation. Many scientists believe that these and other air pollutants have begun to change climates around the world. Water and soil pollution threaten the ability of farmers to grow enough food. Ocean pollution endangers many marine organisms. Many people think of air, water, and soil pollution as distinct forms of pollution. However, each of the parts of an environment – air, water, and soil – depends upon the others and upon the plants and animals living within the environment. The relationships among all the living and nonliving things in an environment make up an ecological system, called an ecosystem. All the ecosystems of the earth are connected. Thus, pollution that seems to affect only one part of the environment may also affect other parts. Some pollution comes from one specific point or location, such as a sewage pipe spilling dirty water into a river. Such pollution is called point source pollution. Other pollution comes from large areas. Water can run off farmland and carry pesticides and fertilizers into rivers. Rain water can wash gasoline, oil, and salt from highways and parking lots into the wells that supply drinking water. Pollution that comes from such large areas is called nonpoint source pollution. Unfortunately, most of the pollution that now threatens the health of our planet comes from products that many people want and need. For example, automobiles provide the convenience of personal transportation, but they create a large percentage of the world's air pollution. Pesticides and fertilizers help in growing large quantities of food, but they also poison the soil and waterways. To end or greatly decrease pollution, people would have to reduce use of cars and other modern conveniences, and some factories would have to close or change production methods. Because most people's jobs are dependent on industries that contribute to environmental pollution, shutting down these industries would increase unemployment. In addition, if farmers suddenly stopped using chemical fertilizers and pesticides, there would be less food to feed the people of the world. Over time, however, pollution can be reduced in many ways without 13 

seriously disrupting people's lives. For example, governments can pass laws that encourage businesses to adopt less polluting methods of operation. Scientists and engineers can develop products and processes that are cleaner and safer for the environment. And individuals around the world can themselves find ways to reduce environmental pollution. Assignments 1. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text: Загрязнение, деятельность, причинять вред, мусор, невидимый, человечество, угрожать, подвергать опасности, влиять, удобрение, вносить вклад, разрушать, сточные воды. 2. Find the sentences where verbs are in Present Simple in the text. Explain the usage of this tense. Translate the sentences. 3. Mark the sentences as true (T) or false (F), correct the wrong statements: 1) It's impossible to witness environmental pollution. 2) Some types of pollution do not dirty the environment, but they influence people's and animals' life. 3) Some air pollutants help filter out the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation. 4) Air pollution change climates around the world. 5) Air, water and soil pollution are forms of pollution, independent from each other. 6) Most of the pollution is connected and comes from products that we need. 7) Pollution can be reduced and it will not affect people's lives seriously. 4. Correct the mistakes: 1) Environmental pollution is one of the most serious problems facing humanity and other life forms, but it doesn't reduce the quality of life for people and other living things. 2) Air, water and soil pollution are distinct forms and they don't depend on each other. 3) Most of the pollution that now threatens the health of our planet comes from products which are unnecessary for most people. 4) There are no ways of solving environmental pollution without seriously disrupting people's lives. 5. Answer the questions: 1) Is it possible to witness (to see, smell and taste) pollution? 2) What are the consequences of air, water and soil pollution to the environment? 3) Can you prove that all ecosystems are connected? 4) What's the difference between point and nonpoint source pollution? 5) What are the advantages and disadvantages of using automobiles? 14 

6) What are pros and cons of using fertilizers and pesticides? 7) What can be done to decrease pollution? 6. Find definition in the text to the following words:  ecosystem;  point source pollution;  nonpoint source pollution. 7. Role play. Work in pairs. One of you is a reporter, the other – a famous ecologist. Use the text to discuss the pollution. Use the words and expressions: ecological problems, to solve, to harm, to reduce, to increase, to decrease, an ecosystem, natural balance, climate change, to depend on, scientists, to worry, environment, the consequences of pollution. Text 2. AIR POLLUTION The chief types of environmental pollution include air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution, pollution caused by solid waste and hazardous waste, and noise pollution. Air pollution is the contamination of the air by such substances as fuel exhaust and smoke. It can harm the health of plants and animals and damage buildings and other structures. Air pollution occurs when industries and vehicles release such large amounts of gas and particulates into the air that natural processes can no longer keep the atmosphere in balance. There are two chief types of air pollution: (1) outdoor and (2) indoor. Outdoor air pollution. Each year, hundreds of millions of tons of gases and particulates pour into the atmosphere. Most of this pollution results from the burning of fuel to power motor vehicles and heat buildings. Some air pollution also comes from business and industrial processes. The burning of garbage may discharge smoke and heavy metals, such as lead and mercury, into the atmosphere. Most heavy metals are highly poisonous. One of the most common types of outdoor air pollution is smog. Smog is a brown, hazy mixture of gases and particulates. It develops when certain gases released by the combustion of gasoline and other petroleum products react with sunlight in the atmosphere. This reaction creates hundreds of harmful chemicals that make up smog. One of the chemicals in smog is a toxic form of oxygen called ozone. Exposure to high concentrations of ozone causes headaches, burning eyes, and irritation of the respiratory tract in many individuals. In some cases, ozone in the lower atmosphere can cause death. Ozone can also damage plant life and even kill trees. Acid rain is a term for rain and other precipitation that is polluted mainly by sulphuric acid and nitric acid. These acids form when gases called sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides react with water vapour in the air. These gases come chiefly from the burning of coal, gas, and oil by cars, factories, and power 15 

plants. The acids in acid rain move through the air and water and harm the environment over large areas. Acid rain has killed entire fish populations in a number of lakes. It also damages buildings, bridges, and statues. Scientists believe high concentrations of acid rain can harm forests and soil. Regions affected by acid rain include large parts of eastern North America, Scandinavia, and central Europe. Chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's) are pollutants that destroy the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere. CFC's are used in refrigerators and air conditioners and to make plastic foam insulation. Ozone, the same gas that is a harmful pollutant in smog, forms a protective layer in the upper atmosphere. It shields the earth's surface from more than 95 percent of the sun's ultraviolet radiation. As CFC's thin the ozone layer, more ultraviolet radiation reaches the surface of the earth. Overexposure to such radiation damages plants and greatly increases people's risk of skin cancer. The greenhouse effect is the warming that results when the earth's atmosphere traps the sun's heat. It is created by carbon dioxide, methane, and other atmospheric gases, which allow sunlight to reach the earth but prevent heat from leaving the atmosphere. These heat-trapping gases are often called greenhouse gases. Fuel burning and other human activities are increasing the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Many scientists believe such an increase is intensifying the greenhouse effect and raising temperatures worldwide. This increase in temperature, called global warming, may cause many problems. A strong greenhouse effect could melt glaciers and polar icecaps, flooding coastal areas. It could also shift rainfall patterns, creating more droughts and severe tropical storms. Indoor air pollution occurs when buildings with poorly designed ventilation systems trap pollutants inside. The main types of indoor pollutants are tobacco smoke, gases from stoves and furnaces, household chemicals, small fibre particles, and hazardous fumes given off by building materials, including insulation, glue, and paint. In some office buildings, high amounts of these substances cause headaches, eye irritation, and other health problems in workers. Assignments 1. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text: выхлопные газы, случаться, частица, лить, выпускать, свинец, пребывание под воздействием, осадки, защищать, метан, засуха, волокно, испарение. 2. Fill in the gaps with a suitable preposition. 1) The chief types ___ environmental pollution include air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution, pollution caused ___ solid waste and hazardous waste, and noise pollution. 2) ___ some office buildings, high amounts of these substances cause headaches. 3) It is created ___ carbon dioxide. 16 

4) Exposure ___ high concentrations ___ ozone causes headaches. 5) Air pollution occurs when industries and vehicles release such large amounts ___ gas and particulates ___ the air that natural processes can no longer keep the atmosphere ___ balance. 6) Because most people's jobs are dependent ___ industries that contribute ___ environmental pollution, shutting down these industries would increase unemployment. 7) Environmental pollution is a term that refers ___ all the ways that human activity harms the natural environment. 3. Answer the questions. 1) What is air pollution? 2) When does air pollution occur? 3) What are the chief types of air pollution? 4) What is outdoor air pollution? 5) What is smog? 6) How does acid rain form? 7) What effect can acid rain produce? 8) How can ozone play positive and negative role in atmosphere? 9) What is the process of formation of the greenhouse effect? 10) When does indoor air pollution occur? 4. Read the text again. Use a dictionary if necessary. Give a short summary in Russian about the main items. 5. Work in pairs/groups. Each pair/group should make a list of decisions for air pollution and present it. Discuss all of them. Choose the best decision. Explain, why you think it is the best one. Use the words and expressions: air pollution, contamination, to harm, to occur, outdoor pollution, indoor pollution, to pour into, the process of burning, precipitation, to kill, to destroy wildlife, to warm, atmospheric gases, to raise temperatures. Text 3. AIR POLLUTION AND ACID RAINS Without air there can be no life. Without air of good quality there cannot be a healthy life. Air pollution is an old problem, which has in this century assumed wide economic and social significance. Perhaps the first general realization of the new dangers came with the great London smog of December 1952. For five days the capital of England was enveloped in a grey shroud, and over 4 thousand people had died and incalculable numbers had suffered a worsening of bronchitis and heart disease. An average person requires over thirty pounds of air a day or about six pints every minute. Daily the individual draws 26 000 breaths, between 18 and 22 each minute, many of which are of filthy air. The lungs of town inhabitants are usually greyish in colour, those of country people are normally pale pink. 17 

The air is being polluted by acid gases, dust, petrol and diesel fumes and poisonous chemicals. These come from cars, factories and power plants. Of all the pollutants, that taint the air, fine suspended particulate matter, sulphur dioxide and ozone pose the most wide-spread and acute risks. However, airborne lead pollution, coming from car exhausts, is a critical concern in many cities as well. Particulate Pollution Suspended particulate matter is nearly ubiquitous urban pollutant. It is a complex mixture of small and large particles of varying origin and chemical composition. Larger particles, ranging from 2.5 microns to 100 microns in diameter, usually comprise smoke and dust from industrial processes, agriculture, construction and road traffic, as well as plant pollen and other natural sources. Smaller particles – those less than 2.5 microns in diameter – generally come from combustion of fossil fuels. These particles include soot from vehicle exhaust, which is often coated with various chemical contaminants or metals. They also include fine sulphate and nitrate aerosols that form when sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides condense in the atmosphere. The largest source of fine particles is coal-fired power plants, but auto and diesel exhaust are also prime contributors, especially along busy transportation corridors. The health effects of particles are strongly linked to their size. Small particles, such as those from fossil fuel combustion, are most dangerous, because they can be inhaled deeply into the lungs, setting in areas, where the body's natural clearance mechanisms can't remove them. The constituents in small particles are more chemically active and may be acidic as well and therefore more damaging. Particulate pollution causes acute changes in lung function, respiratory illnesses, heart decease and aggravation of asthma and bronchitis. During major pollution events, when particulate levels in the air increase up to 200 micrograms of particulate matter per cubic meter, daily mortality rates could increase as much as 20 %. Assignments 1. Find the antonyms of the following words in the text: minor, useful, simple, purification, improving, to decrease, pollutant, calculable, health. 2. Fill in the gaps with a suitable preposition. 1) Large cities ___ thousands ___ smoky industrial enterprises have appeared all ___ the world today. 2) ___ those of higher radioactivity a comprehensive, international research programme is being carried ___ ___ government assistance. 3) Control ___ marine pollution ___ ships is based largely ___ international conventions drawn ___ under the auspices of the International Maritime Organization. 4) These particles include soot ___ vehicle exhaust, which is often coated ___ various chemical contaminants. 18 

5) ___ major pollution events, when particulate levels ___ the air increase ___ ___ 200 micrograms of particulate matter per cubic meter, daily mortality rates could increase. 3. Translate the text in written form using a dictionary. 4. Work in pairs. Exchange your translations and check them. Comment on the errors.

Text 4. ACID RAINS Other very dangerous pollutants are sulphur and nitrogen oxides. These gases are released by factories and power plants when fossil fuels are burned and by cars. These oxides reach high into the atmosphere and mix with water and other chemicals to form rain that can be as acid as vinegar. Acid rains are responsible for the decline of many forests. Tiny droplets of acid attack plant leaves, disrupting the production of chlorophyll. It also weakens the tree by altering the chemistry of the soil that surrounds its roots. Acid falls down to earth as rain and snow. Black snow, as acid as vinegar, fell in Scotland in 1984. Acid rain affects everything it falls on. Rivers, lakes and forests are at risk throughout Europe and North America. In Sweden more than 18000 lakes have become acidic, 4000 of them very seriously indeed. This kills fish and drives out fish-eating wildlife. Forests are particularly badly affected by acid rain and in many places previously green, luxuriant trees show bare branches at the top, stripped of foliage. In West Germany 50 % of trees are affected and, unless some curb is placed on pollution, the figure is certain to rise. In Austria, if nothing is done, scientists and environmentalists have predicted that there will be no trees left by the end of the century. There is a possibility that damage to ecosystems from acid deposition may be more fundamental and long-lasting than was first believed. Scientists now report that acid rain leaches as much as 50 % of the calcium and magnesium from the forest soils. These minerals neutralise acids and are essential for plant growth. If soil chemistry is changed in this way, it may take many decades for all linked ecosystems to recover. Besides this, acid rain releases heavy metals and other toxic substances, providing a persistent source of toxicity to surrounding vegetation and aquatic life. Buildings «die» too. Some of the most beautiful historic buildings in the world are being eaten away by the dilute acid, rained on them. Notre Dame, Cologne Cathedral and St Paul's Cathedral have all been damaged. A major problem with air pollution is that it does not obey national boundaries. The planet's wind cycles and currents can carry pollution hundreds of miles away from its original source. So Britain is a large contributor to air pollution in Sweden and 19 

creates more for Norway than Norway does itself. The pollutants of the USA end up on the eastern coast of Canada. Acid rain emerged as a concern in the 1960s with observations of dying lakes and forest damage in Northern Europe, the United States and Canada. It was one of the first environmental issues to demonstrate how the chief pollutants – oxides of sulphur and nitrogen – can be carried hundreds of miles by winds before being washed out of the atmosphere in rain, snow and fog. As evidence grew of the links between air pollution and environmental damage, legislation to curb emissions was put in place. The 1979 Geneva Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution set targets for reduction of sulphur and nitrogen emissions in Europe that have largely been achieved. The 1970 and 1990 Clean Air Acts have led to similar improvements in the USA. Many nations have adopted air quality standards to safeguard the public against the most common pollutants. These include sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, suspended particulate matter, ground-level ozone, nitrogen dioxide and lead –all of which are tied directly or indirectly to the combustion of fossil fuels. Substantial investments in pollution control have lowered the levels of these pollutants in many cities of some developed countries. But poor air quality is still a major concern throughout the industrialized world. Meanwhile, urban air pollution has worsened in most large cities in the developing world, a situation driven by population growth, industrialization and increased vehicle use. Despite pollution control effects, air quality has approached the dangerous levels, recorded in London in the 1950s, in such megacities as Delhi, Jakarta and Mexico City. In some parts of Asia, such as Southeast China, Northeast India, Thailand and the Republic of Korea, and in the Pacific region acid rain is now emerging as a major problem. In the Asia region the use of sulphur-containing coal and oil is very high. In 1990 34 million metric tons of sulphur dioxide were emitted there, which is over 40 % more, than in North America. The effects are already being felt in the agriculture. In India wheat growing near a power plant suffered a 49 % reduction in yield. Other ecosystems are also beginning to suffer. Pines and oaks in acid rain-affected areas of the Republic of Korea showed significant declines in growth rates since 1970. Many countries in the world are trying to solve the problem of air pollution in various ways, either by trying to burn fossil fuels more cleanly or by fitting catalytic converters to their cars, so fewer poisonous gases are produced. In some countries, like Sweden for example, new power plants use a method called fluidized bed combustion, which cuts sulphur emission down by 80 %. In Germany sulphurous smoke is sprayed with lime to produce gypsum, which is then used for building roads. Developing technologies like this may raise the price of electricity a little, but will save millions of trees, plants and animals and human health. 20 

Assignments 1. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text: двуокись серы, воздушный, загрязнение свинцом, выхлопные газы, сгорание, (ископаемое) топливо, загрязняющее вещество, окись азота, частички, смертность, кислотный дождь, гибель лесов, крупномасштабный, автомобиль, загрязнение, выброс загрязняющих веществ в атмосферу, сажа, случаи сильного загрязнения воздуха, мельчайшие взвешенные в воздухе частички. 2. Find sentences with Participle I and II in the text. Translate them. 3. Write both forms of Participles for these words: Bring, save, take, suspend, cause, burn, grow, carry, affect, contribute, increase, develop, attack. 4. Answer the questions: 1) When did people realize a new danger for their health? What kind of danger is it? 2) Why are the lungs of town inhabitants greyish in colour? 3) What pollutants pose the most wide-spread and acute risks? 4) What does suspended particulate matter? 5) What are the sources of large particles, small particles? 6) Which particles are the most dangerous and why? 7) What are the effects of particulate pollution? 8) Which gases cause acid rain? 9) What are the sources of these gases? 10) How does acid rain form? 11) How does acid rain affect the plants, buildings, lakes and soil? 12) What is the main problem with air pollution? Prove your statement. 13) How do people try to curb air pollution? 14) In what parts of the world acid rain is emerging now as a major problem? 5. You should write a short article about acid rains (100–150 words) for a newspaper in English. Use the text. Text 5. ACID RAIN Acid rain is a subject which many people have heard of but very few understand fully. It is the term that is really being used now for a kind of pollution which is hanging over our heads in a sense – it's the air pollution above us. It's the pollution that's coming down in rains, in mist, in snow, in hail, in many different ways and damaging our forests, our lakes and rivers, our buildings and even human health. There are three chemicals involved – sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and ozone. The first two of them are primary pollutants – that is they are produced directly from source. In the case of sulphur dioxide, the main prob21 

lem is power station chimneys. In the case of nitrogen oxides, they come really half and half from cars and from power stations. Ozone is what is known as a secondary pollutant. It means it's formed in the atmosphere from a combination of other pollutants, other primary pollutants. Ozone is formed from a combination of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons both of which come from car exhausts. If you put sunlight onto these two chemicals, they react together and they form ozone and so the highest levels of ozone are found in hot summer around the edges of cities where there are lots of car exhausts, lots of sunlight and then you end up with a lot of ozone. What most people associate with acid rain is sulphur and particularly sulphur dioxide. About seventy-one percent of all the sulphur dioxide emitted from Britain comes from the large coal burning power stations mainly situated in the Midlands. In fact, Britain is Western Europe's largest emitter of sulphur dioxide. It puts out some 3.7 million tons a year. That's more than any other country except perhaps Poland or Russia. The problem, of course, with sulphur dioxide is that it doesn't just fall close to the factory or the power station. It gets lifted into the air and it can travel thousands of miles in the air before it falls as rain. So, it's not a problem for Britain only, it is a problem for the rest of Europe. And that is really why Scandinavians and the Dutch and the Belgians have become angry with the British government because it hasn't done anything about acid rain – because they are paying for the environmental damage which is caused by Britain's pollution. But British environment is dying as well and sulphur from their power stations is landing all over the United Kingdom. In Wales and in the West of Scotland, acid rain is already having quite a marked effect. Some hundreds of lakes in Wales have been affected, several have lost their fish and in the West of Scotland 27 Galloway lakes have already completely lost their fish. There are short-term solutions and there are long-term solutions. In the short term it is necessary to make immediate cuts to the emissions that are coming from power stations and cars. In the long term it is necessary to change the way society is thinking. Many people have heard of the Thirty Percent Club. This is a group of now some 22 nations which have agreed to cut their sulphur emissions by thirty percent on 1980 levels by the year 1993. Britain hasn't yet joined the Thirty Percent Club. Some of the other countries that have are Sweden, Norway, Canada, Germany, the Netherlands – even Russia has joined the Thirty Percent Club. This is only the first step on the road to effective sulphur emission control. And what we really want to see is reductions of between 60 and 90 percent over the next ten years or so. And looking to the longer term we shouldn't just rely on solutions that involve a technological fix. We shouldn't just clean up power station chimneys and car exhausts. What we need to do is change the way the society thinks and reacts. The first thing that needs to be done is to use less energy. One way of using less energy is to increase recycling and so recycling schemes and re-use of materials should be encouraged 22 

throughout Europe and North America. Secondly, we have to change our transport system. We have to look for a more efficient transport system which relies less on individuals' use of cars and more on a good public transport network. These are the things we must be looking forward to. Unless we do that, unless we change society in this way – conserve energy, rationalize our way of transport and now clean up our power stations and individual cars – then we're bound to see more and worse environmental effects from air pollution and acid rain. Assignments 1. Find these word combinations in the text and translate them: to cause damage, primary and secondary pollutants, to produce directly from the source, car exhausts, to emit, coal burning power station, to get lifted into the air, a marked effect, to affect, effective sulphur emission control, to reduce, reduction, a technological fix, recycling schemes, re-use of materials, to conserve energy. 2. Translate these words. Define parts of speech:  to solve, solution, solving;  to pollute, pollution, pollutant;  chemistry, chemical, a chemical;  power, powerful, powerless, powered;  associate, associated, association;  particular, particularly;  create, creation, creature, creator;  environment, environmental, environmentalist;  govern, government;  to emit, emission, emitter;  rational, to rationalize. 3. Make up sentences with the words given in assignment 2. Use all Simple Active tenses. 4. Fill in the gaps using words from the text: a) Acid rain is damaging ... . b) In the case of nitrogen oxides, they come … . c) …are found in a hot summer around the edges of cities where there are lots of ... . d) The problem with sulphur dioxide is that ... . e) This is a group of now 22 nations which... . f) Looking to the longer term, we shouldn't just … . g) We're bound to see … . 5. Answer the questions: 1) What is acid rain? 2) What does it come down with? 3) Why is acid rain an environmental problem? 23 

4) How many chemicals are involved in this process? 5) What is the difference between primary and secondary pollutants? 6) How is ozone formed? 7) Where does sulphur dioxide come from? 8) Why is Britain considered to be Western Europe's largest emitter of sulphur dioxide? 9) What makes the Scandinavians, the Dutch and the Belgians angry with the British? 10) What are the consequences of acid rain in Wales and Scotland? 11) What are the short-term solutions? 12) What should we do in the long term? 13) What's the aim of the thirty percent club? 14) How can people use less energy? 15) How can our transport system be changed? 6. Speak up! What do you think of acid rain? Is it really dangerous? Can people deal with it? What can you do? Use the words and expressions: Dangerous, a solution, to change, to prevent, to destroy, to use new filtering technologies, to install eco equipment, factories and plants, transportation system, to use less pesticides, to throw. Text 6. WATER POLLUTION Water pollution is the contamination of water by sewage, toxic chemicals, metals, oils, or other substances. It can affect such surface waters as rivers, lakes, and oceans, as well as the water beneath the earth's surface, called ground water. Water pollution can harm many species of plants and animals. According to the World Health Organization, about 5 million people die every year from drinking polluted water. In a healthy water system, a cycle of natural processes turns wastes into useful or harmless substances. The cycle begins when organisms called aerobic bacteria use the oxygen dissolved in water to digest wastes. This digestion process releases nitrates, phosphates, and other nutrients (chemical substances that living things need for growth). Algae and aquatic green plants absorb these nutrients. Microscopic animals called zooplankton eat the algae, and fish eat the zooplankton. The fish, in turn, may be eaten by larger fish, birds, or other animals. These larger animals produce body wastes and eventually die. Bacteria break down dead animals and animal wastes, and the cycle begins again. Water pollution occurs when people put so much waste into a water system that its natural cleansing processes cannot function properly. Some waste, such as oil, industrial acids, or farm pesticides, poisons aquatic plants and animals. Water pollution comes from businesses, farms, homes, industries, and other sources. It includes sewage, industrial chemicals, agricultural chemicals, 24 

and livestock wastes. Another form of water pollution is the clean but heated water discharged by power plants into waterways. This heated water, called thermal pollution, harms fish and aquatic plants by reducing the amount of oxygen in the water. Chemical and oil spills can also cause devastating water pollution that kills water birds, shellfish, and other wildlife. Some water pollution occurs when there is improper separation of sewer wastewater from clean drinking water. In parts of the world that lack modern sewage treatment plants, water carrying human waste can flow into drinking water supplies. Disease-carrying bacteria in the waste can then contaminate the drinking water and cause such illnesses as cholera and dysentery. In areas with good sanitation, most human waste flows through underground pipes to special treatment plants that kill the harmful bacteria and remove the solid waste. Assignments 1. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text: грунтовые воды, вид, аэробные бактерии, растворять, переваривать, питательное вещество, водоросли и водяные растения, отходы крупного рогатого скота, нагретый, опустошать, неправильный, загрязнять, разрушать. 2. Fill in the gaps with Participle I or Participle II in the right form. Use these words: heat, drink, reduce, look, call, feel, disappear, come. 1) This ___ water, ___ thermal pollution, harms fish and aquatic plants by ___ the amount of oxygen in the water. 2) The emissions that are ___ from power stations and cars. 3) Some water pollution occurs when there is improper separation of sewer wastewater from clean ___ water. 4) These are the things we must be ___ forward to. 5) The effects are already ___ in the agriculture. 6) A lot of species of animals and hundred species of plants have ___ from the planet. 3. Answer the questions: 1) What does the cycle of natural processes do? 2) When does water pollution occur? 3) Can the clean water be polluted? Why? 4. Put these items according to the cycle of natural processes: 1) algae and aquatic plants absorb nutrients; 2) bacteria break down dead animals and their wastes; 3) aerobic bacteria digest wastes; 4) fish eat the zooplankton; 5) digestion process releases nitrates, phosphates, and other nutrients; 6) fish are eaten by larger fish, birds, or other animals; 7) zooplankton eat the algae; 8) larger fish, birds or animals produce body wastes and eventually die. 25 

5. Work in pairs. Explain the problems of water pollution to 1) your granny, 2) your younger brother, 3) an ecologist, 4) your IT teacher. 6. Use the words and expressions: garbage, clean water, dirty water, to kill, not suitable for, high level of, to put litter in, appropriate actions, to use computer-aided technologies, to develop eco tools, fresh water, water for drinking. Text 7. SOIL POLLUTION AND SOLID WASTE Soil pollution is the destruction of the earth's thin layer of healthy, productive soil, where much of our food is grown. Without fertile soil, farmers could not grow enough food. Healthy soil depends on bacteria, fungi, and small animals to break down wastes in the soil and release nutrients. These nutrients help plants grow. Fertilizers and pesticides can limit the ability of soil organisms to process wastes. As a result, farmers who overuse fertilizers and pesticides can destroy their soil's productivity. A number of other human activities can also damage soil. The irrigation of soil in dry areas with poor drainage can leave water standing in fields. When this standing water evaporates, it leaves salt deposits behind, making the soil too salty for growing crops. Mining operations and smelters contaminate soil with toxic heavy metals. Many scientists believe acid rain can also reduce soil fertility. Solid waste is probably the most visible form of pollution. Every year, people dispose of billions of tons of solid garbage. Industrial wastes make up the majority of the discarded material. Solid waste from homes, offices, and stores is called municipal solid waste. It includes paper, plastic, bottles and cans, food scraps, and yard trimmings. Other waste consists of junked automobiles, scrap metal, leftover materials from agricultural processes, and mining wastes known as spoil. The handling of solid waste is a problem because most disposal methods damage the environment. Open dumps ruin the natural beauty of the land and provide a home for rats and other disease-carrying animals. Both open dumps and landfills (areas of buried wastes) may contain toxins that seep into ground water or flow into streams and lakes. The uncontrolled burning of solid waste creates smoke and other air pollution. Hazardous waste is composed of discarded substances that can threaten human health and the environment. Sources of hazardous waste include industries, hospitals, and laboratories. Such waste can cause immediate injury when people breathe, swallow, or touch it. When buried in the ground or left in open dumps, some hazardous waste can pollute ground water and contaminate food crops. The mishandling or accidental release of hazardous waste has caused a number of disasters around the world. In 1984, a leak of poisonous gas from a pesticide plant in Bhopal, India, killed more than 2.800 people and caused eye and respiratory damage to more than 20.000. Some hazardous waste can seriously harm 26 

the health of people, wildlife, and plants. These pollutants include radiation, pesticides, and heavy metals. Radiation is an invisible pollutant that can contaminate any part of the environment. Most radiation comes from natural sources, such as minerals and the sun's rays. Scientists can also produce radioactive elements in their laboratories. Exposure to large amounts of radiation can harm cells and result in cancer. Radioactive waste produced by nuclear reactors and weapons factories is a potentially serious environmental problem. Some of this waste will remain radioactive for thousands of years. The safe storage of radioactive waste is both difficult and expensive. Pesticides can travel great distances through the environment. When sprayed on crops or in gardens, pesticides can be blown by the wind to other areas. They can also flow with rain water into nearby streams or can seep through the soil into ground water. Some pesticides can remain in the environment for many years and pass from one organism to another. Heavy metals include mercury and lead. Mining operations, solid waste incinerators, industrial processes, and motor vehicles can all release heavy metals into the environment. Like pesticides, they are long lasting and can spread through the environment. Also, like pesticides, they can collect in the bones and other tissues of animals. In human beings, heavy metals can damage various internal organs, bones, and the nervous system. Many can also cause cancer. Assignments 1. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text: почва, слой, плодородный, грибы, продуктивность, орошение, осушение, испаряться, осадок, урожай, выплавлять (металл), выброшенный, ненужный, металлолом, обращение, опасный, пребывание под воздействием радиации, ртуть, мусоросжигатель, ткани, кости, внутренний, рак. 2. Read these sentences. They have mistakes. Correct them: 1) Plenty of animals suffer from solid waste. 2) Have you always put litter in the bin? 3) Last century there are nuclear tests all over the world. 4) Scientists are already made some reasonable solutions for this problem. 5) Pesticides can to collect in bones and tissues. 6) By year 2050, according to some scientists, fossil fuel will disappear. 7) Was you went to the south last summer? 3. Give definitions to these words: soil pollution; solid waste. 4. Correct the mistakes in these sentences using the facts from the text: 1) Farmers can grow food without fertile soil. 2) Healthy soil depends on pesticides, bacteria and, sometimes, small animals. 3) When standing water evaporates, it leaves mercury and lead which make the soil dangerous for growing crops. 27 

4) Heavy metals cannot contaminate the soil while mining. 5) Municipal solid wastes are scrap metal, paper, radiation and junked packing. 6) Disease-carrying animals do not live in open dumps. 7) Plants and industries are sources of the most hazardous waste. 8) Radiation is a visible pollutant. 9) Heavy metals cannot collect in tissues and bones of animals and human beings. 10) Radioactive wastes usually remain radioactive for ten – twenty years. 5. Write a paragraph of 100–150 words in English. Use the text. Explain the danger of these problems. Choose any of the topics: 1) Radiation; 2) Pesticides and fertilizers; 3) Solid wastes. Text 8. MARINE POLLUTION Seven tenth of the Earth is covered by water. The oceans perform an important role in moderating the earth's climate: they are also the source of an enormous range of plant and animal life. The various types of marine pollution can be classified as: 1) oil pollution, 2) sewage, 3) radioactive materials. Oil pollution of the oceans is a matter of great concern. Oil spills from wrecked super tankers pollute the water and kill thousands of birds and sea creatures. Yet, surprisingly enough, oil spills from wrecked ships are not the major cause of oil pollution at sea. More recent figures estimated total marine oil pollution at 3.5 million tones, with 48 % coming from land. Again, municipal and industrial wastes represent the largest source. Sewage. The discharge of untreated or partially treated domestic waste water into the sea caused considerable pollution in areas close to major sewage outlets. The harbours and coastal waters of nearly every major port city in the Third World are polluted with raw sewage and industrial discharges. Even in relatively developed region, sewage is pumped into the sea untreated. Bathing waters and beaches suffer from an undesirable form of contamination by sewage. Many countries now use secondary sewage treatment before discharging effluent into the sea. In Canada, the US and Japan, secondary treatment is carried out in 75 % of treatment plants. Radiation pollutes the world's oceans from four separate sources: atmosphere fallout, dumping of radioactive waste, discharges from nuclear installations and discharges from nuclear-powered vessels. One more problem is overfishing. When fish stocks collapse, it is sometimes difficult to identify the cause exactly. Overfishing is a frequent reason. As 28 

the world fish catch increases, so does the risk of substantial collapse of supplies of other species. The virtual extinction of certain whale species is a warning of what the future brings. Assignments 1. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text: морской, покрывать, огромный, канализация, нефтяные пятна, судно, потерпевшее кораблекрушение, оценивать, обрабатывать, сток, качать, вырождение. 2. Turn these sentences into Passive form: 1) Oil spills from wrecked super tankers pollute the water. 2) Oil kills thousands of birds and sea creatures. 3) Municipal and industrial wastes represent the largest source. 4) Many countries now use secondary sewage treatment. 5) In 18th century London smog killed a lot of people. 6) In the nearest future people will use alternative energy sources. 3. Read the text again and complete the table 2. Write only essential information: Table 2 Заполните таблицу Types of marine pollution

Damage caused by marine pollution

4. Work in pairs. Using your notes make up a dialogue about the marine pollution. Text 9. THE TRUE STORY OF LAKE BAIKAL According to the legend, when God was creating the severe land of Siberia, he dropped one of his best jewels there – a pearl of a rare beauty. Such is the legend of the birth of Lake Baikal – the world's deepest (1.620 m) freshwater lake, which holds in its stone bowl one-fifth of the world's reserves of fresh surface waters. To this day Baikal is called the «blue pearl of Siberia». It can be considered a museum of freshwater fauna. It is populated by 2.500 species of animal and plant life, three quarters of which are endemic, that is they are not met anywhere else in the world. Scientists suggested that Baikal conceals the secrets of the origin of all the continent's freshwater fauna. Hardly a year passes without a veritable scientific sensation. It should be pointed out that the outcry about the threat of pollution faced by Baikal came from every section of Russian society. How to protect Baikal was the subject for widespread debate. There was some difference of opinion 29 

between those who one-sidedly emphasized industrial production and those who insisted that the basic balanced approach had to be adhered to. Baikal first faced such problems almost 200 years ago when its shores were settled and crop farming and cattle breeding developed, and timber was felled. The floating of loose timber, particularly, polluted its waters. The pollution problem grew, especially after the war because of the accelerated development of industry and the rise of cities in Siberia. Did the answer be in shutting down all existing enterprises and all production in Baikal's vicinity? Was it necessary that Baikal's vast treasures of forest, its power resources, mineral deposits and fertile soil lie untapped to protect its purity? Russian scientists reject the approach of the conservationist purists who contend that only by leaving nature untouched can environment be protected and pollution controlled. After considerable scientific study and debate the conclusion was Baikal's beauty and purity could be maintained at the same time that its rich resources were tapped. Baikal can provide both material wealth and beauty to the country. The answer lies in the rational use of Baikal's resources, in guaranteeing its protection from pollution and despoliation. Quite a few environmental protection measures have been put into effect on Baikal in recent years. The felling of timber on the shores of the lake within a 50 km radius is prohibited, as is the free floating of timber on rivers floating into it. Hunting is strictly regulated. It is prohibited to build industrial enterprises with harmful wastes. The estuaries of the rivers flowing into the lake have been cleared of sunken timber. Unique purification installations have been put at the Baikal pulp and paper factory. However, even with the super high quality of industrial waste purification ecologists are not satisfied. They have suggested that the enterprises be switched over to a new, wasteless production scheme. The preservation of Baikal is a question of conscience. In the future, this natural complex will become a recreation zone with unique properties, a large international tourism centre and a scientific proving ground of international significance. Assignments 1. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text: суровый, бросать, жемчужина, пресный, скрывать, настоящий, угроза, подчеркивать, настаивать, подход, берег, животноводство, лес, рубка леса, свободный, предприятие, чистота, неиспользованный, расхищение, запрещать, устье реки, целлюлозно-бумажный комбинат, предохранение. 2. Find in the text sentences with passive voice. Translate them. 3. Answer the questions: 1) Why is Lake Baikal so unusual? 2) What were the first pollution problems? 30 

3) What has been done to protect the lake? 4) What will lake Baikal become in the future? 4. What are these numbers referred to? Three quarters, 1620, 2500, one fifth, 200, 50. 5. Fill in the gaps with necessary words/phrases: 1) Baikal is called «the blue … of Siberia». 2) Baikal is considered to be a museum of … water fauna. 3) The outcry about the … faced by Baikal come from Russian society. 4) People settled Baikal … 200 years ago. 5) The … of …timber polluted the waters. 6) The … use of Baikal’s resources is the answer for its protection. 7) The … of the rivers flowing into the lake have been cleared of… . 8) … have been put at the Baikal … factory. 9) Baikal can provide both … and … to the country. 10) In the future Baikal will become a … with unique properties. 6. Find information about any other Russian river/lake/sea and make a short report (up to 200–250 words) in English about: 1) its significance; 2) pollution problems; 3) protection measures. 7. Use the words and expressions: The most dangerous problem is, to solve, to prevent from, to dry up, to be contaminated with, dead fish, lake fauna, to bathe, significant, to use aqua filters, to develop, to prohibit. Text 10. DEFORESTATION Deforestation is the term used to describe the disappearance of forests from large parts of the world's surface (see fig. 1). Figures produced by the United Nations Environment Programme show a world loss of 290 million hectares of forests and woodlands between the early 1960s and the early 1980s. Deforestation has been occurring steadily over the course of the last and this century, with a rapid acceleration since the Second World War. If the current rate of deforestation continues, all the world's primary (undisturbed) rain forest will disappear or be damaged within the next 30 years. The disappearance of a single tropical forest is an environmental tragedy because of the loss of an enormous number of species, some possibly unique. There are two general reasons behind global deforestation: survival and economics. Survival refers to the population growth, pressure to clear land for farming and government-inspired settlement schemes that have led to much deforestation (in tropical America). Peasant and urban dwellers have been encouraged or forced by economic circumstances to migrate (along the Trans – American Highways) and settle in a "pioneer" area. There they burn and cut enough 31 

forest to provide a place for living and stay there as long as the soil will allow – frequently a matter of a few years. Then the cycle starts again. As the pioneers move on, the forest can begin to re-establish itself and it is possible that primary forest species may return after 50 years or so. In other areas of the world the trees are destroyed because the inhabitants need to burn them for fuel wood. Economics. In terms of forest area more than 50 % of deforestation is caused by fuel wood gathering and settler expansion. According to World Resources, nearly 1,5 billion people in 63 countries are cutting wood faster than it can grow back. At present fuel wood consumption rates, the estimated wood deficit will double by the years 2000. The disappearance of the world's forests is caused by overpopulation and ignorance, and of course, by commercial logging practices. It was estimated that 70 % of all clearances are possible only as a result of the roads and infrastructure built for logging. Deforestation has significant consequences. The forests fix to the earth. When the trees are removed, the soil blows away or is removed by rains. This erosion of the soil makes the area useless for farming and leads to floods in the rainy season, as the soil is no longer able to retain the rains in sufficiently large quantities. In extreme cases, the deforested area will become a desert. Deforestation will also have an effect on local climate. Forests absorb more of the sun's energy than open land: deforestation can disrupt local weather patterns by warming air that was previously cool. Deforested zones experience greater fluctuations in the air and soil temperature. If the trees are cut down, the rain cycle is interrupted. Humidity is another factor that is altered.

Fig. 1. Siberian taiga is suffering of deforestation 32 

Assignments 1. Find the English equivalents in the text: быстрый рост; тропический лес; главные причины; освободить землю для земледелия; проекты поселений, разработанные правительством; экономические обстоятельства; количество вырубленного на топливо леса; вызывается перенаселением и невежеством; значительные последствия; почва выдувается или смывается; непригодный для земледелия; наводнения; станет пустыней; поглощает больше солнечной энергии; может разрушить; вырубается; прерывается; влажность. 2. Fill in the gaps with a suitable verb form: 1) If the trees ___, the rain cycle is interrupted. 2) Peasant and urban dwellers ___ or forced by economic circumstances to migrate. 3) Unique purification installations ___ at the Baikal pulp and paper factory. 4) An international environmental research centre ___ up on Lake Baikal. 5) The international organization Greenpeace ___ also ___ much to preserve the environment. 6) Large cities with thousands of smoky industrial enterprises ___ all over the world today. 7) The by-products of their activity pollute the air we ___, the water we ___, the land we ___ grain and vegetables. 3. Read the text again. Tell in English about: 1) survival reason of deforestation; 2) economic reason of deforestation; 3) consequences of deforestation. 4. Translate the text in the written form. Use a dictionary. 5. Work in groups/pairs. Think about and speak up: what YOU can do to prevent deforestation. Make up a list of things and present it. Discuss it with other pairs/groups. Use the words and expressions: To use artificial fur-trees, not to destroy trees, to cut trees out, to plant, to preserve gardens, to set fire, to grow flowers, not to litter, to break, to kill, birds, insects, tree brunches.

33 

Unit 3. GLOBAL WARMING Text 1. INTRODUCTION IN GLOBAL WARMING «Global warming» has been introduced by the scientific community and the media as the term that encompasses all potential changes in climate that result from higher average global temperatures. Hundreds of scientists from many different countries are working to understand global warming and have come to a consensus on several important aspects. In general, Global warming will produce stronger climatic changes than simply a rise in global temperature. A recent study by an international panel of scientists suggested that if trends in current emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols continue, the globe may warm by an average of 2 °C by the year 2100. The average rate of warming would probably be greater than any seen in the last 10.000 years. Global surface air temperature in 1997 was warmer than any previous year this century, exceeding the temperature of 1995. Part of the current global warmth is associated with the tropical El Nino, without which a record global temperature would probably not have occurred. Global surface temperatures in 1998 set a new record for the period of instrumental measurements, report NASA researchers who analyzed data collected from several thousand meteorological stations around the world. The global temperature exceeded that of the previous record year, by such a wide margin that the 1998 calendar year is certain to also set a new record. The United States experienced in 1998 its warmest year in the past several decades. As for the Russia, global surface air temperatures in 1997–1998 were not warmer than previous years. Until recently, researchers were uncertain whether Climate developments reflected natural variations in the Earth, or whether in fact human activities contributed to the warming. The latest observed data reveals some striking trends:  All 10 of the warmest years on record have occurred in the last 15 years.  The 1990s have already been warmer than the 1980s – the warmest decade on record – by almost 0,1 °C.  The global average surface temperature has risen 0,3–0,6 °C since reliable records began in the second half of the 19th century. In 1995, scientists with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change – the authoritative international body charged with studying this issue-reached a conclusion in the Second Assessment Report, which summarizes the current state of scientific knowledge on global warming, also called climate change. For the first time ever, the Panel concluded that the observed increase in global average temperature over the last century "is unlikely to be entirely natural in origin" and that «the balance of evidence suggests that there is a discernible human influence on global climate». 34 

Assignments 1. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text: охватывать, средний, ученый, парниковые газы, поверхность, превышать, исследователь, естественные (природные) изменения, делать вклад, вкладывать, собранные данные, отвечать, руководить, различимый 2. Find words which mean the same. The first two letters are given to help you. a) a person, who knows much about science – sc ________________ b) looking for new facts in any branch of knowledge – re ___________ c) a ten years period – de ____________ d) some changes – va _____________ e) a place, where a study of atmosphere are carried out – me ______________ 3. Finish the sentences. Use words/phrases: 1) Hundreds of scientists from many different countries are … warming. 2) Global warming will produce … in global temperature. 3) Until recently … were uncertain whether climate developments reflected … in the Earth. 4) All … of the warmest years on record have occurred in … . 5) The balance of evidence suggests that there is … climate. 4. Find the sentences in the text which contain different forms of the infinitive and translate them. 5. You’re a reporter from a Russian newspaper. Give a summary of the article for your Russian readers (10–12 sentences). Text 2. THE CAUSE AND THE IMPACTS OF GLOBAL WARMING 1. The Earth's climate is the result of extremely complex interactions among the atmosphere, the oceans, the land masses, and living organisms, which are all warmed daily by the sun's energy. This heat would radiate back into space if not for the atmosphere, which relies on a delicate balance of heattrapping gases – including water vapour, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane – to act as a natural «greenhouse», keeping in just the right amount of the sun's energy to support life. 2. For the past 150 years, though, the atmospheric concentrations of these gases, particularly carbon dioxide, have been rising. As a result, more heat is being trapped than previously, which in turn is causing the global temperature to rise. Climate scientists have linked the increased levels of heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere to human activities, in particular the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas for heating and electricity; gasoline for transportation), deforestation, cattle ranching, and rice farming. 35 

3. But Global Warming has received much press in the past decade. There are many questions like these ones. Could the earth's climate really heat up? What are the causes if such a warming occurs? Is global warming a theory and true or false theory at that? These questions and more are what climate scientists are asking themselves daily. So, there are two sides to every story and both are discussed in the media. 4. As the Earth's climate is the result of extremely complex interactions, scientists still cannot predict the exact impact on the earth's climate of these rising levels of heat-trapping gases over the next century. But there is striking agreement among most climate scientists about what is likely to occur. Powerful climate models suggest that the planet will warm over the next century at a more rapid rate than ever before recorded. The current best estimate is that if carbon dioxide concentrations double over pre-industrial levels, global average surface temperatures will rise between 1° and 3,5 °C. According to the scientific possible scenarios, an atmospheric doubling of carbon dioxide could occur as early as 2050. Future impacts from this kind of warming will most likely include: a) damage to human health; b) severe stress on forests, wetlands, and other natural habitats; c) dislocation of agriculture and commerce; d) expansion of the earth's deserts; e) melting of polar ice caps and consequent rise in the sea level; f) more extreme weather events. Assignments 1. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text: взаимодействие; излучать, отражать; «ловушка» для тепла; водяной пар; двуокись углерода; окись азота; связывать; «ископаемое» топливо; обогрев, нагревание; животноводство; случаться; высокая скорость, высокий темп; оценка, подсчёт; серьёзный; обитатель, житель; нарушение; сдвиг, перемещение; таяние; расширение, увеличение. 2. Find all complex sentences in the text and translate them into Russian. Pay attention to the conjunctions. 3. Match the headings with the appropriate passage in the text. One heading is odd: a) Future impacts of global warming b) Recent changes c) Too many questions d) Severe damage e) What is the climate? 4. Answer the questions: 1) What things is the climate made of? 2) What gases are heat-trapping? 36 

3) Why is the global temperature rising? 4) Can you name all the type of fossil fuels? 5) What have scientists linked the increased level of heat-trapping gases to? 6) Are the scientists able to predict the exact impacts of global warming? 7) What can happen with the planet due to global warming? 8) What will the average surface temperature be in future? 9) What will future impacts from warming most likely include? 5. Work in pairs / groups. You are climate researchers. Think, discuss and explain the connection between global warming and its impacts (a–f), e. g. melting of polar ice caps and consequent rise in the sea level. Because of high level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere the average temperature rises. That means even in the North Pole there is warmer. So, polar ice starts melting. As it melts the sea level rises. If the sea level rises many coast cities and villages can be flooded. Text 3. CLIMATE, WEATHER AND CHANGES Global environmental change refers to both human-induced and natural transformations of all of the earth's systems. Yet the popular perception of this change is focused largely on climate change, especially global warming. So, it is important to distinguish between climate and weather. Weather refers to the condition of the atmosphere at any particular time and place (e. g. what is the temperature today? Is it raining or snowing? What is the humidity and air pressure?) Climate, however, refers to the long-term characteristics of the climatic system for the area (e. g. what is the average temperature? Is the area generally prone to drought or to tropical storms? What is the annual average rainfall?). Climate change is not a new phenomenon. In fact, the earth has experienced significant variations in climate during its estimated 5 billion year life. Cold periods known as ice ages put parts of the earth under glaciers for hundreds of thousands of years. Of particular concern today is a warming of the earth's climate, occurring more rapidly than any of the previous climate changes that the earth has had. Unlike previous climate changes, however, this global warming has a very clear human component. Assignments 1. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text: относиться; изменение; восприятие; различать; значительный; ледник; происходить, случаться. 2. Give definitions to these words: Weather is … Climate refers to… Ice ages are … 37 

3. Answer the questions: 1) What are the differences between weather and climate? 2) Has climate change occurred before? 3) What is the difference between previous climate changes and nowadays? 4. Find all the questions in the text. What type are they? What other types of questions do you know? 5. Use different types of questions and ask your neighbour about the changes of climate in your region. Use the words and expressions: To change, recently, to rain, river level, mountains, forests, to breathe, air, acid rain, to become, to snow, different, temperature, to melt, to depend on. 6. Prepare the written translation of the text. Use a dictionary. Text 4. THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT The earth's atmosphere consists of nitrogen and oxygen, and a small amount of trace gases known as greenhouse gases, which include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. These greenhouse gases act much like 1) _______, allowing short-wave energy from the sun to pass through them, but trapping the longer-wave heat radiation that is radiated back to the atmosphere from the earth's surface. This greenhouse effect is a vital atmospheric process without which the earth would be 2) ______. Without a natural greenhouse effect, the temperature of the Earth would be about zero degrees F (–18 °C) instead of its present 57 °F (14 °C). So, the concern is not with the fact that we have a greenhouse effect, but whether human activities are leading to an enhancement of the greenhouse effect. Human activity has begun to alter the composition of the earth's atmosphere. The by-products from industrialization, such as carbon dioxide from the combustion of fossil fuels 3) ________, have increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This is known as the enhanced greenhouse effect. An increase in greenhouse gases traps additional heat energy within the atmosphere and is predicted to result in 4) ________ on earth. Climate change 5) _________ is much more complex than just the rise in global annual mean temperature (the average temperature per year for the entire planet) that is predicted by the end of the next century. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, an international committee composed of hundreds of leading scientists), has made the following predictions about the future of the earth's climate: a) a doubling in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels by 2100; b) a rise in global annual mean temperature of 2 °C by 2100 (with a range of between 1 °C and 3,5 °C); an increase in sea level of 50 cm by 2100 resulting 38 

from thermal expansion of oceans and melting of glaciers and ice sheets (with a range between 15 and 95 cm); c) a more vigorous hydrological cycle, meaning the potential for more severe droughts and/or floods in some areas, and an increase in precipitation; d) intensity, suggesting the possibility of more extreme rainfall events. Scientists have predicted that the rise in the global mean annual temperature will affect the frequency of 6) _________ such as hurricanes, typhoons, tornadoes, severe storms, and floods. When the atmosphere gets warmer, more water evaporates from the oceans, and in turn, more rain and snow fall from the atmosphere. The extra energy released with this evaporation and precipitation cycle increases the power of storms. 7) _______ also contributes to the greenhouse effect and could create what scientists refer to as a positive feedback, meaning that the processes of warming and evaporation will continue to intensify and feed off each other increasing the rate and magnitude of the effect (in this case, temperature rise). Climate change will also affect the amount and timing of precipitation. Small variations in mean precipitation could result in large changes in the risk of extreme weather events such as drought and severe tropical storms. Climatic variability will almost certainly affect the timing and intensity of the monsoon (rainy) seasons upon which millions in Africa and Asia depend for agricultural productivity. Thus, it is fairly certain that climate change will have 8) ________ on the global environment and the world's population. It is also clear that some populations may be more vulnerable to the effects of global climate change than others. For example, in less developed parts of the world, increased frequency of droughts could have devastating effects on crop yields and food supply; sea level rise could increase the risk of flooding to settlements in marginal coastal areas. Assignments 1. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text: азот; кислород; водяной пар, водная пыль; двуокись углерода; окись азота; чрезвычайно важный; забота; вести к; увеличение; изменять; побочный продукт; предсказание; полосы льда, ледяной покров; мощный, сильный; засуха; наводнение; осадки; интенсивность; испаряться; величина, масштаб. 2. Read the text again and fill in the gaps with these word combinations: 1) cold and lifeless planet; 2) water vapour; 3) an increase in the annual average temperatures; 4) like coal and oil; 5) glass in a greenhouse; 6) important impacts; 39 

7) extreme weather events; 8) resulting from human activity. 3. Revise the material about different forms of the infinitive. Change the verbs ‘to increase’ and ‘to affect’ into all these forms. 4. Tick the sentences as True (T) or False (F): 1) The earth’s atmosphere consists of oxygen and greenhouse gases. 2) Greenhouse gases allow short-wave energy from the sun to pass through them. 3) Greenhouse effect cannot be natural. 4) An increase in greenhouse gases holds more heat energy. 5) Carbon dioxide level can be doubled by 2010. 6) Severe draughts and floods are unlikely to happen according to IPCC. 7) When the atmosphere gets warmer, less water evaporates from ocean. 8) One of the reasons of flooding is increased sea level. 9) Water vapour doesn’t contribute to the greenhouse effect. 5. Describe the function of greenhouse gases. Are they useful? Can they be dangerous? How do they work? 6. You are a newspaper reporter. Ask a famous scientist about greenhouse gases and make a report on the basis of his answers. Use the words and expressions: to consist of, the amount of, to act, to pass, heat radiation, to radiate back, the surface of, human activity, to increase, to trap, annual mean temperature, to predict, carbon dioxide level, to melt, the expansion of, to contribute, to affect, intensity, crop yields and food supply. Text 5. WHAT DO THE CLIMATE CHANGES IMPLY? Many eco-systems will be altered and/or move. Biological diversity will probably be reduced. A global heating of 1–3.5 degrees within 100 years will mean that the climate zones are moved 150–550 kilometres closer to the poles. Trees are able to move between 4 and 200 kilometres within a hundred years. Therefore it is probable that the composition and distribution of forests will change. More frequent attacks of diseases and forest fires are also expected. Most desert areas are expected to grow warmer, but not wetter. Between one third and one half of the glaciers in mountain areas are expected to disappear. This will alter the flow of water in the rivers and so water to agriculture and hydropower. In high latitudes, the biological productivity in the lakes may increase. Species that live in cold waters near the limit of distribution could die out. The water level in some areas may decrease due to vaporisation. Along the coasts, beaches may be eroded away due to the increased sea level. Some countries may lose parts of their territory (one meter increase of the sea level means that 6 % of the Netherlands, 17.5 % of Bangladesh and the Ma40 

juro atoll in the Marshall Islands will disappear). Freshwater may experience an increase in salinity. Mangroves, wetlands, corral-reefs, corral-islands and river deltas are particularly vulnerable. Alterations in such eco-systems will have a negative impact on tourism, freshwater resources, fisheries and biological diversity. Changes in agricultural conditions will vary a lot from area to area. In some places, the productivity will increase, while in other places, as for instance the tropics and sub-tropics, it will decrease. Maybe the total agricultural potential can be maintained. The risk of famine and starvation may increase in some areas. The health effects among humans include a higher mortality rate and more diseases as a consequence of several heat waves, and less deaths as a consequence of frost. Some diseases will increase in extent: malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, salmonella, cholera and others. Assignments 1. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text: изменяться; разнообразие; состав; распространение; болезнь; широта; испарение; выветриваться, размывать; соленость, засоленность; мангровые деревья; уязвимый, подверженный; голод; лихорадка денге, тропическая лихорадка; смерть от голода. 2. Find synonyms to these words in the text: to change; variety; warming; a lot of trees; region; to vanish; types or kinds; to pass away; degree or grade; influence; hunger; illness; to reduce. 3. Are there any sentences in passive in the text? Is it possible to change them into active? Why «yes»? Why «no»? 4. Are there any sentences in active in the text? Is it possible to change them into passive? Why «yes»? Why «no»? 5. Complete the table 3 about the climate changes: Table 1 Climate Changes Place / thing / species to be changed Climate zones Forests Deserts Glaciers Beaches Freshwater Countries Agriculture Species Human being

Possible changes are moved 150–550 km closer to the poles

41 

6. You’re taking part in a student conference. Using your completed table prepare a report about the climate changes in English. Text 6. GREENHOUSE GASES The sun is our only external source of heat and energy. The earth's temperature is maintained by a balance between heating from the sunrays and cooling caused by energy escaping to space from the earth's warm surface and atmosphere. This natural balance between incoming and outgoing energy is essential to life on earth. On a clear day, most of the energy arriving from the sun in a form of short wave length radiation passes through the atmosphere to warm the earth's surface. This energy must be got rid of to maintain the earth's energy balance. It escapes in the form of longer wavelength infrared radiation. But if the infrared radiation could escape directly to space, then the earth's surface would be 30 degrees colder than it is today. It would be uninhabitable. Fortunately, much of this infrared radiation is absorbed in the atmosphere by the so-called greenhouse gases, making the world much warmer than it would be without them. These gases act rather like the glass in a greenhouse, which allows sunlight to enter, provides shelter from the wind and prevents most of the infrared energy from escaping, keeping the temperature warm. So, the greenhouse effect is not a manmade phenomenon. In fact, it is perfectly natural. It influences to the benefit of all our ecosystems by stabilizing atmospheric temperatures at levels conducive to plant, animal and human life. But for this kind of life to survive on earth, it is essential that the right balance be maintained between incoming and outgoing energy. By increasing greenhouse gas emissions we are disturbing this age-old balance. Many of us think of greenhouse gases as being only the dirty emissions from car exhausts and industrial smokestacks. But in fact, there are six important greenhouse gases occurring randomly in the atmosphere in small quantities. These gases are: Water Vapour, Carbon Dioxide, Methane, Ozone, Nitrous Oxide and, more recently, Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs. Apart from CFCs, all of these gases occur naturally. But human activity is increasing their concentrations. This increase is causing the enhanced greenhouse effect – a manmade and potentially dangerous phenomenon. CO2 is the most significant of the man-made greenhouse gases. Although it occurs naturally, it is also the one we produce in the greatest quantity. Industrialization has meant a greater use of fuels extracted from the ground such as coal, gas and oil. These are known as fossil fuels. And when burned they produce large amounts of CO2. Transport and generating of electricity alone account for about 45 % of fossil fuel CO2 emissions. It is estimated that during the last 200 years, the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere has risen by 26 %. Levels have never been 42 

this high since humans inhabited the planet. Carbon dioxide now accounts for about 55 % of the enhanced greenhouse effect. Ice core samples have provided accurate data on the atmosphere going back thousands of years. This data, together with modern observation, shows a clear rise not only in carbon dioxide levels but also in those of methane (CH4) and other greenhouse gases. The rising levels of methane are at least in part due to increased rice production, waste disposal, mining, cattle ranching and large scale extraction and transportation of natural gas. All of them produce significant quantities of methane and all of them are on the increase. Ozone (O3) is familiar to us all by now. It is the substance that protects us from the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays. The highest concentrations exist in the upper atmosphere and form what is known as the ozone layer. It is damage to this protective layer that has caused so much concern in recent years. But ozone also plays a significant role as a greenhouse gas. Due to a complex chemical reaction in the lower atmosphere, a number of substances, most of them manmade, come together and ozone is formed. The amount of ozone produced depends largely on weather conditions and sunlight but it is on the increase. Natural vegetation emits large amounts of nitrous oxide (N2О) but the increased concentrations of this gas are thought to come mainly from agriculture and the burning of biomass, such as wood and other vegetation. CFCs are the only greenhouse gases to be exclusively manmade. They are non-toxic and inert, which makes them safe and useful as aerosol propellants, refrigerants and insulators. They are also used in the manufacture of foam rubber and for cleaning of electronic components. CFCs are well known to most of us as the gases blamed for the depletion of the ozone layer. But they are also a powerful greenhouse agent contributing to the enhanced greenhouse effect. They are particularly significant because they absorb infrared radiation not absorbed by the other gases. Water vapour (H2O) is undoubtedly the most important greenhouse gas, but it is also, perhaps, the least understood. It occurs naturally, it is invisible, and is not directly affected by human activity; however it is affected indirectly through an important feedback mechanism. Warming brought about by the other greenhouse gases increases evaporation and allows the atmosphere to hold more water vapour. This may, in turn, enhance the warming. Some gases are more stable in the atmosphere than others. So it is not just the amount we pump out that is important. The quantity of any gas in the atmosphere is determined by a balance between its emissions and the size and strength of its available sinks. Sinks are processes, which remove substances from the atmosphere by absorbing. In the case of carbon dioxide, for example, the main natural sinks are absorption by the oceans and photosynthesis occurring both on land and at sea. The sun's rays strike green plants, driving a process in which carbon from the atmosphere is captured and fixed in the plant itself while oxy43 

gen is emitted. But often even this carbon is not removed from the atmosphere for long. Only plant or marine life, which dies and becomes fixed in the earth or seabed to eventually fossilize, removes carbon permanently from the climate's system... if it not subsequently burned as fuel! Although we increase CO2 levels by burning ever-greater quantities of fossil fuels, the effect of the increasing is also due to the further reducing size of the world's natural sinks, such as forest cover. In fact, deforestation usually adds to both sides of the equations. The world's climate is a complex system governed by an interaction between the atmosphere, the ocean, man, ice caps, glaciers and sea ice. These elements form a carefully balanced equilibrium, into which we have introduced a new and potentially destabilizing element. The excess energy trapped by manmade greenhouse gases will cause our planet to change, although we don't know exactly how. The social and political consequences of climate change will be especially acute for people whose lives mostly depend on the present climate patterns. Human poverty and hunger are already on the increase. If food supplies fade, migrants from degraded areas in search of arable land and fresh water will break social and political harmony. Details are often disputed. But the fundamental problem is plain – our current rates of greenhouse gas emissions amount to nothing less than a worldwide uncontrolled and potentially catastrophic experiment with the earth's climate. Assignments 1. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text: выделять, бежать, испускать; поверхность; избавляться от; инфракрасное излучение; непригодный для жилья, нежилой; приют, убежище; получаемая и выделяемая энергия; дымовые трубы; фторхлорпроизводные насыщенных углеводородов, фреоны; крупномасштабная добыча; аэрозольный газвытеснитель; охладитель; пенорезина; истощение, исчерпывание; откачать; поглотитель; превращаться в окаменелость; равновесие; постепенно исчезать; пахотная земля. 2. Find the synonyms to the following words in the text: vital; sunny day; come in; significant; ancient; most of; car fumes; except for; happen; the amount of; exact; the highest layer; mostly. 3. Find all complex sentences in the text and translate them into Russian. Pay attention to the conjunctions. 4. Answer the questions: 1) What is the natural balance between incoming and outgoing energy? 2) What is the function of greenhouse gases? 3) What are six important greenhouse gases? 4) What are fossil fuels? 5) Is human activity increasing gases concentration? 6) What are the reasons for methane increasing? 44 

7) What does ozone do? 8) What gas is manmade? 9) What gas is the most important? 10) What is the function of a sink? 11) What are the social and political consequences of climate change? 5. Arrange the following sentences in proper order: A – Data, taken from ice core samples, shows a rise in carbon dioxide and methane. B – Six important gases occur in the atmosphere in small quantities. C – Human hunger and poverty are increasing now. D – Natural balance between energy is essential to life on earth. E – Only plant or marine life which dies can remove carbon permanently from the climate’s system. F – The highest concentration of ozone exists in the upper atmosphere. G – We don’t know exactly how our planet will change because of the climate’s changes. H – CFCs are used as aerosol propellants, refrigerants and insulators. 6. Write down a detailed plan of the text and be ready to retell it. 7. Give a summary of the text in English and in Russian (up to 300 words). 8. Discuss the question raised in the text with your partner and try to give the possible solutions to this problem. Use the words and expressions: maintain, incoming and outgoing energy, to warm, the earth's energy balance, to keep, six important greenhouse gases, to occur, to burn, to produce, significant quantities, ray, the highest concentration, complex chemical reaction, natural vegetation, to emit, the quantity of, gas elements, to form, carefully balanced, wildlife, plants.

Text 7. GLOBAL DIMMING Global dimming is a recently discovered phenomenon that reduces the amount of solar radiation reaching the surface of our planet. Until recently, scientists had dismissed the published evidence, since it directly opposed the evidence and observations for global warming. There is evidence that increased numbers of particulates in the air are responsible for global dimming. These pollutants include sulphur dioxide, ash and soot. These pollutants have increased as the rate of burning of fossil fuels has increased. These aerosol particles in the atmosphere have been associated with global dimming. The pollutants form nuclei for cloud droplets. It is thought that the water droplets in clouds coalesce around the particles. As air pollution increases more particulates are available for the formation of droplets. This makes them more reflective, resulting in less solar radiation (sunlight) reaching Earth's surface. 45 

Water droplets in clouds are formed by water vapour condensing on particulates. The increased number of particulates in the air increases the number of water droplets in clouds. As a result, there is an increased amount of reflection of solar radiation back into space. This reduction of heat reaching the earth is known as global dimming. Air transport is also contributing to global dimming. The vapours from aircraft, known as contrails, also form water droplets, which increase the amount of solar radiation reflected back into space. Evidence for this was observed by scientists during the three days after the 11.09 attacks on the World Trade Centre. During that time all commercial flights were grounded, and gave scientists the opportunity to study the effects on temperature without contrails. The effect was that the range in temperature increased by 1 degree centigrade. This was considered to be a significant and substantial effect for such a short time. Global dimming can be reduced by cleaning up the emissions from burning fossil fuels and the emissions from vehicles. However, a focus on particulates only would result in an increased effect of global warming. In essence, the sources of both greenhouse gases and air particulates must be addressed. It has been speculated that the heat waves in Europe in 2003, resulting in thousands of deaths, could have been the result of the action of the European Community to reduce particulate emissions, without considering a reduction in greenhouse gases. Some other scenarios have been presented. One predication is that irreversible damage would be only about 30 years away. The effects on a global scale have also been predicted. If global dimming is reduced without reducing the greenhouse gases it could result in melting of ice in Greenland, and the drying of tropical rain forests. This, in turn, will reduce the natural carbon dioxide sinks available, thereby increasing carbon dioxide levels even further. These and other effects could combine to lead to an increase of 10 degrees centigrade in temperature over the next 100 years, not the standard 5 degrees which most models currently predict. Assignments 1. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text: затемнение, уменьшение силы света; отклонять; пепел; сажа; ядра (ядро); соединяться, срастаться; капелька; след инверсии самолета; необратимый. 2. Finish the sentences: a) Global dimming is a recently discovered phenomenon that … . b) These pollutants include … . c) The vapours from aircraft, … , also form water droplets. d) It is thought that the water droplets in clouds coalesce … . e) Global dimming can be reduced by … . f) If global dimming is reduced without reducing the greenhouse gases it could result … . 46 

g) The increased number of particulates in the air increases … . 3. Fill in the gaps of the article with these questions: 1) Can global dimming be reduced? 2) So what is the process? 3) What exactly is global dimming? 4) What other contributions are there to global dimming? 5) What is the cause of global dimming? 4. Find the infinitive constructions in the text and make similar sentences with the words from Assignment 1. 5. Explain the reasons of global dimming and preventive measures to your group mates. Then listen to other students’ opinions and discuss them. Find the most reasonable one. Use the words and expressions: to dim, solar radiation, to reduce, to increase, fossil fuels, to reduce, to clean up, emissions, to damage. Text 8. WHAT'S HAPPENING TO THE WEATHER? «The catastrophic floods and severe storms we are now experiencing will become more frequent». When two Englishmen meet, their first talk is of the weather. In recent years the weather has become more than a conversation starter. It has become a matter of serious concern to people all over the world. Why? Because the weather – which was always unpredictable anyway – seems to be increasingly changeable. During the summer of 2002, Europe was struck with unusually heavy rainstorms. They led to what was described as "the worst central European floods in over a century." Take note of the following news reports: Austria: "The provinces of Salzburg, Carinthia, and Tirol were hit especially hard by severe rainstorms. Many streets were swamped in sludge, with piles of mud and debris up to 15 meters high. At Vienna's Sudbahnhof station, a thunderstorm caused a train accident that injured several people." Germany: «Never before in the history of the Federal Republic have towns and villages been evacuated as they have been now during this flood of the century. Residents have fled their hometowns by the thousands. Most have done so as a precautionary measure. Some were rescued from the floods at the last minute by boat or helicopter». Russia: «At least 58 people died on the shores of the Black Sea. ...About 30 cars and buses remain on the seabed, with no search of them possible after new storm warnings were issued». While water was plaguing many parts of the world, the United States was experiencing a severe drought. It was reported: «With crops and pasture losses, drinking water supply shortages, wildfires and dust storms, experts predict that the adverse economic impact of the drought of 2002 will be in the milliards of dollars». 47 

Parts of northern Africa have been experiencing a devastating drought since 1960s. According to reports, «rainfall was twenty to forty-nine per cent lower than in the first half of the 20th century, causing widespread famine and death». The El Nino weather pattern – triggered by a warming of the waters of the eastern Pacific – periodically causes flooding and other weather disruptions in North and South America. The CNN news organization reports that the 1983/84 El Nino was «responsible for more than 1,000 deaths, causing weather-related disasters on nearly every continent and totalling $10 milliard in damages to property and livestock». This phenomenon has returned with regularity (about every four years) since it was first identified in the 19th century. But some experts believe that El Nino will appear more often" in the future. An article published by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration gives this reassurance: «Most of that 'weird' weather we've been experiencing – that unusually warm fall or that particularly wet winter – is due to normal, regional changes in the weather». Nevertheless, there are signs that a serious problem may exist. The environmental-activist organization Greenpeace predicts: «Dangerous weather patterns including more powerful hurricanes and heavy rains will continue to wreak havoc across the planet. More severe droughts and floods will literally change the face of the Earth, leading to the loss of coastal lands and the destruction of forests». Is there any substance to such claims? If so, what is the cause of these «dangerous weather patterns?» «There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities». Many scientists are afraid that something is really wrong with the weather Meteorologist Dr. Peter Werner from the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research says: «When we observe global weather – the extremes in precipitation, floods, droughts, storms – and note its development, we can rightly say that these extremes have quadrupled over the last 50 years». Many feel that the unusual weather patterns are evidence of global warming – the so called greenhouse effect run amok. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency explains: «The greenhouse effect is the rise in temperature that the Earth experiences because certain gases in the atmosphere (water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane, for example) trap energy from the sun. Without these gases, heat would escape back into space and Earth's average temperature would be about 33 °C colder». Many think, however, that man unwittingly tampered with this natural process. «For decades human factories and cars have spewed milliards of tons of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere ... Many scientists fear that the increased concentrations of greenhouse gases have prevented additional thermal radiation from leaving the Earth. These gases are trapping excess heat in the Earth's atmosphere in much the same way that a windscreen traps solar energy that enters a car». 48 

Sceptics point out that only a small percentage of greenhouse gas emissions are man-made. However, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports: «There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities». It is 60 percent our fault... The remaining 40 percent is due to natural causes. What has been the apparent result of the build-up of man-made greenhouse gases? Most scientists now agree that the earth has indeed heated up. Just how dramatic has this temperature rise been? The 2001 IPCC report says: «lobal surface temperature have increased between 0.4 and 0.8 °C since the late 19th century» Many researchers believe that this small rise could account for the dramatic changes in our weather. The earth's weather system is very complex, and scientists cannot state with certainty what the effects of global warming are. However, many believe that as a result of global warming, there has been increased rainfall in the Northern Hemisphere, drought in Asia and Africa, and escalating El Nino events in the Pacific. As many view this problem as man-made, cannot man solve the problem? A number of communities have already taken laws to limit pollution emissions from cars and factories. However, such efforts have had little or no impact. Pollution is a global problem, so the solution has to be global! In 1922 the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro was convened. Ten years later, in Johannesburg, South Africa, the World Summit on Sustainable Development was held. Some 40,000 delegates attended this meeting in 2002, including about 100 national leaders. Such conferences have done much to bring about a general consensus among scientists. Germany's environment minister, Jurgen Trittin, reminds us that the real solution to the problem has still not been found. «Johannesburg must therefore be not only a summit of words», he stressed, «but also a summit of action». Assignments 1. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text: затопленный илом; меры предосторожности; нападать, свирепствовать; домашний скот; обрушиваться; учетверяться; неистовствовать; невольно вмешаться; извергать; возрастающее количество; подчеркивать; подножный корм; опустошительный; роковой. 2. Find the synonyms to the following words in the text: often, late, beginning, variable, to flood, some people, to be moved to, inhabitants, to be saved, freshwater, influence, starvation, severe, damage, catch energy, to be connected, obvious result. 3. Tick the most suitable definition of the following words according to the contest of the text. a) drought – a period of dry weather that causes the land to be dry – lack of water 49 

b) flood

– fill so that it overflows or is too full – cover or cause to become cover with water c) hurricane – a sudden outburst of strong feeling – a violent wind storm 4. Find all complex sentences in the text and try to make them shorter with the help of the constructions with non-finite forms of the verb and then translate these sentences into Russian. 5. Answer the questions: 1) Why has the weather become the matter of serious concern? 2) What was called as “the worst European floods”? What were the results of it? 3) What are Greenpeace predictions? 4) What is the reason of such unusual weather? 5) Is greenhouse effect attributable to only human activities? 6) What are the suggested effects of global warming? 6. Read the title of the text carefully, and explain the meaning of the question. 7. Retell the text, as if you are a member of the Greenpeace organization. Listen to other students’ retellings and discuss the most acute problems.

50 

Unit 4. NATURAL DISASTERS Text 1. EARTHQUAKE IN LOS ANGELES You are going to read a magazine article about earthquakes. Six paragraphs have been removed from the article. Choose the one which fits each gap (1–5) from the paragraphs A–G. There is one extra paragraph which you do not need to use. There is an example at the beginning (0): At 4.31 in the morning on January 17, 1994, a massive earthquake measuring 6.7 on the Richter scale hit Northridge in Los Angeles. It was an unwelcome wake-up call for everybody in the city. One resident, Rosemary Sato, was shaken awake in her bed to the sound of tremors violently rocking her house. When she got up she found that the quake had blown open her front door and thrown her furniture around like toys. 0

E

However, the damage wasn't restricted to Northridge. Across the city the quake killed sixty people, destroyed or severely damaged more than 3.000 homes, and brought down ten highway bridges. Many people were trapped under debris. The cost of the damage was estimated to be $20 billion. The cause of this quake was movement in the San Andreas fault system. The fault is a crack between two giant pieces of the Earth's crust. One of these pieces, most of which is situated under the Pacific Ocean, is moving at an average of about four centimeters every year. 1

The good news is that the Californian authorities are taking these predictions seriously. Engineers are working to make stronger the steel frames of buildings and other structures such as bridges. Hopefully, this will lead to less structural damage during the next quake. 2

During a quake it is important to stay calm, as panic leads to rash actions which may result in injury or even death. 3

Levon Jernazian, a clinical psychologist, helps people to deal with the effects of this trauma. For weeks after the Northridge quake, one of his patients, Ani Shakhverdyan, aged eight, would still cling to her parents, was terrified of the dark and would not even go to the bathroom alone. 4 51 

Other survivors of quakes deal with their fears in a different way. They tell themselves that it won't happen again. 5

E

Little does she realize that in California, with the chances of another severe quake at 90 % in the next thirty years, she is very likely to experience at least one more. Assignments 1. Put the following sentences in the correct place: A. In one session, Ani was asked to draw a picture of her fears. She drew a big rat. Then Levon Jernazian told her to cut the picture of the rat into pieces, burn it, and then jump on the remains. Ani did what he suggested and her fears became less intense. B. Unfortunately, this movement isn't slow and continuous, but occurs in bursts, which result in earthquakes. And to make matters worse, scientists not only expect more earthquakes in the near future, but also more powerful ones. C. People are advised to stay where they are and, if possible, to take shelter under a bed or table. However, for many it is difficult to get rid of the terror of experiencing an earthquake. After the Northridge quake, thousands of Californians even left the state, and many of those who stayed have experienced what is now known as «earthquake trauma». D. One woman's reaction was, «I'm not scared anymore. Also, it's similar to being in a plane crash. What are your chances of being in another?» E. Another resident, who lived in a three-storey apartment block, recalls the top two floors of the building crashing down onto his first-floor apartment. «A wall fell on me», he said, «I couldn't move my head. I was trapped for five hours with injuries to my lungs, ribs and collar-bone». F. Amazingly enough, nobody noticed it apart from scientists who were studying the seismic activity. However, one man reported that his dog had started to howl at the time the quake was said to have started. G. The residents of California are also preparing themselves for the next big one. They are buying emergency supplies, nailing down their belongings and making plans for what they should do in the event of another quake. 2. Find words and expressions in the text: житель; яростно сотрясать; толчки; быть в ловушке; повреждения (раны); сильно повредить; обломки; земная кора; в среднем; заканчиваться (приводить к, иметь результатом); необдуманные действия; укрываться; избавиться от ужаса; пережить (испытать) землетрясение; аварийные запасы; сохранять спокойствие; выживший; авиакатастрофа. 3. Translate these linking words taken from the article: however; another; under; most of which; at average; unfortunately; to make matters worse; also; 52 

hopefully; during; as; even; in a different way; be likely to; at least; if possible; enough; apart from; in the event of. 4. What are these dates referred to? Find the sentences in the article: 20; 6.7; 4; 1000; 3; 60; 1; 5; 2; 10. 5. Fill in the prepositions: 1) The damage wasn't restricted ... one area. 2) "I was trapped ... five hours ... many injuries." 3) The earthquake broke ... ten bridges. 4) One of the pieces is moving ... an average of ... 4 cm every year. 5) Many people were trapped ... debris. 6) Rash actions can result ... injuries or death. 7) Some people can't get rid ... the terror ... experiencing an earthquake. 8) Psychologists help the survivors to deal ... the effects of this "earthquake trauma". 9) Ani Shakhverdyan cut the picture ... pieces, burnt it and jumped ... the remains. 10) Some people deal ... their fears ... a different way. 6. Translate the questions and answer them: a) Когда произошло землетрясение? b) Сколько зданий было разрушено? c) Что было причиной землетрясения? d) Что такое "разлом"? e) Как власти Калифорнии готовятся к следующим землетрясениям? f) Что следует делать людям во время землетрясения? g) Что испытывают многие из выживших? h) Как психолог помог Ани избавиться от ее страхов? i) Что помогает выжившим справиться с их страхами? j) Какова вероятность следующего серьезного землетрясения? 7. Imagine you are a TV presenter. The theme of your talk show is «The Reasons of Natural Disasters Trauma». Think about the questions which can be asked and play the talk show in your group. Use the words and expressions: disasters, an earthquake, a tsunami, strong wind, to rescue, sea level, ocean wave, to get rid of, to evacuate, to use, the first aid, to upset natural balance, dangerous area, volcanoes, to take care of, predictions, scientists, to use computer-aided methods, to observe dangerous areas, to conduct research into, to try, to observe animals’ behaviour. Text 2. THE GREAT EARTHQUAKE AND TSUNAMI IN SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE INDIAN OCEAN

On Sunday, 26 December 2004, the greatest earthquake in 40 years occurred about 150 kilometres off the west coast of northern Sumatra Island in In53 

donesia. The earthquake generated a disastrous tsunami that caused destruction in 11 countries bordering the Indian Ocean. The quake was widely felt in Sumatra, the Nicobar and Andaman Islands, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand, Bangladesh and India. According to the U.S. Geological Survey, the moment magnitude of the earthquake – which is larger than the Richter magnitude – was 9. Such magnitude would make this earthquake to be the fourth largest in the world since 1900 – and the largest since the 1964 Alaska earthquake. However, on the basis of subsequent analysis of additional seismograms from around the world, scientists at North-western University determined the earthquake's magnitude to be 9.3 and not 9.0, as originally estimated. The revised estimate makes this earthquake to be the second largest ever instrumentally recorded. The largest earthquake ever recorded, which measured 9.5, was in Chile on May 22, 1960. As of 1 January, 2005, there were about 84 aftershocks with magnitudes ranging from 5.0 to 7.0 in the region of Northern Sumatra and the Nicobar and Andaman Islands. Twenty six of these – including the largest – occurred on 26 December 2004, the same day as the main earthquake. Since 1 January 2005, many more aftershocks have occurred. The distribution of aftershocks suggests that the earthquake resulted by the sudden slip of these two plates and that there was a slip as well as an upward thrust of the Burma plate along this boundary. The region where the great earthquake occurred on 26 December 2004 marks the seismic boundary formed by the movement of the Indo-Australian plate as it collides with the Burma subplate, which is part of the Eurasian plate. The epicentre of the 26 December 2004 earthquake was near the triple point junction of three tectonic plates where major earthquakes and tsunamis have occurred in the past. The region where the earthquake occurred is a very active seismic area. According to the literature from 1900 to 1980, a total of 348 earthquakes were recorded in this area. Assignments 1. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text: граничить; величина; последующий; находиться в диапазоне; скольжение; сталкиваться; соединение; тектонический. 2. Look through the complex sentences, paying attention to the linking words. 3. Combine two short sentences into one. Use linking words: 1) The earthquake generated a disastrous tsunami. It caused destruction in many other countries. 2) The moment magnitude of the earthquake was 9. This earthquake was the fourth largest in the world since 1900. 3) Subsequent analysis determined earthquake's magnitude to be 9.3 and not 9.0. This earthquake was the second largest. 54 

4) The largest earthquake r was in Chile on May 22, 1960. It was measured 9.5. 5) This region is a very active seismic area. A total of 348 earthquakes were recorded in this area. 4. Answer the questions: a) Where did the greatest earthquake occur? b) What was the effect of that earthquake? c) What could make that earthquake the fourth largest in the world? d) What was the difference between US Geological Survey estimation and North-western University? e) What was the result of this difference? f) How many aftershocks were there? g) What was the reason of the earthquake? 5. Give a gist of the text above and compare it with other students’ answers. Text 3. THE GREAT TSUNAMI OF 26 DECEMBER 2004 IN THE INDIAN OCEAN

The great earthquake of December 26, 2004 was extremely damaging and resulted in many deaths. However, most of the destruction and deaths were caused by the catastrophic tsunami waves it generated. Massive tsunami waves wiped out entire coastal areas across south-eastern Asia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, Myanmar and islands in the Andaman Sea and the Maldives in the Indian Ocean. The tsunami waves caused considerable destruction and killed people more than 2,000 kilometres away, in the Seychelles and in Somalia. The global death toll has been raised to 226,566 and continues to rise. There are many remote islands, so there are many unreported deaths. The large tsunami which struck 11 of the nations that border the Indian Ocean was a complete surprise for the people living there, but not for the scientists who are aware of the tectonic interactions in the region. Many seismic networks recorded the massive earthquake, but there were no tide gauges or other wave sensors to provide confirmation as to whether a tsunami had been generated. There was no established communication network or organizational infrastructure to pass a warning to the people. Unfortunately, no Regional Tsunami Warning System, Preparedness Program, or effective Communications Plan exists for this part of the world. A personal communication was received from Indonesia that at Simeulue, an island close to the epicentre off the coast of Northern Sumatra, there was only vertical displacement but no tsunami. Surprisingly, residents of beach communities claimed that no tsunami waves were observed, no deaths from the tsunami were reported, but that the island rose and is now several kilometres longer. No 55 

information has been provided on how much the island rose, but preliminary data indicates that it may have been as much as 5 meters. The reason that the tsunami did not cause deaths and destruction on Simeulue Island is because the amount of crustal uplift was greater than the height of the waves. Although the danger of another major tsunami has passed, strong aftershocks in the region could possibly generate small local tsunamis. Aftershocks can be expected to last for many weeks and months in the region, but they should diminish in strength with the time. Most of the aftershocks will result from gravitational adjustments of the crustal material that was moved during the major earthquake. The aftershocks represent nature's way of restoring stability and temporary equilibrium. It is unlikely that a destructive tsunami will occur again soon in the same region, however caution is advised for the coastal residents in Northern Sumatra and in the Nicobar and Andaman islands. If an aftershock is strong enough and it is strongly felt, evacuation to higher elevation is advised. Assignments 1. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text: крайне; сметать; весь, целый; значительный; потери; понимать, осознавать; мареограф; подтверждение; предварительный; количество; уменьшать; приспособление, установка. 2. Continue the following sentences according to the text: a) The great tsunami was so disastrous and extremely damaging that it wiped out … and killed … . b) Many seismic networks recorded the massive earthquake but there were no …, moreover there was no … . c) The residents of beach communities claimed that ……………. But that the island… . d) The reason that the tsunami did not cause deaths and destruction on Simeulue Island is … . e) Aftershocks can be expected to last for many weeks and months in the region, but… . 3. Find all participles in the text. What functions do they have? How can they be translated into Russian? Make similar sentences with some words from Assignment 1. 4. Answer the questions: 1) What was the reason of the great tsunami? 2) What countries suffer from the waves? 3) How many deaths were there? 4) Did the people expect the tsunami? And what about the scientists? 5) Why weren’t the people informed about the coming tragedy? 6) What happened to Simeulue Island? 7) Why didn’t the tsunami cause deaths and destructions? 56 

5. Give the accountant of events of the text above as if you are a scientist and then as if you are the resident of the area where tsunami took place. Try to be emotional and use formal and informal language apparently. Use the words and expressions: The earthquake, extremely, damage, to result, many deaths, tectonic interactions, seismic, to generate, to receive, to cause, destruction, to pass, aftershock, to occur, awful noise, a huge wave, to shake, terrible, to scream, to get drawn, to run for one’s life, to curse. Text 4. EFFECTS OF THE 26 DECEMBER 2004 TSUNAMI IN THE BAY OF BENGAL AND IN THE INDIAN OCEAN

Waves of up to 10.5 meters in height struck Northern Sumatra, the Nicobar and Andaman Islands, Thailand, Sri Lanka, India. Destructive waves also struck the Maldives, Somalia, Kenya and the islands off the African coast. Eighteen countries bordering the Indian Ocean were affected by the tsunami. The tsunami had its greatest impact and casualties in Indonesia, Thailand, India, Shri-Lanka, Malaysia, Myanmar, Maldives and Somalia. Eleven countries reported deaths, some in tens of thousands. The death toll has been reported as 226,566. More than 1.5 million people were left homeless around the region. The following is a brief summary compiled from numerous government, U. N., and media sources. Indonesia. Tsunami waves of up to ten meters swamped the smaller outlying islands of Sumatra as well as its northern and western coastal areas – about 100 km from the earthquake epicentre. Hardest hit was the northern Aceh province. Nearly all the casualties and damage took place within this province. The tsunami waves completely destroyed the city of Banda Aceh's infrastructure and killed thousands of its inhabitants. Banda Aceh is capital of the Aceh province in Northern Sumatra. According to the latest official reports (Ministry of Health) 166,320 people were killed, 127,774 are still missing and 655,000 people were displaced in Northern Sumatra. A total of 110 bridges were destroyed, 5 seaports and 2 airports sustained considerable damage, and 82 % of all roads were severely damaged. The death toll is expected to rise. Thailand. Hardest hit was the Southwest coast of Thailand, particularly Phuket and the resort areas of Phi-Phi and Khao-Lak. It took about two hours for the first of the tsunami waves to reach the resort of Phi-Phi Island. The arrival of the tsunami was heralded by a recession of the water which exposed the sea bottom for considerable distance, including previously submerged rocks. According to eyewitness reports, the first wave arrived at about 10:30 am local time and it was about 4 meters high. The second wave arrived about 2.5 minutes later and it was 7 meters. The third was about 11 meters. The waves destroyed all beachfront hotels, bungalows and other structures at Phi-Phi, hurling boats and other 57 

floating objects. All electricity and phone lines were cut. The highest reported wave was 11.6 meters at Khao-Lak beach. Thai Government sources reported 5,313 deaths, 8,457 injuries and 4,499 missing, including more than 1,000 foreign tourists. Many of the missing are presumed dead. India. The estimated number of casualties in India is 16,000, but at least 6,000 more are missing. Hardest hit were the Andaman and Nicobar Islands which were close to the tsunami generating area. Along India's south-eastern coast, several villages were swept away, and thousands of fishermen at sea were missing. The tsunami hit hard the Andaman and Nicobar group which comprises of a total of 572 islands of which 38 were significantly inhabited. The waves literally washed away some of these islands, and there were reports that the island of Trinket had split in two. The Great Nicobar and Car Nicobar were the worst hit among all the southern Nicobar Islands because of their proximity to the earthquake's epicentre and relative low topography. The maximum tsunami wave reached a height of 15 m. According to reports one fifth of the population of the Nicobar Islands is said to be dead, injured or missing. The nuclear power plant at Kalpakkam was shut down after sea water rushed into a pump station. No radiation leak or damage to the reactor was reported. The official death toll is 812, but about 7,000 were reported as missing. The unofficial death toll (including those missing and presumed dead) is estimated to be about 7,000 and expected to rise. Malaysia. Despite Malaysia's proximity to the tsunami generating area, the impact of the waves was not as severe as in other countries in the region or countries thousands of kilometres away. Malaysia was partly sheltered by Sumatra and the tsunami waves attenuated somewhat in the Straits of Malacca. However, there were numerous deaths and destruction reported. The country's worst affected areas were the northern coastal areas and the outlying islands. It was reported that the red flag warning system used by lifeguards on beaches in some resort areas in Penang helped reduce fatalities there. Houses in fishing villages along coastal areas were damaged. Maldives. The waves flooded two-thirds of Male, the capital. Hardest hit were the outlying low-level atolls. Some other low lying islands were completely submerged, including some where major resorts were located. Preliminary reports stated that the tsunami killed 82, that 26 are missing, and that there was extensive destruction. Communications with remote islands were down. Thirteen islands have been abandoned because all buildings were destroyed and the fresh water supply was contaminated by the sea. Assignments 1. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text: до; катастрофа, несчастный случай; заливать, затоплять; поддерживать; предвещать; снижение уровня; окунать, погружать под воду; барабанный; близость, схо58 

жесть; насосная станция; утечка; предполагать; истощать, ослаблять; покидать, оставлять. 2. Write down the following in numbers and say what they are about: a) ten and a half b) two hundred twenty six thousand five hundred sixty six c) one hundred twenty seven thousand seven hundred seventy four d) eighty two e) ten thirty f) four, seven, eleven. g) five hundred seventy two h) thirty eight i) seven thousand j) twenty six 3. Find all sentences in Passive in the text and pay attention to their translation. Try to change them into active if it is possible. 4. Read the sentences and define the countries. Write down: Indonesia, Thailand, India, Malaysia, Maldives. 1) A lot of waterfront hotels bungalows were destroyed. 2) Nearly all the casualties and damage took place within the northern Aceh province. 3) While tsunami, some people were fishing and they missed at the sea. 4) As the witnesses say there were three waves and each following wave was huger than the previous one. 5) Almost all roads were severely damaged. 6) Fresh water supply was contaminated by the sea. 7) One of the islands was split in two and others were washed away. 8) The least amount of people were killed in this tragedy. 9) Some secure systems on beaches helped to save some lives. 10) In comparison to other countries, this one suffered the least. 5. Imagine that you are a reporter. Choose one of the countries and try to make a report from the place of disaster. Remember you should say in brief . Use the words and expressions: to be here, to watch, to observe, rescue service, to evacuate, police and fire brigades, to help, the wounded, the first aid, the ambulance, damaged houses and blocks of flat, ruined town, to hurry, to help each other. Text 5. TSUNAMI WAVE HEIGHTS AND TSUNAMI TRAVEL TIMES Tsunami waves varied in height. Maximum reported height was reported as being 10.5 meters, a detailed report on tsunami wave distribution for different of the stricken areas throughout the Indian Ocean is being compiled from reports of eyewitnesses and other sources. A list of tsunami wave heights as recorded by 59 

tide stations will be provided. Tsunami travel times for different areas in the Bay of Bengal and throughout the Indian Ocean are being compiled. Travel times of the first tsunami wave after the earthquake: Sumatra 10 minutes, Thailand: 1 Hour, Shri-Lanka: 2 hours, India: 2 Hours, East Africa: about 7 Hours. Assignments 1. Translate the text in written form. 2. Exchange your translations. Correct each other’s mistakes. Text 6. LESSONS LEARNED 1. There were many lessons already learned from this tragic event in Southeast Asia. Many more lessons will be learned in the near future as this tragedy unfolds and reveals the many failures to value and protect human life in this neglected region of the world. Indeed a bitter lesson was already learned – that great earthquakes and destructive tsunamis do occur in this region. The magnitude of the tsunami disaster could have been mitigated with a proper disaster preparedness plan and a functioning early warning system. A warning perhaps could not have been of much help in the immediate tsunami generating area of Sumatra and the Nicobar and Andaman islands, because the tsunami waves reached the shore very quickly. However the strong shaking by the earthquake should have been nature's warning for the local residents that a tsunami was imminent and they could have run to higher ground to save their lives. A simple program of public education and awareness of the potential hazard could have saved many lives in the immediate area. 2. For the more distant coastlines of India, Shri-Lanka, and other locations in the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean, there was ample time to issue a warning if only an early warning system existed for this region of the world and if there was a way of communicating the information to the coastal residents of threatened areas. No such warning system exists at the present time – the lack of disaster awareness or preparedness is terrible. It was reported that in many areas where there were extensive losses of lives, when the water withdrew before the arrival of the tsunami, the local residents went to the shore to collect stranded fish, instead of running to higher ground. People were totally unaware of the imminent danger. A simple educational program on hazard awareness could have prevented the extensive losses of lives – particularly of children. One third of those that perished were children. 3. The Tsunami Warning System which operates in the Pacific Region does not have the capability of extending a warning to countries bordering the Indian Ocean. Although the magnitude and location of the earthquake were 60 

quickly determined, there were no wave sensors in the area to confirm the generation of a tsunami. Although both Indonesia and Thailand are members of the Pacific Tsunami Warning System network, they do not operate wave sensors on the western coast of their islands or territories. India and Shri-Lanka are not members of the international Warning System in the Pacific and they have not shown interest in joining any regional early warning system. An erroneous belief has persisted that tsunamis do not occur frequently enough to warrantee participation into a regional tsunami warning system. Local government authorities in the region did not even have a plan for disseminating warning information to the threatened coastlines – even if a warning had been provided. There was not even a basic educational plan for disaster preparedness. It should be obvious that such a program is necessary to prevent similar tragedies in the future. Assignments 1. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text: развертывать; забрасывать; смягчать; надвигающийся, неизбежный; богатый, достаточный; рыба, выброшенная на берег; гибнуть; лицо, которому дается гарантия или поручительство; распространение. 2. Look through the text and find the words which are formed form the following: Fail, aware, prepare, arrive, capable, west, region, error 3. Find the sentences which have non-finite forms of the verb in the text. Translate them from English into Russian. Choose the verbs from Assignment 1 and put them in all forms of infinitive and participle. 4. Answer the questions: 1) What lesson has been learned from this tragic event in Southeast Asia? 2) How could the magnitude of the tsunami disaster have been mitigated? 3) Why weren’t the residents of India, Shri-Lanka, and other locations in the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean warned? 4) What is an erroneous belief? 5) What should be done to prevent similar tragedies in the future? 5. You are a member of the international Warning System in the Pacific. You should discuss the measures which should be taken to prevent such disasters in future with your colleges. Think about your suggestions and try to make a solution with your group mates. Use the words and expressions: to patrol dangerous areas, to observe, prognosis, to research, to evacuate people immediately, to suffer from, the shortage of, water and food supplies, to use volunteers’ help, to watch, to provide with. 61 

Text 7. VOLCANO ERUPTION On May 8, 1902, this natural disaster wiped out the town of St. Pierre and was perhaps the deadliest event in the Western Hemisphere during the past 100 years. What was it and where did it happen? All-in-all, the Western Hemisphere has got off rather easy in terms of fatalities from natural disasters when compared with the Eastern Hemisphere. While it's true that the Eastern Hemisphere has more land, more importantly, it has more people – a lot more. The land surface of the Western Hemisphere is comprised of the Americas and a small portion of Europe and Africa as well as Greenland and half of Antarctica. This accounts for a little more than 1/3 of the world's land but only about 16 % of the world's population. Thus, for instance, a major typhoon in China or cyclone in India will likely affect more people than a hurricane in North America. Since interior areas of continents are relatively sparsely populated compared to coastal areas, and since volcanoes, hurricanes and earthquakes tend to impact continental edges as opposed to continental shields, many disasters, and consequently, most fatalities occur in the vicinity of where most people live. For example, in places like Bangladesh, which is one of the most densely populated nations in the world; people who live near the Bay of Bengal are vulnerable to cyclones that routinely result in coastal flooding and massive loss of life. As recently as 1970, more than 300,000 people were killed by a strong cyclone, and just 11 years ago, another cyclone was responsible for up to 130,000 deaths! In 1931, the flooding of the Yangtze River in China may have caused more than 3 million deaths – from both the flooding and the starvation that followed. The death toll from earthquakes has also claimed tens of thousands of lives this century in China, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The most devastating earthquake in modern times occurred in northeastern China in July of 1976. A powerful shaker, 8.3 on the Richter scale, rocked the city of Tangshan, killing approximately 240,000 people. Interestingly, our planet's most violent storms, tornadoes, are for the most part, a North America phenomenon. However, their small size and relatively short path has kept them from being the biggest killers. In terms of single events, even though tornadoes, hurricanes, floods and earthquakes have caused many deaths in the Western Hemisphere, volcanic eruptions have taken the most lives. An eruption of the Nevado del Ruiz volcano in west central Colombia in November of 1985 killed more than 23,000 people in the city of Armero. The upper portion of the volcano is glaciated, and the heat of the eruption melted about 10 percent of the volcano's ice cover, producing a devastating mudflow that inundated Armero. In addition, just 2 1/2 years ago, massive landslides, triggered by torrential rains, killed between 20,000 and 30,000 people in Venezuela. 62 

The deadliest volcanic eruption of the century and perhaps the deadliest disaster in the Western Hemisphere since 1900 occurred on the Caribbean island of Martinique – the northern most Windward Island of the Lesser Antilles. Martinique is part of a volcanic arc of islands, formed by the subduction of the North American Plate beneath the Caribbean Plate. When Pelee erupted on May 8, 1902, the coastal town of St. Pierre, about 5 miles (8 km) to the south of the Pelee, was virtually obliterated. In the spring of 1902, Pelee's benevolent behaviour began to change. It started to hiss and groan, and finally, on May 8, it erupted. The approximately 29,000 inhabitants of St. Pierre were killed by an incandescent, high-velocity ash flow, sometimes referred to as glowing clouds. Superheated gas and steaming volcanic ash poured out of the cone of Pelee and sped down its flanks. Within minutes, the poisonous cloud enveloped and incinerated St. Pierre. This is the same kind of eruption that buried Pompeii in 79 A.D. Pelee is a stratovolcano made mainly of pyroclastic rocks. It's thought that a lava spine formed in a vent in crater, effectively plugging it. Eventually, the pressure of magmatic gases was sufficient to break the plug, resulting in the destructive eruption. When it erupted, it's contents weren't ejected into the upper atmosphere as was the case of more powerful eruptions such as Mt. Pinatubo in thePhilippines in 1991 or El Chicon in Mexico in 1983. Rather, much of the mass of the ejecta plunged back to the surface. Although there had been warnings that an eruption might be eminent for a number of weeks, once it went off, the townspeople of St. Pierre didn't have a chance to escape. Red clouds of death moving down-slope at speeds of an estimated 100 miles per hour suffocated St. Pierre, which was the largest city on Martinique at the turn of the last century and was known as the «Paris of the West Indies». These clouds were so thick and dense that very little sunlight could be transmitted through them – at noon, it looked like midnight. As a footnote to what happened on May 8, 1902 in St. Pierre, it's reported that only one person survived Pelee's fury; a prisoner in a basement cell. Sometimes good things happen to bad people. Actually, the prisoner was in jail for a minor charge, but without a doubt, the underground cell saved his life. For what it's worth, supposedly he later toured with the Barnum and Bailey Circus as a «miracle man». Assignments 1. Match the disaster with its definition: 1) eruption a) an extremely violent storm consisting of air that spins very quickly and causes a lot of damage 2) typhoon b) a sudden shaking of the earth's surface that often causes a lot of damage 63 

3) cyclone

c) a very large ocean wave that flows over the land and destroys things 4) hurricane d) a mountain with a large hole at the top, through which hot rocks, lava, and ash sometimes rise into the air from inside the earth 5) earthquake e) a very violent storm that moves very rapidly in a circle 6) flood f) the process when a volcano explodes and sends smoke, fire and rock into the sky 7) tsunami g) a period of very bad weather when there is a lot of rain, strong winds and often lightning 8) tornado h) a very large amount of water that covers an area that is usually dry 9) volcano i) a very violent storm in tropical areas in which the wind moves in circles 10) storm j) a violent storm, especially in the western Atlantic ocean 2. Fill in the gaps with the words from the list: warnings; the upper atmosphere; natural disaster; occurred; to survive; responsible for; the Eastern Hemisphere; enveloped; densely populated; volcanic eruptions; transmitted; result in; behaviour. 1) In 1902 this … fully destroyed the town of St. Pierre. 2) More people live in …. 3) Bangladesh is one of the most … countries in the world. 4) Many cyclones regularly … devastating coastal flooding. 5) In 1931 the flooding in China was … 3 million deaths. 6) In terms of single events, … have taken the most lives. 7) The deadliest volcanic eruption … on the Caribbean island of Martinique. 8) Pelee's benevolent … began to change in May. 9) The poisonous cloud … the city and killed all life in St. Pierre. 10) During the eruption ash and gases didn't rise into … . 11) There were … that an eruption might be serious. But people didn't pay much attention to them. 12) Very little sunlight could be … through the clouds. 13) Only one person managed … Pelee's fury. 3. Replace the underlined words by the synonyms from the list: consequently; minor charge; glaciated; sparsely populated; is comprised of; jail; sufficient; routinely; be transmitted; affect; starvation; suffocated; all-inall; triggered. 1) At the end the Western Hemisphere didn't have as many fatalities as the Eastern Hemisphere. 64 

2) It consists of four countries. 3) Typhoons in Asian countries will influence more people than any hurricane in America. 4) Each country has some districts which are not densely populated as compared to coastal territory. 5) As a result, many people didn't have a chance to escape. 6) Most cyclones in this part of the world regularly cause flooding and many deaths. 7) Many people die nowadays because of the lack of food. 8) The top of Everest is covered with ice. 9) Continuous torrential rains caused numerous landslides. 10) The pressure of magmatic gases was strong enough to break the plug. 11) The glowing clouds didn't let people breathe. 12) These clouds are so thick that very little sunlight can go through them. 13) The only survivor was in prison for an unimportant crime. 4. Find all complex sentences in the text and translate them into Russian. Can you divide these sentences into simple ones? Make necessary grammar changes. 5. You are going to take part in student’s conference devoted to the problems connected with the natural disasters. Use the information from the text and add some more facts to make a report for the conference. Compare your report with the other students’ reports in your group.

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Unit 5. SOLUTIONS Text 1. LIFESTYLE AND BEING GREEN Being «green» means being aware of urgent problems of the environment and being interested in all things to do with the environment. Not everyone can campaign for environmental protection or animal rights but every human being is able to realize the need to protect the planet against destruction. Using environment-friendly goods is not so difficult but saves the environment. Ozone-friendly sprays and aerosols, washing-up liquids and washing powders are available in any shop and anyone can contribute to saving the planet by only using them. Consuming water and energy prevents the Earth from being exhausted soon. Running on unleaded petrol means less car fumes in the air. Moreover, unleaded petrol is even cheaper and you'll save both the environment and your money by using it. Some people prefer bicycles to cars definitely because they want to keep the air cleaner! The problem of rubbish can be partly solved if we will be more «green». We can avoid following a throwaway lifestyle by sorting rubbish and bringing it to recycle plants and centres or special banks separately. Most of household wastes can be recycled. The idea that looking after animals is as important as looking after the environment is widely spread nowadays. There's no doubt that animals are part of the environment changing eating habits and becoming a vegetarian is too much. I don't see any cons of eating meat. Killing animals for food is OK because some of them are grown up for being killed for meat and fur. The argument for thinking is why don't we kill animals if sometimes they kill human beings? Moreover, animals kill themselves. However, there are many people considering killing animals to be out of moral. They campaign against testing drugs and cosmetics on animals, hunting animals for sport and many other things of this kind. These things are quite possible if they don't seriously harm the natural link between species. Which means of transport should you prefer when you're going on a trip? If you care about the environment you'll definitely choose one that doesn't harm the environment. Modern towns and cities faced the traffic problem long ago. The specialists suggest different ways of its solution. Some people think that if we build more roads the traffic will move more quickly and there'll be no traffic jams during rush-hours. Others suppose that if there are more roads there'll be more cars to fill them and they will be even more congested with traffic. Environmentalists suggest that we should develop the system of public transport for example, railways. If trains carry more people, the streets will be less congested with traffic and people. Moreover, cars pollute the air more than trains. Experienced motorists know how many people are killed and injured in road accidents. 66 

However, cars are symbols of freedom and wealth for most people. According to researches, the number of cars will double in ten years and we'll inevitably have to solve the problem. Assignments 1. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text: срочный; делать вклад; истощенный; неэтилированный бензин; затор уличного движения. 2. Complete the sentences according to the information in the text: a) Not everyone can struggle for the environment protection but everyone can … . b) Trains carry more people, that’s why …, moreover … . c) We should recycle some household wastes and should avoid … by … . d) Using unleaded petrol means … moreover … . e) Looking after animals is extremely important today as they are part of … . 3. Revise the material about conditionals. Look through the text and find the examples of it. Make similar sentences with the words from Assignment 1. 4. Do the following test and find out «How Green Are You?» 1) If you had a lot of old newspapers and empty bottles, would you … a) leave them on the pavement? b) put them in a rubbish bin? c) recycle them? 2) If somebody offered to give you one of the following as a gift, which would you choose? a) a big fast car? b) a motorbike? c) a bicycle? 3) If you were in the middle of the city and wanted to go somewhere one or two kilometres away, would you … a) take a taxi? b) take a bus? c) walk or cycle? 4) If you had a picnic on the beach, what would you do with your rubbish? Would you … a) leave your rubbish on the beach? b) put your rubbish in the first bin you found? c) take your rubbish home? 5) If you had $1000 to spend, would you … a) buy a fur coat? b)go on a safari? c) adopt a dolphin? 67 

Answers:  Mostly a’s: You are not very green, aren’t you? Please look after our world before it’s too late.  Mostly b’s: You are trying to be more green, but you don’t always get it right. Learn more about the environment and think before you act.  Mostly c’s: Well done! You are really green! We need more people like you to help us save our environment! 5. Compare your result with the results of your group mates and discuss them. If someone has mostly a’s, give him some advice in a polite manner. Use conditionals where possible. Use the words and expressions: You should, it’s better (not) to, to use, to escape, to think, to preserve, to put litter into bins, to save water and electricity, to throw garbage, to plant trees and flowers. Text 2. CONTROLLING POLLUTION Controlling pollution depends on the efforts of governments, scientists, business and industry, agriculture, environmental organizations, and individuals. Government action. In many countries around the world, governments work to help clean up the pollution spoiling the earth's land, air, and water. Such environmental efforts come from both local and national governments. In addition, a number of international efforts have been made to protect the earth's resources. Local efforts. Many local governments have enacted laws to help clean up the environment. For example, in 1989, California adopted a 20-year plan to reduce air pollution in the Los Angeles area, which had the worst air quality in the United States. The plan includes measures to restrict the use of gasolinepowered vehicles and to encourage the use of mass transportation. Local governments can also pass recycling laws. Recycling is a process designed to recover and reuse materials instead of throwing them away. In Vienna, Austria, for example, citizens must separate their trash into containers for paper, plastic, metal, aluminium cans, clear glass, coloured glass, and food and yard waste. Several states in the United States and a number of European countries encourage the reuse of bottles by charging a deposit that is refunded upon return of the bottle. National efforts. Many national governments also pass legislation to help clean up pollution (see fig. 2). In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sets and enforces pollution control standards. It also assists state and local governments in pollution control. Most other industrial countries, including Canada, Japan, and many European countries, also have pollution control agencies. One of the most effective ways a government can control specific kinds of pollution is by banning the pollutant. In 1972, the U.S. government be68 

gan a gradual ban on all uses of DDT, a pesticide found to harm wild birds and fish. Unfortunately, some countries still permit use of DDT and other banned pesticides. As a result, imported foods, migratory birds, and even the wind may carry toxic chemicals into the United States. A government may also ban certain uses of a dangerous substance while permitting others. For example, lead is a poisonous metal that can damage the brain, kidneys, and other organs. The U.S. government bans leaded gasoline and lead-based household paint, but it permits lead in batteries, building materials, and industrial paint. Despite the continued use of lead in some products, restrictions on the metal in paints and gasoline have reduced the health problems it causes. Still other pollution-control laws limit rather than ban the release of pollutants into the environment.

Fig. 2. Ship “Pyotr Gradov” controls the ecological situation of the Black Sea 69 

Another government strategy to help control pollution is to fine companies for polluting. Australia and a number of European countries fine businesses that pollute waterways. Such fines encourage companies to invest in pollution control equipment or to develop less polluting methods of operation. Governments may also place taxes on products that pollute. For example, most Scandinavian countries tax nonreturnable bottles. Some government regulations simply require businesses to tell the public how many pollutants they release into the environment. This regulation has caused some companies to find ways to reduce pollution so that consumers do not develop an unfavourable impression of them and perhaps refuse to purchase their products. Governments also regulate the disposal of solid and hazardous wastes. Global efforts. Many types of environmental pollution have been difficult to control because no single person or nation owns the earth's global resources – that is, its oceans and atmosphere. To control pollution, the people of the world must work together. Since the 1970s, representatives of many nations have met to discuss ways of limiting the pollution that affects air and water. These nations have created environmental treaties to help control such problems as acid rain, the thinning of the ozone layer, and the dumping of waste into oceans. In a treaty called the Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, which took effect in 1989, the major CFCproducing nations agreed to gradually stop producing the chemicals. A 1991 amendment to the treaty called for a total ban on CFC's by 2000. By 1996, most industrialized countries, including the United States, had ended production of CFC's. In 1992 the UN members signed agreements on the prevention of global warming, the preservation of forests and endangered species, and other issues. Scientific efforts. Increasing concern over the environment has caused scientists and engineers to look for technological solutions. Some research tries to find ways to clean up or manage pollution. The purpose of other research is to prevent pollution. Many industrial researchers are finding more economical ways to use fuels and other raw materials. As a result of their research, some European cities now use waste heat from power plants or trash incinerators to warm homes. New automobile engines burn gasoline much more cleanly and efficiently than older engines. Researchers have also developed automobiles that use such clean-burning fuels as methanol (a type of alcohol) and natural gas. Scientists are also developing cars that can use hydrogen gas as fuel. Hydrogen creates almost no pollution when it is burned. Scientists and engineers are also researching ways to generate electricity more cheaply from such renewable energy sources as the wind and sun, causing little or no pollution. Large fields of windmills, known as wind farms, already supply about 1 percent of California's electricity and more than 2 percent of Denmark's. Devices called photovoltaic cells convert sunlight directly into electricity. 70 

Business and industry. Many companies have discovered that it makes good business sense to pollute less. Some have found that reducing pollution gives them a better public image and saves money. Others have developed environmentally safe products or packaging to satisfy consumer demands. Still others develop pollution control systems because they believe that laws will soon force them to do so anyway. And some companies limit pollution because the people running them choose to do so. In the past, the disposal of wastes was relatively inexpensive for most businesses. Today, legal waste disposal sites have become increasingly scarce and more expensive to use. As a result, many businesses have found ways to produce less waste. Many businesses specialize in different types of pollution management. The business of reducing and cleaning up pollution is expected to be one of the fastest growing industries of the future. Other businesses assist companies in following government orders to clean up pollution. Some firms manage recycling or energy conservation programs. Still others help businesses develop less polluting processes. Regardless of why or how industries begin to clean up pollution, it will be a slow, expensive process. Many businesses rely on the cheapest production methods available, even though such methods pollute. For example, power plants often burn oil and coal to generate electricity because it is generally the most economical method. Manufacturers use cadmium, lead, and mercury in batteries because those metals, though toxic, make batteries work well. Agriculture. Scientists and farmers are developing ways to grow food that require less fertilizer and pesticides. Many farmers rotate their crops from year to year to reduce the need for chemical fertilizers. The rotation of corn, wheat, and other crops with legumes helps replace nitrogen lost from the soil. Crop rotation also helps control pests and plant diseases. Some farmers use compost and other fertilizers that are less harmful to the soil. Instead of spraying their crops with harmful pesticides, some farmers combat damaging insects by releasing certain other insects or bacteria that prey upon the pests. Scientists are also developing genetically engineered plants that are resistant to certain pests. The rotation of crops and the use of natural pest enemies are called natural pest control. Environmental organizations work to help control pollution by trying to influence lawmakers and to elect political leaders who care about the environment. Some groups raise money to buy land and protect it from development. Other groups study the effects of pollution on the environment and develop pollution prevention and management systems. Such groups use their findings to persuade government and industry to prevent or reduce pollution. Environmental organizations also publish magazines and other materials to persuade people to prevent pollution. The organizations, often known as Green parties, have had a growing influence on environmental policies. Countries with Green parties include Australia, Austria, Germany, Finland, France, New Zealand, Spain, and Sweden. 71 

Individual efforts. One of the most important ways an individual can reduce pollution is by conserving energy. Conserving energy reduces the air pollution created by power plants. A reduced demand for oil and coal could also result in fewer oil spills and less destruction of coal-bearing lands. Driving less is one of the best ways to save energy and avoid polluting the air. People can save electricity by buying more efficient light bulbs and home appliances. For example, compact fluorescent light bulbs use only 25 percent as much electricity as traditional incandescent bulbs. People can also conserve by using appliances less often, by turning off appliances and lights when not in use. In addition, buildings with specially treated windows and good insulation need far less fuel or electricity to heat or cool than buildings without such materials. People can also buy products that are safe for the environment. For example, households can help reduce water pollution by using fewer toxic cleaning products and by properly disposing of any toxic products they do use. If consumers refuse to purchase harmful products, manufacturers will stop making them. People can also help reduce pollution by eating less meat. Farmers use large quantities of fertilizer and pesticides to raise the grain on which cattle, hogs, and poultry feed. Farmers would use much less fertilizer and pesticides if people chose to eat less meat and more grains, beans, and vegetables. People have also come to expect the perfectly shaped, unmarked fruits and vegetables that most farmers achieve by using large amounts of pesticides. If consumers would accept products with slight blemishes or imperfections, farmers could reduce their use of chemicals. One of the simplest ways individuals can prevent pollution is by reusing products. For example, some milk suppliers use glass bottles instead of paper cartons. The bottles may be refilled and used again. People can reuse old paper or plastic bags to carry groceries or to hold garbage. When people reuse products, they avoid both the pollution associated with the creation of a new product and the pollution caused when the product is thrown out. Recycling is another way of reusing materials. Many cities and towns have recycling programs. Recycling saves energy and raw materials, and it prevents pollution. Many different waste products can be recycled. Commonly recycled wastes include metal cans, glass, paper, plastic containers, and old tires. Cans can be melted down and used to make new ones. Glass can be ground up and made into new containers or used as a substitute for sand in road pavement. Paper can be reprocessed into different paper products. Plastics can be melted down and re-formed into plastic lumber for such uses as fences, decks, benches, and carpeting. Old tires can be burned to produce energy, shredded and added to asphalt, or melted down and molded into such products as floor mats and playground equipment. Assignments 1. Write the following actions and efforts in the proper column and complete the chart: protecting the earth's resources; setting and enforcing (table 4) 72 

pollution control standards; fining companies for polluting; restricting use of gasoline powered vehicles; limiting the pollution that effects air and water; looking for technological solutions; developing environmentally safe products to satisfy consumer demands; developing ways to grow food that require less fertilizer and pesticides; conserving energy; reusing and recycling products; assisting state and local governments in pollution control; encouraging the use of mass transportation; banning the pollutant; regulating the disposal of solid and hazardous wastes; controlling the problems of acid rain; the thinning of the ozone layer; and the dumping of waste into oceans; developing pollution control systems; the method of rotation; finding more economical ways to use fuels and other raw materials; researching ways to generate electricity from renewable energy sources; recycling or energy conservation programs; placing taxes on products that pollute. Table 4 Задание на заполнение колонок Government action Local efforts National efforts Global efforts Scientific efforts Business and industry Agriculture Individual efforts

2. Analyze the use of active and passive voice in the text above. Change some sentences from passive into active or vice versa to make them more emphatic. 3. Answer the following questions: 1) How can consumers encourage manufacturers to produce less polluting products? 2) What causes most air pollution? 3) What natural processes cleanse water systems? 4) How does the desire for convenience contribute to environmental pollution? 5) What are some ways governments work to control pollution? 6) Why is solid waste difficult to eliminate? 7) How does population growth contribute to environmental pollution? 8) What are the hazards and benefits of ozone in the atmosphere? 9) How can businesses help reduce pollution? 4. What effect can a) the restricting use of gasoline powered vehicles produce? b) the banning the pollutant produce? c) the fining companies for polluting produce? 73 

d) the requiring businesses to inform public about the amount of pollutants they release produce? e) more economical ways of usage of fuels and other raw materials produce? f) industrial or business reducing pollution produce? g) increasingly scarce legal waste disposal sites produce? h) the rotation of crops produce? i) the conserving energy produce? j) the refusing to purchase harmful products produce? k) recycling produce? 5. Look at the questions in Assignment 4 one more time and discuss them in pairs but speaking about your city or region. What is the most important and what is the least important problem in your city? Summarize your ideas into one report. Use the words and expressions: to help our nature, to clean air, fresh air, to fine, to protect rivers and lakes, to save energy, to pay less, to increase, to decrease, to have a rest. Text 3. SWINGING IN THE RAINFOREST Lucy Wisdom used to swing on the trapezes in a circus. Now she is swinging among the trees of the Sumatran rainforest, teaching orphaned orangutans what should have come naturally. Helpless young orang-utans have been arriving almost daily into Lucy's care at the Bohorok rehabilitation centre, usually after they have been in captivity for a couple of years or more. Regarded as charming when tiny, they soon outgrow their cages and are sometimes close to starvation when they appear at the centre. Being «mother» to a growing proportion of on of the world’s most endangered species is not for the faint-hearted, yet it is something in which Lucy clearly revels. «I feel so lucky when I'm surrounded by the apes», she says. «I feel safe in the jungle with the apes when I am doing practical stuff». Her mission is certainly practical. She has been setting up a website, trying to gain global charity status and recruiting rock stars in her campaign to save the orang-utans, whose numbers have fallen by three-quarters since the mid1970s. But Lucy's superhuman contribution to saving and rehabilitating infant apes lies in the fact that most of her adulthood has been spent as a performing artist and acrobat. She may not talk to the animals like Dr Doolittle, but Lucy thinks nothing of climbing 20-metre high trees and peeling patches of bark with her teeth to show young orang-utans what they should be doing. «There is an intensely strong tie between mother and baby, and if that's broken, the infants don't learn anything», she explains. «I go into the forest and use my trapeze skills to help teach the small apes how to climb». 74 

It is little wonder that Lucy feels she has arrived at her life's calling. There can be few jobs which need acrobatic training and stage experience – another skill she is about to utilize to organize a touring show to educate youngsters about the importance of conservation. Yet, as the need increases to provide an even stronger safety net for the ever-decreasing population of orang-utans, the Bohorok centre was forced to close its doors to new entrants. Part of the difficulty was the proximity of a wild orang-utan population, which made the local release of previously captive apes impossible and, further afield, the trees have been cut down. Unless funding is raised for a new centre, it will be impossible to look after the large numbers of pets which owners are now willing to give up. Lucy is now contacting multi-national companies to help her campaign to save the orang-utans. Orang-utans tend to be solitary animals, noticeably so in older age. This is one of the reasons they have been less studied than other apes such as chimpanzees – even though they are 96.4 % genetically linked to humans and appear to share many characteristics with us. They even suffer from the same diseases as we do. With the help of Lucy and people like her, the future of these gentle giants may well be assured. Assignments 1. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text: неволя; малодушный; детеныш; чистить; кора; близость. 2. Match the nouns on the left with the meanings on the right: 1) captivity a) setting free 2) starvation b) giving or supplying something together with others 3) contribution c) helping to return to a useful life 4) release d) not being free 5) survival e) a fight for or against something 6) campaign f) suffering or dying from lack of food 7) rehabilitation g) remaining alive 3. Find words in the text which mean the opposite of these explanations. The first two letters are given to help you: 1) Able to manage by oneself he____________ 2) Having an unpleasant manner ch____________ 3) Extremely large ti_____________ 4) Brave or courageous fa_____– he_____ 5) Becoming bigger in number de____________ 6) Nearer fu____________ 7) Living with others/not alone so____________ 8) Aggressive ge____________ 4. Look through the text and define the verbs in Passive. What passive tenses are used there? Translate such sentences into Russian. 75 

5. Decide whether the statements are True or False: 1) Lucy has not always worked as a conservationist. 2) The orang-utans Lucy looks after are usually brought in from the wild. 3) Lucy feels the jungle is a dangerous place. 4) Lucy has turned to famous people to help her in her work. 5) Lucy is one of the few people able to help orang-utans learn vital life skills. 6) Baby orang-utans have a close relationship with both parents. 7) Lucy aims to use her acting experience to teach people about conservation. 8) The area Lucy works is in the desperate need of a new centre. 9) Orang-utans spend a lot of time in groups. 10) Orang-utans are not as similar to humans as other apes. 6. Having a gap year is very popular in European countries. Would you like to be a volunteer? Discuss in your group what could you personally do to protect our planet? Whose suggestion is the best? Try to persuade the others that it is yours. Give suitable arguments. Use the words and expressions: to be a volunteer, to help others, to do researching, to take care of rare species, to clean garbage, wildlife, to fight against the pollution, to communicate, interesting people, to explore new places, to discover new things, to be useful, to make friends, to protect nature, environment, to take probes of, to mix up with.

Text 4. SOLUTIONS We see that our environment offers a lot for discussion. The problems and prospects of the blue planet interest not only scientists and futurologists, but also politicians, industry, the public – and above all, young people! There is hardly a young person who is not concerned with the preservation of our natural habitat. To recognize environmental problems and master them, to reduce and avoid environmental pollution, to discover and develop ecologically sound technologies – they are the essential blocks for our future. We are to stop pollution. So, we can grow plants and trees, purify waste, start urgent campaigns in order to preserve environment. Nowadays there are a lot of different pressure and interests groups in many countries, which try to find solutions to the problems of pollution at the national and international level. They are groups of people with a common interest in trying to draw the public attention to environmental problems, to influence the government decisions. Greenpeace is a very famous pressure group. It started functioning in 1971. Its headquarters is at Amsterdam, but it operates in 25 countries worldwide. The aim of Greenpeace is to protect wildlife from toxic wastes, nuclear tests. 76 

«Friends of the Earth» (FoE) is one of the British pressure groups with an international reputation. Its general purpose is to conserve the planet's resources and reduce pollution. FoE was established in 1971 and now it operates in 44 countries worldwide. It campaigns, among other things, for recycling and renewable energy and the destruction of wildlife and habitat. The main campaigning issues of FoE are: a) the protection of all animals and plants in danger of extinction; b) an end to the destruction of wildlife and habitats; c) a program of energy conservation measures. So, a number of campaigns resulted in: a) the ban of hunting in England and Wales; b) an indefinite delay in the construction of the Commercial East Breeder Reactor, etc. But not only great groups can influence the problem of pollution. So, different people have their own opinions on this problem: 1) the continued pollution of the earth, if unchecked, will eventually destroy the fitness of this planet as a place for a human life; 2) the Earth has enough for every man's need, but not for man's greed. Terrible examples prove this. The Baltic Sea is a special case, because it is such a small sea and it becomes dirty very easily. As many as 250 rivers run into the Baltic. There are hundreds of factories on these rivers and millions of people live along them. Quite a lot of big industrial cities are situated on its coast. All these combined with the active navigation of the sea naturally affect the state of the sea water and the shore line flora and fauna. People suffer from the waste pollution; cancer deaths increase people's concern. And there is no escape from this ecological crisis without organizing a single body dealing with the environmental problems, developing and carrying out a nationwide program of environmental protection and co-operating with international schemes. Scientists now predict that by the year 2050 the population will be doubled in comparison with today. The fact remains that the rate of food production has fallen behind population growth in many of developing countries. The annual fish catch already exceeds what the world's oceans can successfully sustain. If we go on using our natural resources at today's rates, we will have used up the entire supplies of copper, natural gas and oil by the year 2054. But the problem ahead lies not so much in what we use but in what we waste. What faces us is not so much a resource crisis, but a pollution crisis. The only solution is to try to change the areas of consumption, technology and population. Assignments 1. Find the equivalents of the following words in the text: сохранение; естественная среда; избегать; существенный; очищать; общий интерес; ядовитые отходы; влиятельная группа; вымирание; страдать от; удваивать. 77 

2. Look through the text one more time and define the places where grammar rules help to make sentences more emotional. Is it possible to use inversion to strengthen the meaning in some cases? 3. Answer the questions: 1) What are the main ecological organizations? 2) What is the aim of Greenpeace? 3) What is the main purpose of “Friends of the Earth”? 4) What are the different people’s opinions about ecological problems solutions? 5) What is the main solution? 4. Imagine that you are a member of the government of our country. Will you present your program of environmental protection? You should start with the most important problem in your point of view. Compare your program with the group mates. Use the words and expressions: to study natural laws, to protect our environment, to use the system of fines and penalties, to donate, to contribute, to pay attention to, research centres, to give money to, ecological education, advertisement, to build recycling plants, to educate children, to produce, to harm, to damage, to discuss, to use mass media.

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Part 2. TECHNOLOGY IN PRINTING PRODUCTION Unit 1. DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTING Text 1. HISTORY OF PRINTING In 1440, German inventor Johannes Gutenberg invented a printing press process that, with refinements and increased mechanization, a special press, and oil-based inks, allowed for the first time the mass production of printed books. In the mid-15th century Johannes Gutenberg invented a mechanical way of making books. This was the first example of mass book production. Before the invention of printing, multiple copies of a manuscript had to be made by hand, a laborious task that could take many years. Later books were produced by and for the Church using the process of wood engraving. This required the craftsman to cut away the background, leaving the area to be printed raised. This process applied to both text and illustrations and was extremely time-consuming. When a page was complete, often comprising a number of blocks joined together, it would be inked and a sheet of paper was then pressed over it for an imprint. The susceptibility of wood to the elements gave such blocks a limited lifespan. In the Far East, movable type and printing presses were remained the principal means of printing until the late 20th century. The inventor's method of printing from movable type, including the use of metal molds and alloys known but did not replace printing from individually carved wooden blocks, from movable clay type, processes much more efficient than hand copying. The use of movable type in printing was invented in 1041 AD by Bi Sheng in China. Since there are thousands of Chinese characters, the benefit of the technique is not as obvious as in European languages. In China, there were no texts similar to the Bible which could guarantee a printer return on the high capital investment of a printing press, and so the primary form of printing was wood block printing which was more suited for short runs of texts for which the return was uncertain. It is not clear whether Gutenberg knew of these existing techniques or invented them independently, though the former is considered unlikely because of the substantial differences in technique. Europeans use xylography (art of engraving on wood, block printing) to produce books and used by European textile makers to print patterns on fabric. Gutenberg began experimenting with metal typography (letterpress printing) after he had moved from his native town of Mainz to Strassburg around 1430. Knowing that wood-block type involved a great deal of time and expense 79 

to reproduce, because it had to be hand carved, Gutenberg concluded that metal type could be reproduced much more quickly once a single mold had been fashioned. When Johannes Gutenberg began building his press in 1436, he was unlikely to have realised that he was giving birth to an art form which would take centre stage in the social and industrial revolutions which followed. He was German, his press was wooden, and the most important aspect of his invention was that it was the first form of printing to use movable type. His initial efforts enabled him in 1440 to mass-produce indulgences – printed slips of paper sold by the Catholic Church to remit temporal punishments in purgatory for sins committed in this life, for those wealthy enough to afford indulgences. Although Laurence Koster (Coster) of Haarlem, Netherlands also laid claim to the invention, scholars have generally accepted Gutenberg as the father of modern printing. Gutenberg left Strasburg, presumably about 1444. He seems to have perfected at enormous expense his invention shortly afterwards, as is shown by the oldest specimens of printing that have come down to us, the "Poem of the Last Judgment", and the "Calendar for 1448"). The fact that Arnolt Gelthuss, a relative of Gutenberg, lent him money in the year 1448 at Mainz points to the same conclusion. Legal documents indicate that Gutenberg probably began printing the Bible around 1450. It was in this year that Gutenberg entered into a partnership with Johann Fust who lent him money to finance the production of a Bible. Gutenberg certainly introduced efficient methods into book production, leading to a boom in the production of texts in Europe – in large part, owing to the popularity of the Gutenberg Bibles, the first mass-produced work, starting in 1452. Even so, Gutenberg was a poor businessman, and made little money from his printing system. The earliest dated specimens of printing by Gutenberg are papal indulgences (notes given to Christians by the Pope, pardoning their sins) issued in Mainz in 1454. In 1455 Gutenberg demonstrated the power of the printing press by selling copies of a two-volume Bible for a price that was the equivalent of approximately three years' wages for an average clerk, but it was significantly cheaper than a handwritten Bible that could take a single monk 20 years to transcribe. In 1455, just as the project was nearing completion, Johann Fust sued Gutenberg, taking possession of his printing equipment and the almost completed edition of the Bible. Fust subsequently entered into partnership with Peter Schoffer, who had been Gutenberg's assistant, and the project was finally completed in 1456 whereupon Fust undertook the task of marketing the bible. Fust first attempted to sell the Bibles as manuscripts but once potential purchasers observed the uniformity of the volumes, he had to reveal the means by which they were produced. The mortgage covered the copious stock of type which had evidently been already prepared for the edition of the Psalter, which was printed by Fust and Schoffer in August, 1457. This included new type in two sizes, as well as the worldfamous initial letters with their ingenious contrivance for two-colour printing. 80 

In 1457 Fust and Schoffer published a large Psalter, known as the Mainz Psalter, which featured printed red and blue initials along with the black text. There is some debate about how these coloured letters were printed. They were either printed from two part metal blocks that were inked separately, reassembled and then printed with the text, or they were stamped on after the main text was printed. Either way the process was time consuming and expensive so for several years it was more common for such decorative elements to be added by hand. The Mainz Psalter was also the first book to bear a printer's trademark and imprint, a printed date of publication and a colophon. About 1457 Gutenberg also parted with his earliest-constructed founts of type, which he had made for the 40-line Bible. Long before this Bible was printed the type had been used in an edition of the "Poem of the Last Judgment", and in the "Calendar for 1448", in editions of Donatus, and various other printed works. Most of this type fell into the possession of Albrecht Pfister in Bamberg 1460. The first person to print illustrated books was Albrecht Pfister. Around 1460 he published a book titled Der Ackermann von Bohmen (The Farmer from Bohmen). The only surviving copy of the first edition contains no illustrations but space has been left for them. A second edition printed in 1463 does include images. In 1461 Pfister printed an edition of Der Edelstein (a series of fables in German) which contained 101 woodcut illustrations. The woodcuts were in simple outline and were probably intended to be hand coloured. (Most surviving copies have in fact been coloured). Gutenberg next manufactured a new printer's outfit with the assistance he received from Conrad Humery, a distinguished and wealthy doctor of law, leader of the popular party, and chancellor of the council. This outfit comprised a set of small types fashioned after the round cursive handwriting used in books at that time and ornamented with an extraordinary number of ligatures. The type was used in the so-called "Catholicon" (grammar and alphabetic lexicon) in the year 1460, and also in several small books printed in Eltville down to the year 1472 by the brothers Echtermünze, relatives of Gutenberg. The Elector of Mainz, Archbishop Adolf of Nassau, presented him with a benefice (an ecclesiastical office in 1465) yielding an income and various privileges.

Did you know?  In less than 50 years after the invention of the printing press, fifteen million books had been flung into a world where previously scholars would travel miles to visit a library stocked with twenty hand-written volumes. And those books reflected some thirty thousand titles.  Books produced in this period, between the first work of Johannes Gutenberg in 1450 and the year 1500, are collectively referred to as incunabula.  Gutenberg changed plans at least three times while printing the Bible.  The Bible that Gutenberg printed was a Latin translation from about 380 AD.  There are many statues of Gutenberg in Germany – one of the more famous being a work by Thorvaldsen, in Mainz, home to the Gutenberg Museum. 81 

Assignments 1. Read and translate the text. 2. Write down the list of unknown words with transcription and translation. 3. Make up sentences with the words you have written. 4. Find out forms of Past Passive, paying attention to unknown irregular verbs. 5. Discuss the differences between historic and modern techniques of printing with your partner. 6. Give the gist of the text. Text 2. OFFSET, RELIEF AND LETTERPRESS PRINTING The Offset Principle. After long history of printing (see fig. 3). In the early part of the 20th century, it was discovered that ink could be transferred from the lithographic surface to an intermediate rubber surface and then to paper. The rubber intermediate, called a blanket, can transfer ink to paper and to a wide variety of materials that cannot be printed directly, including plastics and metals. Because the soft blanket conforms to the texture of the surface to be printed, lithographic image quality is unrivalled. Offset Lithography Today. The function of the original stone printing surface is now served by thin aluminium plates, although other materials, such as stainless steel and plastic, can also be used. The plates are wrapped around the circumference of the printing cylinder and make direct contact with the rubber blanket cylinder. Rubber rollers carry ink and water to the plate surface. The ink is transferred first to the blanket cylinder and then to the paper.

Fig. 3. The oldest printing press 82 

Lithographic plates are the least expensive printing surfaces available today, and this fact has contributed greatly to the success of the process. Aluminium plate materials have a thin surface coating of light-sensitive material, such as a photopolymer, that undergoes a solubility change when exposed to an intense source of blue and ultraviolet light. Images are transferred to the surface by exposing the plate through a film positive or negative (see Photography). Some materials can be exposed directly, as in a graphic-arts camera or by a computer-controlled laser beam, thereby eliminating the expense of film and speeding up the plate making process. Modern offset lithographic presses range in size from small sheet-fed duplicators used for small, single-colour jobs such as brochures and newsletters – to massive web presses capable of printing millions of copies of magazines, catalogues, mailing pieces, and packaging materials in full colour. No other process has such a broad range of applications. Relief Printing. Relief printing processes work on the same principle as a rubber stamp. Ink is applied to the raised portions of the printing surface, and is then transferred by pressure to paper or some other substrate. Two forms of relief printing – letterpress and flexography – are currently in use, distinguished by the physical characteristics of their printing surfaces and inks. Letterpress printing is accomplished using a hard metal or plastic printing surface and a highly viscous ink. Flexography employs a soft rubber or plastic printing surface and a fluid ink. Letterpress Printing. Letterpress, the oldest form of printing, originated with the invention of movable metal type (see Type) in the middle of the 15th century and was for five centuries the only viable mass printing process. In the mid-20th century, letterpress printing, despite its superiority in the clarity of impression and in the density of ink, lost its predominance to lithography, a much faster process. Originally, letterpress printing surfaces were prepared by assembling thousands of pieces of metal type on which individual letters or letter combinations were cast in relief to create pages of text called type forms. Ink was applied to the raised areas of the form and then transferred under pressure to paper or vellum. Woodcuts and engravings could be combined with type to produce composite pages containing both text and graphics. Lithography. By far the most important and versatile printing process today is offset lithography. The underlying principles were established at the end of the 18th century by a German map inspector, Aloys Senefelder, who was experimenting with methods of producing limestone relief printing surfaces using an acid etching process. Senefelder found that a wet limestone surface would repel an oil-based printing ink and that an image drawn on the surface with a grease pencil would repel water and attract ink. Any drawing on the stone surface could be reproduced by bringing a damp sheet of paper into contact with the freshly inked image. This cycle could be repeated several hundred times before the drawing could no longer be faithfully reproduced. 83 

The process, called chemical printing by Senefelder, quickly became a popular art medium because it enabled artists to produce multiple copies of freehand drawings. By the late 19th century, multiple stones were being used to transfer as many as 30 separate colours to a single sheet of paper to produce exquisite colour lithographs that resembled fine watercolour paintings. Modern colour lithography uses only four inks for a wide range of natural colours. Assignments 1. Read and translate the text. 2. Write down the list of unknown words with transcription and translation into your mini dictionary. 3. Make up sentences with the words you have written. 4. Make up 15–20 sentences using the words and grammatical construction Present Simple Passive. 5. Read the words below, close the first column and try to translate the words, then do the same with the second column (table 5). Table 5 Полиграфические термины к заданию Аддитивная цветовая модель (RGB) Альфа-канал Байт Белая (световая) точка Бит Библиотека стандартных цветов Pantone Битовая карта Векторная графика Выключка (выравнивание) Индексированные цвета Глубина цвета Градации серого Кегль Кернинг Кириллица Кольца Ньютона Кривые Безье Линиатура

Additive colour model (RGB) Alpha Channel Byte White point Bit Pantone Colour rocess Guide Bitmap Vector graphics Align Indexed colour Colour depth Greyscale Font size Kerning Cyrillic Newton Rings Bezier Curves Lines per inch, LPI

6. Read and translate the following words and use them discussing the topic «Colours for Printing Engineering»: beautiful picturesque visible imperceptible

bluish greyish composite black-and-white 84 

semitransparent transparent reddish yellowish greenish fluorescent bright dull light dark deep intensive

monochrome colourful photo-realistic printed pattern three dimensional two-dimensional rectangular elliptical circular pastel

Text 3. LITHOGRAPHY AND OTHER PRINTING TECHNIQUES Printing Techniques, several different ways in which printing may be accomplished, such as lithography, letterpress, flexography, gravure, and screen printing. All of these printing techniques use simple mechanisms for rapidly applying colourants to substrates such as paper or plastic to form multiple reproductions of original images for mass distribution. Multiple colours can be printed in one pass through the press. Spot colour printing uses custom mixed inks to reproduce specific colours and is widely used in package printing, where large areas of uniform colour are common. Process colour printing uses four transparent inks – cyan (blue-green), magenta (red), yellow, and black – printed one on top of another in varying amounts. Colour photographs and other artwork can be faithfully reproduced by this method. Most modern printing presses transfer ink from a cylindrical printing surface to moving sheets or rolls of substrate. Presses that print on rolls, or webs, can achieve speeds of 600–900 m (2000–3000 ft) per minute. Presses that print on sheets are generally slower than web presses but can print on thicker substrates, such as bristol board and sheet metal. Since the 1960s, advancements in photography and electronics have had a profound effect on the manufacture of printing surfaces. Light-sensitive materials such as diazonium resins and photopolymers make it possible to produce durable printing surfaces photographically rather than mechanically. Computerbased systems allow the rapid production of the films used to transfer images to printing surfaces. Some printing surfaces can even be prepared directly by machines employing computer-controlled laser beams or diamond styluses. Images generated on computer systems and stored in databases can now be transferred directly to printing surfaces without any intermediate steps. Taken as a whole, these changes have been called the prepress revolution (see fig. 4). 85 

Fig. 4. Modern working printing press

Assignments 1. Read and translate the text. 2. Write down unknown words with transcription and translation into your mini dictionary. 3. Make up sentences with the words you have written. 4. Discuss the topic «Modern Printing Techniques». 5. Make up 15–20 sentences using the words and grammatical construction Past Simple Passive. 6. Play a game in two teams «Who knows more colours». Text 4. DUPLICATE AND PHOTOPOLYMER PLATES Duplicate Plates. The first letterpress printing plate was created by making a plaster mold of a type form and then casting a metal duplicate of the original, called a stereotype. Stereotyping became an extremely important technology during the Industrial Revolution because it yielded a one-piece printing surface that could be used in place of the original type form on a variety of automated printing presses. Curved stereotypes cast from papier-mâché molds were used on rotary letterpresses for printing daily newspapers until the early 1970s, when hot-metal machine typesetting was largely replaced by computer typesetting. See Typesetting Equipment. Another important duplicate plate, called an electrotype, was made by electroplating a thin layer of copper onto a wax impression of the original type form and then filling the resulting copper shell with type metal. Electrotypes retained more detail from the original relief surface than stereotypes and were therefore preferred to stereotypes for higher-quality letterpress printing. Photopolymer Plates. In the late 1950s a radical new way of making relief printing surfaces was introduced; it employed a soluble plastic that hardened upon exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Since then a large number of photopolymer plate materials have been created. A thick coating of photopolymer on a metal or plastic support can be exposed to ultraviolet light through a piece of 86 

film that allows the light to pass through only those areas that will transfer ink. The photopolymer hardens, or polymerizes, in these areas, and the remaining unexposed coating is washed away with water or some other solvent. The result is a relief printing surface than can be mounted directly on a printing press. In a variation of this process, a liquid photopolymer that solidifies when exposed to ultraviolet radiation is spread on a paper or plastic support. After exposure the unexposed liquid is blown away with air. These plates can be made rapidly and are therefore most suitable for newspaper printing, where deadlines are critical. High-speed rotary web presses and photopolymer plates have allowed letterpress to remain competitive in some areas, such as in newspaper printing, despite the fact that lithography is now the uncontested leader among printing processes. Assignments 1. Read and translate the text. 2. Write down unknown words with transcription and translation into your mini dictionary. 3. Make up sentences with the words you have written. 4. Make up 15–20 sentences using the words and grammatical constructions Future Simple Passive. 5. Read the words below, cover the first column and try to translate the words, then do the same with the second column. Create sentences with the words (table 6). Table 6 Базовые полиграфические термины Маска Межбуквенное расстояние Межстрочное расстояние Муар Негатив Непрозрачный оригинал Обтравочный контур Открытый интерфейс печати, OPI Офсетная печать Пиксел Платформа Платформа IBM PC Платформа Macintosh Плашка Плашечный цвет Плотность оптическая, D Понижение разрешения Принтер лазерный Принтер матричный Принтер струйный

Mask Letter spacing Leading Moiré Negative Opaque original Clipping path Open print interface, OPI Offset printing Pixel Platform IBM PC Platform Macintosh Platform Spot Spot colour Optical Density, D Down sampling Laser printer Matrix printer Ink Jet Printer 87 

6. Discuss the topic «Colours Setting in Different Design Software» using the words below: orange jade tangerine olive apricot emerald peach beige brown cream coffee golden tan lemon buff yellow Text 5. Flexographic Printing and Gravure Flexographic Printing. The soft plates and highly fluid inks used in flexography make the process ideal for printing on nonporous materials such as foil laminates and polyethylene. Originally, all flexographic plates were made of molded rubber, which is still the preferred material when multiple copies of the same image are needed on a single printing cylinder. Rubber plate molds are impressions of original relief surfaces, such as type forms or engravings, and are normally used to make several duplicate rubber plates. The preparation of a printing cylinder using molded rubber plates is a time-consuming process because many rubber plates are mounted on a single cylinder and each plate must be carefully positioned in relation to the others. In the 1970s photopolymer plate materials were introduced, and the time required to manufacture and mount a set of plates was reduced significantly. This has allowed the process to enter new markets, most notably newspaper printing. In addition, water-based inks can be used in flexography, eliminating the need for toxic solvents. Flexographic printing presses are simple in design because the fluid ink is easily distributed to the printing surface without an elaborate inking system. Printing is usually done on rolls or webs of substrate rather than on cut sheets, and the printed rolls are then converted into finished products in a separate manufacturing process. Gravure. Gravure, also called rotogravure, is a high-volume printing process employing an ink transfer mechanism that is fundamentally different from that of relief printing. The printing surface is a polished metal cylinder covered with an array of tiny recesses, or cells (as many as 50,000 per sq in), that constitute the images to be printed. The cylinder, which can be 2.5 m (8 ft) or more in length, is partially immersed in a reservoir of solvent-based fluid ink. As the cylinder rotates, it is bathed in ink. A steel blade called a doctor blade running the entire length of the cylinder wipes the ink from the polished surface, leaving ink only in the cells. The ink is then transferred immediately to a moving web of paper forced against the cylinder under great pressure. 88 

Gravure cylinders are constructed of steel with a thin surface layer of electroplated copper. The copper can be either chemically etched or electronically engraved to form the cells that will transfer ink. Once the cells have been created, the cylinder is electroplated with a thin layer of chromium to produce a hard surface for the doctor blade. Each cell transfers a tiny spot of ink to the paper. The cells can be made to vary in depth from one part of a cylinder to another, causing the darkness of the resulting ink spots to vary also. This enables gravure to print a wide range of grey tones and thus to render excellent reproductions of photographic originals. Colour printing is accomplished by using separate printing cylinders for the cyan, magenta, yellow, and black inks. Each cylinder is housed in a separate printing unit. The web is transported by rollers from unit to unit and can reach speeds of close to 900 m (3000 ft) per minute. After each colour is printed, the web passes through a dryer, where the solvent base of the ink is evaporated. The solvent is either reclaimed or burned to produce energy. Some gravure printers have begun to use water-based inks. This trend is likely to continue because of health and environmental threats posed by the use of hydrocarbon-based solvents. The expense of manufacturing a set of gravure cylinders has restricted its use to long-run jobs (millions of reproductions). Mass-circulation monthly magazines, mail-order catalogues, and packaging are natural markets for the process. Gravure is also used to reproduce a variety of textures and patterns on decorative materials. Most of the simulated wood grains on inexpensive furniture, for example, are printed by gravure. New methods of manufacturing gravure cylinders using computer-controlled electronic engraving machines have reduced the time required preparing a set of cylinders, but they are still far more expensive than lithographic printing surfaces. Intaglio printing is a specialized process related to gravure that employs engraved rotary printing surfaces of steel to print currency, bonds, stock certificates, and high-quality business stationery. Ink is transferred from engraved recesses on the printing surface directly to sheets of paper transported through the press. Intaglio printing excels at reproducing artwork that consists of fine lines and small solid areas. It cannot be used to reproduce photographic images or to print large unbroken solids. The use of past ink and deeply recessed printing surfaces gives intaglio printing a distinctive raised texture. (Powdered resins can be heat-fused to freshly printed wet lithographic or letterpress inks to simulate this effect at far less expense, which is why «engraved» business cards and stationery are usually produced in this manner). Assignments 1. Read and translate the text. 2. Write down unknown words with transcription and translation into your mini dictionary. 3. Make up sentences with the words you have written. 89 

4. Make up 15–20 sentences using the words and grammatical construction Present Continuous Active. 5. Discuss the topic «Colours Separation» using the words below: rose mauve poppy russet maroon magenta

red scarlet crimson incarnadine vermilion ruby pink

90 

Unit 2. MODERN TYPES OF PRINTING

Text 1. ELECTRONIC AND OTHER TYPES OF PRINTING Electronic Printing Processes. All the processes previously discussed employ a fixed printing surface that transfers the same pattern of ink during each cycle of the press. Simple physical ink-transfer mechanisms allow these processes to operate at high speed. Because of the high cost of making a set of plates, mounting them on the press, and running the press until the printing is in register (properly aligned) and colours are correct, these processes require fairly long press runs to be economically feasible. For short-run printing – especially of highly variable information, electronic processes are more economical. These processes do not use printing plates, and they produce good reproductions without wasting paper. Electrophotographic Printing. Modern electrostatic office copiers have a printing surface that can be instantaneously formed by photographing or scanning an original. The surface is coated with a photoconductive material such as selenium or cadmium sulphide. In the dark, a photoconductor acts as an insulator, retaining a charge of static electricity. Areas of the surface illuminated in a camera or by a laser beam become conductive and lose their charge. The remaining areas retain their charge, attracting oppositely charged particles of colourant called toner. The toner is then transferred to a piece of paper of plastic using electrostatic forces rather than pressure. This cycle is repeated for each copy, making the process far too slow and complicated for mass printing applications. For small quantities, however, some colour electrophotographic printers can reproduce colour originals with image quality that approaches that of offset lithography. See also Office Systems. Ink-jet Printing. A computer-controlled array of ink nozzles can produce images on a moving sheet or a web of paper. Simple ink-jet printers are used routinely to print variable information such as the expiration dates on food packages or address labels on direct mail pieces, and are sometimes installed on the end of a conventional printing press. Sophisticated colour ink-jet printers are able to produce lithographic-quality reproductions in extremely short runs. Microcapsule Printing. This technology uses paper impregnated with billions of microscopic capsules of liquid photopolymer-based dye. The paper is exposed to light reflected from an original image, and the dyes inside the capsules harden in proportion to the amount of light they receive. The exposed paper is then pressed through steel rollers against a receiver paper, and varying amounts of unhardened dye are deposited on the receiver to form an image. The process can be used to make high-quality colour reproductions in small quantities. 91 

Thermal Sublimation and Wax-Transfer Printing Computer-controlled arrays of heating elements can transfer dyes or wax layers from a plastic ribbon to a piece of receiver paper. The high cost of materials and the slowness of thermal processes have restricted their use to applications in which only a few copies are required. The emerging relationship between traditional printing and electronic printing is more complementary than competitive. Digital colour printing processes are increasingly used to predict the appearance of images before they are processed into films and plates for lithography, gravure, or relief printing, thus reducing the likelihood that changes will be necessary after the job has reached the press. Modern Printing Press. Modern newspaper printing presses use advanced technology to rapidly produce copies of an original. After the staff of a newspaper generates a master copy of the paper, each page is photographically transferred to plastic-coated zinc or aluminium printing plates. Covered in ink, these plates then transfer their images onto paper in the printing press. The printing press contains cylinders that rapidly rotate continuous webs of paper, while printing with quick-drying ink. Screen Printing. Originally called silk-screen printing because of its silkbased stencils, screen printing has become important in the production of a wide array of manufactured items, including decorative panels, printed circuit boards, touch-sensitive switches, plastic containers, and printed garments. Stencils for commercial screen printing are usually produced by photomechanical means. A fine synthetic fabric or metal mesh is stretched over a rectangular frame, and a photopolymer coating is applied to the entire surface. Exposure of the photopolymer through a film positive causes it to harden in the areas not intended to print. The unexposed material is then washed away to create the open areas of the stencil. In the printing press, this screen is pressed against the surface to be printed, and ink is forced through the open areas of the stencil with a rubber squeegee. Presses for screen printing range from simple manual devices for the small-scale printing of T-shirts and banners to large sheet-fed presses for multicolour, high-volume commercial applications. The process is distinguished by its ability to print finely detailed images on practically any surface, including paper, plastics, metals, and three-dimensional surfaces. It is also the only major printing process that is routinely used to produce images that are not meant to be viewed. The circuit patterns in touch-sensitive switch panels, for example, are screen-printed with special conductive inks. Assignments 1. Read and translate the text. 2. Write down unknown words with transcription and translation into your mini dictionary. 92 

3. Make up sentences with the words you have written. 4. Make up 15–20 sentences using the words and grammatical construction Past Continuous Active. 5. Read the words below, cover the first column and try to translate the words, then do the same with the second column. Write the transcription of the words and check it with the teacher (table 7). Table 7 Базовые полиграфические термины Прозрачный оригинал

Transparent original

Профиль Пункт, Pt Разрешение, точек на д юйм Разрешение, «пятен» на дюйм Растискивание Растр Растрирование амплитудно-модулированное Растрирование частотно-модулированное Растровая графика Растровый процессор, RIP Регулярное растрирование Сглаживание Сигнал/шум, отношение Система управления цветом Сканер барабанный Сканер планшетный Слайд Стандартный серый баланс Стохастическое растрирование Субтрактивная цветовая модель (CMYK) Треппинг Триадные краски

Profile Point, Pt Resolution, DPI Resolution, PPI Dot gain Raster AM-Screening FM-Screening Raster graphics Raster Image Processor, RIP Conventional Screening Anti-Aliasing Signal to Noise ratio Colour management system Drum scanner Desk scanner Slide Standard gray balance Stochastic (Irrational) screening Subtractive colour model (CMYK) Trapping Triads inks

6. Discuss the topic «Colours in Different Systems like CMIK, RGB and others», use the words below: navy-blue green royal-blue light-green azure bottle green violet khaki lilac mustard purple blue black aquamarine grey aqua gray sea-green white turquoise sky-blue 93 

Text 2. XEROGRAPHY Xerography, electrostatic dry-printing process for the reproduction of images or documents, widely employed in commerce and industry in copying machines (see Office Systems). The process was invented by the American physicist and patent attorney Chester F. Carlson in 1937 and first commercially developed in 1950. It makes use of the principle of photoconductivity, that is, that certain substances resist passage of an electric current except when struck by light. Silicon, germanium, and selenium are poor conductors of electricity, but when light energy is absorbed by some of their electrons, the electrons are able to pass from one atom to another, thus allowing a current to flow when a voltage is applied. When the light is removed, their conductivity again becomes low. Xerography employs a photoconductive insulating layer, such as selenium, on an aluminium or other conductive metal support. The layer is charged electrostatically, either with positive or negative ions (see Ion), the polarity of the charge depending on the type of photoconductive insulating layer selected. When the plate is exposed, in a camera or photographic machine, those areas of the coating subjected to light lose a varying portion of the charge, depending upon the intensity of the illumination. Thus, the variation of the amount of charge retained on the coated metal plate is established as an electrical or electrostatic pattern of the image. The image is rendered visible by sprinkling over the exposed plate a special, charged powder, which carries an opposite charge to the initial charge applied to the plate and insulating layer. The powder adheres to those areas that have retained their charge. The print is obtained by covering the plate with paper, then applying a charge over the back of the paper of the same polarity as the initial charge applied to the photoconductive insulating layer. In this way the opposite charged powders are transferred to the paper surface. The powder image is then fused onto the paper by exposure to solvent vapours or heat to make the image permanent. The entire xerographic process can be carried out, in high-speed mechanized equipment, in less than 5 seconds, and it is comparatively inexpensive to make these images because the photoconductive insulating layer can be recycled many thousand times. The process has found its primary usefulness in copying office documents and in low-volume duplication of data. The xerographic method also permits the making, quickly and cheaply, of paper offset master plates for low-to-medium-volume runs on office offsetprinting presses (see Printing Techniques). The method has also been applied to the production of X-ray images in a technique that is known as xeroradiography and is used in mammography for early detection of breast cancer. Xerography is applied in industrial non-destructive testing. A variety of automatic xerographic machines are available today that make office copies on the push of a button and that are almost unable to fail. 94 

Xerographic machines can reproduce half-tone photographs and can enlarge or reduce copy. They can be set to print on either one or both sides of paper, to produce automatically a large or small number of copies without further intervention by the operator, and to sort and collate. A development of the late 1970s is colour xerography. The economy, versatility, and flexibility of the xerographic process have created legal problems relating to copyright and helped stimulate numerous changes in the copyright laws in the U.S. and elsewhere. Another machine, called Copyflo, developed in the late 1950s, can be used to reproduce enlarged images from microfilm and has demonstrated that an entire book can be printed from microfilm in from 3 to 5 minutes. Copyflo is used primarily to make copies of out-of-print books. See also Facsimile Transmission. Assignments 1. Read and translate the text. 2. Write down unknown words with transcription and translation into your mini dictionary. 3. Make up sentences with the words you have written. 4. Make up 15–20 sentences using the words and grammatical constructions Future Continuous Active. 5. Read the words below, close the first column and try to translate the words, then do the same with the second column. Make a little cross-word with the words definitions based on the list of words (table 8). Table 8 Базовые полиграфические термины Угол наклона растра Фотонаборный автомат Фото – электрический умножитель (ФЭУ) Цветовая модель LAB Цветовая модель HSB Цветоделение Цветопроба Черная (теневая) точка Читаемость с эмульсии Шкала градационная Шкала градационная полутоновая Язык описания страниц (PostScript)

Screening angle Photo Image Setter PMT (Photomultiplier Tube) LAB colour model HSB colour model Separation Colour proofing Black point Emulsion side reading Gradation scale Halftone gradation scale Page Description Language (PostScript)

6. Play a game: say a word referred to a printing industry and design – the next person says a word starting with the last letter of the word said before. 95 

Unit 3. BOOKS AND ILLUSTRATIONS Text 1. HISTORY OF THE MOST EARLY BOOK Book, a volume of many sheets of paper bound together, containing text, illustrations, music, photographs, or other kinds of information. The pages are sewn or glued together on one side and bound between hard or soft paper covers. Because they are relatively durable and portable, books have been used for centuries to preserve and distribute information. A book is small enough to be carried around, but it is larger than a pamphlet, which generally consists of just a few pieces of paper. Books may form part of a series, but they differ from periodicals and newspapers because they are not published on a strict daily, weekly, or monthly schedule. Unlike a private diary, which may be in book form, a book is intended for public circulation. The term book is applied by extension to the scrolls used in the ancient world, even though they do not fit the modern definition of a book. In an editorial sense the word book can also refer to some ancient literary works, such as the Egyptian Book of the Dead, or to major divisions of a literary work, such as the books of the Bible. In the mid- and late 20th century, technological advances expanded the definition of the book to include audio books and electronic books, or e-books. Audio books are recordings made on cassette, compact disc, or downloadable computer programs. Electronic books are portable computerized devices that allow readers to download text and then read it, mark it up, and bookmark it. The term e-book is also used to refer to the concept of a paperless book, whether it is read on a specially designed e-book device, a personal digital assistant (PDA), or a desktop or laptop computer. Handwritten books. The forerunners of books were clay tablets, impressed with a writing instrument called a stylus, used by the Sumerians (see Sumer), Babylonians (see Babylonia), and other peoples of ancient Mesopotamia. Much more closely related to the modern book were the book rolls, or scrolls, of the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. These scrolls consisted of sheets of papyrus, a paper-like material made from the pounded pith of reeds growing in the Nile Delta, formed into a continuous strip and rolled around a stick. The strip, with the text written with a reed pen in narrow, closely spaced columns on one side, was unrolled as it was read. Papyrus rolls varied in length; the longest surviving roll is the Egyptian Harris papyrus in the British Museum in London, 40.5 m (133 ft) long. Later, during the Hellenistic Age (4th century to 1st century BC), long book rolls were subdivided into a number of shorter rolls, about 10 m (about 35 ft) long, stored together in a single container. Scrolls were often covered with wrappings and tagged with the title and the author's name. Professional scribes reproduced works either by copying a 96 

text or by setting it down from dictation. Athens, Alexandria, and Rome were great centres of book production and exported books throughout the ancient world. Hand labour was slow and expensive, however, and books were owned chiefly by temples, rulers, and a few rich individuals. At the time, and for centuries thereafter, most people learned by listening to lessons or stories and memorizing them if necessary. Although papyrus was easily made, inexpensive, and an excellent writing surface, it was brittle; in damp climates it disintegrated in less than 100 years. Thus, a great part of the literature and records of the ancient world has been irretrievably lost. Parchment and vellum (specially prepared animal skins) did not have those drawbacks. The Persians, Hebrews, and other peoples of the ancient Middle East, where papyrus did not grow, had for centuries used scrolls made of tanned leather or untanned parchment. The production of parchment was improved by King Eumenes II of Pergamum in the 2nd century BC; thereafter its use greatly increased, and, by the 4th century AD, it had almost entirely supplanted papyrus as a medium for writing. Assignments 1. Read and translate the text. 2. Write down unknown words with transcription and translation into your mini dictionary. 3. Make up sentences with the words you have written. 4. Discuss the topic: «Management of Working with a Client in a Printing House». 5. Make up 15–20 sentences using the words and grammatical constructions Present Perfect Active. 6. Play a game: say a maximal number of adjectives about books and documents see an example below: ancient serious classical light vulgar entertaining foreign children's national humorous original funny authentic tiresome translated boring adapted philosophical periodical modernistic annual realistic monthly romantic weekly medieval daily ancient Greek 97 

Text 2: Medieval Books The Early Codex. The 4th century also marked the culmination of a gradual process, begun about the 1st century, in which the inconvenient scroll was replaced by the rectangular codex (Latin for “book”), the direct ancestor of the modern book. The codex, as first used by the Greeks and Romans for business accounts or school work, was a small, ringed notebook consisting of two or more wooden tablets covered with wax, which could be marked with a stylus, smoothed over, and reused many times. Additional leaves, made of parchment, were sometimes inserted between the tablets. In time, the codex came to consist of many sheets of papyrus or, later, parchment, gathered in small bundles folded in the middle. These gatherings were laid one upon the other, stitched together through the folds, and attached to wooden boards by thongs. The columns of writing in codices were wider than those on scrolls and covered both sides of a parchment page. The codex made it easier for readers to find their place or to refer ahead or back. It was particularly useful for worshipers in religious services. The word codex is part of the title of many ancient handwritten books, especially celebrated manuscripts of the Bible. The Codex Sinaiticus, for example, is a 4th-century Greek manuscript from Palestine that is now stored in the British Museum. Medieval European Books. In the early Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century) in Europe, books were written chiefly by churchmen for other churchmen and for rulers. Most were portions of the Bible, commentary, or liturgical books, although some were copies of classical texts. The books were laboriously written out with a quill pen by scribes working in the scriptoria (Latin for "writing rooms") of monasteries. At first scribes used a variety of local styles in capital letters only, a custom carried over from classical scrolls. As a result of the revival of learning initiated by Frankish emperor Charlemagne in the 8th century, scribes shifted to capital and lowercase letters, penned in a clear, round Carolingian script that harked back to classical models and eventually inspired the typographers of the Renaissance (14th century to 17th century). After the 12th century, however, bookscript deteriorated into the black letter style, which consisted of narrow, heavily drawn, angular letters crowded close together in thin columns that were difficult to read. Many medieval books were brilliantly illuminated in gold and colours to indicate the start of a new section of text, to illustrate the text, or to decorate the borders. They ranged from the all over, intricately stylized ornament of the Book of Kells (mid-8th century, Trinity College, Dublin), a copy of the Gospels made in Scotland and Ireland, to the delicate, detailed scenes of everyday life in the Trés riches heures du Duc de Berry (1413–1416, Musée Condé, Chantilly, France), a prayer book made by the Limbourg brothers in the Low Countries. 98 

Medieval books had wooden covers, often strengthened with metal bosses and fastened with clasps. Many covers were bound in leather, sometimes richly adorned with gold and silver work, enamels, and gems. Such beautifully produced books were works of art, which, by the late Middle Ages, were usually created by professional scribes, artists, and jewellers. Books were few and costly; they were commissioned by the very small percentage of the population that could afford them and that knew how to read (see Illuminated Manuscripts). Books in Asia. Perhaps the earliest form of book in Asia was wood or bamboo tablets tied with cord. Another early form was strips of silk or paper, a Mixture of bark and hemp invented by the Chinese in the 2nd century AD. At first the strips, written on one side only with a reed pen or brush, were wound around sticks to make scrolls. Later they were also folded like an accordion and stitched on one side to make a book, which was glued to a light paper or clothcovered case. The scholar-officials who wrote the books took great pains to develop distinctive styles of calligraphy, which was considered a fine art. Assignments 1. Read and translate the text. 2. Write down unknown words with transcription and translation into your mini dictionary. 3. Make up sentences with the words you have written. 4. Make up 15–20 sentences using the words and grammatical construction Past Perfect Active. 5. Discuss the topic: «Computer Century Generation – Children and Parents». 6. Play a game: say a maximum number of book types, see an example below: memoir travel book classics chronicle composition textbook dictionary phrase-book manual calendar card catalogue

piece of writing article story literature novel poetry verse detective story fairy tale spy thriller contemporary novel science fiction biography 99 

 

Text 3. PRINTED BOOKS Printed Books. Printing from carved wood blocks was invented in China in the 6th century AD. The first book known to have been printed from wood blocks was a Chinese edition of the Jingangjing (Diamond Sutra), a Buddhist text, dating from 868. The Tipitaka, another Buddhist scripture, which ran to more than 130,000 pages, was printed from about 972 to 983. Printing from reusable blocks was a much more efficient method of reproducing a work than was copying by hand, but each block took a long time to carve and could be used only for that one work. In the 11th century the Chinese invented printing from movable type, which could be reassembled in different orders for numerous works. They made little use of it, however, because the great number of characters required in Chinese writing made movable type impracticable. In Europe the printing of books from wood blocks, a technique probably learned from contact with the East, began in the late Middle Ages. Block books were usually heavily illustrated religious works with scanty text. Renaissance Books. In the 15th century two new technological developments revolutionized the production of European books. One was paper, which Europeans learned about from the Islamic world (which had acquired it from China). The other was movable metal type, which Europeans invented independently. Although various claims have been put forth for French, Italian, and Dutch inventors, German printer Johannes Gutenberg is usually given the credit. The first major book printed in movable type was the Gutenberg Bible, which was completed sometime between 1450 and 1456. These innovations simplified book production and made it economically feasible and relatively easy. At the same time, public literacy increased greatly, in part as a result of Renaissance scholarship and exploration, and in part as a result of the Protestant Reformation tenet that every believer should be able to read the Bible. Consequently, in the 16th century both the number of works and the number of copies of them increased enormously, further stimulating the public appetite for books. Italian Renaissance printers of the 16th century established traditions that have persisted in book publishing since that time. These included the use of light pasteboard covers, often bound in leather; regularized layouts; and clear Roman and Italic typefaces. Woodcuts and engravings were used for illustrations. Another tradition was the designation of book sizes as folio, quarto, octavo, duodecimo, 16-mo, 24-mo and 32-mo. These designations signify the numbers of leaves (each side counting as a page) formed by folding a large sheet of book paper. Thus, a sheet folded once forms two leaves (four pages), and a book made of sheets folded in this way is called a folio. A sheet folded twice forms four leaves (eight pages), and a book made of sheets folded in this way is a quarto. Modern European publishers continue to use these terms. 100 

 

Renaissance books also established the convention of the title page and the preface, or introduction. Gradually the table of contents, list of illustrations, explanatory notes, bibliography, and index were added. Assignments 1. Read and translate the text. 2. Write down unknown words with transcription and translation into your mini dictionary. 3. Make up sentences with the words you have written. 4. Make up 15–20 sentences using the words and grammatical construction Future Perfect Active. 5. Discuss the topic: «Computer Technology for Entertainment». 6. Play a game: think of a printing industry term, let other students guess what the word is asking questions and analyzing the answers «yes», «no», «maybe», «it is impossible to say so». Text 4. BOOKS IN THE 19th AND 20th CENTURIES 19th and 20th Centuries. After the Industrial Revolution, book production became highly mechanized. The more efficient manufacture of paper, the introduction of cloth and paper covers, high-speed cylinder presses, the mechanical casting and composing of type, phototypesetting, and photographic reproduction of both text and illustration made possible in the 20th century the production of vast numbers of books at a relatively low cost. The subject matter of books became literally universal. The history and cultural influence of books also became a subject of scholarly study. Writers who explored various facets of the development of books include Canadian author Harold Innis, a pioneer in the communications field; Canadian writer Marshall McLuhan), who argued that communications media profoundly shape the cultures in which they operate; American author Elizabeth Eisenstein, who explored the consequences in Europe of the transition from writing to printing; American writer Walter Ong, who examined the intellectual, literary, and social effects of writing; and English author Eric Havelock, who studied the transition from the spoken to the written word in Ancient Greece. Technological Changes. In the 20th century, technological devices such as radio, television, motion pictures, tape recorders, computers, and CD-ROM devices challenged books as means of communication. However, because books are so easy to carry and care for, they remained a primary means for dissemination of knowledge, for instruction and pleasure in skills and arts, and for the recording of experience, whether real or imagined. Nevertheless, technology did 101 

 

have an impact on the book industry as people sought out new ways to experience and distribute information without using paper. Audio books were first marketed in the 1950s, and by the 1990s they had gained great popularity and were a major component of the publishing industry. Audio books are recordings of a person reading the text of a book. People can listen to them on cassette, on compact disc, or through programs downloaded from the Internet. They are popular in part because they allow people to experience books at times they cannot read, such as while driving a car. Also, people who are blind or have low vision can use audio books as an alternative to reading books with the Braille system. In the late 1990s several companies introduced electronic books, or ebooks. These computerized devices display the text of books on a small screen designed to make reading easy. Electronic books are specially designed to be portable and light, and many models include a high-tech stylus that readers can use to highlight or make notes on the text. Booksellers and publishers sell ebooks over the Internet in the form of computer files. A reader makes a purchase, then downloads the text to a personal computer or directly to an e-book device. Electronic books can store the same amount of information found in ten or more paper books, and they also offer some of the prime advantages of paper books – they are easy to carry and can be marked up. Many people believe that as e-books develop further in the early 21st century, they will challenge paper books in a way that 20th-century technologies did not. Assignments 1. Read and translate the text. 2. Write down unknown words with transcription and translation into your mini dictionary. 3. Make up sentences with the words you have written. 4. Make up 15–20 sentences using the words and grammatical construction Present Perfect-Continuous Active. 5. Discuss the topic: «Creativity in the Work of a Designer». Text 5: HAND AND PRINTED ILLUSTRATIONS About Illustrations. Illustration, pictorial material appearing with a text and amplifying or enhancing it. Although illustrations may be maps, charts, diagrams, or decorative elements, they are more usually representations of scenes, people, or objects related in some manner – directly, indirectly, or symbolically – to the text they accompany. The historical origins of illustration are as ancient as those of writing. The pictographs of early humans, and the hieroglyphics of such early civilizations as the Egyptian, contain the roots of both illustration and text. 102 

 

Hand Illustration. Before the invention of printing, books (that is, manuscripts in scroll or codex form) were illustrated by hand. The earliest surviving example of an illustrated book is an Egyptian papyrus scroll from about 2000 BC. In ancient Egypt the Book of the Dead, a text designed to be placed in tombs, was the most frequently illustrated work. In classical Europe the earliest illustrations seem to have been made for scientific texts. The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle referred to illustrations, now lost, accompanying his biological writings. Illustrations in the form of authors' portraits were the next development, followed by the illustration of literary texts such as the Iliad and the Odyssey. Literary illustration was also being produced in China beginning about the 5th century BC. Artists in medieval Europe illustrated texts with paintings in the form of miniatures, pictorially embellished initial letters, or marginal decorations. In the Islamic world, Persian and Mughal artists illustrated works of poetry and history with delicate, jewel-like paintings. Duplicate illustrations, like duplicate manuscripts, could be produced only through copying by hand. Medieval books were most often made of parchment, which had replaced papyrus about AD300; but by the late Middle Ages paper had come into use. See Illuminated Manuscripts. Printed Reproduction Methods. The first mechanical reproduction of illustrations was achieved by means of wooden blocks. A picture was drawn on the smooth surface of a block, the wood on either side of the lines of the drawing was carved away, and the resulting relief image was smeared with pigment or ink and printed on parchment or paper. The process could be repeated again and again, producing many identical pictures from a single block. Sometimes an entire book page, text as well as illustration, was cut on a block; books made by this technique are called block books. With their necessarily limited texts, most block books were simple, crude productions aimed at the nearly unlettered general public, for whom they presented religious messages; the Biblia Pauperum (Paupers' Bible) and Ars moriendi (Art of Dying) are famous examples. See Prints and Printmaking. The printing press, on which an extensive text could be printed from movable type, also made it possible for separate woodcut illustrations to be printed along with the text (see Printing). The need for greater detail in illustrations led to the development of techniques for engraving and etching metal plates, usually copper. The mezzotint, a refined form of copperplate engraving capable of reproducing subtle gradations of light and shadow, was developed in the 18th century, as was the aquatint, by which the effect of watercolour painting could be simulated. Late in the century white-line wood engraving was perfected; in this technique, metal-engraving tools were used on the end-grain surface of very hard wood to produce pictures of considerable delicacy, often with images appearing in white against a dark background. At the end of the 18th century lithography was invented, providing the artist with greater fluidity and scope in 103 

 

illustration technique; the possibilities were increased by the introduction, in the first half of the 19th century, of colour lithography. Photography, perfected in the second half of the 19th century, ultimately provided versatile photomechanical methods of reproducing the illustrator's original, in whatever medium it might be created. Uses of Printed Illustrations. Beginning in the late 18th century, the illustrated book was joined by the illustrated periodical, which flourished thereafter. Fiction had been illustrated almost from its beginnings, and by the 19th century the practice had grown so that few novels were issued without at least a frontispiece (an illustration facing or preceding the title page in a book), often in colour. The illustration of topographical, architectural, and botanical works also proliferated in the 19th century. In the 20th century, the practice of illustrating adult fiction declined. Illustration of books for adults came to be confined principally to nonfiction, with emphasis on illustrations as learning tools, especially in textbooks and other reference books. The illustration of children's literature, however, began to be increasingly common in the 19th century, and after the middle of the 20th century it accounted for the greater part of all book illustration. Periodicals came to rely heavily on photographic illustration. Assignments 1. Read and translate the text. 2. Write down unknown words with transcription and translation into your mini dictionary. 3. Make up sentences with the words you have written. 4. Make up 15–20 sentences using the words and grammatical construction Past Perfect-Continuous Active. 5. Discuss the topic: «Photoshop as a Fundamental Phenomenon in Design Sphere».

104 

 

Unit 4. THE THEORY OF COLOURS Text 1. THE HISTORY OF COLOUR THEORY According to basic colour theory, «Colour choices are subjective. Artists choose colours based on design, aesthetic or emotional responses». It is commonplace to make references to colour when referring to human behaviour, for example, «telling white lies», and «caught red handed», as these word associations immediately conjure up a picture in the mind. Humans live in a world where they are bombarded with colours. Nature itself is generally gentle on the eye unless it is giving out a variety of warnings to the relevant species. It has been left to artists and designers to capture our attention, by using colour in a variety of ways. This has resulted in changes in fashion throughout history, often depending on the current scientific research of the relevant period. Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727) carried out a great deal of research into colour theory. According to Birren, «In the development of method and order in colour, Newton stands as the first man ever to conceive an organised colour circle». This was however, related to the properties of light and not pigment. Goethe in direct opposition to Newton tried to revive the theories of Aristotle, that colours were manifestations of light and dark. He correctly referred to physiological colours being linked to certain material mediums, and he said of himself, «I am the only person who knows the truth in the difficult science of colours, of that, I say, I am not a little proud». Goethe wanted to be an artist, holding strong opinions relating to the aesthetics and emotions relative to colour. His beliefs included the following:  All colour comes from light and dark.  Yellow and blue were the 2 basic primaries.  Some colours were the result of additions, for example, red and yellow making orange. He was poetic in his descriptions of what the 20th century now confirm as primaries, stating that, «Yellow in its highest purity always carries with it the nature of brightness, and has a serene, gay softly exciting character ... Hence in painting it belongs to the illuminated and emphatic side». Of Carmine red he wrote, «The effect of this colour is as peculiar as its nature. It conveys an impression of gravity and dignity, and at the same time of grace and attractiveness». Of blue, «This colour has a peculiar and almost indescribable effect on the eye. As a hue it is powerful, but it is on the negative side, and in its highest purity, as it were a stimulating negation. Its appearance then is a kind of contradiction between excitement and repose». 105 

 

Fig. 6. Moses Harris colour Circle

Fig. 7. Ostwald – Triangular Cones

Colour theory is progressive, and there have been many artists and scientists involved in its often turbulent history (see fig. 6–7). These include: Moses Harris, who published «The Natural System of Colours» in 1766, now very rare and dedicated to Sir Joshua Reynolds, and containing «the first recorded examples of a colour circle illustrated in full hue». Ewald Hering, a German Psychologist, whose interest in colour led him to various experiments and conclusions; one of which being that the natural symbol of colour was the D in which all tones could be arranged. Wilhelm Ostwald 1853–1932 took up this doctrine in his colour system based on two triangular cones arranging the pure colours on the points of the Triangles. His system is very well organised, but according to Birren would be «more appropriate to abstract commercial design than to the fine art of painting». The laws of colour harmony accepted today are mainly descended from the chemist M. E. Chevreul. He discovered through his experiments that the apparent dullness of dyes was not related to the quality of the dyestuffs but was directly linked to the «subjective effect of optical mixture; adjacent threads of complementary hues were mixing in the eye to neutral grey». The laws he set out in his publication. «The Harmony of Contrast», 1839, have remained a constant part of art education. If students are learning about complementaries, triads and adjacents, 106 

 

they are applying Chevreul's principles. One law states that "In the case where the eye sees at the same time two continuous colours, they will appear as dissimilar as possible, both in their optical composition and in the height of their tone". In America, Ogden Rood (1831–1902) a physicist, amateur painter and graduate of Yale was one of the few colour Scientists who could not help but refer to the problems in painting alongside any technical and scientific data. He lived in Munich from 1854–1902, where much research into colour was done. His book «Modern Chromatics» was adopted by the Neo-Impressionists as one of their basic textbooks. His own painting remained traditional, and he was appalled by an exhibition of Impressionist paintings at Galleries Durand-Ruel. This included works by Monet and Pisarro. His son Roland who had studied in the Paris Art Schools, told him what these painters said of his theories. This was too much for his composure. He threw up his hands in horror and indignation, and cried, «If that is all I have done for art, I wish I had never written that book!» The other American best known to American British and Japanese students today was Albert H. Munsell (1859–1918). Again, like Rood and after studying in Europe, he patented his own colour sphere that has been adapted and still used as the standard in Britain today, alongside of Joseph Itten who worked at the Bauhaus and will be discussed later. Assignments 1. Read quickly and make a summary of the text. 2. Write down unknown words with transcription and translation into your mini dictionary. 3. Make up sentences with the words you have written. 4. Make up 15–20 sentences using the words and grammatical construction Future Perfect-Continuous Active. 5. Discuss the topic: «My Favourite Colours». 6. Play a game: «Snow ball»: Bill dislikes brown colour, Jack likes magenta colour and I adore red colour and so on. 7. Make a plan of the text according to the principle below; retell the text according to the plan (see table 9). Table 9 Summary of the previous text Person Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727) Goethe Ewald Hering Wilhelm Ostwald M. E. Chevreul

Scientific / Artistic Conception about Colours Mathematics Newton’s Colour Circle Literature – German Psychologist White colour is like D sound Colour solid classification White1853–1932 Black + Newton’s Colour Circle Chemist –

Field of Science / Art

107 

 

Text 2. BASIC COLOUR THEORY One of the most fundamental and misunderstood facets of printing is basic colour theory. Learn the foundation or polish up your knowledge on how colour work. The real challenge of printing or displaying colour images accurately is this: We are attempting to approximate the colours of the real world using devices or technologies that are not capable of reproducing anywhere near all the colours in the visible spectrum. Furthermore, some of technologies we choose are more capable than others. For example, a computer monitor generally does a much better job of simulating real colour than an inkjet printer does. This is one reason why we need Colour Management. Colour Management helps us get the most accurate colour output possible from whatever process or device we are using. Note: We will see that «accurate» is itself a subjective term. In fact, most customers often don't want accurate colours: they want «extreme» or fluorescent colours that draw attention at a trade show. However, for the time being we will use accurate to mean colours that are as close to the real world as possible. Colour Models. Humans have chosen several different colour models or colour spaces to help us describe and reproduce colour. These colour models allow us to specify colours using physical representations and numeric values. The following section summarizes the colour spaces most commonly used in graphics reproduction. RGB and Additive Colour: The Red, Green, Blue or RGB colour space approximates the way the human eye works (see fig. 8, 9). It is used to create colour on TVs and computer screens, on photo film and on such digital output devices as the ZBE Chromira, Durst Lambda and Gretag LightJet. Scanners and digital cameras capture colour data in the RGB space. RGB is called additive colour because it «paints» with light. We use this model because the Fig. 8. Various seconthree wavelengths of the RGB primaries more or dary colours are produced less correspond to the signals that are transmitted by mixing RGB primaries from the eye the brain. We see in RGB. Computer monitor technology provides a good example of how RGB makes colour. The monitor fires three electron guns at the screen, one for each primary colour (R, G and B). If all three are mixed at full strength, the combined RGB primaries will produce white. When Red and Green are mixed at full strength, the resulting colour is Yellow. When Red and Blue are mixed at full strength, the resulting colour is Magenta. When Blue and Green and mixed at full strength, the resulting colour is Cyan. Not coincidentally, these are the primary colours of another colour space: CMY. We will discuss CMY in a moment. 108 

 

Fig. 9. We can specify Cyan by entering values of R = 0, G = 255 and B = 255 in the Photoshop Colour Picker

RGB is a three-dimensional colour space and any colour within the space can be described using three numbers. We can represent Cyan, for example, as R = 0, G = 255, B = 255. In Adobe Photoshop and most other application software, levels of the RGB primaries are described in a range from 0–255, rather than a percentage from 0–100 %. When all three primaries are at 255, the screen should be white. When all three primaries are at 0, the screen should be black. When all three primaries are shown at any equal value, the screen should display a neutral grey. One of the main challenges in inkjet printing is that photoimages (TIFF files, for example) are usually captured in RGB, but will ultimately be rendered in CMYK. Since the characteristics of these two spaces are quite different, we need to convert the image – usually from RGB to CMYK – in a way that maximizes the capabiliFig. 10. An illustrative image ties of the CMYK printing process (see fig. 10, 11). But before we get ahead of ourselves, let's move on to the CMY(K) colour model. CMYK and Subtractive Colour: Cyan, Magenta and Yellow or CMY is the colour model used for most printing devices that print with ink (usually in the form of CMYK). This includes offset presses, inkjet and electrostatic Fig. 11. Incoming light is filprinters. The CMY colour space is the theoreti- tered by CMYK inks, allowing cal opposite of the RGB colour space, but it is the unabsorbed colours to be reflected to the eye also complementary to it. 109 

 

Rather than adding the primaries together to create new colours, CMY subtracts colours from white. White is composed of all colours combined. In the CMY scenario, we begin with white paper, which is in theory the full spectrum colour palette. We see white because incoming light is reflected off the paper back to our eyes. With no ink on the paper, we will see all of the white reflected. When we print with a specific shade of ink, some of the spectrum is absorbed by the ink, and the rest is reflected to our eyes. Put another way: each of the CMY primary colours acts as a filter, which absorbs a specific wavelength and reflects the rest back to our eye. This is where the complementary relationship between CMY and RGB comes into play. As shown in the chart, each of the CMY primaries absorbs one the of the RGB primaries, leaving us to «see» the other two. Cyan absorbs Red, so what we see is the Blue and Green that is reflected back. One of the difficulties with the CMY model is that real life physical inks are less efficient at creating colours than RGB processes, which use light. In addition, some CMY primary colours – notably Cyan – are less efficient than others. These conditions are due to several factors, including variations in raw materials and manufacturing processes. In most cases (but not all), creating colours in a RGB space allows us a wider colour gamut than creating colours in CMY. We can see this quite clearly when we begin to mix secondary colours using CMY. You will recall that when we mixed RGB primaries in equal percentages, we got a neutral grey of some sort. However, when we mix equal parts of CMY, we don't get a neutral grey. We get a grey with a colour cast. If we want a neutral grey to print in CMY, we must compensate for the fact that Cyan is weaker than Magenta and Yellow. For example, a 25 % neutral CMY grey is often specified as C = 25, M = 17, Y = 17 for offset printing. This is another hint as to the problems involved with printing RGB image originals in CMY. Obviously, these inefficiencies are a factor when it comes to mixing secondary colours with CM and Y. The «RGB» secondary colours we generate using CMY inks will clearly not correspond to the more ideal colour combinations we generate with «real RGB». For example, the Red created by mixing Magenta and Yellow inks will not match the Red primary on a colour monitor. However, we can improve our results using colour correction and colour management methods. Finally, if we mix all three CMY primaries at 100% each, we should get pure black, but in real life, we don't. We get a brownish-grey. This is why Black ink – represented as «K» – has been added to the printing process. We need a «real» black in order to render the deep shadow areas that CMY combinations can't handle. We also need K in order to print «real» black text and line work. Combined with CM and Y, the K channel completes the CMYK colour space. 110 

 

Table 10 Incoming light is filtered by CMYK inks CMY Primary Cyan Magenta

Absorbs Red Green

Reflects Green/Blue Red/Blue

Once again, we can describe a colour in the four dimensional CMYK colour space by using a series of four numbers, each of which is a percentage of a primary (see table 10). The orange shown in the left column is represented as C= 0, M = 64, Y = 86. These numerical specs are a useful way to describe colour, but they are still relative. The colour of CMY inks vary dramatically, meaning that a wide range of secondary colours will be produced by mixing the same percentages of different brands, and in some case different batches of the same brand. Go here for a more detailed discussion on inks and media. Although devices that use the RGB colour model generally have a wider colour gamut than those using CMYK, the additional K channel provides quite a bit of flexibility in controlling tone range on a printed image. Understanding and controlling the behaviour of the Black channel is a major advantage in image quality control. In the past couple of years, HIFI and extended gamut inkjet printers have been introduced that add other primary colours to the basic CMYK. This process began with the addition of Orange and Green; the latest models offer other options such as Blue and Red, or even Turquoise or spot colours on the latest fabric printers. So what we really need to handle all of these different inks and output devices is a standard colour model where the numeric colour description values are universal. Assignments 1. Read and translate the text. 2. Write down unknown words with transcription and translation into your mini dictionary. 3. Make up sentences with the words you have written. 5. Make up 15–20 sentences using the words and grammatical construction «Present Perfect Passive». 6. Find out all infinitive constructions, paying attention to their translation. 7. Discuss different colour models and colour spaces, which help us to describe and reproduce colour with your partner. 8. Give the gist of the text.

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GLOSSARY Part I A

acid rain aerobic bacteria aerosol propellant airborne algae and aquatic plants ample animal arable land

кислотный дождь аэробные бактерии аэрозольный газ-вытеснитель воздушный водоросли и водяные растения богатый, достаточный (мир) животное пахотная земля

B

border break down breathe burn and cut forest by-product car exhausts carbon dioxide cattle breeding chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs combustion contaminant (pollutant) contaminate contamination content course damage current rate

граничить разрушать, распадаться дышать жечь и вырубать лес побочный продукт выхлопные газы двуокись углерода животноводство фторхлорпроизводные насыщенных углеводородов, фреоны сгорание загрязняющее вещество загрязнять загрязнение, заражение содержимое причинять вред текущий уровень

D

damage decline of forests deforestation depletion destruction devastate digest disappearance disaster disastrous discharge dispersant dissolve drought dry up dump

вред гибель лесов вырубка леса, уничтожение леса истощение, исчерпывание разрушение опустошать переваривать исчезновение бедствие катастрофический выпускать, извергать (о вулкане) рассеянный, распыленный растворять засуха высыхать свалка (мусора)

E

earthquake emission

землетрясение выделение тепла, излучение света

C

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emission enterprise environment equilibrium escape estuary evaporate excess exhaust explosion exposure fade fell fiber fine suspended particulate matter flood foam rubber fossil fuel fossilize fresh fuel wood fume greenhouse gases ground water

выброс загрязняющих веществ в атмосферу предприятие окружающая среда равновесие выделять, бежать, испускать устье реки испаряться избыток выхлопные газы взрыв пребывание под воздействием постепенно исчезать рубка леса волокно, нить мельчайшие взвешенные в воздухе частички наводнение пенорезина (ископаемое) топливо превращаться в окаменелость пресный древесина, используемая в качестве топлива дым, испарение парниковые газы грунтовые воды

H

harmful heated hunger

вредный нагретый голод

I

ice sheets incoming and outgoing energy infrared radiation inhabitants insulator intensity

полосы льда, ледяной покров получаемая и выделяемая энергия инфракрасное излучение жители изолятор интенсивность

L

large scale extraction lead pollution lead livestock wastes logging

крупномасштабная добыча загрязнение свинцом свинец отходы крупного рогатого скота лесозаготовки

M

major pollution events methane mitigate mortality rate

случаи сильного загрязнения воздуха метан смягчать смертность

N

nature nitrogen oxide nitrogen nitrous oxide

природа окись азота азот окись азота

F

G

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nutrient

питательное вещество

O

oxygen

кислород

P

particles pearl perish pollute power station precipitation preservation pulp and paper factory pump out purity

частички жемчужина гибнуть загрязнять электростанция осадки сохранение, предохранение целлюлозно-бумажный комбинат откачать чистота

R

rare reclamation re-establish refrigerant research center

редкий освоение возрождаться, восстанавливаться охладитель исследовательский центр

S

shelter shore sink smokestacks soot source species stranded fish substance sulphur dioxide surface

приют, убежище берег поглотитель дымовые трубы сажа источник вид рыба, выброшенная на берег вещество двуокись серы поверхность

T

tectonic the population growth timber

тектонический рост населения лес, лесоматериал

U

uninhabitable upset balance urban dweller

непригодный для жилья, нежилой нарушать баланс городской обитатель

V

vehicle vital

автотранспортное средство, машина жизненно необходимый

W

waste disposal water vapor water vapour

удаление мусора водяной пар, водная пыль водяная пыль

Part II A

accentuation acquaint with adjust

выделение/выделяющая часть текста ознакомиться настраивать 114 

 

angle angle brackets apostrophe arrow arrow-head attribute axis

угол наклона угловые скобки апостроф стрелка острие стрелы свойство ось

B

back background blot blur bottom braces brackets brightness broken brackets

задняя часть фон клякса размазать низ фигурные скобки скобки яркость угловые скобки

C

centre close colon colour coma contour convert copy core correction cross cursor cut

центр/центровать закрывать двоеточие цвет запятая контур преобразовывать копия/копировать сердцевина исправление крестик курсор вырезать

D

dash dash pattern delete deposit deselect detail diagram distortion dot dotted line double sign drag draw duplicate

тире пунктир удалить депонировать снять отметку с деталь диаграмма искажение точка/точка (рисованная) пунктир знак плюс-минус перетаскивать чертить снимать копию

E

edge edit enlarge

кромка редактировать увеличивать 115 

 

equals sign erase exclamation mark

знак равенства стирать восклицательный знак

F

filling flag foreground front hyphen

заливка флажок передний план передняя часть дефис

I

icon image include insert intersection inverted comas

иконка изображение подключать вставить пересечение кавычки

J

join

стык

L

layer left bracket line

слой левая скобка линия

M

manipulate marginal note mark minus sign mode modify move

манипулировать выноска (на полях) пометка знак минус режим модифицировать передвигать

N

notation note

форма записи запись

O

object open outline output overprint

объект открывать очертание делать вывод наложение

P

page paint parenthesis paste pencil mark plus sign print publish

страница краска простые скобки вставить запись карандашом знак плюс печатать опубликовать

Q

quantifier question mark quotation mark

квантор знак вопроса кавычки (при цитате) 116 

 

R

readjust reduce remove rename reposition resize restore retouch review review right bracket rotate round brackets

перенастраивать уменьшать перенести переименовать переставлять изменять размер воссоздавать ретушировать просматривать рецензировать правая скобка вращать круглые скобки

S

scale scan scheme scrawl/scribble semicolon shear side signature skip slash softness spiral spot square brackets store stroke symbol

масштаб/масштабировать просматривать/сканировать схема писать (плохо) точка с запятой сдвиг фрагмента сторона подпись пропускать косая черта сглаживание спираль пятно квадратные скобки хранить в памяти штрих символ

T

tear text field texture tick top type

рвать текстовое поле текстура галочка верх печатать

U

underlining update

подчеркивание обновлять

V

view

просматривать

W

web-page weight window

веб-страница вес/толщина окно

117 

 

БИБЛИОГРАФИЧЕСКИЙ СПИСОК

1. Albers, Josef (2006). Interaction of Colour. Revised and Expanded Edition. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-11595-4. 2. Arbekova, T. I. Correct English for Everyday Use / T. I. Arbekova. – М. : Высшая школа, 1985. 3. Bockemuhl, M. 1991. Turner. Koln : Taschen. ISBN 3-8228-6325-4. 4. Chamber. Thesaurus, a comprehensive word-finding dictionary. – London : Harrap’s, 1990. 5. Duck, Michael, Newton and Goethe on colour: Physical and physiological considerations, Annals of Science, Volume 45, Number 5, September 1988 , pp. 507–519(13). Taylor and Francis Ltd. 6. En.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution. 7. En.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming. 8. En.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollution. 9. Environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/natural-disasters. 10. Gleick, James Chaos, pp. 165–7; William Heinemann Publishers, London, 1988. 11. Goethe, Theory of Colours trans. Charles Lock Eastlake. – Cambridge, Massachusetts : The M.I.T. Press, 1982 ISBN 0-262-57021-1. 12. Harrap’s mini English Dictionary edited by P. H. Collin. – Harrap : London, 1988. – 633 p. 13. Laird Ch. Webster's New World Thesaurus. – N.Y. : New American Library, 1971. 14. Library.thinkquest.org/11353/greenhouse.htm. 15. Matrix intermediate, Kathy Gude, Oxford University Press, 2005. 16. Matrix upper-intermediate, Kathy Gude, Oxford University Press, 2005. 17. New Headway, Liz&John Soars, Oxford University Press, 2005. 18. Proskauer, the Rediscovery of Colour, Steiner Books, 1986. 19. Revolution.allbest.ru/languages/00002890_0.htm. 20. Ribe, Neil; Steinle, Friedrich, Physics Today, Exploratory Experimentation: Goethe, Land, and Colour Theory', Volume 55, Issue 7, July 2002. Goethe, Theory of Colours, trans. Charles Lock Eastlake, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The M.I.T. Press, 1982, ISBN 0-262-57021-1. 21. Schopenhauer, On Vision and Colours, Providence: Berg, 1994, ISBN 0-85496-988-8. 22. Sepper, Dennis L., Goethe contra Newton: Polemics and the Project for a New Science of Colour, Cambridge University Press, 2007, ISBN 0-52153132-2. 118 

 

23. Steiner, Rudolf, First Scientific Lecture-Course, Third Lecture, Stuttgart, 25 December 1919; GA320. 24. Steiner, Rudolf, Goethe's World View, Chapter III, the Phenomena of the World of Colours, 1897. 25. The Pocket Oxford Spanish Dictionary. Second Edition / Chief Editors: Carvajal C. S., Horwood J. – Oxford : Oxford University press, 2000. – 997 p. 26. Topics.nytimes.com/topics/news/science/topics/globalwarming/index.html. 27. Waldemer Schapiro. Russian-English, English-Russian Dictionary / Collins Gem. – Glasgow : Harper Collins Publishers. 1991. – 632 p. 28. Wittgenstein, Remarks on Colour, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1978 ISBN 0-520-03727-8. 29. Www.globalwarming.org. 30. Www.springerlink.com/index/J40MK318P50870QG.pdf. 31. Www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/fossil_fuels/the-hidden-cost-of-fossilfuels.html. 32. Www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/waterpollution.htm. 33. Андреев, С. М. Англо-русский словарь научно технической терминологии / С. М. Андреев. – Харьков : Факт, 1995. 34. Лингвистический энциклопедический словарь / под ред. Ярцева. – М. : Наука, 1990.

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ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ

Предисловие................................................................................................... 3 Введение ......................................................................................................... 5 Part 1. Information Systems and Technology in Ecology .............................. 6 Unit 1 Ecological problems. Overview ............................................... 6 Unit 2 Types of Pollution .................................................................... 13 Unit 3 Global Warming....................................................................... 34 Unit 4 Natural Disasters ...................................................................... 51 Unit 5 Solutions................................................................................... 66 Part 2. Technology of Printing Production ..................................................... 79 Unit 1. Development of Printing ......................................................... 79 Unit 2. Modern Types of Printing ....................................................... 91 Unit 3. Books and Illustrations ........................................................... 96 Unit 4. The Theory of Colours ............................................................ 105 Glossary ........................................................................................................... 112 Библиографический список.......................................................................... 118

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