Understanding Wines: Explaining Style and Quality

Understanding wines:Explaining styleand quality An accompaniment

to

WSET®Level 3 Award in Wines

Understanding wines:Explaining styleand quality An accompaniment

to

WSET® Level 3 Award in Wines

Wine & SpiritEducationTrust 39-45 Bermondsey Street, London SEl 3XF

a

[email protected]

wsetglobal.com

o Wine & SpiritEducationTrust2016

All rightsreserved.No part of this publicationmay be reproducedor transmitted in any form or by any means,electronicor mechanical,including photocopying,recordingor any informationstorageor retrievalsystem,without the prior permissionin writing from the publishers. A CIPcataloguerecordfor this book is availablefrom the BritishLibrary ISBN 978 1 905819 39 3 PHOTOGRAPHICCREDITS 1, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 12, 52, 53 (Rob Lawson); 15, 17 (Dennis Sterne); 16 (Matt Sills); 22 (Image 1) CIVC; 23 (Image 1) (Elizabeth Clark, Airlie Winery); 24, 47 (Image 1), 48 (Image 1), 184, 190 (Images 1, 3), 193 (Nicolia Littlewood); 38 (Images 2, 3, 4), 39 (Images 8, 11) (Warman Media); 38 (Image 13) (MontTauch); 38 (Image 14), 39 (Image 7) (BIVB,Bernuy J.L.); 38 (Image 15) (Palliser Estate Wines of Martin borough); 39 (Image 5), 103 (5opexa); 51 (Image 1) (Australian Vintage Limited); 51 (Image 2) (Linda Simpson); 59 (top, middle) (Charles Sydney); 59 (bottom) (Constellation Brands); 61 (Jordan Winery); 69 (Image 1) (Lawson Dry Hills Wines Ltd.); 71, 108 (David Allen MW);78, 81 (top), 122 (Michelle Cherutti-Kowal MW);81 (bottom) (Richard Bampfield Mw/Chateau Preuillac); 82 (CIVB); 88 (BIVB/ Armellephotographe.com);

95 (Lindsay Oram); 99 (bottom), 102, 104 (Inter Rhone Picture Library (10Christophe Grilhe)); 105 (CIVPF.MILLO);

112 (GermanWine lnstitute/www.germanwines.de);114 (0 AWMBWernerGarnerith);119 (NikosDesyllas,Winesfrom Santorini);126 (ConsorzioChianti Classico); 130 (©Donnafugata, Piero Lazzari); 131 (© ICEX,Fernando Briones); 135 (© ICEX, Felix Lorrio); 136 (© ICEX,Bodegas Senorio de Arinzano); 137 (© ICEX, Rafael Vargas); 141 (Sogrape); 143 (Sonoma County Vintners); 148 (top) (Carolyn Wells-Kramer); 148 (bottom)l10Joel Butler Mw); 151 (lnniskillin Wines); 153, 154 (Wines of Chile); 162 (bottom) (WOSA), 172 (Giesen Wines Ltd.); 181 (Azienda Agricola Paolo Zucchetto); 182 (David Milne, Josef Chromy Wines); 190 (Image 2) (ICEP Portugal); 192 (Images 1, 3) (Symington Family Estate); 192 (Image 2) (Taylor's QAVB). WSET:21 (top), 38 (Images 1, 16), 39 (Image 12), 97, 99 (top), 187 (WSET); 21 (middle), 22 (Image 2), 23 (Image 2), 31, 36, 39 (Images 6, 10), 41 (Image 2), 45 (Image 4), 47 (Image 2), 51 (Image 3), 85, 86, 90, 93, 94, 117, 123, 125, 173, 175 (Image 3), 180 (Antony Moss MW);21 (bottom), 26, 27, 30, 33, 37, 45 (Images 1, 2, 3, 5), 47 (Image 3), 48 (Image 2), 68, 69 (Image 2), 139, 144, 146, 147, 157 (Images 1, 3), 158, 162 (top), 165, 167, 171, 175 (Image 2) (Michael Buriak); 39 (Image 9) (Nicholas King); 41 (Image 1) (Angela Fordham); 157 (Image 2) (Janet Bangs); 175 (Image 1) (Harriet Furze). LABELS 75 (top) (Albert Bichot); 75 (bottom) (Constellation Brands). MAPS Maps designed by Cosmographics Ltd DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS Diagrams and illustrations produced by CalowCraddock Ltd Designed by Peter Dolton Editing and proofreading by Cambridge Editorial Ltd

Productionservicesby Wayment Print & PublishingSolutionsLtd Printed and bound by Pureprint Group, Uckfield, UK

iii

Contents

Foreword Introduction

V

vii

Section 1: Wine and the Consumer

1 The Systematic Approach to Tasting Wine •

23 Austria

113

24 Tokaj

116

25 Greece

118

26 Introduction to Italy

120

27 Northern Italy

121

2 Wine with Food

11

28 Central Italy

126

3 Storage and Service of Wine

15

29 Southern Italy

129

30Spain

131

31 Portugal

139

32 Introduction to the USA

142

33 California

143

34 Oregon, Washington and New York

148

35Canada

150

36Chile

152

Section 2: Factors Affecting the Style, Quality and Price of Wine

4 The Vine

19

5 The Growing Environment

24

6 Vineyard Management

33

7 Common Elements in Winemaking and

43

Maturation 8 White and Sweet Winemaking

55

37 Argentina

156

9 Red and RoseWinemaking

63

38 South Africa

160

10 Factors that Affect the Price of Wine

71

39 Australia

164

11 Wine and the Law

74

40 New Zealand

170

Section 3: Still Wines of the World

Section 4: Sparkling Wines of the World

12 Introduction to France

77

41 Sparkling Wine Production

173

13 Bordeaux

78

42 Sparkling Wines of the World

179

14 The Dordogne and South West France

83

15 Burgundy

85

16 Beaujolais

90

17 Alsace

92

18 The Loire Valley

95

19 The Northern Rhone

99

20 The Southern Rhone

102

21 Southern France

105

22Germany

108

Section 5: Fortified Wines of the World

43 Sherry

184

44 Port

190

45 Fortified Muscats

195

Acknowledgements

196

Index

197

.

,

V

Foreword

As someone responsible for two of the meatier wine reference books, The Oxford Companion to Wine and The World Atlas of Wine, I am only too aware of how rapidly the world of wine is now changing. Updating the Oxford book, for example, generally involves some change to at least half the entries, and the addition of an extraordinary number of new ones. This is why the WSETconstantly works to keep their materials up to date. The world's premier source of wine education has to be up to date and seen to be up to date with the myriad developments in wine production and consumption the world over. The teaching and courses now offered by the WSETare unrecognisably different from those I benefited from as I began my wine writing career in the 1970s. I seem to remember that then, for example, we spent a great deal of time studying the minutiae of Sherry production, something that is - quite unjustifiably in my view - not exactly in the most sought-after aspect of wine education nowadays. And even when I did my Master of Wine exams in 1984, Australian wine was still regarded as at best a novelty, at worst a joke. (Who's laughing now?) I was thrilled when in 1978 I learned that I had won the top prize for WSETDiploma students, then called the Rouyer Guillet cup, the forerunner of today's Vintners' Cup. Until then I was not at all sure what standard my wine knowledge was, but I felt confident that, thanks to the thoroughness of the WSETsyllabus, I really had covered the ground in its entirety, not just those little byways that interested me most. I know that the courses have been constantly adapted, particularly in recent years, to reflect the sort of wines most often made and drunk now. When people tell me they want to get into the wine trade, or simply advance their wine knowledge for their personal enjoyment, I always draw their attention to the WSETcourses, whether in the UK or further afield. I'm sure that you will find this book as useful as I found my WSETcourses.

Jancis Robinson MW www.jancisrobinson.com

vii

Introduction

Since the Wine & Spirit Education Trust was founded in 1969, the world of wine has grown and developed out of all recognition. Nevertheless, despite all the change, the most interesting question remains the same; what are the factors that determine the style and quality of the wine in my glass?This book, which supports the WSETLevel 3 Award in Wines, seeks to answer this question. Altogether, this programme of study is designed to enable you to develop the skills to be able to answer this question confidently no matter what the wine you encounter. In order to be able to develop these skills it is vital that you get to grips with grape growing and winemaking. This book has a vital role to play. The sections that cover these subjects explain the key concepts and processes that are involved from bud burst to bottling. This is supported by a significant number of new illustrations and pictures. Furthermore, throughout this section we place these techniques in context in order to show you how they are actually used. In particular, the chapters on winemaking offer a unique insight for a book of this size into the choices that are made in the winery. The other chapters on individual wine producing regions and countries have been updated for this new edition. Each one focuses on the key factors that will remain constant so that you will have a core of knowledge which, when used in conjunction with the chapters on production, will mean that you will be able to explain to your friends, customers or colleagues why the wines they love taste the way they do. I hope that you enjoy studying for the Level 3 Award in Wines and I wish you every success in the examination.

l Ian Harris Chief Executive, Wine & Spirit Education Trust

THESYSTEMATIC APPROACHTOTASTINGWINE"

TheSystematic Approach to Tasting Wine®

The WSET Level 3.Syst~matic Approach to Tasting Wine (SAT)

is a tool that allows you to write a complete description of a wine and then use this information to make an evaluation of its quality and readiness for drinking. It is a very structured and methodical approach to tasting and is therefore not an approach that is suitable for every occasion. Nevertheless, practising with the SAT will provide a disciplined and structured template that will remind you to consider all of the important elements of a wine.

THE PURPOSE OF THE SAT

The SATis a teaching aid and assessment tool that was devised by the WSETto be used in conjunction with its qualifications. It is designed to develop two fundamental skills: the ability to describe a wine accurately and the ability to make reasonable conclusions based on these descriptions. THE FORMAT OF THE SAT

The first part of the SATconsists of three sections entitled 'Appearance; 'Nose' and 'Palate'. This is the descriptive element of the SAT.Each section has its own category headings which appear in the left-hand column. The right-hand column lists the terms that you can select to describe each category heading. For example, to describe the 'Appearance' of a white wine you might select 'clear'for the category heading 'Clarity; 'pale'for 'Intensity' and 'lemon' for 'Colour'. In some cases, you are restricted to using the specific terms as they appear listed, and in other cases the specific terms are optional. This is explained in more detail below. The second part of the SATconsists of one section entitled 'Conclusions'.This is the evaluative part of the SAT. It contains two category headings: 'Quality Level' and 'Level of readiness for drinking/potential for ageing'. The righthand column lists the terms that you can select for each category heading. For example, you might select'good'in the'Quality Level' category and 'can drink now, but has potential for ageing' in the 'Level of readiness for drinking/ potential for ageing' category . In the 'Conclusions' section of the SATyou are restricted to using the specific terms as they appear listed. The SATis supported by a second document, the WineLexicon. This appears on the reverse side of the laminated SATcard. The Wine-Lexicon is a list of descriptive words covering some suggested aroma and flavour terms that may help you to describe the wine you are tasting. USING THE SAT

In the Level 3 tasting examination the terms you select to describe and evaluate each wine will allow the examiners to assesshow accurately you can identify its aroma and flavour characteristics and structural

components, and draw conclusions about its quality and readiness for drinking. The examiners recognise that different tasters have different levels of sensitivity to a wine's structural components such as sugar, acidity, tannin and alcohol. However, the examiners expect that through a combination of practice and coaching you will have calibrated your palate against those of your educators and peers. In practice, this means being able to classify the levels of a certain wine's components relative to the general world of wines.

Hyphenated Lines Where terms in the right-hand column of the SATare separated by a hyphen (for example, 'lemon-green lemon - gold - amber - brown' in 'Colour'), you should select only one of the terms to describe the wine. If you think the wine sits on the border of'ruby' and 'garnet; you must make a decision and select one of them, rather than using a range such as 'ruby-garnet' or'ruby to garnet'. If the examiner considers that both 'ruby' and 'garnet' are valid descriptions, then marks will be awarded for either description. If you use a range, for example, 'ruby to

1

2

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

garnet; then the examiner will not give you the mark because you have not been specific enough. For hyphenated lines you must also limit yourself to the words that are used for each scale as they appear in the SAT.For example, when you describe'lntensity'you must only use either'pale; 'medium' or'deep'. There are many other adjectives that can be used to describe wine, but for assessment purposes the use of words needs to be consistent between examiners and candidates, and this is best achieved by limiting you to the words in the SAT.

'e.g:Lines Note that where 'Aroma characteristics' appears in the 'Nose' section and 'Flavour characteristics' appears in the 'Palate' section, terms in the right-hand column are preceded by 'e.g:.For these category headings you are not restricted to the terms in the right-hand column of the SAT.You are, however, strongly encouraged to use the terms in the Wine-Lexicon. Using the Scales The version of the SAT used for the Level 2 Award in Wines and Spirits relies on three-point scales to describe the structural components of a wine. For example, the scale for 'Acidity' is 'low - medium - high'. At Level 3 many of these three-point scales have been refined so that a more accurate description can be made . For most of the scales this involves subdividing the range that is covered by 'medium' into three equal parts: 'medium(-) - medium - medium(+)'to make a five-point scale. It is very important to realise that this is not a scale of five equal parts. For example, 'medium(+)' can be thought of as 'medium, but towards the upper end of the medium band'. 'Medium' is divided this way because the majority of observations for the majority of wines lie within this range, and subdividing it makes it possible for you to describe a wine more precisely. It can be tempting to over-use 'medium' (including 'medium(+)' and 'medium(-)'). The danger here is that tasting notes end up consisting almost entirely of mediums, and fail to capture the true character of certain wines. In order to avoid this it can be useful to make an initial assessment using the basic three-point scale, classifying a component as 'low: 'medium' or'high'. The restricted range of terms encourages you to be bolder in using the ends of the scale. Then, you can return to the components you have described as 'medium' and decide whether to further refine this assessment with a(+) or a(-). Wines that are used in examinations can have some components that have high or low levels. Remember, if you think the acidity is a remarkable feature, but your awareness of wines with even higher acidity is making you hesitate to describe it as 'high' rather than 'medium (+): then you should remember that 'high' is also a range. Be confident to use the ends of the scales; they should not be reserved solely for wines that are at the extremes. Note that some scales are not divided this way and

these will be considered in turn throughout the body of this chapter.

PREPARINGFORTASTING In order to taste wine effectively, you need to prepare a suitable tasting environment, and you need to prepare yourself. The ideal tasting environment has good natural lighting, for judging the appearance of wines, and is odour free, to avoid interfering with wine aromas. It also has sufficient space for you to lay out your wine glasses, and make your notes. Spittoons should be available near where you are tasting. To prepare yourself, you should have a clean palate, free of toothpaste or the lingering flavours of strongtasting food. You should also be well hydrated, because dehydration may cause your nasal aroma receptors to become dry, and lose their sensitivity to aromas . Note that it is easy to become dehydrated when tasting a large number of wines, as you will be losing saliva every time you spit out a wine. You will need somewhere to record your notes. This could be something as simple as a notebook and pen, or a laptop or mobile phone with suitable software installed. You will also need suitable glassware, which should be odourless, colourless and free of any residues, such as detergent or dishwasher salts, or dirt left from unclean glass polishing cloths. The ISO glass (illustrated with an ideal tasting sample on page 1) is suitable for evaluating wines. The important features are the rounded bowl (to aid swirling the wine to release aromas) and the inwardsloping walls (to capture those aromas). There are many other glasses that are suitable for tasting, but they all share these two features, and are small enough to use with a tasting sample of wine, rather than requiring a larger sample. When pouring your samples, you should try to ensure you consistently pour the same volume into each glass. We suggest a 5 cl sample. This should be sufficient to assessthe appearance, nose and palate of the wine, but small enough that you are able to swirl the sample in the base of the bowl without spilling.

APPEARANCE Clarity For this line there is only a two-point scale: 'clear - hazy'. The vast majority of wines can be described as 'clear'. Haziness is caused by particles suspended in the wine. If a wine has an unusually high amount of suspended particles then it can be described as 'hazy'.This may indicate a fault but the precise nature of the fault can normally only be determined by assessing the wine on the nose and palate. Note that although some wines are deliberately hazy, these wines will not be used in the Level 3 tasting examination.

Intensity Intensity is how much colour the wine has. The level of intensity can be assessed by holding the glass at a 45°

THESYSTEMATIC APPROACHTOTASTINGWINE"

angle and looking through the liquid from above to see how far the colour extends from the core (at the deepest part of the bowl) to the rim (where there is the shallowest depth of wine). For red wines, it can also be assessed by looking down through an upright glass. In this instance, look at the point where the stem of the glass is attached to the bowl, and assess how easily the stem can be seen. All white wines appear colourless right at the rim when the glass is held at a 45° angle . A white wine that has a broad watery rim should be described as 'pale; whereas if the pigment reaches almost to the rim it should be described as 'deep'.For red wines, tilt the glass and look at the rim; if the wine is lightly pigmented from the rim to the core, it can be described as 'pale'.In this instance, when looking through an upright glass, it should be easy to clearly see the stem of the glass. If the wine is intensely pigmented right up to the rim, it should be described as 'deep; and looking down through the wine in the bowl, it should be impossible to see the stem.

Colour Colour is the balance of levels of red, blue, yellow, green or brown found in a wine, and is independent of the level of intensity . The composition of the wine at the rim is the same as the composition at the core, so the colour does not change when looking through different parts of the wine in a tilted glass. However, because the depth of liquid changes, the intensity of the colour changes. White and most rose wines appear very pale, almost colourless at the rim, so the colour is best judged where there is sufficient depth of liquid for the colour to be easily assessed:at the core. By contrast, many red wines are so deeply pigmented that they can appear opaque at the core, so their colour is most accurately assessed near the rim. When assessing colour, white wines can be placed on a scale that runs from 'lemon-green'to 'brown'. The most common colour for white wines is 'lemon'.If there is a noticeable greenness to the colour, the wine is 'lemongreen'.If there is a hint of orange or brown, the wine is 'gold'.Wines with a very noticeable level of browning could be described as 'amber' or'brown; but these will generally be wines that are very old, or wines that are deliberately oxidised. Red wines can be placed on a scale that runs from 'purple'through to 'brown'. The most common colour for red wine is 'ruby'.Wines with a noticeable blue or purple colour are described as 'purple'.If there is a noticeable orange or brown colour but the wine is still more red than brown, it is described as 'garnet'.If the wine is more brown than red, it may be described as 'tawny'.'Brown' should be used for wines where no redness in the colour remains. 'Tawny' and 'brown' are usually seen only in very old wines, or wines that are deliberately oxidised . A similar scale exists for rose wines, which can be considered as pale red wines, but by convention have

their own set of colour descriptions. 'Pink'describes wines that have a very pure pink colour . They may display a hint of purple. If a pink-coloured wine shows a hint of orange then it can be described as 'salmon'. 'Orange' can be used to describe a rose in which orange is the dominant colour . These wines are very rare. Note that although certain colours are more often found at certain levels of intensity ('brown; in a white wine, is usually 'deep; whereas 'lemon-green' is rarely 'deep'), it is possible to encounter all permutations of colour and intensity . Thus, 'deep ruby' differs from 'medium garnet ' both in the intensity of colour, and where it lies on the'purple'to'brown'spectrum.

Other Observations There are a few other observations that can be made about the appearance of a wine. When served in a suitable glass, all wines show legs (streams of liquid that adhere to the side of the glass after the wine has been swirled). Wines that contain sugar or high alcohol levels are more viscous and have thicker, more persistent legs. Some red wines are so intensely coloured that the legs are visibly pigmented. Legs are often also called tears. Some wines may have a deposit; this can indicate that the wine is unfined and/or unfiltered. Some still wines show a slight carbon dioxide spritz or petillance . Although this can be evidence of a fault (such as refermentation or malolactic fermentation in the bottle), some light-bodied, unoaked white wines are bottled with some dissolved carbon dioxide as this can add desirable freshness and texture. Bubbles are fundamentally important to sparkling wines . There are a number of factors, in particular the cleanliness of the wine glass, that can affect how the bubbles appear in a glass and therefore their appearance cannot reliably indicate anything about the quality of a wine.

NOSE A large part of the pleasure to be gained from tasting wine comes from the aromas, and the differences in character and complexity of the aromas account for

4

UNDERSTANDING WINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY

or coffee, and will lack freshness and fruitiness. Note that some wines are made in an oxidative style and in these cases it is not a fault. Out of condition - These wines have lost their vibrancy and freshness, and may taste dull and stale. This is either because they are too old or have been stored in bad conditions (too hot, too bright, too variable). There may be elements of oxidation too. Volatile acidity (VA) - All wines have some volatile acidity, and low levels help make the wine seem more fragrant and complex. However, high levels of VA can give the wine aromas that are often described as vinegar or nail polish remover. much of the difference between basic quality and very fine wines. You should swirl the liquid to release the aromas into the glass. Then, place your nose near the rim of the glass and take a short sniff, noting the condition, intensity, development and detailed characteristics of the aromas you find. Some aromas are very delicate, and you may gain some insight into the wine by taking a quick sniff before swirling. Condition Assessing faults is not a skill that is assessed in the Level 3 tasting examination. Nevertheless, it is important that you are aware of the common wine faults listed below and are able to identify them. TCA (Trichloroanisole) - This taint gives the wine aromas reminiscent of damp cardboard . At low levels the taint can be hard to identify, but fruit flavours in particular will be muted and the wine will appear less fresh. One of the main causes of this fault is tainted cork (see section Closuresin Chapter 7) and for this reason wines with TCA are often referred to as 'corked'. Reduction - This gives the wine a 'stinky' character; sometimes like rotten eggs, and sometimes more like boiled cabbage, boiled onions or blocked drains. Very low levels of reduction can be surprisingly pleasant, adding character and complexity. In some cases the stinky aromas will dissipate once the bottle is open . Sulfur dioxide - This is added to almost all wines (see section Su/fur Dioxide in Chapter 7), but levels tend to be highest in sweet white wines. At very high levels it can give a wine an acrid smell of recently extinguished matches. At lower levels, it can mask the fruitiness of a wine. Insufficient sulfur dioxide can lead to oxidation. Oxidation - This is the opposite of reduction. It is typically caused by a failure of the closure allowing unwanted oxygen to interact with the wine. The wine will appear deeper coloured and more brown than it should be. It may have aromas of toffee, honey, caramel

Brettanomyces ('Brett') - This is a yeast that can give wine plastic or animal aromas reminiscent of sticking plasters, hot vinyl, smoked meat, leather or sweaty horses. Some consumers enjoy these characters, and do not consider low levels of'Brett'to be a fault. Intensity As a general rule, if when you insert your nose into the glass the aromas are immediately apparent even without sniffing, then they are 'pronounced'. If, even after sniffing, you find the aromas to be faint and hard to detect, the intensity is 'light'. Otherwise, it falls into the 'medium' category;'medium( -); 'medium' or'medium(+)'. Aroma Characteristics Describing a wine's aroma can be a challenging task. When you initially smell a wine it can be overwhelming, especially if the wine is very complex. The Wine-Lexicon has been designed to help with this part of writing a tasting note by offering a structured approach to aroma identification and description. There are three main types of aromas: primary aromas, secondary aromas and tertiary aromas. The Wine-Lexicon is broken down into sections to reflect this. Each aroma type is subdivided into individual clusters, for example, 'Citrus fruit; 'Black fruit' and 'Herbaceous; which each include a number of descriptors, such as 'grapefruit; 'lemon; 'lime; etc. If you work through the individual aroma types systematically and ask yourself questions about the kind of aromas you are smelling, you will be less likely to miss something important. Note that not every wine will have primary, secondary and tertiary aromas. Primary Aromas These are the aromas that exist after fermentation. Some aromas come from the grapes and others are created during the fermentation process. A simple wine may show a very limited number of primary aromas, often all within the same cluster. A more complex wine may display many more primary aromas in a range of clusters. The vast majority of wines display

THESYSTEMATIC APPROACHTOTASTINGWINE•

fruity aromas but you should always consider whether a wine purely has fruit aromas or whether aromas from the floral, herbaceous or other primary clusters are present. Secondary Aromas These aromas are created by post-fermentation winemaking. The most obvious of these are aromas extracted from oak, such as vanilla and toast. Secondary aromas also include creamy, buttery characteristics from malolactic fermentation (MLF) or the yeasty and biscuity aromas that can develop as a result of lees contact or autolysis. Tertiary Aromas These aromas have their origin in ageing processes.The ageing process could be oxidative (caused by the action of oxygen), for example, due to a long period in oak. This can add tertiary aromas such as coffee, toffee or caramel. Alternatively, the ageing process could be protected from the action of oxygen, for example, due to a long period in bottle . This can add tertiary aromas such as petrol, honey or mushroom. In both instances, the ageing process changes the primary aromas. In particular, fruit aromas become less fresh and can take on a dried or cooked character. At this point, care must be taken because dried fruit and cooked fruit aromas can be present in youthful wines that have been made from dried grapes or from grapes grown in a hot climate. Development Generally if the wine is dominated by primary or secondary aromas, it can be described as 'youthful'. However, it is common for the secondary aromas, such as oak, to stand apart from the primary aromas of fruit at this stage, as they are not yet fully integrated. If most of the aromas in a wine are still primary and secondary, but some tertiary aromas can be detected, then it is 'developing'. If the predominant aromas are tertiary aromas the wine can be described as 'fully developed; even if there are still some primary and secondary aromas present. At this stage, the secondary aromas will usually be fully integrated and may be hard to distinguish from the tertiary aromas. The period of time it takes a wine to reach this point varies a great deal. For some it can happen quite quickly but for others, such as Vintage Port, it can take decades. Only a handful of wines will remain 'fully developed'for an extended period. Ultimately, all wines will deteriorate when the attractive aromas fade and unpleasant aromas start to develop. At this point a wine becomes 'tired/past its best'. Because development is a measure of the balance between primary/secondary aromas and tertiary aromas, it is possible that a wine is no longer 'youthful' when it is released for sale. For example, red Rioja Reservaswill have undergone a period of ageing before release and will usually have some tertiary aromas (see Chapter 30 Spain). Therefore, when they go on sale they are 'developing'.

Some wines, such as age indicated Tawny Ports and all Sherries, undergo an extended period of ageing prior to release (see Chapters 43 Sherryand 44 Port).Therefore, when they are put on sale, tertiary aromas predominate and these wines are 'fully developed'. Importantly, not all wines benefit from ageing. For such wines, the youthful aromas do not change in a positive way and attractive tertiary aromas never develop. They move very rapidly, in some cases in a matter of months, from 'youthful'to 'tired/past its best'. This is true of almost all roses, most inexpensive whites and many inexpensive reds. PALATE There are many different components to be considered on the palate and it is often necessary to take more than one sip of wine in order to assessit fully. In some cases, the effect of one component can interfere with the impression made by another: alcohol and fruit, for example, add to the perception of sweetness, whereas acidity can mask sweetness. As a trained taster, you are aiming to assessthe actual levels of these components, not the apparent level, by reference to objective criteria. Sweetness Sweetness is the taste of sugars present in the wine. A 'dry' wine has no sugar or has levels that are so low that they cannot be detected by the tongue. If the wine has a tiny amount of detectable sugar, the wine is described as 'offdry'. Many 'dry' Alsace Gewurztraminers, Brut Champagnes, and inexpensive reds and whites are in fact'off-dry'. 'Medium-dry' and 'medium-sweet' cover wines with a distinct presence of sugar, but which are generally not sweet enough to partner most desserts. 'Medium-sweet' wines have higher levels of detectable sugar than 'medium-dry' wines. 'Sweet' covers wines where the presence of sugar has become the prominent feature of the wine. This rather broad category covers most classic sweet wines such as Sauternes and Port. There are a few very sweet wines that are described as 'luscious'.Here the level of sugar is such that the wines are notably more viscous and the wine leaves the mouth and lips with a sticky sweet

5

6

UNDERSTANDING WINES:EXPLAINING STYLEAND QUALITY

WSET Level3 SystematicApproachto TastingWine® Notesto students: Forlineswheretheentries areseparated bya hyphen-

APPEARANCE clear-hazy(faulty?)

Clarity

Youmustselectoneandonly

Intensity

oneoftheseoptions.

Colour

pale- medium - deep

white lemon -green - lemon- gold- amber- brown

rosepink- salmon - orange Forlinesstartingwith'e.g: wheretheentriesare separated withcommas -

red purple- ruby- garnet- tawny- brown Otherobservations

e.g.legs /tears,deposit, petillance, bubbles

These areentriesthatyoushould consider whenwriting your tastingnote.Youmaynotneed tocomment oneachentryfor everywine.

NOSE Condition

clean- unclean (faulty?)

Intensity

light- medium(-)-medium -medium(+)-pronounced

Aroma characteristics

e.g.primary, secondary, tertiary

Development

youthful - developing - fullydeveloped - tired/past itsbest

PALATE Sweetness

dry- off-dry- medium -dry- medium -sweet- sweet- luscious

Acidity

low- medium(-)-medium -medium(+)- high

Tannin

low- medium(-)-medium -medium(+)- high

Alcohol

low- medium - high fortifiedwines:low- medium - high

Body

light-medium(-)-medium -medium(+)-full

Mousse

delicate - creamy - aggressive

Flavour intensity

light- medium( -) - medium - medium(+) - pronounced

Flavour characteristics

e.g.primary, secondary, tertiary

Finish

short-medium( -)- medium - medium(+)-long

CONCLUSIONS ASSESSMENT OFQUALITY Quality level

faulty- poor- acceptable - good- verygood- outstanding

Levelofreadiness fordrinking/ potential forageing

tooyoung

candrinknow, buthaspotential forageing

sensation after swallowing or spitting. Examples include Rutherglen Muscats and PX Sherries. Acidity The main acids in wine are tartaric and malic (from the grape juice) or lactic (converted from malic acid in all reds and many whites). In some cases,acid is added in the winery (see section Adjustments in Chapter 7 for more details). Unlike volatile acidity, these acids are odourless and can only be detected on the palate. For most people, acidity is detected most strongly at the sides of the tongue, where it causes a sharp, tingling sensation, and makes your mouth water as it tries to restore its natural acid balance. The more your mouth

drinknow:not suitable forageing orfurtherageing

tooold

waters, and the longer it waters, the higher the level of acidity in the wine. Note that if you are dehydrated when tasting, your mouth will water less.Wines described as having 'low acidity'will feel broad, round and soft. 'High acidity ' tends to be found in wines made from grapes ripened in cool conditions and can cause these wines to be especially mouth-watering. When considering the acidity in a wine there are two points to remember. First, high levels of sweetness and acidity can mask each other . In a sweet wine, the high acidity is not the single predominant feature; rather, it serves to balance with the high sugar levels. Therefore, the acidity in a sweet wine will appear less obvious compared with the acidity in a dry high-acid wine such

THESYSTEMATIC APPROACHTOTASTINGWINE"

7

WSET Level3 Wine-Lexicon: supporting theWSET Level 3Systematic Approach toTasting Wine Noteto students: TheWSET

DESCRIBING AROMA ANDFLAVOUR Think interms ofprimary, secondary andtertiary

level3 Wine -lexicon isdesigned

=-==================

Primary Aromas andFlavours Thearomas andflavours ofthegrapeandalcoholic fermentation Keyquestions

tastingexamination with

Green fruit apple,gooseberry, pear,peardrop,quince, grape

delicate orintense? simple orcomplex? generic orwell-defined? freshorcooked?

examiners willacceptother

Tropical fruit banana, lychee, mango,melon,passion fruit,pineapple Redfruit redcurrant, cranberry, raspberry, strawberry, redcherry, redplum Black fruit blackcurrant, blackberry, bramble, blueberry, blackcherry, blackplum Dried/cooked fruit fig,prune,raisin,sultana,kirsch, jamminess, baked/stewed fruits,

preserved fruits Herbaceous greenbellpepper(capsicum), grass,tomatoleaf,asparagus, blackcurrant leaf

Other flint,wetstones,wetwool Secondary Aromas andFlavours Thearomas andflavours ofpost-fermentation wlnemaklng Keyquestions

ClustersDescriptors Yeast(lees,autolysis)biscuit, bread,toast,pastry,brioche, breaddough,cheese

Aretheflavours from

MLF butter,cheese, cream

yeast , MLF oroak?

Oak vanilla, cloves, nutmeg,coconut, butterscotch, toast,cedar,charred wood,smoke, chocolate,

coffee, resinous Tertiary Aromas andFlavours Thearomas andflavours ofmaturation ClustersDescriptors Deliberate oxidationalmond, marzipan, hazelnut, walnut,chocolate, coffee, toffee,caramel

deliberate oxidation, fruitdevelopment or bottleage?

butyoudonotneedto limit

Stonefruit peach,apricot, nectarine

Herbal eucalyptus, mint,medicinal, lavender, fennel,dill

Dotheflavours show

descriptors intheWine-lexicon yourself tothesetermsandthe

Pungent spiceblack/white pepper,liquorice

Keyquestions

distinction ifyouusethe

Citrus fruit grapefruit, lemon,lime(juiceorzest?),orangepeel,lemonpeel

under-ripe orripeor over-ripe?

whichyoudonotneedto memorise. Youcanpassthe

ClustersDescriptors Floral acacia, honeysuckle, chamomile, elderflower, geranium, blossom, rose,violet

Aretheflavours

to bea prompt anda guide

Fruitdevelopmentdriedapricot, marmalade, driedapple,driedbanana,etc. (white) Fruitdevelopmentfig,prune,tar,driedblackberry, driedcranberry, etc. (red) cooked blackberry, cooked redplum,etc. Bottleage(white) petrol,kerosene, cinnamon, ginger,nutmeg, toast,nutty,mushroom, hay,

honey Bottleage(red) leather, forestfloor,earth,mushroom, game,tobacco, vegetal, wetleaves, savoury, meaty,farmyard

as a Chablis. However,whatever the level of sugar, the mouth-watering effect caused by acidity remains and this is always a reliable guide when it comes to judging the level of acidity. Second, alcohol can create a burning sensation similar to acidity. Again, consider the mouthwatering effect to see whether this is due to acidity or alcohol for any particular wine.

Tannin

Tannins are an important structural component in red wines that are mostly extracted from the skins of the grapes during fermentation (see sect ion Crushed Fruit Fermentation in Chapter 9). Tannins bind to your saliva and cause your mouth to dry up and feel rough; they contribute to the textural richness of a wine. The drying

descriptors solongastheyare accurate.

8

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

sensation can be felt most clearly on the gums above your front teeth, so ensure you coat this area with a little of the wine you are tasting. Tannins can sometimes also have a bitter taste that is detected most clearly at the back of your mouth. The level of tannins should be assessedfor all red wines, but does not need to be commented on for white wines. It should be noted that not all tannins have the same effect: unripe tannins tend to be more aggressively astringent, whereas ripe tannins contribute more to textural richness. It takes experience to be able to conclude that a basic quality Pinot Noir made from barely-ripe grapes has a medium level of tannins, despite them being astringent and harsh, whereas a high-quality Shiraz from a hot region may have high levels of velvetysmooth ripe tannins despite showing little astringency. If the tannins are astringent, ask yourself if the body of the wine feels thin. If it does, this is a good indication of low tannin levels. On the other hand if the astringency is low, ask yourself if the wine is very full-bodied and mouth-filling. If it is, this can be a good indication of a high level of tannins. Alcohol Alcohol contributes to the texture and body of a wine. Alcohol is more viscous than water, and higher levels make a wine seem heavier in the mouth. At low levels, the wine can seem a bit watery, unless there is another component such as sugar to give the wine body. At high levels, alcohol triggers pain receptors, giving a hot, burning sensation, especially after spitting or swallowing. This burning sensation can be confused with the tingling sensation caused by acidity. Therefore, if you are trying to distinguish the two, consider whether the wine is also mouth-watering (and therefore high in acidity) or feels thick and viscous (and high in alcohol). Remember that it may be high in both.

Alcohol levels in wine are generally rising, but as a guide: low: below 11% abv medium: 11- 13.9% abv high: 14% abv and above.

The alcohol levels for fortified wines are also split into three: low: 15- 16.4%abv medium: 16.5- 18.4% abv high: 18.5% abv and above. Body Body, or mouthfeel, is the textural impression created by a wine. It is not a single component, but is an overall impression created by all the structural components working together. For most wines, alcohol is the main factor contributing to body. Sugar adds to the body, whereas high acidity makes a wine feel lighter in body. Generally, high levels of tannin make a wine feel fuller bodied, but low levels of astringent tannin can make it seem harsher, thinner and therefore lighter in body. For certain wines, judging the body is relatively straightforward. A wine that is high in alcohol, with ripe tannins and intense flavours is very clearly full-bodied, whereas a wine that is low in alcohol, high in acidity and delicately flavoured is very clearly light-bodied. For wines that are sweet, but high in acidity and low in alcohol (for example), it can be harder to agree on the level of body, and the decision will be based on which of these factors contributes the most to the texture of the wine. Mousse Mousse is relevant only in the discussion of sparkling wines. For most sparkling wines, expect the mousse to be 'creamy: in other words, enough to provide a lively sparkle on the palate without seeming too frothy or aggressive. Some young sparkling wines are extremely lively, and seem to explode on the palate, then lose all their bubbles in one quick blast. These would be described as 'aggressive'.Other sparkling wines (generally those that have undergone extensive ageing, or those that are bottled at a lower than typical pressure of dissolved carbon dioxide) have bubbles that are very soft and fine. These are described as'delicate'. Flavour Intensity and Characteristics Generally, flavours on the palate should be the same as aromas detected on the nose. However, the warming of the wine in your mouth can make some characteristics more apparent than they were on the nose. Earthy, spicy, and toasty characteristics tend to be more prominent on the palate. Fruity and floral characteristics are sometimes less prominent on the palate than they appear on the nose. Finish The finish is the collection of sensations after you have swallowed or spat the wine out . How long the sensations linger is an important indicator of quality, but when assessingthe length of the finish you should only count the persistence of the desirable sensations. A wine with a very long lingering bitterness could be described as having a bitter aftertaste, but if the fruit impressions

THE SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO TASTING WINE •

disappear quickly, the finish should be described as 'short'. How long the sensations last will vary from taster to taster. Generally, for a basic quality wine, the pleasant flavours will often disappear within a few seconds, and the finish is 'short'. For a very fine wine the flavours can last for a minute or more, and the finish is described as 'long'. CONCLUSIONS In the Level 3 examination you will be expected to evaluate a wine's quality and its readiness for drinking. In doing so you will not be expected to provide reasons for your choice but it is important that you understand the relevant factors to consider. Quality Level Many criteria are commonly used when assessing the quality of a wine. Although there are instances when wine professionals disagree about the quality of a wine, in most cases there is broad agreement about both the quality level of a wine and the reasons for its quality level. This is possible because there are a number of criteria that are widely used when it comes to assessing quality. Balance - In wines, balance can be thought of as a set of scales,with fruit and sugar on one side, and acidity and tannins on the other. An increase in fruit or sugar can be brought into balance by an increase in acidity or tannin . With too little fruit or sugar, a wine can seem angular, austere or thin. With too little acidity or tannin, it can seem unstructured and clumsy. When assessing balance, you should also consider how well integrated each of the separate components are. For example, even if the fruit is balanced by acidity, the acidity could seem harsh or aggressive. Alcohol should be well integrated, whatever its level, and so should aromatic components, such as those derived from oak. When assessing a wine, ask yourself three questions: 'how is the overall balance achieved?; 'looking at the overall balance, how well balanced is this wine?' and 'how well integrated are each of the wine's components?'. Intensity- A wine that has weak, dilute flavours is seldom high in quality, but, beyond a certain level, more intensity does not necessarily mean higher quality. When discussing quality some people also refer to a wine's intensity as its 'concentration'. Length - This refers to how long the finish is. In other words, how long the pleasant sensations linger after the wine has been swallowed or spat out. Generally, wines that are intense also have a long finish. Complexity - Complex flavours and aromas are desirable features in a wine. The complexity can come from the primary aromas and flavours alone, or it may come from the combination of these with secondary and tertiary characteristics. However, simplicity is not always

a negative, and not all premium wines are complex: sometimes purity and clarity of expression are what make a wine great, and the presence of oak or tertiary characters (for example) might detract from the quality. lcewines often fall into this category. In terms of putting a wine into quality categories, think about how well it scores on these four criteria. An 'outstanding'wine will show positively against all four criteria. A wine that is 'very good' will show positively against three of the criteria, but fall short on one. For example, it may be well balanced, with a range of different aromas and flavours of medium intensity but have a short finish . If it is just'good; then the wine will show positively against two of the criteria but fall short on the other two. An 'acceptable'wine will show positively against one criterion, but fall short on three. For example, although the wine may be balanced it would be dilute with simple flavours and a short finish. A 'poor'wine will have problems when judged on all four criteria. Readiness for Drinking The first thing to consider when assessing readiness for drinking is whether the wine is made in a style that can benefit from ageing at all. If it mainly shows primary aromas and flavours, with a light acid or tannin structure, then it almost certainly will not benefit from further ageing. Most of these wines will therefore fall into the 'drink now: not suitable for ageing or further ageing' category. If it seems like the wine should have been fruity, with a light tannin or acid structure, but has lost its freshness,then it is simply'too old'. If the wine has a firm structure of acid or tannin, and has a sufficient level of flavour concentration, then it may benefit from ageing. You need to consider what will happen to the wine with time, and this requires experience of seeing how wines develop in the bottle. Generally, the aromas and flavours develop away from primary fruit characteristics and towards more tertiary characteristics and the tannins soften. The alcohol level does not change, and acidity and sugar levels change very little (although sweet wines very slowly taste drier as they age). With this in mind, you can make a tentative prediction of how the wine will develop over time, and

9

10

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

how much the developments will improve the wine, compared with how it tastes now. If you think that the wine is drinking pleasurably now but will improve positively in the next few years then you can place it in the 'can drink now, but has potential for ageing' category. If you believe that the wine will be so much better in a few years time that it would be a waste to drink it now, then you may classify it as 'too young'. For example, some red wines can be very tannic when they are released and need a few years for

the tannins to soften and the wine to become better balanced. If the wine has undergone an ageing process but is close to the end of its drinkable life (any further changes are unlikely to be positive), or if it is in decline (the changes that have occurred are beginning to subtract from the quality of the wine) then you should classify it as 'drink now: not suitable for ageing or further ageing'. If you think that the wine has declined so far that the negative changes have come to dominate the wine, then it is simply'too old'.

WINE WITH FOOD

Food that is consumed with wine has an effect on the way a wine tastes, WinewithFoodand wine can also affect the taste of food. The purpose of food and wine pairing is to take advantage of these effects, so that the food and wine consumed together ideally provide more pleasure than either would if consumed separately. Knowledge of the ways in which food and wine interact with each other will also help avoid negative or unpleasant taste combinations.

When it comes to understanding the basic taste interactions between food and wine, it is important to remember that people have different sensitivities to various flavour and aroma components. The same level of bitterness, for example, can affect one person much more strongly than another. This is different from a personal preference in that some people like strong reactions while others find them unpleasant. This variation in both individual sensitivities and preferences means that what seems like a 'perfect pairing ' to one person may seem ordinary or even unsuccessful to another. Pairings should therefore take into account the preferences and/or sensitivities of the individual, as well as the basic interactions between food and wine.

PRIMARYFOODAND WINETASTEINTERACTIONS When you place food in your mouth your taste buds adapt so that the perception of the levels of sugar, salt, acidity, etc. in what you taste next can be altered. An extreme example would be the unpleasantly acidic taste of orange juice when consumed immediately after using toothpaste. In addition to this, some foods, such as chocolate or thick creamy dishes, have a mouth-coating effect that can impair the sense of taste . There are two components in food that tend to make wines taste 'harder' (more astringent and bitter, more acidic, less sweet and less fruity). These are sweetness and umami. There are also two components whose presence in food tends to make wines taste 'softer' (less astringent and bitter , less acidic, sweeter, and more fruity). These are salt and acid. Generally , food has more impact on the way a wine will taste than the other way round , and, in particular, it is more likely to have a negative impact.

Umami in Food: Increases the perception of bitterness, astringency, acidity and the warming effect of the alcohol in the wine Decreases the perception of body, sweetness and fruitiness in the wine. Umami is a taste, and is distinct from the other primary tastes, although it can be difficult to isolate . Whereas sweetness can be tasted and identified in isolation with sugar, salt with sodium chloride and acidity with a number of acids (e.g. tartaric acid), umami tends to be present with other tastes. It appears with saltiness in Monosodium Glutamate (MSG),for example, or with other flavours in cooked or dried mushrooms. One of the simplest ways to experience it is to compare the taste of a raw button mushroom with one that has been microwaved for 30 seconds. The umami taste of the mushroom is greatly increased by the cooking. Many foods that are considered difficult to pair with wine contain high levels of umami but lack the salt necessary to counteract its hardening effect on wine. Asparagus, eggs, mushrooms and ripe soft cheeses are all examples . However, cured or smoked seafood and meats, and hard cheeses such as Parmesan, are high in both umami and salt so tend not to have as much of an adverse effect on wine. Remember, bitterness in wine comes from tannins extracted from grapes or oak. For a balanced high-tannin wine, the change in perceived bitterness may not appear to be excessive and will not be enough to unbalance the wine. However, low-tannin red wines, or white wines made with oak or skin contact, can become surprisingly bitter and unbalanced when consumed with umami-rich foods.

Sweetness in Food: Increases the perception of bitterness, astringency, acidity and the warming effect of the alcohol in the wine Decreases the perception of body, sweetness and fruitiness in the wine . Sweetness in a dish can make a dry wine seem less fruity and taste unpleasantly acidic. With dishes containing sugar, a good general rule is to select a wine that has a higher level of sweetness than the dish.

Acidity in Food: Increases the perception of body, sweetness and fruitiness in the wine Decreases the perception of acidity in the wine . Acidity in food is generally a good thing for food and wine pairing as it can bring a wine with very high acidity levels into balance and enhance its fruitiness . However, if the level of acidity in the wine is low, high levels of acidity in foods can make it seem flat, flabby and lacking focus .

11

2

12

UNDERSTANDING WINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY

Decreasesthe perception of body, richness, sweetness and fruitiness in the wine. Chilli heat is a warming or burning sensation, and levels of sensitivity can vary greatly from person to person . There is also huge variation in how pleasant or unpleasant this effect feels to the individual. The effects caused by chilli heat are greater in wines with high alcohol levels than those with lower alcohol levels. Alcohol also increases the burning sensation of the chilli; some people enjoy this effect. Other Considerations Flavour intensity - It is usually desirable for the flavour intensities of the food and wine to be matched so that one does not overpower the other. However, in some circumstances, an intensely flavoured food (such as a curry) can be successfully partnered with a lightly flavoured wine (such as a simple, non-aromatic, unoaked white). Acid and fat - Most people find the combination of acidic wines with fatty or oily foods to be very satisfying. The pairing can provide a pleasant sensation of the acidic wine 'cutting through'the richness of the food and cleansing the palate. This is a subjective effect. Sweet and salty- The pleasure of combining sweet and salty flavours is also subjective, but this is a combination many people enjoy and one that leads to some very successful food and wine pairings. Sweet wine and blue cheese is a classic example . APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES

Salt in Food: Increasesthe perception of body in the wine Decreases the perception of astringency, bitterness and acidity in the wine. Salt is another wine-friendly component of food that can enhance a wine's fruit character and soften astringency. Bitterness in Food: • Increases the perception of bitterness in the wine. Sensitivity to bitter tastes varies greatly from person to person and someone who is particularly sensitive to one bitter compound may be relatively insensitive to another. Generally, bitter flavours add to each other. This means that although bitterness in the food alone may be at a pleasant level, and any bitterness in the wine may be in balance, together the bitter elements can combine to reach an unpleasant level. This effect is very subjective. Chilli Heat in Food: Increases the perception of bitterness, astringency, acidity and the burning effect of alcohol in the wine

Because people vary in their sensitivities and preferences, there is no simple answer to questions about which wines go best with which dishes. Although the ways in which food may affect the balance of a wine are generally understood, whether people like the results of a particular combination is very personal. That said, most people prefer their wines to taste more fruity and less acidic, bitter and astringent. Using this generalisation it is possible to make some cautious recommendations. When selecting wines to partner dishes, it can be helpful to divide dishes and wines into 'high-risk' and 'low-risk' categories. Of course, most foods and wines contain more than one of the structural components listed below so there are many possible options. High-risk Foods • Sugar - Dishes high in sugar should be paired with a wine that has at least as much sugar as the dish. • Umami - Umami in the food will emphasise the astringency and bitterness of the tannins, and therefore the chosen wine will need to have the necessary components, such as concentrated fruit flavours, to be able to cope with this change in the wine. • Umami - High levels of umami in a dish can be

WINE WITH FOOD

balanced by the addition of acid or salt providing this is in keeping with the basic character of the dish. • Bitterness - Dishes high in bitterness will emphasise bitterness in wine. Consider white wines or low-tannin reds. • Chilli heat - Dishes high in chilli heat should be paired with white wines or low-tannin reds, neither of which should be high in alcohol. A wine's fruitiness and sweetness can also be reduced by chilli heat so consider wines with higher levels of these components to make this effect less severe.

commonly applied ideas in food and wine pairing. So, for example, a smoky, spicy, gamey or creamy dish is matched by a smoky, spicy, gamey or creamy flavoured wine. The result may be successful, but successor failure does not depend on the matching of flavours. Instead, it is dependent on the interaction of structural components in the food (sugar, oil/fat, salt, etc.) and the wine (sugar, alcohol, acid, tannin, etc.). If the structural pairing works, then flavour matching or contrasting can further enhance the pairing, but if the structural pairing fails, the match is likely to be unsuccessful.

Low-risk Foods Dishes that are high in salt and/or acid generally pair well with wine. Note, however, that high-acid foods should generally be matched with high-acid wines, otherwise the wines can taste too soft and flabby.

Local Wine with Local Food This is the idea that a regional dish is likely to be best suited to a wine from that region. Successful food and wine pairings are likely to have evolved locally over time. However, most regions produce wines in a range of styles (red or white; sweet or dry; simple or complex; fruity or tannic) so some knowledge of food and wine interactions is still needed to identify suitable choices. There are also many great cuisines that have developed in places with little or no wine production. We need a way to approach food and wine pairing for these dishes, even if the conclusion is that some of them are difficult or impossible to pair successfully. Conversely, it is helpful to have principles that allow us to find food partners for wines made in regions that are not celebrated for their food.

High-risk Wines The more structural components in the wine (and food), the more possible taste interactions there will be. This makes pairing more complicated but the results can be much more interesting. The most problematic wines are those with high levels of bitterness and astringency from oak and grape tannins, combined with high levels of acidity and alcohol, and complex flavours. Low-risk Wines Simple, unoaked wines with a little residual sugar are unlikely to be made unpleasant by any dish. However, because such wines change relatively little when partnered with food, the food and wine pairing experience can be less interesting. One ofthe most productive ways of applying the principles outlined above is to examine well-established pairings, and consider why they are successful. If these reasons are understood, then other wines can be identified that can also provide successful pairings. For example, Muscadet and Champagne both work well with oysters because they are unoaked (so there is no bitter component to be spoiled by the umami taste of the oyster), relatively light in flavour (so as not to overwhelm the delicate flavour of oysters) and high in acidity (so they still seem vibrant and refreshing when oysters are eaten with lemon juice, for example). Other wines that satisfy these basic criteria should also be successful pairings. Examples might include Rias Baixas Albarino and Hunter Valley Semillon. UNDERSTANDING SOME ALTERNATIVE FOOD AND WINE PAIRING APPROACHES Using the principles outlined opposite, we can evaluate some of the commonly encountered rules about food and wine pairing. Matching or Contrasting Flavours The idea that flavours in the food can be mirrored or contrasted by flavours in the wine, is one of the most

'Red wine with red meat; white wine with fish' The idea that red meat should only ever be paired with red wine is based on the observation that tannins in red wine bind to meat proteins, thus softening the impact of the wine. However, although tannins do bind to proteins (you can see this in your saliva when you spit out a red wine), it is thought that the salt content of meat dishes plays a more important role in softening wine tannins. Some fish are high in umami, which can make a red wine appear more bitter and astringent, hence the suggestion that white wines make a better match. However, this reaction can be counterbalanced by salt and acid, which are common elements in most fish dishes. More difficult to avoid is the reaction of compounds found in red wine with oily fish, which tends to produce a metallic taste. With these types of fish it can be safer to stick to the rule and pair only with white wines. Again, it is essential to consider all of the components of a dish (especially sauces), as well as what is served with it. If the structural elements of a dish match, there is no reason not to serve white wine with red meat or red wine with fish. The Search for the Perfect Match There are many classic pairings of food and wine: goat's cheese and Sancerre;oysters with Muscadet or Champagne; Stilton with Port; olives with Manzanilla. Most (but not all) people will find these pairings successful and

13

14

UNDERSTANDING WINES:EXPLAINING STYLEAND QUALITY

interesting, with the food enhancing the wine and vice versa. We have seen that these pairings work because of the taste interaction between structural components (salt, sweetness, acid, etc.) in the food and the wine. The problem is that these successes imply that for every dish there is an ideal wine or wine style that will deliver the perfect match. With this idea in mind, chefs and sommeliers may work together to select ingredients and preparation methods that will suit a particular wine.

At best they will achieve something that is a perfect pairing for them, and hopefully the majority of their guests. But because people vary in their sensitivities and their preferences, there is no guarantee that all guests will agree the pairing is successful.There is no such thing as an objectively perfect pairing . The best that can be said is that'most people will find that dish X goes well with wines in style v; but the chef or sommelier should accept that their guests may not agree about which pairings work.

STORAGEAND SERVICEOF WINE

In order to get the best out of any wine it is important Storage andService ofWinethat it is stored correctly and served at the correct temperature. It may not be necessary to invest in expensive storage units and elaborate devices: simple common sense and standard equipment that is widely available are often enough to ensure that wines are enjoyed at their best.

STORAGEOF WINE If a wine is incorrectly stored it can affect the flavour and, in severe cases,the wine will become faulty. The following general points should be observed when storing wine: For long-term storage, the temperature for all wines should be cool and constant, preferably between 10°c and 15°(, as extremes of cold and heat can cause damage. One of the worst places for long-term storage is in a kitchen, due to the wide fluctuations in temperature. Extended periods of refrigeration can cause corks to harden and lose their elasticity, with the result that the seal fails and air can attack the wine causing it to become stale. Sparkling wines lose their fizz. Store wine that is sealed with a cork on its side to ensure the cork remains in contact with the wine. If the cork dries out it can let in air, and the air will oxidise the wine . Wines that are sealed with a screw cap can be stored standing up w ithout any risk. Keep wines away from strong light. Natural sunshine or artificial light will heat the wine and it will become stale and old before its time . Artificial light can cause unpleasant flavours to develop in some wines. Keep wine away from vibrations, in order for it to lie undisturbed. SERVICEOF WINE Service Temperatures A list of recommended service temperatures for all styles of wine can be found in the accompanying table below. It is worth considering the following points. Room temperature is often the recommended temperature for full -bodied red wine . However, with the widespread use of air-conditioning and central heating, rooms can often

be either too hot or too cold. If reds are too cold, they will taste thin and harsh.The gentlest way to warm them is to allow the bottle to warm up slowly or by holding the bowl of the glass in your hands. Do not warm reds on a radiator, as the sudden exposure to extreme heat can irretrievably damage the wine. Redwines that gradually reach temperatures in excessof l 8°C will appear to lose

STYLE OFWINE Medium/full-bodied, oaked whitewines Light/medium-bodied whitewines

EXAMPLE OFSTYLE OFWINE WhiteBurgundy, Fume Blanc

SERVICE TEMPERATURE Lightlychilled 10-13°C(S0 - 55°F)

Muscadet, PinotGrigio, NewZealand Sauvignon Blanc, FinoSherry

Chilled 7-10°C(45-50°F)

Sweet wines

Sauternes, Eiswein Champagne, Cava, Asti

Wellchilled6-8°C(43-45°F)

Sparkling wines Light-bodied redwines

Beaujolais, Valpolicella

Wellchilled6- l0°C(43-50°F) Lightlychilled13°C(55°F)

Medium/full-bodied redwines

RedBordeaux, Rioja, Australian Shiraz, Chateauneuf -du-Pape, Barolo, Amarone dellaValpolicella, Vintage Port

Room temperature l S-l 8°C(59-64°F)

15

3

16

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

their freshness and the flavours will become muddled. Once they are cooled down they regain their balance. Ice buckets or wine coolers are often used to keep white, rose and sparkling wines cold. An ice bucket should be filled three-quarters full with equal quantities of ice and water so that the bottle is fully surrounded by iced water. The water is then able to transfer the heat from the bottle to melt the ice. Air acts as an insulator and a bottle in ice alone will chill very slowly until some of the ice has melted. It should be noted that over-chilling can mask the flavours in white, rose and sparkling wines. Glassware An enormous range of glass shapes and sizes is used for the service of wine, each designed to emphasise a particular wine's characteristics. The use of the correct glass will enhance the drinking experience: Red wines are best served in larger-sized glasses.This will allow air to come into contact with a large wine surface and develop the aromas and flavours. White and rose wines require medium-sized glasses so that the fresh, fruit characteristics are gathered and directed towards the top of the glass. Sparkling wines are best served in flute glasses.This shape enhances the effect of the bubbles (and thus the wine's aroma), allowing them to travel through a larger volume of the wine before bursting at the top of the glass. For this reason the old-style, saucer-shaped Aline-upof glassesfor differentstylesofwine. Fromleftto right:sparkling wine,Port,whitewineand redwine.

glasses are inappropriate, as the bubbles are very quickly lost. Fortified wines are typically served in small glasses because of their high alcohol content. However, the glass should be large enough to allow swirling and nosing . Clean glassware is of the utmost importance, as even the slightest taint can ruin the flavour of the wine. This can also apply to 'clean' glasses from a dishwasher; it is worth checking the glasses to make sure no detergent or salt residue remains in the glass as this can give strange flavours to wines. In the case of sparkling wine, it will make it lose its sparkle more quickly. The best way to prepare glasses is to polish them before each use.This will make sure the glasses are clean and free of finger marks and dust. The best cloth to use is a linen one, as this will not leave small pieces of fluff in the glass. Opening a Bottle of Still Wine Remove the top of the capsule, by cutting around it below the lip of the bottle. This can be done with a capsule remover or knife. Wipe the neck of the bottle with a clean cloth. Draw the cork as gently and cleanly as possible using your selected corkscrew . Give the neck of the bottle a final clean inside and out. Pour a sample into a glass to check the wine's condition.

STORAGE AND SERVICE OF WINE

Decanting Wine Wines with a heavy deposit need to be decanted. This deposit is quite natural and is formed during the ageing process of many good red wines. Some young wines benefit from the aeration that occurs by being decanted, although this can be done as easily by swirling the wine in a glass. Note that'airing ' a wine by opening a bottle some time before service does no good at all. Too little of the wine is in contact with the air for it to have any effect. First remove the bottle horizontally from its rack and place in a decanting basket if available. Alternatively, hold the bottle carefully, making sure the deposit is not agitated. Very gently remove the top of the capsule and clean the shoulder and neck of the bottle. Very gently remove the cork. Remove the bottle from the basket, being careful not to disturb the deposit. Holding the bottle in front of a light, pour the wine carefully into the decanter until the deposit can be seen near the neck. At this point stop pouring . Opening a Bottle of Sparkling Wine There is considerable pressure in a bottle of sparkling wine. Chilling to the correct temperature helps to reduce this. Even when the wine is chilled, it is possible for the cork to spring violently from the bottle and injure someone. Remove the foil and loosen the wire cage. The cork must be held securely in place from the moment the wire cage is loosened. Tilt the bottle at an angle of about 30°, gripping the cork, and use the other hand to grip the base of the bottle. Turn the bottle, not the cork. Hold the cork steady, resisting its tendency to fly out, and ease it slowly out of the bottle. The gas pressure should be released with a quiet 'phut; not an explosion and flying cork. ORDERING WINE It is useful to know how many measures you can get from a standard 75 cl bottle. This will help you work out how many bottles you would need for an order.

6 x 125 ml glasses

222222

4 x 175 ml glasses 3 x 250 ml glasses METHODS USED TO PRESERVE WINE If a wine is not consumed as soon as it is opened it will lose its aromatic intensity in a matter of days and after that it will oxidise and develop vinegar aromas. The simplest way to extend a wine's life is to replace the closure and store the wine in a fridge. This will only extend the life of the wine by a few days. There are other

17

18

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

methods that can be used to extend a wine's life for a greater period oftime:

Vacuum systems - These are systems where the oxygen is removed from the bottle and the bottle is sealed. These are unsuitable for sparkling wines (which will lose their bubbles).

Blanket systems - These systems work on the principle of blanketing the wine with a gas heavier than oxygen to form a protective layer between the wine and air. Inexpensive devices that work using either of these principles are widely available .

THE VINE

TheVineThere are thousands of different grape varieties grown in vineyards throughout the world, but they all share much in common. In this chapter we will explore these similarities and the meaning of some of the words used to describe vines and their constituent parts.

VINE SPECIES

There are many different species of vine that have evolved throughout the world but grape growers are only concerned with a handful of these species. In modern viticulture the most important species are:

Vitis vinifera - This is the main Eurasian species. It produces nearly all the grapes used in winemaking and has been used to make wine for several thousand years. American vines - There are three important species of vine native to North America. They are rarely used to produce grapes for winemaking because the wines they produce are widely considered to have unattractive flavours. However, unlike V.vinifera, they are resistant to Phylloxera(a vine pest that attacks the vine's roots) and so they are widely used to produce rootstocks onto which V.vinifera vines are grafted. See section Phylloxera and Rootstockson page 22. GRAPE VARIETIES

There are thousands of grape varieties belonging to the V.vinifera species. For the wine consumer, the principal differences between grape varieties are variations in colour and flavour, both properties coming from the grape itself. Differences between varieties are not just limited to the taste and quality of the fruit, however. When selecting a grape variety the grape grower will also be concerned with other factors such as budding and ripening times, and resistance to certain diseases. In order to understand what a grape variety is, it is necessary to understand how a variety is grown or propagated. Importantly, this cannot be done using seeds. Instead, in order to preserve the unique qualities of a variety, a grower must use one of two techniques: cutting or layering. A cutting is a section of a vine shoot that is planted and then grows as a new plant . This method is widely used in commercial nurseries that sell vines to growers. Layering takes place in the vineyard. A cane is bent down and a section of it is buried in the ground. The cane tip points upwards out of the ground. The buried section takes root and, once these roots are established, the cane linking the new growth to the original plant is cut. Due to the risk of phylloxera most grape growers now use cuttings instead of layering (see section Phyl/oxeraand Rootstockson page 22). In both these instances the new plant is identical to the original. Therefore, a grape variety is a group of individual plants that can all trace their lineage back through a series of cuttings and/or layerings to a single plant.

Note that the terms 'vine variety' and 'grape variety' can be used interchangeably, and the word 'cultivar' is sometimes used instead of'variety'.

Clones Although all the individual vines of a grape variety are genetically identical, it is still possible to observe variations between them. This happens as a result of mutations that sometimes occur when the vines grow. These mutations can sometimes be positive and can result in plants with better quality fruit or better disease resistance. Often, vines with positive mutations are selected for further propagation by cutting or layering, so that the positive characteristics of these vines can be carried forward in new plantings. This is known as clonal selection, and it has led to the development of different clones. In grape growing, each individual vine or group of vines that shows a particular set of unique characteristics is known as a clone. The difference between clones is often small and all of the individual plants that make up a clone would still be considered to be from the same grape variety . When grape growers order new plants from a nursery they will often specify which clone they would like as well as the grape variety. Some mutations have such a significant effect that the resulting plants are treated as if they are new varieties, even though strictly speaking they are clones of an original plant. For example, the grape varieties Pinot Blanc and Pinot Gris are both mutations of the grape variety Pinot Nair. CREATING NEW VINE VARIETIES

Researchers are constantly looking for grape varieties that are better able to thrive in certain climates and soil conditions, as well as varieties with improved disease resistance, and those able to deliver a higher quality or quantity of grapes. Therefore, rather than waiting for a random mutation to occur, genuinely new grape varieties can be created in controlled conditions using cross-fertilisation. This is where pollen from the male part of a flower of one vine is transferred to the female part of the flower of another vine and fertilisation occurs. The pollinated flower develops into a grape with seeds. If a seed is planted and grows, it will be a new variety because its genetic material will be different from that of its parents. A new variety will be produced even if the parent vines are from the same grape variety . The new variety may have some characteristics that are recognisable from the parent vines, but this is not always

19

4

20

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

THEANATOMY OFTHEVINE All vines have a similar structure. These can be divided into four sections: the green parts of the vine, one-year-old wood, permanent wood and the roots.

The Green Parts of the Vine

These are the parts of the vine that grow each new year. The principal structure is a shoot, which is illustrated below. Along the length of each shoot there are leaves, buds, tendrils and flowers or berries .

Tendrils - Vines arenotabletosupport themselves, sotheyusetendrils to

gripa supporting structure inordertostayupright. Oncea tendrilsenses thatithastouched a structure, suchasatrelliswire,itwillwinditselftightly around thewireinordertokeeptheshootupright.

Buds - These forminthejoinbetween theleafandtheshootandcanbedescribed as embryonic shoots . Once formed, theymatureinsidetheircasing duringthegrowing seasonsothat,bytheendoftheyear,eachbudcontains inminiature allthestructures thatwillbecome theshoot,leaves, flowers andtendrils thefollowing year.

Flowers andberries - Flowers arethevine'sreproductive organs . Avine's flowers havebothmaleandfemaleparts,andaregrouped inbunches calledinflorescences (seepictures onpage39).Each flower thatissuccessfully pollinated willbecome a berryandsothe inflorescence willbecome thebunchofgrapesthatwillbeharvested attheendofthegrowing season. Thevinehasevolved sothatthe sweetgrapesareattractive toanimals thateatthegrapesand disperse thevine's seeds.

Leaves - These aretheplant'sengine .Theyareprincipally responsible for photosynthesis, whichistheprocess bywhichplantsusesunlight toconvert waterandcarbon dioxide intoglucose andoxygen . Glucose isa sugarthatis usedtosupport vinegrowth andmakeripegrapestastesweet.

THEVINE

21

Aspur-pruned vinein Spain . One -year-old wood : spur

Permanent wood: arm trunk

Acane-pruned vinein Alsace,France.

One-year-old Wood Shoots turn woody during the winter after they have grown. The following spring, they become one-year-old wood, and the buds that formed on them the previous year burst and grow into shoots. Managing the one-year-old wood is vital for the grape grower because vines will normally only produce fruit on shoots that grow from buds that developed the previous year. Every winter the vine is pruned and the one-year-old wood will either be called a cane or a spur depending on how many buds it is left with. A cane is long, with eight to 20 buds, whereas a spur is short and has only two to three buds. This is discussed further in the section VinePruning in Chapter 6.

Permanent Wood This is wood that is more than one year old. In the vineyard the amount of permanent wood is restricted by pruning. The permanent wood is made up of the trunk and, where present, the arms of the vine . Not every vine has the same configuration of permanent wood. This is discussed further in the section VineTraining in Chapter 6.

One-year-old wood: cane

Permanent wood: trunk

Aspur-pruned vinein Australia.

One-year-old wood: spur

The Roots Their function is to absorb water and nutrients from the soil, anchor the vine and store carbohydrates to allow the vine to survive the winter . In modern vineyards most II.vinifera are grafted onto root systems from other species because they cannot resist Phylloxera. See section Phylloxeraand Rootstockson page 22.

Permanent wood: arm(cordon) trunk

22

UNDERSTANDING WINES:EXPLAINING STYLEAND QUALITY

the case.There is no way of knowing what qualities a new variety will have. Creating a new grape variety for commercial use is therefore a very costly and time-consuming process, because hundreds of seeds are required. Many seedlings fail in the first year and the producer must wait at least two or three years before those that survive flower and produce grapes. It takes even longer to demonstrate the long-term value of the variety and whether it should be grown and sold commercially. These difficulties explain why only a small number of new grape varieties bred in the last 150 years have found a successful niche in the vineyards of the world. Crossings When a new variety is produced from two parents of the same species it is called a crossing. This term is most commonly used when talking about II. vinifera, although crossings of American vines exist too. Technically every grape variety used today is a crossing. For example, modern DNA techniques have shown that Cabernet Sauvignon is a crossing of Cabernet Franc and Sauvignon Blanc. However, this term is more normally reserved for new varieties that were bred by researchers. MullerThurgau (Riesling x Madeleine Royale) and Pinotage (Pinot Noir x Cinsault) are well-known examples. Hybrids For grape growers, a hybrid is a vine whose parents come from two different vine species. Typically hybrids will have at least one American vine as a parent. As mentioned earlier, the grapes from American vines are rarely used in winemaking. This is true of their hybrids too, although there are some notable exceptions such as Vidal which is grown in Canada. Nevertheless, hybrids and American vine crossings have a crucial role in modern grape growing: they are used throughout the world as rootstocks.

BENCH GRAFTING 1. Anewgraft.Thesectionatthetopis V.vlnifera,andthebudthatwillform

thenewplantisclearly visible. 2. Anewlyplantedbench-graftedvine. TheredwaxIs usedto protectthe joinbetweenthe twosectionsof cane.

..

PHYLLOXERA AND ROOTSTOCKS

Phylloxera Phy/loxera is an insect that is native to North America and V.vinifera is unable to defend itself against this pest.

Consequently it was able to cause the wholesale destruction to the vineyards of Europe when it was accidentally introduced in the nineteenth century. Phylloxera has a very complex life cycle, taking different forms throughout the year. During one phase it lives underground and feeds on the roots of the vine. Infections enter through the feeding wounds and over the course of a few years the vine is weakened and ultimately dies. American vines, which evolved with Phy/loxera, are able to inhibit the underground louse by clogging its mouth with a sticky sap. They also form protective layers behind the feeding wound preventing secondary infections. Phy/loxera is now a problem in nearly every vineyard area of the world. There are some exceptions such as Chile, some parts of Argentina and South Australia. Strict quarantine procedures are the only protection against infection. Roots tocks Phylloxera cannot be controlled with chemicals and

when it struck Europe in the late nineteenth century the only certain way of dealing with it was to plant American species or hybrids. By the end of the nineteenth century a better, if more expensive, solution was found. 1/.vinifera could be grafted onto the rootstock of an American vine or hybrid. This offered the protection of the American vine and the flavour of the European vine. Since this initial discovery, it has been found that rootstocks can provide many other advantages besides resistance to Phy/loxera, and a large number of hybrids have been bred accordingly. For example, specific rootstocks can be used to protect against nematodes (see section Managing Vineyard Pestsand Diseases in Chapter 6) and provide better resistance to drought conditions. Consequently, rootstocks are often used in

THE VINE

HEAD GRAFTING 1.Ahead-grafted vineinthespring afterthe grafting. Thetwocanesare heldsecurewithtape,which,in this instance,hasbeencovered with pruning paintto protectthewound. 2. Awell-established headgraft.

parts of the world where Phylloxera is not a problem, despite the extra cost involved in buying grafted vines.

Grafting Grafting is the technique used to join a rootstock to a V.vinifera variety . The most popular modern technique is bench grafting; an automated process that is carried out by specialist plant nurseries. Short sections of cane from both the V.vinifera variety and the rootstock variety are joined together by machine and stored in a warm environment in order to encourage the two parts to fuse together. Once this happens the vine can be planted.

There is another form of grafting called head grafting, which is used if a grape grower with an established vineyard decides to switch to a different grape variety between seasons.The existing vine is cut back to its trunk and a bud or cutting of the new variety is grafted onto the trunk. If the graft is successful the vine will produce the fruit of the new variety at the next vintage. It takes a newly planted vine a minimum of three years to be able to produce a commercial crop, but this technique can allow the grower to adjust quickly to changes in market demand. It is also considerably cheaper than replanting the whole vineyard and the new variety starts life with an established root system.

23

24

5

UNDERSTANDING WINES:EXPLAINING STYLEAND QUALITY

TheGrowing Environment In order to s~rvive, the ~ine must b_eable to t~ke all_it needs from its surroundings. The vine needs five things: heat, sunlight, water, nutrients and carbon dioxide. They can all have an impact on how well a vine grows and the quality and quantity of grapes it can produce. In this chapter we will look at all of these factors in turn and how they come together to create the vine's growing environment.

WHAT A VINE NEEDS In the principal wine-producing regions of the world the vine has an annual growth cycle. In the winter it is dormant and there are no green parts on the plant. Bud burst marks the start of the growing season in spring, as the new shoots begin to grow. During late spring and early summer the vine flowers and small grapes form, a process known as fruit set. As the summer progresses the grapes grow but are still hard in texture, green in colour, with high levels of acidity and no sugar. In late summer or early autumn the grapes start to ripen. They become swollen with water, sugar levels rise, acid levels drop and flavours develop. The first sign of this ripening process is a change of colour in the grape from green to blue/black, pink or golden depending on the variety. This change of colour is often known by the French term veraison.After the grapes are harvested in autumn the growing season comes to an end. The vine drops its leaves and as autumn turns to winter the vine becomes dormant again. In order to complete its annual cycle a vine needs five things. Heat is of fundamental importance : if it is too cold the vine will either not grow or it will struggle to Avineyard in Priorat, Spain. Intheforeground, thestony soiliscapableof reradiating

survive. Once the growing season has started the vine uses sunlight to combine carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) and water to produce glucose and oxygen, a process known as photosynthesis. The vine combines the glucose with the nutrients it extracts from the soil to support its growth and, most importantly, to ripen its grapes. The oxygen is lost through the leaves. CO2 is always in plentiful supply; however, the temperature and sunlight in a vineyard, as well as the amount of water and nutrients that are available, are factors that are constantly changing. These variations influence all aspects of the vine's annual growth cycle, and directly affect the quantity and quality of fruit a vine is able to produce.

HEAT What a Vine Needs If the temperature is below 10°c it is too cold for the vine to grow. This is why vines are dormant in winter and budburst happens in spring . The vine also needs a sufficient amount of heat for successful flowering, fruit set, and ripening. The amount of heat in the growing season is the defining factor that determines which grape varieties can be grown where. Not all varieties need the same amount of warmth during the growing season. This is why Riesling can thrive in cool locations where Grenache would not be able to ripen its grapes.

heat.Inthe background, a vineyard is plantedona steepterraced slope.

Factors Affecting Heat Latitude - In order to meet the vine's temperature needs and its preference for a dormant period, most vineyards lie between the latitudes of 30° and 50° north and south of the Equator . Closer to the Equator it is too hot and closer to the Poles it is too cold. However, factors other than latitude can make an area outside these limits suitable for viticulture.

Altitude - As altitude increases, temperatures drop. This means that regions at high altitude, such as Cafayate in northern Argentina, can successfully grow vines even though they are close to the Equator.

Ocean currents - The major currents transport large volumes of warm or cold water across the surface of the ocean, leading to localised warming or cooling in certain wine regions . The Humboldt Current off Chile and the Benguela Current off South Africa cool regions that

THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT

might otherwise be too hot for grape growing whereas the Gulf Stream warms the north-west of Europe that might otherwise be too cold.

Fog - Fog can help cool an area that may otherwise struggle to produce high -quality grapes. This is a particularly important feature in many top vineyard areas in California, as well as Casablanca Valley in Chile. Soil - Soils that are either dark in colour or that have a high stone and rock content absorb and reradiate more of the sun's heat than lighter coloured soils. This reradiated warmth can be critical for ripening fruit in cool climates. On the other hand, soils with high water content require more energy to warm up, and conduct heat from the vine more quickly than dry soils. This can delay budburst. Aspect - The direction in which a slope faces is known as its aspect. The vineyards with an aspect facing the Equator receive the most heat. In the Northern Hemisphere south facing slopes get the most warmth whereas in the Southern Hemisphere it is the north facing slopes. This phenomenon is especially important

in cool climates where the extra warmth can make the difference between a vine being able to ripen a crop or not. Steeper slopes benefit even more from this effect. This can be seen very clearly in the vineyards producing the best wines in Mose!, Germany, that not only have the most favourable aspect but are also very steep.

Continentality and Diurnal Range Although the overall amount of heat in the growing season is the primary concern of a grape grower, it is also important to know how much variation there is between the temperature in the height of summer and the depths of winter, as well as the variations between daytime and night-time temperatures . Both of these factors can have an impact on how well a vine performs in a region. Continentality - The temperature difference between the coldest and the hottest months is referred to as continentality. Regions with high continentality have large differences in seasonal temperatures. Regions with low continentality see less variation in temperatures throughout the year. Large bodies of water, such as seas or lakes, heat up and cool down more slowly than landmasses. Therefore

WHATA VINE NEEDS In order to survive the vine needs access to five key things: Heat

Carbon Dioxide (CO 2)

Sunlight

sun • reflected fromsoil

• atmosphere

sun • reflected fromwater

Oxygen

Photosynthesis leafcombines C02 + water toproduce glucose+oxygen

Nutrients Water

rainfall irrigation waterstoredinsoil

soilparticles humus fertiliser

25

26

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

in winter they have a warming effect on the surrounding air and in summer they have a cooling effect. Areas close to large bodies of water therefore generally have low continentality whereas wine regions that are far inland usually see more temperature extremes and have high continentality. A region's continentality will determine the length of the growing season and this has an impact on the total amount of heat available to a vine. This in turn will influence what grape varieties can be successfully grown there. Diurnal range - Diurnal range is the difference between daytime and night-time temperatures. Cool nights help slow the loss of aromas and acidity in the grapes during ripening. Warm nights accelerate ripening. For example, in a region with a warm or hot climate, a vineyard with a large diurnal range can produce wines that are fresher and more aromatic compared with a vineyard that has a smaller diurnal range. A vineyard's proximity to seas and lakes can reduce its diurnal range. Even relatively small bodies of water, such as rivers, can hold enough warmth to keep adjacent vineyards warm overnight and provide cooling breezes during the day. The level of cloud cover (generally greater nearer seas and lakes) also influences diurnal range. This is because temperatures drop more quickly on clear nights, when there is no insulating blanket of cloud (increasing diurnal range), and rise more slowly on cloudy days, when sunlight cannot heat the ground directly (reducing diurnal range).

Heaters inNapaCounty, California. Theheatcreates airmovement, whichhelps to prevent frosts.

Temperature Hazards Winter - If temperatures fall below -20°C the vine can be seriously damaged or even killed by winter freeze. The part of the vine most at risk is the graft. In areas at risk from winter freeze, earth can be used to cover up and protect the graft, a process called 'earthing up'.

If the winter is mild, or there is no winter at all (as is the case in subtropical climates), the vine will not have a dormant period and may produce more than one crop each year. Its life will be shortened, and the quality of the grapes will suffer. Mild winters also mean larger populations of insect pests survive to attack the vine the following summer. Spring frosts - These occur when cold air below 0°C collects at ground level, freezing any water vapour that has settled on the ground or the vine. If this happens to newly burst buds or young shoots it kills them. The damage done and the impact on yields can be enormous, and in frost-prone regions growers go to great lengths to minimise this risk. There are four main forms of protection: • Heaters may be placed throughout the vineyard and lit if frost is forecast. The heat they generate creates movement in the air preventing the cold air from settling and causing the frost. • Wind machines are widely deployed in vineyards at risk from frosts. The most commonly used looks like a large fan that draws warm air from above to keep the temperature at ground level above freezing. Some wind machines incorporate heaters. • Sprinklers may be used to spray water onto the vines. As the water freezes, it releases some heat into the plant tissue protecting the buds and shoots. • Thoughtful vineyard design can also minimise the risk of frosts. Because cold air sinks to the lowest point it can find, it is best to plant vineyards on slopes and avoid depressions in which cold air can collect. Vineyards planted on the middle of the slope are noticeably less at risk from frost damage than those in lower lying areas.Vines can also be trained high to avoid the worst of the cold air. The growing season - Cold temperatures in the spring may delay bud burst. This shortens the growing season and could mean that there is not enough time for the grapes to ripen fully in the autumn before it becomes too cold. Flowering and fruit set can also be disrupted by cold temperatures, resulting in a smaller than average crop of grapes. During the summer, very hot temperatures can be harmful, and in prolonged periods of extreme heat all vine activity will slow and eventually stop, even when there is sufficient water . This prevents the grapes from ripening properly. In extreme cases the vine will die. SUNLIGHT What a Vine Needs Without light, photosynthesis cannot happen and plants die. Broadly speaking, the more light there is the more a vine will photosynthesise and the greater the amount of glucose produced for growth and ripening grapes. Flowering and fruit set also benefit greatly from plenty of sunlight.

THEGROWINGENVIRONMENT

Adripirrigation systemin

Factors Affecting Sunlight Many of the factors that affect temperature also affect the amount of sunlight in a vineyard.

NewZealand.

Latitude - Day length during the summer growing season is longer the further the vineyard is from the Equator. This extra sunlight is an important factor that helps Riesling to ripen in Germany. Seas and lakes - Vineyards near large bodies of water tend to experience more cloud cover. Regions at the centre of large land masses tend to be sunnier. In some cases, vineyards situated above rivers or lakes can benefit from sunlight reflected from the surface of the water . Aspect - A slope's aspect affects the amount of sunlight it receives and steeper slopes benefit more from this effect. Vineyards that face the Equator receive the most sunlight. The greater the distance from the Equator the weaker the sun's energy, so for vineyards that are closest to the Poles maximising the sunlight with a favourable aspect is especially important. Sunlight Hazards There are a number of times in the year when low light levels can cause problems for the grape grower. Sunlight is needed for successful flowering and fruit set, and cloudy conditions during this period can result in a smaller crop of grapes. Also, the slowing in photosynthesis caused by heavy cloud cover can stop grapes ripening fully. Although direct sunlight helps grapes to ripen, intensely sunny conditions can cause sunburn , leading to bitter flavours developing in the grape skins. The grape grower can arrange and manage the leaves of the vine, known as the vine canopy, to ensure that sunlight is maximised in very cloudy areas or that enough shade is provided in extremely sunny regions. This is covered in the section Trellisingand CanopyManagement in Chapter 6. WATER What a Vine Needs The vine needs water for photosynthesis and to swell its grapes during ripening. The vine accesses water through its roots and, in a process known as transpiration, water is drawn up to the leaves. The amount of water a vine needs is determined by the temperature. As it gets warmer, water evaporates from the vine's leaves at a faster rate, meaning that the vine needs to take up more water from the soil to compensate. Once a sufficient canopy of leaves has grown, limiting the supply of water can be beneficial for grape ripening . In these conditions the vine has enough water to keep photosynthesising but the shortage of water means that the vine concentrates on grape ripening rather than further shoot growth . This has the added advantage of

27

reducing the impact of shading because the canopy does not grow too large.

Rainfall and Irrigation Rainfall is the most important source of water but, if it is insufficient, then it can be supplemented with irrigation if local laws permit. There are three main irrigation techniques. Drip irrigation - This is the most advanced and expensive. Each vine has its own dripperthat can be computer controlled to ensure that each vine gets the optimum amount of water. Sprinklers - These are still widely used and cheaper than drip irrigation but they waste a lot of water and, like rain, they create damp conditions in the vineyard increasing the risk of disease. If correctly designed, sprinklers can also be used for frost protection. Flood irrigation - This is very cheap to use but is only possible in vineyards that are flat or very gently sloping and where there is access to large quantities of water. Water Hazards Drought - If there is a water shortage the vine can temporarily stop transpiration in order to preserve its resources. During prolonged shortages or drought, vines suffer from water stress; photosynthesis stops, leaves wilt and grapes fail to ripen. Ultimately this can weaken and kill a vine. Too much water - If the vine has access to too much water during the growing season the vine will continue to grow shoots and leaves during the ripening season, leaving less sugar for ripening grapes. Furthermore, the extra shoots and leaves increase the amount of shading in the canopy, which restricts grape ripening. In extreme cases,a waterlogged soil can cause the roots to become saturated and die. Waterlogging can be avoided by planting vines on a slope or, on flat sites, installing drainage pipes to aid the flow of water away from the roots.

28

UNDERSTANDING WINES:EXPLAINING STYLEAND QUALITY

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE CLIMATE OF A VINEYARD This is an imaginary landscape set in the Northern Hemisphere, which shows how the location of a vineyard can affect its climate.

Altitude Temperature drops as altitude rises.This can be advantageous in areas close to the Equator as they might otherwise be too hot.

./

Frost ~Vineyard location can - ~ be used to minimise the risk of frost. Cold air descends whereas warm air rises. In LocationO the cold air is trapped by the surrounding hills, increasing the risk of frost. In Locationf}the cold air flows away and does not settle in the vineyard, reducing the risk of frost.

~

•

THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT

Latitude The illustration to the right shows why temperatures are warmer at the Equator and colder at the Poles. At the Equator, the sun's energy is concentrated in a small area, whereas at the Poles the same amount of energy is spread out over a wider area, therefore it is colder.

North Pole

South Pole

Aspect Slopes facing the sun get the most heat and light . In the Northern Hemisphere, as shown here, these slopes are south facing . In the Southern Hemisphere they are north facing . In this illustration you can see that the sun's energy is most concentrated at the middle of the slope (compared with the top and bottom), meaning that this location receives the most heat and light .

~--

~,,~~

,ri --~ . ... !I

,,

''-•,

.··~~ . ,~,··..

Cooling Effects from the Ocean Cold ocean currents can have a cooling effect on coastal wine regions . If, as shown in Location€)cold air and fog blow on shore, this can enhance the effect. Note, although not illustrated here, warm ocean currents can have the opposite effect.

29

30

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

NettinginArgentina designedto protectthevines fromdevastating damage causedbyhail.Theextentof thepotentialdamage justifiesthecostof installing thenetting.

Rainfall is important both in its timing and the amount that falls. Flowering and fruit set can both be disrupted by heavy rainfall and this can significantly reduce the number of grapes that are formed. Damp conditions that follow rainfall also encourage the spread of fungal diseases. Heavy rain shortly before harvest time can cause the berries to swell excessively. This dilutes the flavours in the wine they produce and in extreme cases the berries swell so much that they split, which attracts fungal disease. This is discussed in more detail in the section Managing VineyardPestsand Diseasesin Chapter 6. Hail - Hail can damage grapes and even the vine itself. In the worst cases it can destroy an entire crop. Some areas, such as Mendoza in Argentina, are particularly prone to hail. In certain vineyards netting is used to protect the vines, which is quite costly. Hail storms tend to be very localised and so ultimately the best protection may be to reduce the risk of losing the whole crop by owning several vineyard sites in different locations.

CLIMATE ANDWEATHER The temperature, sunlight and water availability can be combined to give an overall picture of the climate and weather in a region. A region's climate is defined as the annual pattern of temperature, sunlight and rainfall averaged out over several years.The climate does not change from one year to the next, though it can alter over a period of decades.

A region's weather, on the other hand, is the annual variation that happens relative to the climatic average. Some regions experience greater variation in this pattern than others. For example, the amount and timing of rainfall in Bordeaux, France,can vary quite considerably: in 2007 the region was cool, cloudy and wet during most of August, whereas in 2003 high temperatures and near drought conditions were experienced. The weather in other regions, such as Central Valley in California, is far more predictable, with hot dry weather from one year to the next. Climate Classification For the purposes of consistency, in this book a region's temperature will be defined using the average temperature during the growing season, which is April to October in the Northern Hemisphere and October to April in the Southern Hemisphere . For simplicity, the following temperature terms will be used: Cool climates: Regions with an average growing season temperature of 165°C or below. Moderate climates: Regions with an average growing season temperature of l 6.S°Cto 185°C. Warm climates: Regions with an average growing season temperature of 18.5°C to 21°(. Hot climates: Regions with an average growing season temperature in excess of 21°C.

THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT

These give a good approximate guide to which grapes can be successfully ripened in any given region but, as noted above, climate classifications also need to incorporate how the temperature varies throughout the year (continentality) or during a typical day (diurnal range), and also the level and timing of rainfall and sunlight. For consistency the following three climate categories will be used taking into account the temperature categories of cool, moderate and warm as well as a region's continentality, sunlight and rainfall. Continental climate - These climates have the greatest difference in temperature between the hottest and coldest months (high continentality) and are usually characterised by short summers with a large, rapid temperature drop in autumn. Cool continental climates such as Chablis and Champagne (both in France) are at risk from spring frost, and low temperatures throughout the growing season can affect flowering, fruit set and ripening. They are, therefore, better suited to varieties that bud late and ripen early. Continental climates are also noted for having dry summers and so if the temperature is high then irrigation can be necessary. Maritime climate - Maritime climates are characterised by cool to moderate temperatures and a low annual difference between the hottest and coldest months (low continentality). Rainfall tends to be evenly spread throughout the year which helps to moderate the temperature. This means that temperatures are warm enough for grapes to continue ripening far into the autumn. Consequently, maritime Bordeaux can successfully ripen the thick-skinned grape variety Cabernet Sauvignon, which might otherwise struggle to ripen at this latitude. However, rainfall in the spring and summer can be harmful to the flowering, fruit set and health of the grapes at harvest. Mediterranean climate - Mediterranean climates are also characterised by a low temperature difference between the hottest and coldest months but the summers tend to be warm and dry. These conditions are to be found throughout the Mediterranean, as well as much of coastal California, Chile, South Africa and South Eastern Australia. The extra warmth and sunlight, compared with maritime climates, leads to wines that are fuller bodied, with riper tannins, higher alcohol and lower levels of acidity. The lower rainfall can have a positive effect on the health of the grapes but can also lead to drought.

SOIL Soil supplies the vine with water and nutrients and therefore plays a critical role in grape growing. Soil Composition Soil sits above the underlying bedrock, and may be anything from a few centimetres to several metres deep. It is made up of tiny particles of various sizes, as well as

31

larger stones or rocks and humus (organic matter such as decomposing leaves).The composition of the soil and size of the particles within it are very important. Stones, sand and clay - These come from the underlying rock or later deposits laid on top of the rock. Regardless of the source, it is the size of the soil particles that is crucial. Stones are the largest soil particles and are not always present in vineyard soils. As noted above, stones on the surface of a soil can help heat up a vineyard. The rest of the soil is made up of tiny particles, the most important of which are sand (the largest) and clay (the smallest). Humus - This is made up of decomposing plant and animal materials that are rich in plant nutrients and have excellent water retaining properties. Soil and Water Grape quality is affected by the amount of water that is available in the soil. Ideally, the vine needs a good supply of water early in the season to support strong shoot and leaf growth, followed by mild water stress after veraison; this has been shown to promote grape ripening. Water is stored in the soil by binding to clay particles or humus. If a soil contains too much clay it can easily become waterlogged, which in extreme cases can kill the vine's roots. Conversely, sand particles and stones do not hold water well and facilitate water drainage. Therefore, if there is too much sand and stone in a soil, insufficient water may be retained and irrigation may be needed, even in areas of high rainfall. AvineintheMaconnais, France, suffering from chlorosis.

32

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

Many of the best soils are made up of a mixture of sand and clay particles, known as loam. These soils have good drainage but retain enough water for vine growth. However, it is important to note that there is no one soil type that is always ideal, and a soil's suitability will depend on other climatic factors such as temperature and rainfall.

Soil and Nutrients The most important nutrients for a vine are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. These elements are naturally occurring in the soil and are taken up by the vine roots. Vines do not need high levels of these nutrients in order to be able to thrive . In fact, if levels are too high the vine

will grow too vigorously and produce a dense leafy canopy that shades the fruit too much. Nevertheless, over time the nutrients in the soil become depleted and the grape grower will need to replace them with natural or chemical fertilisers. A common symptom linked to a lack of nutrients is chlorosis. The leaves turn yellow and the vine's ability to photosynthesise is restricted . Grapes struggle to ripen properly and their quality and quantity is reduced . The problem can be solved by using an appropriate fertiliser. The overall impact of soil and vine nutrition on the quality of the grapes and the finished wine is very complex and beyond the scope of this book.

VINEYARDMANAGEMENT

33

Vineyard Management The gra~e grower has_avery simple goal: to ~roduce a healthy

6

crop of ripe grapes suitable for the style of wine the winemaker wants to make. In order to be able to do this it is necessary to apply an understanding of how the environment affects the vine's growth. In this chapter we will look at how decisions over site selection, trellising, training, pruning systems, planting densities and pests and diseases have an impact on the quality and quantity of grapes that can be harvested each year.

SITE SELECTION When a producer wants to establish a new vineyard the potential site needs to be assessed for its environmental and pract ical suitability. Suitable grape varieties will need to be chosen. Environmental conditions - The grape grower can use data to work out the potential site's average temperature, rainfall and sunlight hours as well as the fertility of the soil and how well drained it is. These factors will influence the choice of grape variety as well as the ideal planting density, and systems of training and trellising. Businessconsiderations - The proximity of a vineyard to the utility infrastructure (power , water, etc.), the availability of a vineyard workforce, the accessibility of a site for machinery, such as tractors and harvesters, and the cost of the land are all important considerations in the financial viability of a site. Grape variety - The grape variety must suit the climatic conditions of the preferred site. There must also be a demand for the grapes. In EU vineyard areas there may also be legal restrictions on the varieties that a producer can use. This is covered in more detail in section Label Integrity in Chapter 11. PLANTING/REPLANTING A new vineyard site must be cleared of any existing vegetation as necessary. The fertility of the soil may be tested and fertilisers applied to correct any nutrient deficiencies. Young vines, usually bought pre-grafted from a nursery, are planted either by hand or machine. The young vines are often protected against animals by individual plastic sleeves. Irrigation is also sometimes allowed, even in regions where it is otherwise prohibited, to help young vines establish themselves. The first yield usually comes in the third year after planting. Although they can be very long-lived, most vines are replaced between the ages of 30 and 50 years old . Some wine estates will use the term 'old vines' or its local equivalent, to denote a wine made from well-established plants. These vines are thought to produce fruit of exceptional quality, often with a greater concentration of flavours. However, the quantity or yield of grapes a vine

produces decreases with age and it can be increasingly susceptible to disease. Therefore a balance has to be struck between quality and profitability . Normally, vineyard land is left fallow (unplanted) for three years or more after the vines are dug up so that it can recover. A grape grower will have a replanting cycle that ensures that as little of their vineyard as possible is out of production at any one time.

MANAGING THE VINE Training, pruning, trellising and the density of the planting are the main techniques used to manage the vine, and the grape grower will adapt these practices to suit the vineyard's resources: temperature, sunlight, water and soil nutrients. He or she will also take into account practical considerations such as the use of machinery in the vineyard. However, in all cases,the grape grower's goal is to maximise the production of fruit at the desired quality level as economically as possible. The interrelationship between all of these factors is extremely complex and in this book we will only explore some of the reasons behind the choices that are made.

Anewlyplantedvineyard in Australia . Thetrellisposts andwires,thedripirrigation systemandtheplastic

Vine Training Vine training typically refers to the shape of permanent wood of the vine and can be split broadly into two

sleevesusedto protectthe youngvinescanallbeseen clearly.

34

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

categories: head training or cordon training. Importantly, either system can be low-trained, to benefit from heat retained by the soil, or high-trained, to avoid frosts.

Head training - These vines have relatively little permanent wood. Some only have a trunk. Others have a few short arms of permanent wood growing from the top of the trunk. They can either be spur-pruned or replacement cane-pruned. Cordon training - These vines typically have a trunk with one or more permanent horizontal arms or 'cordons'. The vines are usually spur-pruned. Cordon training takes longer to establish because of the greater amount of permanent wood. However, the sturdy permanent cordon with shoots positioned along its length makes mechanisation in the vineyard, such as machine harvesting, easier to achieve. Vines normally have one or two cordons, but cordon training can also be used to create big vine structures where shoots may grow from four or more cordons. Vine Pruning Pruning is the removal of unwanted leaves, canes and permanent wood. It shapes the vine and limits its size. Pruning will take place every winter and summer. Winter pruning is an important part of the vineyard calendar and its main purpose is to determine the number and location of the buds that will form shoots in the coming growing season. It is important to make sure that the buds are not close together. This helps with canopy management (see following section Trellising and Canopy Management). There are two styles of winter pruning: spur and replacement cane. Spur pruning - Spurs are short sections of one-year -old wood that have been cut down to only two to three buds. The spurs are either distributed along a cordon of permanent wood (cordon training) or around the top of the trunk (head training). Replacement cane pruning - Canes are longer sections of one-year-old wood and can have anything between eight and 20 buds. Typically only one or two canes are retained and each cane is tied horizontally to the trellis for support. This type of pruning is most often seen on head-trained vines. Replacement cane pruning is more complex than spur pruning and requires a large skilled labour force to choose suitable canes and train them . It is sometimes referred to as Guyot training; one cane is retained in Single Guyot; two in Double Guyot. Summer pruning involves trimming the canopy to restrict vegetative growth and direct sugar production to the grape, rather than to the growth of shoots and leaves. It can also involve leaf stripping so that bunches of grapes have optimum exposure to sunshine.

Trellising and Canopy Management The vine's canopy is made up of all of the green parts of the vine. Managing this annual growth is a very important part of grape growing and grape growers must choose between a number of techniques. The most important choice concerns whether or not to use a trellis. Trellises are permanent structures of stakes and wires that are used to support any replacement canes and the vine's annual growth. Untrellised vineyards - In some regions, the vines may not have a trellis system and the shoots will hang down often as far as the ground. These are called bush vines and they are typically head-trained and spur-pruned. This system is best suited to warm or hot, dry, sunny regions, such as the Southern Rhone in France and the BarossaValley in Australia, where the extra shade helps to protect the grapes. In cool or wet regions, the shade can impede grape ripening and the lack of airflow can promote disease. This is avoided in Beaujolais, France, where the shoots of head-trained, spur-pruned vines are tied together at the tips, which helps expose bunches to air and sunlight. This training system is sometimes referred to as gobelet. Untrellised vines are not suitable for mechanical harvesting. Trellised vineyards - Each row of vines requires a line of posts joined by horizontal wires. The vine's canes and shoots are then tied to the trellis. Together, this is known as canopy management. There are three important reasons for doing this. First, the arrangement of the young shoots can be used to control the amount of sunlight that gets into the canopy. In regions with limited sunlight, keeping the shoots apart to create an open canopy maximises the grapes' exposure to sunlight helping the grapes to ripen successfully. However, in regions with intense sunlight, keeping the grapes shaded by leaves may reduce grape sunburn, a problem that can lead to off-flavours. Second, an open canopy can improve air circulation through the leaves and grapes. This is particularly important in wet climates because damp stagnant air can promote fungal diseases. Finally, trellising can aid mechanisation in the vineyard . Positioning the grapes in one area of the vine and the leaves in another means that mechanical harvesting is simplified and the spraying of insecticides or fungicides is more effective. The most widely used system is Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP).It can be used with replacement cane- or spur-pruned vines. The vine's shoots are trained vertically and are tied in place onto the trellis forming a single narrow canopy. By keeping the shoots apart this system keeps the canopy as open, well aerated and shade free as possible. In hot sunny regions VSPcan be adapted so that the tops of the shoots are not tied in but flop over creating some shade in the canopy to protect the fruit. A producer would choose to use this system rather than an

VINEYARDMANAGEMENT

35

VINE TRAINING AND PRUNING These diagrams show the most common forms of pruning and training. Each one shows the vine after winter pruning on the left and after veraisonon the right. HEAD-TRAINED, SPUR-PRUNED Canopy afterVeraison

AfterWinterPruning

One-year -oldwood:

HEAD-TRAINED, REPLACEMENT CANE -PRUNED AfterWinterPruning Canopy afterVeraison

Trellis wire

CORDON-TRAINED, SPUR-PRUNED

Canopy after Veraison

;.

AfterWinterPruning

Thisyear'sshoots(VSP) spur-

36

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

untrellised bush vine because mechanical harvesting can be used. Density Planting density is the number of vines that are planted in a given area.This is typically expressed as the number of vines planted per hectare. A hectare is an area enclosed by a square with 100-metre sides. Planting densities can vary from as low as 1000 vines per hectare to as high as 10 000 vines per hectare. (Some countries use acres. One acre is approximately 0.4 hectares.) There are many factors that influence a grape grower's decision regarding planting density. They cannot all be considered here but one very important set of criteria that can, is the availability of nutrients and water .

Very limited water availability- Some regions have very low levels of rainfall or very limited accessto irrigation. In these circumstances low planting density can be beneficial, as it allows each vine's roots to take up water from a large volume of soil without having to compete against the roots of neighbouring vines. Low levels of nutrients and sufficient rainfall Provided it can accessenough water, a vine will thrive in barely fertile soil. Left unchecked it will grow vigorously and produce a lot of green vegetative growth in preference to fruit. In order to counteract this, vines may be planted at a high density. This provides enough competition for resources among the roots to restrict the vine's vegetative growth. Ensuring that the vine has

EXAMPLES OFVINEYARD MANAGEMENT In order to understand some of the reasons behind the choices that are made in the vineyard, consider the following two examples. Note that in many European wine regions vineyard management is legally controlled and a grower is compelled to use certain options. This factor is not considered here. EXAMPLE 1 Scenario Thiswineregionisinlandina hot,verysunnyregion.Rainfall isvery lowandthereisnoorverylimitedirrigationwateravailable. However, thesoilhasgoodwater-holding capacity.

EXAMPLE2 Scenario Thiswineregionisclosetothecoast.It hasa moderate climatewith highlevelsof rainfallthroughout theyear.Thesoilfertilityislow.

Choices andReasoning Wateravailability-Thisisthemostimportantchallenge here because lackofwatercankillthevineveryquickly. Giventhatthereis littleornoirrigationwater,thegrowermustplantat lowdensities. Thiswill ensure thatthevinesarenotcompeting forwaterandthat eachvinehasaccess to enough waterin orderto survive.

Choices andReasoning Soilfertilityandwater- Thevinewill probably havemorethan enoughresources to survive andthegrowerneeds to introduce some competition between thevinesto controltheirgrowth.Therefore highdensityplantingwill bethebestoption.

Sunlight andtemperature - Theriskhereisthatthegrapes might getsunburned. Therefore it isimportant thatthereissomeshade in the canopy in orderto protectthefruit.Agrowermightchoose to grow theirvinesasbushes oronatrelliswherethetopoftheshoots flop over.These choices will notgivethegroweranyproblems withfungal diseases because thelackof rainfallmeans thatthedisease pressure islow.

Growing season rainfall- Thispresents twoimportant challenges to thegrower. Firstthedampenvironment isidealforthegrowthof fungaldiseases. Second thehighrainfallmeans theskyisfrequently cloudy, limitingthesunlight. Thegrowerwill choose VSP. Thiswill keep thecanopy open,whichwill maximise theamountof lightthatcan enterthecanopy andhelpto keepit wellaerated to restrictthespread ofdisease.

Low-density bushvinesinSpain.

High-density, head-trained, replacement cane-pruned vinesin Bordeaux.

37

VINEYARDMANAGEMENT

the correct number of buds after winter pruning is also important. The vine stores energy in the form of carbohydrates over winter. If there are too few buds then each bud will have access to too much energy and will grow vigorously. On the other hand, if there are too many buds, each one will not have access to enough energy and the vine will struggle to ripen its crop load. When managed correctly this combination of density and pruning makes it easier to maintain an open canopy with all the advantages this confers on fruit quality and disease control. High planting density with strict control of the number of buds on each vine is common in many European vineyards. High levels of nutrients and sufficient rainfall - Very fertile soils are not suitable for viticulture. However, some vineyard areas, particularly in the New World, are on soils that offer the vines more nutrients than many of the classic European regions. Here high-density planting is often not enough to limit the growth of the vines and another solution has been developed that involves lowdensity planting using vines with multiple cordons or canes.This system is often able to produce good quality grapes at high yields. Yields Yield is a measure of the amount of grapes produced. It may be measured in terms of weight, such as tonnes of grapes per hectare, or volume, such as hectolitres of wine per hectare. It is important for a producer to be able to manage and predict yields. Producers may need to observe legal requirements, such as those that exist in the EU.They may have to meet contractual obligations or the winemaker may simply need to know how much tank space they need to make their wine. Predicting yields is not straightforward. An estimate can be made from the number of buds left on the vine after winter pruning but frost damage, poor fruit set and pests and diseases can all dramatically reduce the final figure. If yields are going to be too high then they can be reduced by removing immature grapes shortly after veraison.This practice, known as green harvesting, is risky because if it is done at the wrong time the vine will compensate for the loss by increasing the size of the grapes that have been retained. This can not only return the yield to the original size but will also dilute the flavours in the remaining grapes. Yields and Quality Although traditionally there was a view that high fruit quality could only be achieved by low yields of grapes, it is in fact very hard to make any solid link between quality and yield. There are a number of factors that can affect the relationship between yields and fruit quality, many of which will depend on the individual vineyard site. They are beyond the scope of this book.

MANAGING VINEYARD PESTS AND DISEASES Vines are susceptible to many pests and diseases, the presence of which may result in a drop in yield and/or reduce the quality of the fruit. Grapes may be lost or damaged by disease or hungry animals. Damage to leaves reduces photosynthesis and limits the vine's ability to ripen its grapes. Some pests and diseases can be controlled; others may kill the vine. Pests Phylloxera - This has been discussed in the section Phylloxeraand Rootstocksin Chapter 4. Nematodes - These are microscopic worms that attack the roots of vines interfering with water and nutrient uptake. In certain instances they transmit vine viruses. In terms of treatment, prevention is better than cure. Sanitising the soil before replanting and using resistant rootstocks have been found to be successful. Birds and mammals - They can both consume large volumes of grapes. Furthermore, half-eaten or crushed grapes can lead to an increased risk of fungal disease. Netting is often the best option against birds, whereas protective fencing may be needed to deter mammals such as rabbits, deer or wild boar. Insects - They feed on both grapes and leaves.The grape grower may choose to treat the problem with regular spraying of insecticides or a more environmentally friendly technique, such as integrated pest management (see section SustainableAgricultureon page 40). Fungal Diseases Downy and powdery mildew - These fungi thrive in warm, humid environments and can affect all of the

NettedvinesinNewZealand. Thenetsprotectripegrapes frombirds.

38

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

THEVINEYARDCYCLE This diagram shows the annual growth cycle of the vine and the timings of the most common vineyard tasks.

Budburst March-April in the Northern Hemisphere September-October in the Southern Hemisphere

Budburst occursinthespring.Budsswellandburst,growing intonewshoots. Budburst isthestartofthegrowing seasonandgenerally beginswhen themeandailytemperature exceeds 10°C. Thetemperature at which budburstoccursdependsonthegrapevariety. Chardonnay andPinot Noirbudat relatively lowtemperatures andarecalledearly-budding varieties, whereasCabernet Sauvignon isa late-budding variety needingwarmerconditions. Newshootscanbekilledbyspringfrosts,reducing yields significantly, particularly inearly-budding varieties.

2, 3, 4. Budburst. 1. Avineyard afterwinterpruning.

Spraying againstfungaldiseases andpests,ifpractised, beginsat thistime.

Winter Dormancy December-March in the Northern Hemisphere July-September in the Southern Hemisphere

16. Avineyard inwinterbeforepruning.

Astheweatherbecomes colder, thegrowing seasonendsanda periodof winterdormancy begins.Theshootsbecome woodyandfromthispoint areknownascanes.Theleavesfallandthevinestoresitsreserves of carbohydrates initsroots.

1s. Hand-harvested whitegrapes. 14. Ripewhitegrapes. Notethechange incolour postveraison.

Incontinental climates, winterfreezecankillbudsandinextremecasesthe vineitself.Earthmaybepileduparoundthevineto provide someprotection. Winterpruning takesplace.

Harvest September-October in the Northern Hemisphere March-April in the Southern Hemisphere

Ideally theharvestperiodshouldbedry.Excess rainfall beforeharvest cancausegrapesto swell,diluting thejuice,anddueto dampconditions it canincrease the riskofrot. Wherepractised, spraying musthavefinished earlyenoughto ensurethatthereareno harmful chemical residues inthewine.

13. Ripeblackgrapes.

VINEYARDMANAGEMENT

Early Shoot and Leaf Growth March-May in the Northern Hemisphere September-November in the Southern Hemisphere

Shootsgrowrapidly untilthevineflowers. Initially thisisfuelledbythevine's carbohydrate reserves storedoverwinterbutastheleavesmaturetheysupportthe growthviaphotosynthesis. Thevineneedsa goodsupply ofwaterandsufficient nutrients earlyintheseason.Ifpractised, shootsaretiedtothetrellisto ensurethecanopy remains open. Spraying continues asnecessary.

Flowering and Fruit Set May-June in the Northern Hemisphere November-December in the Southern Hemisphere

5. Early shootgrowth.

Whentheinflorescences startflowering thevinesneedswarm temperatures, plentyofsunshine andlittleornorainotherwise pollination canbedisrupted, reducing fruitset.

6. Aninflorescence before flowering.

Fruitsetoccurs whena flowerstartsto develop intoa grape.Not everyflowerbecomes a grapeandafterfruitsetunpollinated flowers dropoff.Ifmoreflowers thannormal failtofertilise thiscondition iscalledcouture. Grapes canalsosometimes formwithoutseeds andremainsmall.Thisisknownasmillerandage. Bothofthese conditions reduceyieldsandusually stemfromcold,cloudy or rainyweatherduringthepollination period .

7. Aninflorescence inflower. 8. Aclose-up ofaninflorescence inflower.

Spraying continues asnecessary . 9. Fruitset. 1O.Immature grapesbeforeveraison. Notethatallgrapesaregreenatthis stage. 11. Blackgrapesduring veraison.

Veraison and Berry Ripening July-September in the Northern Hemisphere January-March in the Southern Hemisphere

12.Avineyard infullcanopy.

Afterfruitsetthereisa periodofsixto eightweeksduringwhichtimethe grapesstarttogrow.Bothblackandwhitegrapesaregreenat thisstageand thegrapesfeelhard.Veraison signals thepointat whichthegrapesbeginto ripen. Thegrapes'skinschangecolour: blackvarieties turnredthenpurple,whereas white varieties become translucent andgolden. Between veraison andharvest, grapesswellandfillwithwater.During ripening, grape sugarlevelsriseandtheacidlevelsdrop.Colour pigments andflavour compounds also accumulate at thistimeandtanninsdevelop. Warm andsunnyconditions areideal.Mildwater stressinhibits shootgrowthandencourages graperipening. Ifrequired, summer pruning takesplaceto remove excess foliageensuring thecanopy remains open. Greenharvesting (theremoval ofa proportion ofgrapebunches) maytakeplaceshortlyafterveraison to control yieldandimprove fruitquality. Notallgrapegrowers usethistechnique. Spraying continues asnecessary.

39

40

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

green parts of the vine including the leaves and the grapes. If affected, grapes lose their fruity flavours and can give the wine a mouldy bitter taint.

Grey rot - This is caused by the fungus Botrytis cinerea. It thrives in damp conditions, and typically attacks grapes. It can taint grape flavours and lead to colour loss in black grapes. In certain conditions and for certain white grape varieties a Botrytis cinerea infection can be beneficial as it helps to produce some of the finest sweet wines in the world. In this case the infection is called noble rot. More details can be found in the section Sweet Winemaking in Chapter 8. Fungal diseases can be controlled using chemical sprays (fungicides). Traditionally, powdery mildew was treated with a sulfur-based spray and downy mildew with Bordeaux mixture, a copper-based spray. These treatments are still used but many new chemical treatments now exist. Spraying is usually done by tractor . More sprayings are required in maritime climates, where there is high rainfall during the growing season. All spraying must stop close to harvest time so that there are no harmful chemical residues in the wine. The risk of fungal disease developing can also be reduced using appropriate canopy management. A dense, shady vine canopy restricts airflow and prevents water from evaporating, creating a humid environment. An open vine canopy allows a greater flow of air, which promotes evaporation and keeps it as dry as possible. This has the added financial and environmental advantages of reducing the usage of chemical sprays which, when used, can reach into all parts of the canopy more easily.

Other Diseases Viruses - Numerous viruses can infect vines. Most do not kill the vine, but by limiting the vine's ability to function they can dramatically reduce yield and quality. Viruses are highly contagious and persistent, and are usually spread via cuttings or nematodes. There are no treatments or cures. Viruses can only be eradicated by digging up the vines and sanitising the land . Bacterial diseases - A large number of bacteria can also infect a vine. Many just reduce grape quality and quantity but some can kill the vines. Typically these diseases are spread by small insects called sharpshooters. There are no treatments or cures. Strict quarantine procedures and interrupting the lifecycle of the sharpshooters are the only ways of preventing the spread of these diseases. As with viruses, once a vine is infected the disease can only be eradicated by digging up the vines and sanitising the land. VITICULTURAL PRACTICES

In the second half of the twentieth century, the use of man-made chemicals in the vineyard to control pests

and diseases significantly increased. There was also an increased use of chemical fertilisers. A number of grape growers still rely on regular and systematic applications of man-made chemicals to protect their vines and fertilise their land. However, the extent of environmental damage that this amount of chemical spraying has caused both in vineyards and the surrounding areas has become an increasing worry to many grape growers, consumers and legislators. In many major vineyard regions there are increasing efforts to reduce the quantity of chemicals used. There are three main options available to grape growers wishing to do this.

Sustainable Agriculture Man-made chemicals are not prohibited in sustainable agriculture but their use is restricted. Grape growers are encouraged to develop an in-depth understanding of the lifecycles of vineyard pests and monitor weather forecasts so that they can predict and prevent a pest or disease outbreak before it occurs. Rather than simply following a regimented calendar of spraying, this enables them to time the applications so they have the greatest impact. As a result, fewer applications are need. Integrated pest management is a key part of sustainable agriculture. The predators of certain pests may be encouraged to live in the vineyard to control pest populations naturally. This makes vineyard biodiversity essential. Supporting a range of plants in the vineyard rather than a monoculture of vines can provide habitats for predators of pests and provide nutrients for vines when they are mowed and ploughed into the soil. Organic Agriculture Organic agriculture encompasses many of the same concepts as sustainable agriculture; however only a very limited number of the more traditional treatments against pests and diseases is allowed and only in very small quantities. Furthermore, accreditation is required from an organic certification body if the producer wishes to display the organic credentials of their grapes on the label. There are many certification bodies throughout the world. Although many of these organisations operate on similar principles, the exact standards each one sets may be slightly different. Therefore, and perhaps confusingly, some wines made from organically farmed grapes may have been subject to stricter rules than others. A universal requirement, however, is that the vineyard must undergo a period of conversion working to organic standards before it can be certified. Biodynamic Agriculture Biodynamic agriculture is based on the work of Rudolf Steiner and Maria Thun. It adopts organic practices but also incorporates philosophy and cosmology. The vineyard soil is seen as part of a connected system with the planet Earth, the air and other planets. Practitioners adapt their grape growing practices to coincide with the

VINEYARDMANAGEMENT

cycles of the planets, moon and stars. Homeopathic remedies called 'preparations' are used to fertilise the soil, treat diseases and ward off pests. There are also certification bodies for biodynamic agriculture. HARVEST Veraisonis the point at which the grapes begin to ripen. It is signalled by a change in colour of the grapes' skins; black varieties turn red, then purple whereas white varieties become translucent and golden. As the grapes ripen, sugar levels rise and acid levels drop. Monitoring the rise in sugar levels is a common way of tracking the ripening process. At this time grapes also develop their signature flavours and the tannins in the skins of the grapes become less bitter and astringent. There is no completely hard and fast rule that states when a grape is perfectly ripe. The ideal balance between sugar, acid, flavour and tannin will vary depending on the grape variety, the climate and, importantly, the style and quality of the wine being produced. Ideally the harvest begins when the grape grower and/or the winemaker believes that the grapes have the exact qualities they need to create the desired style of wine. However, on occasion, poor weather conditions may cause a grower to bring the harvest forward to save their crop. Hail can destroy grapes and rainfall can cause the grapes to swell excessively and dilute the juice.

Winemakers also need to coordinate the arrival of the fruit at the winery to make sure it is not suddenly overwhelmed with fruit it does not have the capacity to process. Harvesting can be done by hand or machine. The decision to use either method will depend on a number of factors, including how the vineyard is planted, labour availability and cost, the topography of the vineyard, weather conditions and winemaking choices. Note that premium wine can be made from machine-harvested as well as hand-harvested grapes.

41

Machine Harvesting Machine harvesters work by shaking the trunk of the vine and collecting the ripe berries as they fall off, leaving the stalks behind. They are not selective, often collecting some unhealthy, unripe and damaged grapes, as well as shaking off bits of leaf, insects and other contaminants, referred to as MOG (matter other than grapes). These unwanted elements can be removed during sorting when the grapes arrive at the winery. However, the scale of some harvesting operations means that this is not always possible. An important advantage of the machine harvester is speed. This may be essential if the vintage is threatened by bad weather, or with certain grape varieties, such as Sauvignon Blanc, that can become over-ripe very quickly. Machines can also work through the night, which allows cool grapes to be brought to the winery. This saves money and energy that would be spent on lowering the temperature of the grapes before fermentation, and it slows down the process of oxidation, which could lead to off-flavours (see section Oxygen in Chapter 7). However, harvesting machines can only be used on flat or gently sloping land and are best suited to varieties whose grapes are not easily damaged and come away easily from their stem. They cannot be used to pick grapes for wine styles that require whole bunches, such as Beaujolais or Champagne. Hand Harvesting Hand harvesting (also referred to as hand picking) involves pickers cutting off individual bunches of grapes with secateurs. It is slower and more labour intensive, and for this latter reason it can be more expensive if there is no large workforce to hand. However, it does allow grape selection to take place in the vineyard; rotten or unripe grapes can be left on the vine. For grapes affected by noble rot, hand picking

HARVESTING

1. Machine harvesting in France. Theharvester is ableto straddle a rowof vines.Beatershitthe trunksof thevines knocking offthegrapes, whicharecaughtand transferred to a trailer fordelivery to thewinery.

2. Handharvestingin Argentina.

42

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

is essential because the onset and level of rot can vary between bunches and even within a bunch, meaning careful selection is needed. Lessdamage tends to occur to the grapes when they are manually harvested and the grapes can be further protected from damage by being transported in shallow, stackable trays. Unlike machine harvesting, the grape stems are retained. This gives

whole, intact grape bunches that can produce a very clean, pure juice when pressed in white winemaking and that are essential for whole bunch fermentations in red winemaking. Hand harvesting may also be the only option on steep vineyard slopes, such as many of those found in the Douro in Portugal, Mosel in Germany, and Northern Rhone in France.

COMMONELEMENTS INWINEMAKING AND MATURATION

Common Elements inWinemaking andMaturation There are certain factors and processes that are common to all wines and these are explored in this chapter. It is important to get an appreciation of their roles in winemaking and maturation and how they influence the style and quality of wine in order to be able to understand why white, red, rose and sweet wines are made the way they are.

DIFFERENT WINEMAKING APPROACHES Winemaking is a process that starts with grapes and ends with wine. After harvest, the grapes are processed and prepared for alcoholic fermentation, at which point yeast convert the sugars in the grape juice to alcohol. Once this is complete, the wines need to be stored prior to packaging and sale. None of this can happen without the intervention of humans and the hundreds of choices they make along the way. In recent decades advances in our scientific understanding ofwinemaking and the application of this knowledge has meant that many more options are now available for winemakers to choose from. As a result, very different views on what approach to take have now evolved. There are some winemakers who choose to control each part of the winemaking process as much as possible. They have a particular stylistic goal, and they tailor their winemaking techniques to make sure they achieve this goal. However, there are some

winemakers who choose to take a more hands-off approach. They may monitor the wine's progress throughout production, but overall the wine is produced with as little human intervention as possible. Compared with the majority of wines on sale, wines made with minimal intervention often have a very different taste profile. They are sometimes referred to as natural wines. The approaches described above are at two ends of a spectrum with many winemakers taking a stance somewhere in between. In this chapter we will simply focus on the techniques that are used to make the vast majority of wines that are available today.

COMMONELEMENTS THROUGHOUT WINEMAKING AND MATURATION Oxygen Oxygen is a gas that can react with grape juice as well as with many of the component parts of a wine during the winemaking and maturation process.The effect of these

CONSTITUENT PARTSOF GRAPES This diagram shows the key parts of the grape and the role they play in winemaking.

Bloom- Thisisthewaxysurface thatcovers theskinsofthe grapesandcontains yeastthatcanbeusedtofermentthewine. Seedsandstems- Seedsandstemsboth contain tannins. Seedsalsocontain highlevels ofbitteroils.Thestemsareonlyavailable to thewinemaker ifgrapesarehandharvested.

Skins-A grape'sskinandthearea -----immediately beneathcontains a high concentration offlavour compounds, whichgiveeachgrapeitssignature varietal character. Theskinsalsocontain tannins(seebelow) andcolour compounds . Theamountoftanninsand colour inblackgrapesissignificantly higherthaninwhitegrapes.

~

Pulp-Waterisbyfarthelargestsingle component ina grape'spulpandconsequently inthewineaswell.Sugaristhesecondlargest component ina grape'spulpandisofvital importance: theyeastwilluseit tomake alcohol. Acids arealsofoundinthepulp.The mostabundant acidistartaricacidfollowed by malicacid,andthesegrapeacidsarepresentin thefinished wine.

Tannins - Alargenumber ofchemical compounds areclassed astannin.Atveraison theytasteverybitterandastringent and,asthe grapesripen,thelevelofbitterness andastringency falls.Notethatoakcanalsocontribute sometanninsto bothredandwhitewines.

43

7

44

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

chemical reactions, referred to as oxidation, is sometimes positive and sometimes negative. Oxygen in winemaking - For any winemaker who wants to make a wine dominated by primary fruit characteristics, oxygen is an ever-present threat that needs to be countered. Antioxidants such as sulfur dioxide are used, and every effort is made to keep oxygen contact to a minimum. Grapes are picked at night when it is cooler and the effect of oxygen is reduced because chemical reactions occur more slowly at lower temperatures. The grapes are kept chilled until they reach the winery. Once there, all efforts are made to keep the grapes and juice away from oxygen by filling airtight winery equipment with either carbon dioxide or nitrogen before they are used for grape processing or winemaking. This process is sometimes referred to as protective or anaerobic winemaking. Some argue that wines made in this manner can be bland and uninteresting and that a higher level of contact with oxygen during the winemaking process helps to develop complexity and character in a wine. This ultimately is a question ofwinemaking style. Oxygen in maturation - Wines that have been protected from oxygen during winemaking rarely if ever benefit from any contact with oxygen during maturation. In this instance the wines are stored in inert airtight tanks or vats that are kept completely full. These vessels are either made from stainless steel or from cement lined with epoxy resin. Wines that are matured aerobically (in contact with oxygen) are stored in wooden vessels that are normally made of oak. Oak may be watertight but it is not airtight. Small amounts of oxygen can make it through the oak to react with the wine. This can help to soften tannins in red wines and gives more complexity to the flavours of the wine; primary fruit flavours gradually fade and tertiary characters start to develop, such as leather and earth. The wine may also change in appearance: red wines gradually become paler and gain a hint of brown; white wines become deeper in colour, and gain a hint of orange. The amount of oxidation depends on the size of the vessel and the length of time the wine is stored in it. Small vessels such as 225-litre barriques have a greater oxidative effect than larger vessels as they present a proportionately larger surface area of wood to the wine. Consequently, wines are rarely kept in barrique for longer than two years. Wines kept in larger oak vessels may be matured for longer. The effect of oxygen can be further enhanced if the container is not completely full. This technique is sometimes used for fortified wines that are deliberately oxidative in style such as O/oroso Sherry, Tawny Port and Rutherglen Muscat. This extra oxygen contact, which can sometimes last for many years, means that these wines develop a pronounced tertiary character of caramel, toffee and nuts.

For most wine, too much exposure to oxygen can be damaging. The resulting wine can lose much of its fresh fruit flavour and smell stale. In these instances the wine is said to be oxidised and is unfit for sale. In extreme cases, bacteria will use oxygen to change the wine into vinegar, rendering the wine undrinkable. Sulfur Dioxide Sulfur dioxide (50 2) is almost indispensable in the winery. It acts as an antioxidant and an antiseptic. It can be used to protect freshly harvested grapes and levels are adjusted throughout the winemaking process. The upper levels of 50 2 in wine are strictly controlled by law because it can be toxic (although the concentrations found in wine lie far below toxic levels and are lower than those that can be found in dried fruit). It can also cause allergic reactions even at low levels. Although some 50 2 is produced naturally in fermentation, most winemakers agree that keeping additions of 50 2 as low as possible is preferable, not least because if levels become too high the wine can seem harsh and lacking in fruit. A very small number of winemakers go a step further and refuse to use 50 2 at all. Antioxidant effects - 50 2 protects the grape juice and wine from the effects of oxidation. In doing this, 50 2 loses the ability to have any further protective effect and becomes what is known as 'bound'. Levels of 50 2 therefore need constant monitoring and replenishing to ensure the wine remains protected. Antiseptic effects - 50 2 is toxic to the many strains of yeast and bacteria that can cause unwanted flavours in wines. Fortunately for winemakers the principal yeast involved in the alcoholic fermentation is able to tolerate levels of 50 2 that are toxic to these other species. Oak Vessels The vast majority of wooden vessels used in the winery for fermentation and maturation are made of oak. As stated above, oak vessels allow a small level of oxidation while the wine is maturing, allowing tertiary aromas to develop. However, the wine can also extract tannin and flavours from the oak itself. Oak tannins give more structure to both red and white wines, increasing their textural complexity. Oak can give aromas and flavours such as toast, vanilla, smoke and cloves. Hygiene is a particular challenge when using oak, because it is difficult to keep wooden vessels completely free of yeasts, bacteria and moulds. Wine can be ruined by tainted wood. Oak vessels differ widely in their characteristics and many winemakers will purposely use many different types of vessels to enhance the complexity of the final wine. There are four important factors to consider: Species and origin of oak - Different species of oak have different characteristics but it is also possible for

COMMONELEMENTSIN WINEMAKING AND MATURATION

WINERYVESSELS

1. Oak;onthe leftnewoakbarrels,onthe rightlargeoakvessels. 2. Adose-upofoakstaves. 3. Concrete tanks.Arackofoakstavescanbe seeninfrontofthe tanks. 4. Concrete vesselsshapedlikeeggshavebecomefashionable in recentyears.Theshapeofthesevatsisthoughtto aidthe naturalflowofthejuice/wine,reducingthe needformanual punchingdownandpumpingover. 5. Alargewineryequippedwithstainlesssteeltanks.

45

46

UNDERSTANDING WINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY

the same species of oak to show different characteristics depending on where it is grown. Most winery oak vessels are made from either European oak or American oak. European oak has broadly similar characteristics whether it comes from France, Hungary, Russia or elsewhere, although there are some forests, especially in France, that are considered to produce the finest oak. Size - Small vessels (commonly referred to as 'barrels'), such as the 225-litre barrique and the 228-litre piece, have a much greater effect on the wine than larger vessels, which can reach sizes in excess of 2000 litres. This is because in smaller vessels more of the wine is in contact with the surface of the barrel. Production of oak barrels - The way in which the barrel is made has a vital influence on how it will affect the wine. Arguably the toasting of the barrel is one of the most important procedures in this sense.The barrel production process involves heating the staves so that they can be bent into shape. This heating process also transforms the tannins and flavour compounds in the oak, giving notes of sweet spice and toast. The temperature and length of heat exposure, referred to as the level of toasting, affects what flavours the barrel contributes to the wine. Age - The effect of toasting diminishes each time the barrel is used. A barrel that has been used once gives a wine less flavour than a brand-new one and, by the time a cask is on its fourth usage, it imparts little flavour or tannin. The flavours of new oak are not desirable for all wines and some producers choose not to use new oak barrels in order to make a wine with more subtle oak flavours. Oak Alternatives Oak vessels are not the only means by which oak aromas and tannins can be added to a wine. Small planks of oak known as staves or even smaller oak chips can be inserted into the wine during fermentation or maturation in inert winery vessels. Both methods can provide some oak aromas and tannins at a much lower cost than using casks.The oxidative effects of barrel ageing can be replicated by adding small, controlled quantities of oxygen to the wine vessel. These techniques are still the subject of much research. As yet, premium wines are not normally made using these techniques. Inert Winery Vessels These vessels do not add flavour to wines or allow oxidation and consequently they are frequently referred to as inert. Most of these vessels are made of stainless steel or concrete. They are widely used for fermentation and are also often used to temporarily store finished wine until it can be bottled. Stainless steel - Most modern winery vessels are made from stainless steel. They are easy to keep clean and

can be made in any shape and size. They can also incorporate temperature control mechanisms to control the juice or wine temperature. These may be sleeves on the outside of the vessels or internal coils through which cold or hot liquid can be circulated. Concrete vessels - These vessels are usually lined with epoxy resin, which is inert and provides a waterproof barrier. They were commonly used before stainless steel vessels became available and many have now been replaced. They can be less easy to clean and maintain than stainless steel tanks. However, some winemakers prefer these vessels because the thick concrete shells help to regulate temperature during fermentation and maturation without the need to use expensive temperature control equipment.

Glass bottles are also inert vessels than can be used for storage and maturation in the winery (see section Postbottling Maturation on page 53). GRAPE PROCESSING Grape Reception The grapes usually receive their first dose of S0 2 as they arrive at the winery. If the grapes are destined for a premium wine they will usually be individually checked on a sorting table to eliminate unripe or rotten grapes. Such a careful selection is rarely possible in high volume wine production. Destemming and Crushing These are both optional processes. Machine-harvested grapes arrive without stems, and even if the grapes have been hand harvested, most winemakers choose to remove them. This is usually done in a machine that can subsequently crush the grapes. Crushing breaks the skins of the grapes and liberates a quantity of juice, known as free run juice, but it should avoid damaging the seeds. If seeds are crushed they will release bitter oils and tannin, and the wine may become unpleasantly astringent and bitter. Pressing Pressing separates the liquid and the solid constituents of the grape. In the case of white wines, pressing occurs before the start of fermentation, while for red wines

this typically happens after fermentation. As with the crushing process, seeds should remain undamaged. Modern techniques are designed to achieve a gentle pressing of the grapes for this reason. Traditionally, all wine presses were vertical, with the pressure on the grapes coming from above using a plate that was raised or lowered using a screw or a lever. These vertical 'basket' presses, now often fully automated, are still used by many wineries particularly, but not exclusively, in the Champagne region. Pneumatic presses are a more recent development. They consist of an inflatable rubber tube within a perforated, horizontal,

COMMONELEMENTSINWINEMAKING AND MATURATION

GRAPE RECEPTION

1.Sortinghand-picked wholebunches ontheirwayto thedestemmer. 2.Adestemmer. Thepaddlesspinround,knocking offthegrapes,whichexit through theholesinthedrum. 3. Sortingdestemmed grapes.Theredstructures at thebottomof thepicture arethe rollers at thetopof thecrusher.

stainless steel cylinder, which makes it possible to apply pressure over a larger area, in a controllable way. Some pneumatic presses are built within a closed tank so that the amount of oxygen in contact with the juice is kept to a minimum. The liquid released at the start of pressing is very different from that released towards the end, in terms of flavour and texture. The winemaker may decide to separate the liquid into different pressings, called fractions, and treat them individually. The different components can then be tasted and blended in different proportions to create a certain style. Presswine is discussed in the section PressWinein Chapter 9.

ADJUSTMENTS Adjustments to one or more of the major components of the grape juice or wine are sometimes required for a variety of reasons. Adjustments can be made before, during or after fermentation. What is legally permitted varies from region to region. Note that grape juice is commonly referred to as 'must'.

Sugar and Alcohol In cooler climates, there may be insufficient natural sugar in the grapes to give the wine a satisfactory level of alcohol. Depending on the level of sugar in the juice

(often called the 'must weight'), the winemaker may decide to carry out enrichment. This process involves increasing sugar levels in the juice by adding Rectified Concentrated Grape Must (RCGM- a colourless, odourless syrupy liquid) either before or during fermentation. This in turn has the effect of raising the level of alcohol in the final wine because there is more sugar available for the yeast to turn to alcohol. Enrichment is forbidden in many parts of the world and where it is permitted it is strictly controlled. If carried out with care, enrichment may give a better wine. If abused, it can produce a wine that tastes hard and thin, because there are insufficient flavours to balance the artificially elevated alcohol. Where sugar from sources other than grapes is added, for example sugar beet, this process is called chaptalisation. Another option is to remove water from the juice, which concentrates the sugars and can lead to a wine that is higher in alcohol. However, removing water also concentrates everything else, including tannins, acids, flavour compounds and unfortunately any faults . It also reduces the volume of the juice so less wine can be made and sold. It is very difficult to remove sugar from the juice, but modern machinery can remove alcohol from the wine after fermentation is complete.

47

48

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

PRESSES

1.Vertical basketpresses. 2.Threepneumatic presses.Abladder inside thepressthatcanbe filledwithcompressed airpressesthegrapes againstrigidinternal structures.

Acid Acid levels can be increased if, during ripening, grape acid has fallen too far. Acidification is normally carried out by the addition of tartaric acid in powder form. In Europe, this treatment is permitted in warmer regions only, and it is common in many warm and hot regions around the world. Deacidification (reducing acid levels) is more common in cooler climate regions when the grape acid levels have not fallen sufficiently during grape ripening. Excess acid may be neutralised by the addition of an alkali (the chemical opposite of an acid). FERMENTATIONS Alcoholic Fermentation This is the conversion of sugar into alcohol and C0 2 through the action of yeast. The other by-products of this process are heat and flavour compounds. The yeast species that is responsible for the majority of wine fermentations is Saccharomyces cerevisiae, due to its tolerance of relatively high levels of alcohol and 50 2• Alcoholic fermentation will not start if the temperature is below S°Cand should continue naturally until all the sugar has been consumed. Alcoholic fermentation may stop before all the sugar is consumed. This can happen if the yeast run out of the nutrients they need (other than sugar) or if the temperature reaches over 35°C.When the sugar concentration in the juice is very high, the combination of high sugar levels and alcohol can be enough to stop the yeast from functioning. In extreme situations the sugar level can be so high that yeast may even struggle to start the fermentation in the first place. In some instances the winemaker may want to stop the fermentation before all of the sugar has been converted to alcohol. This can be achieved by either killing or removing the yeast. Yeast can be killed by adding 50 2 or by adding grape spirit (see section Sweet Winemaking in Chapter 8). Yeast can be removed using filtration and typically this will be done after the fermentation has been temporarily halted by chilling the fermenting wine to below s0 c.

There are two important ways in which a winemaker can control the fermentation: the choice of yeast and temperature management. Yeast - The winemaker can choose between relying on the various ambient yeast strains found on the grape bloom and in the winery, or adding a cultured yeast strain to the must. Using ambient yeast strains can produce complex flavours in the final wine, but has the disadvantage that the winemaker cannot control exactly which yeasts are present. There may also be some variation between batches, which would be particularly unsuitable for high-volume wine production. Commercially available cultured yeasts are individual strains of 5. cerevisiae that have been specifically selected because they consistently perform and produce attractive flavours. However, some winemakers argue that using cultured yeast limits the potential complexity of the wine. Temperature - Temperature management is important in winemaking because if fermenting wine becomes too hot, yeast are killed. However, by controlling the temperature, the winemaker can also influence the flavours of the wine being made. Fermenting at lower temperatures avoids the loss of the most volatile aromas which often have a floral character. It can also encourage the development of fruity flavours in white wines. Higher temperatures are necessary for the extraction of colour and tannins from black grape skins. A fermenting vat is constantly monitored to make sure it is running at the correct temperature. Many vats now have their own heating/refrigeration system, making temperature control relatively easy. Excess heat can also be released by pumping over (see section Cap Management Techniques in Chapter 9). Precise temperature control during fermentation is an important development that has made a huge contribution to the quality and consistency of modern winemaking.

COMMONELEMENTSIN WINEMAKING AND MATURATION

Malolactic Fermentation (MLF) Malolactic fermentation usually takes place once the alcoholic fermentation has finished, and is carried out by lactic acid bacteria. They convert the tart malic grape acid (also found in apples) into the softer lactic acids (also found in milk). MLF softens and reduces acidity, as well as creating buttery flavours and producing CO2. MLF may be encouraged by raising the temperature of the wine and by not adding 50 2 after the alcoholic fermentation. It can be avoided through storage at cool temperatures, the use of 50 2, or by filtering out the bacteria.

fall to the bottom of the fermentation or storage vessel within a matter of hours. The sediment that forms is known as the gross lees and, if not removed, it can cause unpleasant aromas to develop in the wine. Smaller particles may settle more slowly. These are known as the fine lees and they are often removed gradually through the wine maturation process (see section Sedimentation on page SO).In some cases the winemaker may choose to keep a white wine in contact with the fine lees during pre-bottling maturation in order to add extra flavours and a richer texture to the wine.

PRE-BOTTLING MATURATION AND BLENDING

Pre-bottling Maturation Not every wine benefits from an extended period of maturation before bottling. If the winemaker wants to retain as many of the primary fruit aromas as possible then the wine is likely to be bottled after only a few

Lees Directly after fermentation, wine can appear cloudy due to the presence of dead yeast cells and grape fragments. These suspended particles are usually heavy enough to

CONSTITUENTS OF WINE This is a graphic illustration of a typical still dry wine that shows the relative volumes of a wine's constituents. The percentages given below cover a range that is typical for most wine. They are expressed as a percentage of the volume in a bottle of wine.

Sugars (0.1-20%)

Theamountofsugarpresentinthewinewillvarydepending onthestyleofthewine.Sugarisobviously a majorcomponent insweetwinesbutevendrywinesmaycontain a verysmall quantity ofunfermented sugar. Thisrangecovers mostsweetwines.Someluscious wines,such asPXSherry, mayhaveevenhigherlevelsofresidual sugar.

Ethanol(8-22%)

Ethanol isthemainalcohol inwine.Smaller quantities ofotheralcohols arealsomadeduring fermentation. (This figureincludes fortified wines. ) -------l

Tannins andColour (upto 0.4%)

Acids (0.3-1%)

• --'

Themostimportant acidsinwinearetartaric,malicand lactic.

-----p;•~iiiiii•liiil•••IJ ~ AromaandFlavourCompounds(upto 0.2%)

Tannins andcolour areparticularly important inredwines.

Hundreds ofdifferent compounds havebeenfoundto contribute to thearomas andflavours ofwines.Theyare presentinverysmallamounts.

Water(70-90%)

Wateristhemostabundant component inwine.

Note:These percentages areincluded forreference only andstudentswillnotbeexpected to knowthesenumbers fortheexamination .

49

50

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

months, having been stored in an inert vessel. This is true for both inexpensive red and white wines and some premium wines too. For example, a premium Australian Riesling rarely benefits from any contact with oak or oxygen and will be stored before bottling in similar inert vessels to an inexpensive Californian White Zinfandel. To survive medium- or long-term ageing, wines need sufficient levels of tannin, acidity and/or alcohol, and importantly, they must have flavours that will develop in an interesting way in order to make such ageing worthwhile. Many changes can occur to wines that undergo prebottling maturation. The maturation vessel itself can affect the flavour by either adding oak flavours or by allowing oxidation to take place. Over time, components in the wine react with each other, which can further alter the flavour or balance of the wine. Sometimes this can lead to the formation of particles that fall to the bottom of the vessel under the force of gravity, creating a sediment that is periodically removed.

and easy-drinking, to very complex and designed for long -term cellaring. In some cases the winemaker may actively seek to create as many blending options as possible throughout the winemaking process in order to achieve this style. This may include separating different press fractions, fermenting or maturing the wine in different vessels, or only allowing a proportion of the wine to go through malolactic fermentation. Using wines from different grape varieties, vineyard plots and vintages may also help to achieve this goal.

Blending Blending plays a vital role in the winemaking process for virtually every wine, including those made from a single grape variety. Blending can take place at any stage during the winemaking process but is mainly carried out after fermentation or during the maturation process. It can be used to improve balance, attain consistency or achieve a certain style. When blending involves wines from different grape varieties, vineyard locations or vintages, the winemaker will need to be aware of any constraints imposed by local winemaking regulations (see section Label Integrity in Chapter 11).

Sedimentation Most wine will undergo sedimentation after the fermentation has finished. Once the gross lees have settled in a deposit, the wine can then be slowly and gently pumped into a different vessel leaving the sediment behind, a process known as racking. The wine will continue to throw a deposit of fine lees during maturation and the clarity of the wine can be gradually improved by repeated rackings. For some fine wines, sedimentation and racking is the only clarification that will take place. Sedimentation relies on gravity to pull the suspended particles to the bottom of the liquid but gravity is a weak force and acts slowly. This process can be accelerated by putting the wine in a centrifuge; however, this piece of equipment is generally very expensive.

Balance - Blending allows the winemaker to adjust the balance of the wine, enhancing its quality. For example, when making a red wine, free run wine may be blended with press wine to increase the tannins in the final product. Consistency- Significant variation among the bottles of a single product will in most cases be viewed as a fault, and thus blending to attain consistency is a vital process in wine production. Wines matured in small barrels often develop in subtly different ways from one barrel to another and thus need blending together in a large vat before bottling to smooth out inconsistencies. Even without the influence of oak, different vats may need blending for consistency either due to variations in the fruit (different vineyards or different harvesting times) or due to slight inconsistencies that arise during winemaking. Style - Blending is also very important in deciding and maintaining the style of a wine. Although variations in the weather may cause the wines of different vintages to vary, many winemakers aim to produce their wines in a certain house style. This style may range from simple

CLARIFICATION The vast majority of customers expect their wines to be perfectly clear. There are three main techniques a winemaker can use to achieve this: sedimentation, fining and filtration. Some premium wines do not undergo all of these treatments because the winemakers believe some of them can harm the character of the wine. Their consumers often value the concept of minimally treated wines and as such are unconcerned by sediment.

Fining Sometimes hazes or deposits may only appear in wine after a period of time in bottle. This is because some wine constituents slowly clump together over time, eventually becoming large enough to become visible. Fining is a process that speeds up this process so that these particles can be removed from the wine before bottling. It involves adding a fining agent to the wine a substance that forms bonds with certain wine constituents and causes visible clumps to form. These clumps can then be removed by filtering. Fining is widely practised and is generally considered an important step in ensuring wine stability. However, some winemakers choose not to fine their wines as they believe it can adversely affect flavour and texture. Filtration This is a process that physically removes particles from a wine as it is passed through a filter. Wines can be filtered after fermentation and during maturation to remove the

COMMONELEMENTS INWINEMAKING AND MATURATION

FILTERS 1. Equipment usedforsurface filtration. Thereplaceable filtermembrane is positioned insidethemetalcasing. Twoexamples of depthfilters: 2. Arotarydrumfilter. 3. Aplateandframefilter.

gross and fine lees quickly, and are usually filtered prior to bottling to ensure that the wine is clear. There are two methods of filtration:

Depth filtration - The filters used in depth filtration are made from a thick layer of material. As the wine passes through the filter the solid parts become trapped inside this material. These filters are able to handle very cloudy wines and can be used to remove the gross lees. Surface filtration - The filters used for surface filtration resemble very fine sieves. The solid particles are trapped on the surface of the filter as the wine flows through it. The filte rs are very expensive and clog up extremely easily, so are generally used for wines that have already been passed through a depth filter. Where the pore size is small enough to remove yeast and bacteria that might still be present in the wine, this is referred to as sterile filtration. This can be used as a final treatment prior to bottling. As with fining, some winemakers believe that filtration can negatively affect a wine's character, especially its texture. For this reason, some wines are bottled unfiltered. STABILISATION All wines change with time and so a winemaker will consider a wine stable if, over a specified time frame,

it changes in a slow, predictable manner. The time frame and the amount of change deemed to be acceptable will vary from wine to wine. For example, a high-volume inexpensive red wine that should be consumed within a year of production should not throw a deposit in bottle, whereas a mature Vintage Port would be expected throw a thick deposit over the course of the 50 to 60 years it may spend in bottle . Fining, which helps with clarity, can therefore also be seen as a stabilisation process because it aims to produce a predictable outcome after bottling . There are three other important areas that require stabilisation:

Tartrate Stability Tartaric acid is less soluble in wine than in grape juice and over time it can form crystals called tartrates. These appear as clear crystals in wh ite wine but as purple crystals in red wine because they are stained by the colour compounds. These crystals are harmless and flavourless but for most consumers they spoil the appearance of the wine. Cool temperatures accelerate the formation of tartrate crystals and if a wine undergoes a long maturation period in a cool cellar prior to bottling, it will deposit some of its tartrates during maturation. In situations where a long maturation is inappropriate, winemakers can force the crystals to form prior to bottling by chilling the wine down to below 0°C for a short period

51

52

UNDERSTANDING WINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY

of time. The crystals that form are removed by filtration. As with fining and filtration, some winemakers choose not to stabilise their wines in this way.

Microbiological Stability Many different forms of yeast and bacteria can spoil a wine and make it completely undrinkable and unfit for sale.These microorganisms can thrive in grape and wine residues, and therefore it is very important to keep winery equipment completely clean. The only wines that are not at any risk from microbiological contamination are fortified wines because the high level of alcohol they contain is toxic for all microorganisms. However, a dry, high acid wine that has undergone MLF is naturally quite resistant to microbiological spoilage. The alcohol, acidity and the lack of nutrients mean that most yeast or bacteria struggle to survive. This is not a complete guarantee, but some winemakers prefer to take this risk rather than sterile filter their wine, as described on Alineupof different page 51. packaging options; (from Wines that have not undergone MLF,as well as wines leftto right)twosizesof that have low to medium alcohol, low acidity and a little plasticbottles,a bag-in-box residual sugar, are particularly at risk from yeast or andtwosizesof glass bacterial spoilage. Consequently, very careful handling bottles. and an appropriate amount of 50 2 is required to keep

--=

these protected at all times. They are also sterile filtered prior to packaging.

Oxygen Stability If excessive levels of oxygen are dissolved in the wine, or if oxygen can enter through the packaging, the wine will oxidise, losing its fresh fruit aromas, and gradually turn brown. The risk of oxidation can be minimised by avoiding exposure to oxygen and keeping 50 2 levels topped up. The winemaker must take a number of extra precautions during packaging to ensure that oxygen does not come into contact with the wine. For example, bottles can be flushed with either carbon dioxide or nitrogen before filling to eliminate oxygen. PACKAGING Bottles and Alternatives The majority of wine worldwide is packaged in glass bottles. They are portable, cheap to produce and quite strong. Importantly, they do not allow air to get into the wine, and they do not taint the wine's flavours . They remain the consumer's preferred form of packaging. The main disadvantages of bottles are that they are heavy and rigid. Weight adds to transport costs, and their rigidity means that they cannot be packed to make

COMMONELEMENTSINWINEMAKING AND MATURATION

53

Alineupof different closures; (fromleftto right) a corkforstillwine,a cork forsparkling wine,a stopper cork,a synthetic corkanda screwcap.

the best use of the available space. To lower these costs, a number of producers have started using lighter weight glass bottles. Others now transport their wines in bulk to be bottled in (or nearer to) the country where the wine is to be sold. The rigidity of glass bottles also means that once opened, a part-filled bottle will contain a space for air, at which point the wine is vulnerable to oxidation. Plastic bottles are much lighter than glass. Unfortunately, the plastics used for these allow small amounts of air to pass through the plastic into the wine. This means that wines packaged in plastic bottles can lose freshness and fruitiness over a period of months . Bag-in-box packs are another form of packaging often used for large volumes of wine. The bag collapses as the wine is consumed, preventing air from entering. However, some air can still get through the wall of the bag and as a result most bag-in-box packs need to be used within approximately 18 months of being filled. Plastic bottles and bag-in-box packs are adequate for most wines, since they are intended for early consumption, but for long-term storage and ageing, glass bottles remain the best option.

Cork- This is the original wine bottle closure and it is still the mostly widely used. It remains the closure of choice for many wines that are intended for bottle maturation as it allows a small amount of oxygen to gradually enter the bottle achieving what many winemakers would consider to be an optimal balance between primary and tertiary characteristics. However, a small but declining percentage of bottles with a cork closure suffer cork taint, and a further proportion (which increases with the age of the wine) allows too much oxygen in, oxidising the wine. Cork taint is caused by a chemical called TCA (trichloroanisole) which is present in some corks and gives the wine a mouldy, cardboard-like aroma. Cork producers have invested considerable sums in developing treatments designed to prevent the formation ofTCA with varying degrees of success.

Closures A bottle, whether glass or plastic, will need some form of closure to seal it. The closure must protect a wine from harm until it is consumed. For many wines this will be within a year of bottling and therefore a type of closure

Screw caps - This closure was championed by producers from Australia and New Zealand and their usage has grown rapidly in the past decade. They do not taint the wine and they can provide an impermeable seal from the air. Trials have shown that they preserve the fruit flavour in the wine longer than cork. Consequently, they are becoming increasingly popular for both white and red wines where the winemaker wants to preserve primary aromas. The lack of oxygen transfer means that there is still some debate over how well wines that are destined for long bottle ageing mature under screw cap. As a result some screw caps do now permit some oxygen transfer and research in this area is ongoing. Consumer acceptance of screw caps can vary considerably depending on the national market and the market sector.

may be chosen based on consumer factors such as ease of use, or practical factors such as which closures a bottling line is designed to use. For wines that are intended for bottle maturation, however, the closure must also allow the wine to mature positively . Different types of closure vary in the amount of oxygen they allow to enter the bottle over a set period of time . Similar to maturation pre-bottling, a slow entry of very small amounts of oxygen allows more tertiary flavours. In contrast, by avoiding any contact with oxygen the wine retains its fresh fruit flavours for longer . It is increasingly clear that the closure is a winemaking choice specific to the particular wine and the flavour profile the winemaker wants to achieve. Some consumer markets have very strong preferences on closure types and these may sometimes override the choice of the winemaker.

Synthetic corks - These are generally made from some form of plastic. Although these closures only used to be suitable for wines to be consumed within a year of bottling, there are now several premium versions on the market that allow longer term storage .

POST-BOTTLING MATURATION The majority of wines are best consumed within a year of bottling and ageing them results in a loss of fresh primary fruit flavours. However, there are many wines

54

UNDERSTANDING WINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY

that can mature in bottle for several years and are not at their best in the years immediately after bottling. Some notable examples include Vintage Port, the finest German Rieslings and crusclassesBordeaux. The chemistry involved in this maturation process is still poorly understood. However, it is widely agreed that

any ageing time should be spent undisturbed in a cool dark place, with a constant temperature, ideally around 10-1 S C.There should also be constant humidity and, if sealed with cork, the bottles should be stored lying on their side, so that the corks remain moist and an optimum seal is maintained . 0

WHITEAND SWEETWINEMAKING

Relatively speaking, white winemaking is far WhiteandSweetWinemaking less involved compared with red winemaking. This chapter will focus on winemaking options for white wine and then look at how high volume, inexpensive wines and premium wines are made. It should be noted that although this chapter will focus on the internationally important grape varieties Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling and Pinot Grigio, there are numerous other grape varieties that can be made in similar styles, using the same techniques. Sweet winemaking is largely (but not exclusively) the preserve of white wine and therefore it will be covered in this chapter too.

IMPORTANT OPTIONS IN WHITE WINEMAKING The processes and main choices involved in making white wine can be seen in the diagram on page 57. Throughout this process there are important decisions that need to be made concerning skin contact, clarity of the juice, fermentation temperature and vessel, the use of lees, malolactic fermentation (MLF) and other maturation options. Skin Contact In most instances, the juice spends little time in contact with the skins in order to reduce the risk of oxidation. The grapes are crushed, the free run juice is separated off and the remaining grape mass is sent to the press.To limit the contact between the juice and the skins further some winemakers choose a different approach and load the press with whole bunches of uncrushed grapes. This process is gentle, reduces the risk of oxidation, and can potentially lead to wines with more purity and delicacy. However, in the case of certain aromatic varieties, some winemakers choose to keep the juice in contact with the skins for a short period to increase flavour intensity and texture. This happens at a sufficiently cool temperature to inhibit fermentation and usually only lasts for a few hours. Clarity of the Juice Freshly pressed grape juice contains fragments of cells from the grape skins and the pulp. If the juice is fermented in this untreated state, unpleasant aromas can form and the fermentation may even stop prematurely. The juice therefore needs to be clarified before fermentation begins. This can be done using the same techniques used to clarify wine before bottling (settling, centrifugation, fining and filtration). Some winemakers choose to retain a small amount of these fragments or 'solids' in the juice. It is thought that this makes the finished wine less susceptible to oxidation, and it can add complexity and a richer texture. However, the risk of off-flavours forming means that this technique is rarely used for wines that are intended to show pure varietal character.

Fermentation Temperature and Vessel The optimum temperature for white wine fermentations is between 12°C and 22°c. Fermentation at too low a temperature results in the creation of pear drop aromas and can fail to capture varietal fruit characters. Fermentation at higher temperatures can encourage more complex, non-fruit aromas to develop, but the risk is that varietal fruit characteristics will be lost. Where stainless steel fermentation vessels are used, temperature control mechanisms are normally applied to prevent temperatures running too high. White wines may also be fermented in barrels. It is not as easy to control fermentation temperatures in barrels but their small size and the fact they are normally housed in cool cellars means that they tend to dissipate heat effectively. Nevertheless, fermentations in barrels still normally run at the higher end of the temperature range. Post-fermentation and Maturation Options There are a number of important choices a winemaker faces post-fermentation. First, a white wine may be matured in oak or stored in inert vessels with or without the addition of oak staves or chips. Second, the winemaker may wish to use the fine lees to add texture and flavour to their wine. Finally, the winemaker may choose to allow or block MLF. Blending Blending may help the winemaker improve consistency, enhance the balance of a wine and create a certain style. Many white wines are based on pure primary fruit flavours and for these styles the role of blending may focus on ensuring consistency rather than on enhancing complexity. The reverse may be true for some nonaromatic varieties such as Chardonnay where the winemaker may use varying amounts of lees contact, MLF and oak treatment on different batches of wine. These can then be blended together to achieve a more complex style. Clarification and Stabilisation Most white wines will undergo some form of fining

55

8

56

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

and/ or filtration to improve the clarity and stability of the wine. The relatively pale colour of most white wines compared with red ones makes any haze or sediment readily apparent. Also, white wines that contain some residual sugar are at risk from microbiological infection and in such cases the winemaker may wish to sterile filter the wine to remove any yeast or bacteria that may be present. PRODUCING HIGH-VOLUME, INEXPENSIVE WHITE WINES These wines are widely produced and enjoyed by a large proportion of wine consumers. They are not particularly complex, nor are they designed to mature in bottle, but for many they provide excellent value: an easy drinking beverage, from a trusted source, at a reasonable price. Some of these wines are made from a single variety and will state the name of the grape variety used on the label (varietal labelling). However, it can be easier to make high volumes by blending different grape varieties. These wines often do not mention grape variety and instead are simply labelled 'dry white' or 'fruity white'. The grape varieties that tend to be made into high volume, inexpensive wines are often fairly neutral in flavour. Chardonnay and Pinot Grigio are classic examples. The restrained varietal character of these grapes means the wines they produce appeal to a wide range of consumers. Chardonnay and Pinot Grigio are also both easy to ripen, especially in warm climates. In these regions the grapes can have insufficient acidity at harvest but this can be corrected in the winery . Chardonnay can be made in an unoaked style and display pure fruity flavours such as peach and melon. Alternatively the wines can be oaked, giving additional flavours of vanilla and toast. Both styles may contain some residual sugar to make them more palatable to a wider range of consumers. Pinot Grigio is usually made in an unoaked style, with light pear drop aromas and flavours, a light body and medium acidity . Due to its current popularity, Sauvignon Blanc is also sometimes used to make high-volume inexpensive wine but rarely at the lowest price points. The vigorous nature of this grapevine lends itself to high yields, but herbaceous flavours can dominate if the fruit is underripe. Winemaking Choices Many of these wines are based on pure, simple primary fruit flavours and careful handling in the winery is required to avoid oxidation. 50 2 will be monitored throughout the winemaking process and the juice and wine are usually handled protectively. The grapes will be destemmed and crushed, and then pressed. The grapes for many high-volume, inexpensive wines are grown in warm or hot regions and therefore acidification is one of the most common adjustments made to these wines.

Chardonnay in particular can be flat and flabby when acid levels are too low.

Before fermentation, the juice will be highly clarified to ensure fruity flavours are retained during fermentation. Settling using gravity may be too slow, tying up valuable tank space for too long, therefore, where possible, the winery may use a centrifuge or filter to speed up the process. Stainless steel tanks are the fermentation vessels of choice for these wines. Fermenting at cool temperatures can help to preserve as many primary fruit aromas and flavours as possible. This is vital if the grapes have relatively little flavour, for example when Pinot Grigio has been grown to produce high yields. Commercial yeasts will be used to ensure a quick, reliable fermentation. If the winemaker wants to retain acidity and primary fruit aromas, MLF will be prevented by chilling the wine and adding 50 2 • The wine will also be racked off its lees as soon as fermentation has finished and stored temporarily in another inert vessel. Some Chardonnay wines may undergo MLF if a soft, buttery style is desired. Barrel ageing is an expensive and time-consuming process and for this reason oak chips or staves may be added to a stainless steel vessel to give a toasty flavour, if required . Many of these wines contain some residual sugar. This is more often the case for Chardonnay than Pinot Grigio. Often the wines will be fermented dry and then sugar, in the form of unfermented grape juice or RCGM,will be measured out and added. This allows the level of sweetness to be precisely controlled . The consumers who buy these products expect their wine to be clear and bright and without sediment . For this reason, these wines are typically stabilised, fined and sterile filtered . Even though the shelf life of these wines tends to be very short, 50 2 levels will be topped up at bottling to minimise the risk of oxidation. PRODUCING PREMIUM WHITE WINES Premium white wine is a wide-ranging category. Although a huge range of price points can be covered under this heading, the common factor is that the main focus of the winemaker is to make high-quality wine, often at the expense of volume. It must be noted that the explanations below are generalisations and thus only cover some of the major styles of wine made from each of the highlighted varieties. Furthermore, the winemaking practices for premium wines often do not follow a precise formula, and the best winemakers will adapt their techniques according to vintage conditions, vineyard plot, and the style of wine they want to make. The choices of aromatic and less-aromatic grape varieties will be looked at separately. Aromatic Grape Varieties: Sauvignon Blanc and Riesling Wines made from these grape varieties have pronounced aromas and flavours . They include Sauvignon Blanc and Riesling, as well as Muscat,

WHITEAND SWEETWINEMAKING

Gewurztraminer and Torrontes. The aim of the winemaker is to retain and enhance the primary fruit character and aromatic potential of these grapes in the final wine, and thus the steps in the winemaking process will be tailored to achieve this particular style.

Sauvignon Blanc Sauvignon Blanc is a highly aromatic grape variety with high acidity . It is early ripening so is well suited to cool climates where the temperatures help to retain the variety's refreshing characteristics. A number of wine regions are capable of making high-quality Sauvignon Blanc but the Loire Valley, France and Marlborough, New Zealand are perhaps the most famous. Sauvignon Blanc wines from Sancerre and Pouilly Fume in the Loire Valley show elegance and restraint. The cool climate gives aromas and flavours of green apple and asparagus often with a hint of wet pebbles. Marlborough is similarly cool but long hours of intense sunlight give wines with very vibrant flavours. The wines display powerful aromas of gooseberry, elderflower, grapefruit and passion fruit. Some may also have herbaceous notes. Other classic New World countries producing fresh, fruity Sauvignon Blanc include South Africa and Chile. Margaret River in Western Australia also produces high-quality Sauvignon Blanc, but here it is frequently blended with Semillon to give a slightly less aromatic but fuller bodied wine. In most cases, wines made from Sauvignon Blanc are best drunk young while their intense fruity flavours are still fresh. There are also some examples of Sauvignon Blanc where the winemaker takes a very different approach and uses techniques more associated with the production of non-aromatic varieties. Pessac-Leognan in Bordeaux is the classic region where this style is common. The wine is fermented and matured in at least a proportion of oak giving a rounder body to the wine, and spicy toasty notes. In Pessac-Leognan, Sauvignon Blanc is blended with the non-aromatic Semillon grape, which further adds to the body and richness of the wine. Some New World countries also make a small proportion of oak matured Sauvignon Blanc as a point of difference from their usual fresh, fruity wines. Both California and New Zealand are noted for doing this. These oaked styles will be covered in section Other styles ofSauvignon Blanc on page 60. Riesling Riesling is capable of producing a variety of wine styles from different regions in the wine world. It is very tolerant of cold winters and buds late so avoids spring frosts, making it suitable for cool climates. In such locations it can produce wines with green fruit flavours and often floral notes. In warmer climates it becomes richer in flavour, with more predominant citrus and stone fruit, but arguably loses some delicacy. Riesling is mid - to late-ripening depending on the style of wine being produced; left on the vine it can accumulate sugar without losing its naturally high acidity, and is therefore

57

MAKING DRY WHITE WINE

grapesorting

destem

crush

skincontact

press

press juice

alcoholic fermentation

PROCESS

__J rackoffgrosslees

malolactic fermentation

musthappen winemaker's choice

INPUT/OUTPUT alwayspresent winemaker's choice

newlymadewine

newlymadewine

maturation

~ clarification andstabilisation

packaging

winefor sale

58

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

SWEETWINEMAKING Most wines are fermented to dryness: the yeast consume all the sugars present in the juice. Sweet wines contain unfermented sugar and they can be made in a number of ways:

Stopping theFermentation

Fortification (theaddition ofgrapespirit)isthetraditional wayof stopping fermentation whilesugarisstillpresent. Thiskillstheyeast andnofurtherfermentation ispossible, although it radically alters thestructural balance ofthewine.(Fortified Wines arecovered in Chapters 43- 45.) Fermentation canalsobestoppedbyaddinga highdoseof501 orby chilling thefermenting wine.Thiswinemustbefilteredto remove any remaining yeast.Oncethishasbeendoneit isvitalthatnoyeastcome intocontactwiththewinebecause fermentation willthenresume. This isanapproach usedforhigh-quality German Kabinett andSpiitlese as wellassweetsparkling winessuchasAstifromItaly.Stopping the fermentation byadding501 orchilling typically resultsinwinesthat arelowinalcohol. Adding a Sweetening Component

Insomecountries, particularly Germany, medium-sweet winescanbe createdbytheaddition ofunfermented grapejuice,orSussreserve. Thisis madebyfiltering thejuicebeforefermentation starts,orbydosingitwith 501. Sussreserve isaddedtodrywineswhentheyarereadyto bebottled. Rectified Concentrated Grape Must(RCGM) canalsobeusedtoachieve thesameeffectandisoftenusedtoadda littlesweetness to high-volume inexpensive wines. Concentrating GrapeSugars

Many ofthebestsweetwinescomefromgrapesthatareextremely rich insugar.Thiscanbeachieved ina number ofdifferent ways,allofwhich concentrate acidsandflavours at thesametime. Noblerot- Thisisusedintheproduction ofmostoftheverybest sweetwineincluding Sauternes, Tokaji, andBeerenauslesen and Trockenbeerenauslesen fromGermany andAustria. Itiscausedbythe fungusBotrytis cinerea. Thisisthesamefungusthatcausesgreyrot; however, underspecific conditions noblerotcanforminstead . First,the grapesmustbefullyripebeforethedevelopment oftherot.Second, the grapesmustbegrownina regionthatprovides humidmistymornings followed bysunnydryafternoons. Damp conditions inthemorning allow rotto develop onthegrapes. Thefunguspunctures thegrapeskinwith microscopic filaments, leaving tinyholesintheskin.Thewarmsunny afternoons slowthedevelopment oftherotandcausewaterto evaporate fromthegrape,concentrating itsacids,flavours andsugars. Thefungus alsogenerates itsownuniqueflavours inthegrape.Wines madefrom grapesaffected bynoblerothavedistinctive honey, apricot, citruszest anddriedfruitaromas.

Thespreadofnoblerotisneveruniform andseveralpickings byhand maybeneededtoselectthebestgrapes. Thisisanexpensive process asit requires skilled labourovera prolonged periodoftime.Furthermore, in someregions famous forthisstyleofwine,suchasSauternes, theideal conditions fornoblerotdonotoccureveryyear.Ifconditions aretoo dampthefunguswilldevelop toorapidly andcausegreyrot,splitting the grapeberries andencouraging infections. Although Botrytis cinerea isthe causeofbothnobleandgreyrot,thetermbotrytisisfrequently usedas a synonym fornoblerot,andtheterm'botrytised' isoftenseenonsweet winelabels. Dryinggrapes onthevine- Thisisoftenreferred to aspasserillage.

Oncegrapeshavereached fullsugarripeness theybeginto dehydrate and turnto raisins onthevine,increasing thesugarconcentration inthejuice. Warmdryautumns areneededforthisto happenorelsegreyrotcan develop. Thesewineshaveanover-ripe fruitcharacter (driedfruit,tropical fruits)anda richly textured mouthfeel. Wines madeinthiswayare sometimes labelled asLateHarvest. Dryinggrapes afterpicking - Thiscauseshealthy harvested grapesto dehydrate, againconcentrating thesugarinthejuice.Conditions mustbe dryandwarmforthisto besuccessful, andcaremustbetakento remove allrottengrapesortherotwillspread . Thistechnique isusedinthe production ofthepassito winesofItaly,suchasRecioto dellaValpolicella DOCG. Thewinescanhavea raisiny quality. Freezing grapesonthevine- Healthy grapesarelefthanging onthe vineintothewintermonths . Whenfreezing temperatures arrive,the waterinthegrapepulpturnsto ice.Whenthegrapesarepicked and pressed, thisiceremains inthepressandthesugarcontentofthe resulting juiceisincreased . Thistechnique isusedto produce Eiswein in Germany andlcewine inCanada. Thesewineshavea verypurevarietal character. Thesameeffectcanbereplicated artificially byfreezing picked grapesat a winery.

Whensweetwinesaremadebygrapesugarconcentration techniques, thealcoholic fermentation stopsnaturally whentheyeasthaveconverted asmuchsugarintoalcohol astheycan.Thiscanhappenat quitelow levelsofalcohol, sometimes aslowas7%abv,because yeaststruggle to survive inverysugaryenvironments. German Trockenbeerenaus/esen areclassic examples ofthisstyle.

WHITEAND SWEETWINEMAKING

Botrytls cinerea: the fungusisclearto seeonthe grapeskins.

Passer/I/age: thegrapeshaveshrivelled butremain fungusfree.

Frozen grapes: thegrapeshavebeenleftonthevinetofreezeinthewinter.

perfect for making well-balanced wines in a range of sweetness levels. It is also widely used to make botrytised dessert wines. Riesling is one of the most long-lived white wines, renowned for its ability to mature for years and sometimes decades in bottle and still taste surprisingly fresh. When mature, Rieslings develop flavours of honey and toast, but still retain high levels of acidity. Some Rieslings develop aromas that are often described as petrol-like. Germany is the homeland of Riesling. German Riesling can be made in a range of sweetness levels. The sweet wines are typically made from botrytised grapes. In premium wines any sweetness, regardless of its level, is always perfectly balanced against high acidity, creating wines that can be very concentrated yet refreshing at the same time. In Europe, Alsace and Austria also make premium Rieslings. In Austria, Riesling can be made in a full range of sweetness levels, but most wines are either dry or very sweet. Alsace mainly specialises in dry Rieslings; late harvest and botrytised sweet wines are made when vintage conditions permit. Australia is well known for its Rieslings, particularly those from the Clare and Eden Valleys. They are often bone dry, with refreshing high acidity and many display aromas of lime. Dry Rieslings are also made in Washington State, USA. A fruity, off-dry style of Riesling is generally produced in New Zealand and the Finger Lakes AVA of New York State, USA.

Winemaking Choices Aromatic grapes and juice need to be handled carefully to retain the fruit and floral aromas of the freshly picked grapes. 50 2 levels will be monitored throughout the winemaking process. Crushed fruit or whole bunches may be loaded into the press, either immediately or after a little skin contact depending on the winemaker's approach. The juice must be relatively clean before fermentation to ensure there is nothing in the juice that could mask the fruit flavours. A gentle method of clarification will usually be used, such as settling. Inert vessels are generally used for the fermentation of aromatic varieties; any extraction of flavour from the vessel may interfere with the pure fruit character from the grapes. Stainless steel is often the material of choice for New Zealand producers of both Sauvignon Blanc and Riesling, allowing easy temperature control. Large old oak vessels (foudres) are sometimes used for Riesling in Alsace allowing a small amount of oxidation to take place; this can enhance the texture of the wine and add a little complexity to the flavours without adding unwanted oak aromas. Cool fermentation temperatures give a slow, steady fermentation, as well as encourage the formation of primary fruit aromas and flavours in the wine. The choice of yeast depends on the approach of the winemaker. Sauvignon Blanc will usually be fermented until dry; Riesling on the other hand can be made in a whole

59

60

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

range of styles from dry to lusciously sweet. Premium quality sweet Riesling wines will generally be made by prematurely stopping fermentation either by chilling or adding 50 2, leaving the desired level of residual sugar. For the sweetest Riesling wines made from botrytised grapes, the fermentation stops naturally. Aromatic grape varieties generally see very little postfermentation winemaking before bottling. High acidity is a desirable feature in both Sauvignon Blanc and Riesling, and therefore MLF is avoided by adding 50 2 to the wine straight after fermentation. The buttery aromas that can sometimes result from MLF may also interfere with the pronounced fruit aromas of the wine. Riesling may undergo a period of lees contact to add texture and flavours. Aromatic grape varieties will generally be bottled as soon as possible after fermentation; the aromas gained from maturation in new oak are usually not desirable. However, in Alsace, and sometimes in Germany, Riesling may be kept in large old oak vats for up to a year. Riesling is rarely blended with other grape varieties. Sauvignon Blanc is also usually a varietal wine, but, as mentioned above, it may be blended with Semillon for greater body as seen in some Bordeaux whites and the wines of Western Australia. Other styles of Sauvignon Blanc - To create the creamy, spicy style of some Fume Blanc in California and the whites of Pessac-Leognan in Bordeaux, Sauvignon Blanc is barrel fermented. The winemaker may favour ambient yeasts to achieve a greater complexity of flavours. The wines are then matured on their lees for a number of months during which time they will usually undergo MLF.It is common to use new oak barrels for at least a proportion of the wine. LessAromatic Grape Varieties: Chardonnay and Pinot Gris/Grigio Chardonnay and Pinot Gris/Grigio are both more neutral in aroma and flavour than Sauvignon Blanc and Riesling. This can be very positive from a winemaker's point of view, as they can arguably play a more active role in influencing the style of the final wine. The key aim for less aromatic varieties is to enhance the base material provided by the grapes. This may be achieved by doing relatively little and keeping the grape flavours in a relatively pure form. Alternatively, the winemaker may choose to use a range of techniques to add more complexity and texture to the wine. Chardonnay Chardonnay can be grown and ripened without much difficulty in a wide variety of climates. It is, however, early budding, which means that it can suffer in areas where spring frosts are common. In cool climates Chardonnay can display flavours of green fruit and citrus, whereas in more moderate climates the flavours lean more towards fleshy fruits, such as white peach and melon. In warm

and hot regions ripe tropical fruits, such as banana and pineapple, are typical. In such climates Chardonnay can lose acidity quickly towards the end of the ripening process, and thus the timing of the harvest is critical. The subtle aromas and flavours of Chardonnay make it the perfect blank canvas for a host of different winemaking techniques. Purely focusing on Burgundy in France, Chardonnay can take many different forms. In the north of the region, the wines of Chablis often have high acidity and show green apple and citrus notes, sometimes with a hint of wet stones and slate. In the Cote d'Or, the best wines combine subtle notes of stone fruit with creamy oak flavours. Further south in the Maconnais, the wines can be even more ripe and rounded, with hints of toasty oak. Most wines go through MLF and many producers use extended lees ageing. With age the best wines develop complex aromas of nuts and/or mushrooms. Outside of Burgundy the style of Chardonnay, and therefore the techniques used to make it, are more dependent on the preferences of the individual winemaker rather than the traditions of a particular wine region. Many used to be heavily oaked but producers of premium Chardonnay are now heading firmly away from this style ofwinemaking. Regions that have built up a reputation for premium Chardonnay include Russian River Valley and Los Carneros in California; Adelaide Hills, Geelong and Mornington Peninsula in Australia; Gisborne and Marlborough in New Zealand; and Casablanca Valley in Chile. However, this is not an exhaustive list and highquality Chardonnay wines are made in nearly every winemaking country. Pinot Gris/Grigio This grape variety is called Pinot Gris in France and Pinot Grigio in Italy. The wines from these two countries can be very different in style. In other countries, winemakers will generally, but not always, choose to label their wines Pinot Gris or Pinot Grigio to indicate whether their wine is more similar to the French or Italian style. Premium Pinot Gris/Grigio wines can often be almost unrecognisable from the huge volumes of less expensive Pinot Grigios on the market . Pinot Gris/Grigio is early budding and early ripening, and in warm climates or when left on the vine it can accumulate high sugar levels, but lose much acidity. Alsace is the classic French region for this variety where the wines are usually dry or off-dry, often with an oily texture, ripe tropical fruit flavours and a hint of ginger and honey . The grape skins often have a deep colour, meaning that these wines can be golden in appearance. A number of winemakers in New Zealand also label their wines as Pinot Gris. These wines have the same viscous mouthfeel and medium acidity, but usually show more pure fruit flavours, and often have slightly more residual sugar. Tasmania, Australia and Oregon, USA also make Pinot Gris in a rich and often dry style. The regions of Alto Adige, Trentino and Friuli- Venezia

WHITEAND SWEETWINEMAKING

LEES STIRRING

1. Thewinemaker usesa rodto stirtheleesinthe barrel. Therodislowered to the bottomofthebarrel, wherea layerof leeshascollected overtime. 2. Therodisdragged through theleesto stirthemup. 3.Withcontinuous stirring the leesbecomefullymixedintothewine.

Giulia in north -east Italy make high-quality Pinot Grigio wines in a dry style. The wines here can show a much greater depth of flavour than the cheaper versions made in high volumes from the Veneto plain. The choice of clone can be influential here as well as climate and viticulture . The premium Pinot Grigios from the northerly alpine regions of Italy are made from the Pinot Gris/ Grigio clones typically found in Germany and France, which have small berries and are capable of greater flavour concentration. By contrast, the high volume, inexpensive Pinot Grigio wines from the Veneto tend to be produced from a clone known for its pale skin and large fleshy pulp . It produces relatively neutral wines, especially when combined with high yields and early harvesting.

Winemaking Choices Winemakers face a range of options during the winemaking process for less aromatic grape varieties depending on the style they want to produce . As with aromatic varieties, the grapes can either be crushed or loaded into the press as whole bunches; the latter technique being common for Chardonnay. For some non-aromatic grape varieties, controlled exposure to oxygen at this stage is often thought to improve the wine's ability to age. This technique would be detrimental for more aromatic grape varieties causing them to lose some of their delicate aromas. Clarification is likely to be carried out using a gentle method such as settling. Depending on the style of wine being produced, the winemaker may choose to leave some solid matter in the grape juice for added complexity and texture .

Fermentation may take place in a range of vessels. Stainless steel or concrete may be used to retain fresh fruit flavours and are often seen in the production of Chablis, the Pinot Grigios from north-east Italy, and Pinot Gris from New Zealand. Large, old oak vessels are more commonly used for Pinot Gris in Alsace. Small, new oak barrels can be used to give toasty flavours and a rounder texture , as seen with Chardonnay from the Cote d'Or. Fermentation temperatures and the choice of yeast may vary. Some Pinot Gris style wines contain residual sugar. Winemakers in New Zealand may ensure their wines are made in this style by prematurely stopping the fermentation by chilling or adding SO2 • In Alsace, the high degree of ripeness in the grapes may mean that the fermentation stops naturally, leaving some residual sugar. There is an even greater range of options open to the winemaker after fermentation . A substantial amount of flavour can be added to wine made from non-aromatic varieties at this stage. One of the most fundamental decisions is whether to put the wine through barrel maturation and, if so, whether all the wine or just a small proportion will be matured in oak. New oak barriques may be used to impart the toasty flavours often found in Cote d'Or and New World Chardonnays. Older oak and larger barrels, more typically used in the production of Chablis and Pinot Gris/Grigio, impart less flavour but still allow a gentle oxidation to promote complexity . In contrast, a short storage period in stainless steel or concrete will retain fresh fruit flavours. MLF may be encouraged in non-aromatic varieties to give the wines a rounder, creamier mouthfeel. It is used in almost all the premium white wines of Burgundy,

61

62

UNDERSTANDING WINES:EXPLAINING STYLEAND QUALITY

including Chablis, where it helps to soften sharp acidity. However, because MLF decreases the perception of acidity and diminishes primary fruit flavours, it may not be desirable for fruity styles of wine. Extended contact with the fine lees is another technique that is often used in the production of both Chardonnay and Pinot Gris to

give a richer, rounder mouthfeel. Many winemakers enhance these effects using a technique called lees stirring . This involves breaking up the sediment of fine lees and mixing it with the wine. Premium Chardonnay and Pinot Gris are not usually blended with other grape varieties.

RED AND ROS~WINEMAKING

Red winemaking is more involved than white RedandRose Winemaking winemaking because the grapes must be fermented on their skins in order to extract both colour and tannin. This chapter will focus on the various ways in which colour and tannin can be extracted and how winemakers use these techniques to make inexpensive and premium red wines. As in the previous chapter there will also be a focus on internationally important grape varieties, in this case Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Syrah/Shiraz and Grenache/Garnacha.

The processes and main choices involved in making red wine can be seen in the diagram on page 65. The key to red winemaking is the successful extraction of colour and tannin from the skins of black grapes, which is achieved by including the skins in the fermentation vessel.This has two important consequences. First, there are considerably more options to consider before, during and after fermentation than is the case in white winemaking . Second, pressing happens after fermentation and not before. Note also that in red winemaking malolactic fermentation (MLF) is standard practice rather than a stylistic choice as it is in white winemaking.

CRUSHED FRUIT FERMENTATION The vast majority of fruit used in red winemaking is destemmed and crushed. Therefore the techniques that are linked to this approach will be considered first. Pre-fermentation Extraction Once the fruit has been crushed, some winemakers prefer to leave the grapes to macerate for a period at a low temperature before allowing the fermentation to start. This is sometimes referred to as cold maceration or cold soaking. The purpose of this maceration is to extract colour and flavour compounds . Tannins are more soluble in alcoholic solutions and are therefore not readily extracted at this point in the winemaking process. Temperature Control During Fermentation Red wine fermentation temperatures usually range between 20°c and 32°C, depending on the style being made. These temperatures, which are higher than those used in white winemaking, are necessary to aid extraction of colour, flavour and tannin. However, care must be taken to ensure that the temperature does not exceed 35°( as this may kill the yeast. Precise control of temperature during the fermentation process can allow the winemaker to influence the amounts of colour , flavour and tannin that are extracted. For example, although tannins become more soluble as alcohol levels rise, a winemaker can reduce their extraction by lowering the temperature towards the end of the fermentation. Cap Management Techniques If left to itself, a fermenting red wine will soon have a

thick mass of pulp and skins on its surface. This mass is known as the cap. If the cap is left to float, little colour, flavour or tannin w ill be extracted from it. There are many different cap management techniques a winemaker can use to overcome this, and these methods may be combined or used at different stages of the fermentation. The level of extraction can be controlled by altering the duration of each technique and the number of times this is practised each day.

Punching down - Traditionally this meant punching the cap down by hand with paddles on the end of sticks. This posed certain dangers for the winery workers, as there was always the possibility of someone being intoxicated by carbon dioxide . Today, the same effect can be achieved with mechanical paddles. This is a widely practised technique and is very effective at extracting colour and tannin. Consequently, winemakers need to take care not to overwork the cap by punching down too vigorously or too often. This is particularly important at the end of the fermentation when tannins are more easily extracted. If too much tannin is extracted, the finished wine can taste overly bitter and astringent. Pumping over - This involves drawing off fermenting juice from the bottom of the vat and pumping it up on to the top, wetting the cap. Pumping over is a popular extraction technique and is a good way of dissipating heat and oxygenating the juice . Rack and return - The fermenting juice is drained from the fermenting vessel into another vessel, leaving the cap behind. The juice is then pumped back over the cap. This is normally only used once or twice during a fermentation as it can be very extractive . Like pumping over, it is a very good way of dissipating heat. Rotary fermenters - Fermentation takes place in rotating horizontal tanks. This keeps the juice in constant contact with the skins. Fermentation Vessels These cap management techniques mean that red wines are usually fermented in large vessels. Many are open topped so that the grape skins can be worked easily:

63

9

64

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

these vessels can be made from oak, concrete or stainless steel. Fermentation in oak barrels is impractical for red wines as it would be almost impossible to maintain sufficient contact between the skins and the juice.

Post-fermentation Extraction Maceration after fermentation encourages the further extraction of tannin, which may or may not be desirable. Therefore, the length of time that the wine stays on its skins once fermentation is complete depends on the style of wine being made. Some winemakers have found that very long periods of post -fermentation maceration can help to create a smoother tannin structure. Press Wine When the maceration has finished, the free run wine is drawn off the skins and the remaining mass is pressed, creating press wine. At the start of pressing, this press wine may be similar in composition to the free run wine, but as pressing continues the wine becomes deeper in colour and higher in tannin. Some winemakers will separate the wine from different stages in the pressing (these are called press fractions). Later press fractions may then be used to adjust colour and tannin in the final blend. WHOLE BUNCH FERMENTATIONS As has been noted, the vast majority of red wines are made solely with crushed fruit. However, some winemakers include whole bunches of uncrushed grapes in the fermentation. In some cases the uncrushed fruit may make up the entire vat; in others, only a small percentage may be used to make a more subtle contribution to the flavour of the wine. Importantly, if whole bunches are used, the winemaker must ensure that the grape stems are fully ripe: if not, the tannins in the stems can give the finished wine an undesirable bitter taste. The objective of this technique is to create an oxygenfree environment for the uncrushed fruit. This lack of oxygen has a number of outcomes. First,the berries create some alcohol in their cells, without the involvement of any yeast. This is referred to as intracellular fermentation. Second, and more importantly, a range of distinctive fruity aromas is created inside the berry, which gives wines made in this way unique qualities. There are three forms of whole bunch fermentation:

Carbonic maceration - This involves placing only whole, uncrushed bunches into vats that are then filled with CO2 to remove all the oxygen. This causes the intracellular fermentation to start. Once the level of alcohol in the grape reaches 2 per cent the grape skins start to split and the grapes release their juice. The grapes are generally pressed at this stage to separate the juice from the skins. Yeast then complete the fermentation off the skins. Importantly, this method extracts colour from the grapes, but little tannin, and the resulting wines are soft

and full of fruit, with distinctive notes of kirsch, banana, bubble gum and cinnamon-like spice. Semi-carbonic maceration - This is a similar but slightly different technique that does not involve filling the vats with CO2 • The vats are filled with whole bunches . The grapes at the bottom of the vat are crushed under the weight of the grapes above and some juice is released. Ambient yeast start to ferment the juice. This fermentation produces CO2 , which fills the vat and the remaining intact berries undergo carbonic maceration. As the intact grapes begin to split and release their juice the grapes are pressed and yeast complete the fermentation off the skins. Some notable premium Pinet Noirs are made using this technique although the alcoholic fermentation continues on the skins. In this instance the grapes will be progressively broken up using punching down over the course of the first few days. An ever-decreasing amount of carbonic maceration takes place until all the grapes are broken up. The alcoholic fermentation will then continue on the skins and may be followed by a postfermentation maceration . This approach can result in a better integration of the aromas from intracellular fermentation with aromas from the grape variety. It results in wines with a fresher fruit character. Whole bunches with crushed fruit - A further variation is to mix whole bunches with crushed grapes in the fermenting vessel at the start of the fermentation. Although the whole bunches in the vat are not blanketed in (0 2, they are largely submerged by the crushed grapes and kept away from oxygen, therefore intracellular fermentation takes place. The whole bunches are progressively crushed during the fermentation as the cap is regularly punched down. More 'carbonic' characteristics can be achieved by raising the percentage of whole bunches that are present at the start of the fermentation. This technique is thought to give the wine a silkier texture and a brighter, fresher fruit character. MATURATION OPTIONS The option of whether or not to use oak is perhaps the most important decision when it comes to pre-bottling maturation in red wine production. Virtually all red wines undergo MLF and their more robust flavours and textures, compared with most white wines, mean they generally benefit less from extended time on their lees. Oak is widely used in red winemaking. As with white wines, this may be in the form of oak barrels, or oak staves or chips that have been added to an inert vessel. The trend for winemakers to mature their premium red wines entirely in small new oak barrels is declining in most wine regions. Now, many wine producers are aiming for greater subtlety and integration, using oak vessels of different ages and larger sizes. However, a winemaker's best wines will still often be aged for longer

65

RED AND ROSE WINEMAKING

MAKING DRY RED AND ROSEWINE grapes

grapesorting direct pressing

coverwithC02

.......

•

wholebunches

carbonic maceration

~

__..

semi -carbonic maceration

drainandpress

7

destem

juice

crush

crushed fruit

pre-fermentation maceration shortperiod onskins

Sometimes whole bunches areadded tocrushed fruit.

alcoholic fermentation

Sometimes semi-carbonic fermentations continue onthe skins .

malolactic fermentation

newlymadewine post-fermentation maceration

•

drain

blending

l

+

freerunwine

clarification and stabilisation

press

skins

packaging

wineforsale malolactic fermentation

malolactic fermentation

blendwith whitewine ~

blending

CRUSHED WHOLE FRUIT BUNCH OPTIONS

maturation otherwine

•

t

otherwine

OPTIONS

PROCESS musthappen

blending

clarification andstabilisation

winemaker's choice INPUT /OUTPUT musthappen winemaker's choice

packaging

ROSE OPTIONS wineforsale

66

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

and with more new oak than their lower level wines. The best wines will usually be made with higher-quality, more concentrated fruit that can support a greater level of new oak flavours. BLENDING The blending of two or more grape varieties is fairly common in red wine production, and is often used to enhance or balance out certain aspects of the wine, such as colour, body, tannin, acidity or flavour. The use of different press fractions to boost the colour, flavour and tannin of the more delicate free run wine is another widely practised technique. The wine's complexity can also be enhanced by blending wines matured in oak vessels of different ages, sizes and toasting levels. If a more subtle oak influence is sought, a winemaker may blend wines matured in oak with wines matured in stainless steel or concrete vessels.

Clarification and Stabilisation The majority of red wines will undergo some form of fining and/or filtration to improve the clarity and stability of the wine. However, some winemakers avoid these processes believing that they harm the wine's structure. Gradual sedimentation naturally occurs on all wines that are subjected to a long maturation before bottling, improving the clarity of these wines without filtration. PRODUCING HIGH-VOLUME, INEXPENSIVE RED WINES The grape-growing areas responsible for high-volume, inexpensive wines tend to be warm, sunny and dry, and for that reason the black grape varieties used are those that can thrive in these climates. Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah/Shiraz and Grenache/Garnacha are all ideal candidates. Not only are they all suited to warm or hot climates, but due to the concentration of colours, tannins and flavours in their skins, they can produce fruity wines with adequate colour even at high yields. Compared with premium wines from each grape variety, these high-volume red wines may display less colour, lighter tannins, and less intense and complex aromas and flavours. Often, the specific characteristics that make these grape varieties so distinct can be diminished, leading to wines that can seem quite homogeneous. By contrast, Pinot Noir is a grape that is rarely used in the production of high-volume, inexpensive wines. It is hard to grow, prefers cool climates and it can be difficult to extract enough colour and tannin when grown at high yields. It is therefore less suited to high-volume winemaking compared with many other grapes. As with white wines, high -volume, inexpensive red wines may either come from a single grape variety or be a blend of varieties. Blended wines may be labelled with a description of the style such as 'fruity red'.

Winemaking Choices Typically these wines are made in a fruity, low-tannin style. To retain fresh, primary fruit characters, the juice

and wine are usually handled protectively with 50 2 levels being monitored throughout the winemaking process. The grapes for these wines are usually destemmed and crushed on arrival at the winery . Due to the warm or hot climates where most of these grapes are grown, tartaric acid may need to be added to raise the acidity. A pre-fermentation maceration may take place, but this process can tie up vat space and therefore is not always possible in a high throughput winery . Fermentations will generally take place using commercial yeast at around 22°C to 25°C in order to maximise fresh fruit flavours. Different wineries may use different fermentation vessels; these can be static and/or rotary. The frequency of cap management procedures will vary according to the exact style of wine being produced and the grape variety, but typically the cap will not be heavily worked . Post-fermentation maceration is generally avoided due to constraints on vat space and time, and also because the additional tannins this can extract are often not desirable in these easy-drinking styles. If extra structure is needed, the winemaker may macerate a small proportion of wine and blend it with the remainder before bottling . Fruity wines with low tannins can also be produced by carbonic or semi-carbonic maceration. These techniques are often used on inexpensive wines made from Grenache, and are also widely used on basic Beaujolais. There are many options open to the winemaker regarding the maturation of the new wine. The winemaker can choose to store the wine in stainless steel until bottling, making a wine with pure fruit flavours. Sometimes, a period of oak ageing may be used to smooth any harsh tannins and add spicy or toasty flavours. Oak maturation for these wines may only be a matter of months, and if barrels are used, they will usually be secondor third-fill (on their second or third usage), with new barrels reserved for higher-quality wines . Alternatively, oak staves or chips may be added to stainless steel or concrete vats to obtain toasty flavours quickly. Just as with white wines at this quality level, consumers expect high-volume, inexpensive red wines to be clear and without sediment. The wines are typically stabilised, fined and sterile filtered before bottling . Even though the shelf life of these wines tends to be very short, 50 2 levels will be topped up at bottling to reduce the risk of oxidation. PRODUCING PREMIUM RED WINES

Cabernet Sauvignon Cabernet Sauvignon is a thick -skinned variety and therefore has an abundance of colour, flavour and tannin. It is also late ripening and in some of the cooler places in which it is grown, it can struggle to ripen fully if the weather is poor, giving wines with astringent tannins and herbaceous flavours. Cabernet Sauvignon is the classic grape of the HautMedoc in Bordeaux. Here, it makes long -lived wines that often display grippy tannins in their youth, together with

RED AND ROSE WINEMAKING

some cedar and blackcurrant leaf aromas. With age, the tannins soften and the flavours become more expressive. The wines are usually blended with a proportion of Merlot, which ripens earlier and gives juicy plum fruit flavours and a smoother texture to the wine. Within Europe, Cabernet Sauvignon is also found in the south of France, in Italy and in Spain. In these regions, Cabernet Sauvignon is generally blended with indigenous grape varieties, such as Sangiovese in Italy and Tempranillo in Spain. Outside of Europe, Cabernet Sauvignon is seen in both varietal and blended styles. The ripeness it attains from the warm temperatures and long hours of bright sunlight in many regions of these countries gives full-bodied wines with ripe blackcurrant and black cherry notes and smooth tannins . Classic regions include the Napa Valley in California; Coonawarra and Margaret River in Australia; Hawke's Bay in New Zealand; Stellenbosch in South Africa; and Colchagua Valley in Chile. In the winery, Cabernet Sauvignon is usually destemmed and crushed . The stems on whole bunches of this variety can often give a herbaceous and astringent character to the wines and are therefore discarded. Cabernet's thick skins mean that it is capable of producing wines that are deep in colour. The winemaker may choose to maximise the extraction of colour from the grape skins by leaving the grapes to macerate before fermentation begins. Fermentation temperatures for Cabernet Sauvignon tend to range from 26°C to 30°C, warm enough for sufficient extraction yet cool enough to promote fresh fruit flavours. Cabernet Sauvignon grapes have high levels of tannin , and therefore high temperatures and extractive cap management techniques are generally avoided towards the end of fermentation, especially if the tannins are not fully ripe. A period of post-fermentation maceration, however, may be used to encourage a more gentle extraction of tannin and to soften existing tannins . The structure of Cabernet Sauvignon wines means they are well-suited to oak maturation and bottle ageing.

The intense flavours, medium to full body and high tannins mean that a high proportion of new oak can often be used without overpowering the wine . French oak is widely used, with 225-litre barriques being the most popular size of barrel. The period of maturation can last anywhere from six months to three to four years, with 12 to 18 months being typical. Blending often plays a vital role in Cabernet Sauvignon wines. On its own, Cabernet Sauvignon can have high tannins and a lack of body and therefore it is often blended with other grape varieties, particularly Merlot, which can provide a certain softness and fruit to complement Cabernet's lean structure. Shiraz is sometimes used to play a similar role in Australia.

Merlot Merlot is considered the other great grape of Bordeaux . It buds and ripens earlier than Cabernet Sauvignon, with which it is frequently blended. Merlot is dominant in Saint-Emilion and Pomerol. The best quality Me riots tend to follow one of two styles. Some are made from grapes that are harvested as late as possible to generate the maximum possible degree of intense purple colour, concentrated blackberry and plum fruit, and soft, velvet-textured tannins. These wines are often matured in new oak to add toasty flavours. This is the 'international style; and it is made with great success in many New World countries, the south of France, as well as some Bordeaux estates. The other style is produced by harvesting the grapes earlier to make a wine of medium body and alcohol, but which has higher acidity and more of a fresh red fruit character, as well as some vegetal, leafy aromas. The second approach is rarely found outside of Bordeaux. Merlot is made using very similar techniques to Cabernet Sauvignon. The grapes are destemmed and crushed, and a pre-fermentation maceration may enable the winemaker to extract greater colour and flavour if desired. The skins of the Merlot grape tend to be a little more supple than those of Cabernet

ROS~WINEMAKING In basic terms, rose wines can be made in one of three ways (see flow chart Making Dry Redand RoseWineon page 65). In all cases oak is rarely used.

DirectPressing maceration mayormaynotextendintothestartoffermentation. The Theblackgrapesarecrushed andpressed inthesamewayasinwhite freerunjuicewillthenbedrainedofftheskinsandfermented at cool wineproduction. Thisextracts a littlecolour fromtheskinbutcarehas temperatures asifitwerea whitewine. to betakennottoextracttoomuchtannin.Thismethodoftenproduces themostdelicately coloured rosewines. Blending Asmallquantity ofredwineisaddedtoa whitewineto produce a rose. ShortMaceration Thisisnotpermitted inthe EUwiththeexception ofroseChampagne, Black grapesarecrushed andallowed to macerate toextractflavour and butsomefruity,inexpensive NewWorld rosewinesaremadeinthis colour. Theduration ofthemaceration willdependonhowmuchcolour way. andtanninthewinemaker wantstoextractfromthegrapeskins.This

67

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

68

PUMPING OVER 1. Pumping overbyhand. 2. Pumping overby machine.Noteeachtank haspipework witha spraythatcanbemoved intopositionfor pumping over.

Sauvignon so less rigorous extraction may be needed during fermentation. The toast, vanilla and clove notes of new oak tend to suit the juicy, plum fruit of Merlot, and oak maturation is often used to enhance complexity. As with Cabernet Sauvignon, 12 to 18 months in oak is common.

Pinot Noir In contrast to Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Noir is an early budding and early ripening variety that produces grapes with a thin skin. It is a very old variety and therefore there are many different clones available with varying characteristics. Pinot Noir can be made in a range of still wine styles - from light and fruity with red cherry notes, to complex and earthy with flavours of spice and forest floor. Colour and tannin can be tricky to extract from the skins, therefore it is important to maximise the extraction without overworking the juice. If this happens, the elegance of the primary aromas can be lost or overwhelmed. As an early ripening variety Pinot Noir is best grown in cool and moderate climates. This means it is the perfect black variety for the vineyards of Burgundy. At an entry level, the wines can be very light, often with marked acidity and a hint of oak to provide structure. However, the wines from better sites in the Cote d'Or have greater intensity and complexity. They can range from delicate and almost floral, to more tannic and spicy. However, there is always the risk that in very cool vintages the grapes, especially those grown in the lesser vineyard sites, may not ripen fully, leading to wines with vegetal notes such as cabbage and wet leaves. Within Europe, Baden in Germany is also known for the high-quality of its Pinot Noir wines. In the New World, high-quality Pinot Noirs can be found from a number of regions, including Los Carneros and Sonoma (California); Martinborough, Marlborough and Central Otago (New Zealand); Yarra Valley, Mornington Peninsula and Tasmania (Australia); Walker Bay (South Africa) and Casablanca Valley (Chile). Finding areas with the right

climate is very important for Pinot Noir. If it is planted in a region that is too hot, the fruit flavours become jammy and unattractive. Pinot Noir grapes may be handled in a number of different ways when they reach the winery . Some winemakers will choose to destem and crush their fruit. Typically a period of pre-fermentation maceration will take place to maximise colour and flavour extraction from the skins. Other winemakers may decide to include a proportion of whole bunches in the ferment, a practice that is becoming increasingly popular. This practice generally enhances the red fruit and floral characters of Pinot Noir. The whole bunches are gradually crushed by a series of punch down operations, and fermentation continues on the skins once the grapes have been broken up. It is common for Pinot Noir fermentation temperatures to rise to above 30°C. Cooler ferments may be used for lighter, fresher styles but warm temperatures enable more colour, flavour and tannin to be extracted for longer-aged wines. Post-fermentation maceration is not widely practised for Pinot Noir. Like Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Noir is also a grape that is often matured in oak barrels and it is usual for premium wines to spend between 12 and 24 months in oak. Pinot Noir's delicate flavours mean that too much new oak can be overpowering, so many winemakers will use second or third-fill barrels and only a small proportion of new barrels. Pinot Noir is not usually blended with other grape varieties. However, the winemaker may blend different vineyard plots or wines that have undergone different treatments in the winery to increase complexity or improve consistency. The best wines can develop in bottle for many years, gaining flavours of forest floor and mushroom.

Syrah/Shiraz Syrah grapes are small with thick, darkly coloured skins and they will not ripen in very cool climates. It is a grape

RED AND ROSEWINEMAKING

69

PUNCHING DOWN

1. Punching downby hand. 2. Mechanical punching

down.Thisdevice canbemovedonan overhead railto work eachindividual tank inturn.

that can produce wines in a range of styles. Depending on the climate in which the grapes are grown and the winemaking techniques to which it is subjected, Syrah can range from medium-bodied with pepper and fresh black fruit aromas, to smooth and full-bodied with intense, very ripe black fruit flavours and hints of liquorice . Syrah's intensity of fruit flavours, together with its deep colour and high tannins, makes the best examples suitable for long-term ageing. In Europe, Syrah is most famously grown in the Northern Rhone in France.The climate here is at the coolest limit for Syrah production and therefore wine styles will vary depending on the vineyard site. Lesser sites produce quite light wines with simple black fruit and herbaceous flavours, and often slightly grippy tannins. South-facing slopes, such as those found in Cote Rotie and Hermitage can produce fuller bodied wines with berry flavours and hints of pepper, often complemented by notes of meat and leather after a little ageing. Syrah is also widely grown in Languedoc and Roussillon in France, where it is blended with other black varieties such as Grenache, Mourvedre, Carignan and Cinsault. The warmer climate here provides wines with riper flavours and tannins. In the New World, Australia has a well-established reputation for its Syrah, here called Shiraz. Hot regions , such as the Hunter and BarossaValleys, produce soft earthy, spicy styles of Shiraz with concentrated black fruit aromas. Cooler regions, such as Great Southern, Geelong and Heathcote, produce leaner, more peppery styles. Other classic areas in the New World producing Syrah are Chile, South Africa, Hawke's Bay in New Zealand, and Washington State in the USA. Winemaking technique has an important impact on the style of Syrah/Shiraz that is made. Full-bodied, intensely ripe wines with high alcohol can be produced in warm and hot climates. These wines have typically been subjected to vigorous cap management to extract maximum colour, flavour and tannin from ripe or over ripe grapes. Toasty flavours from a high proportion of

new oak may complement the concentrated fruit flavours. Winemakers in warm or hot climates can also choose to make a more restrained style, which often starts with harvesting the grapes earlier, giving wines with lower alcohol. These winemakers, together with those in moderate climates, tend to use gentler cap management techniques and may include a proportion of whole bunches in the fermentation. A fine tannin structure may be achieved by an extended post-fermentation maceration to extract and smooth tannins, and a number of winemakers are swapping their 225-litre barriques for 300- 500-litre barrels, and using older oak. All of these techniques can result in the production of more restrained, elegant wines .

Grenache/Garnacha Grenache is a late-ripening grape variety and needs to be planted in warm or hot climates. Conveniently, it also has a high tolerance for drought conditions. Its sweet, thin -skinned grapes give wines that are high in alcohol, low in acidity and are full-bodied with soft tannins and red fruit flavours. In Spain, Grenache is known as Garnacha and it is an important blending partner in the wines of Priorat and Rioja. In Priorat, Garnacha is blended with Carignan to produce deeply coloured wines with high levels of tannin, fresh black fruit and toasty oak . In Rioja, Garnacha is mainly planted in Rioja Baja and, in blends with Tempranillo, it contributes perfume, body and alcohol to the wine. It is also widely grown in Calatayud, Carinena and Navarra. A number of regions also produce rose wines from Garnacha. Grenache is the most widely planted grape variety in the Southern Rhone. It arguably makes its finest wines in the appellation of Chateauneuf-du-Pape. Here, it is usually blended with other grape varieties typical of the south of France,in particular Syrah and Mourvedre, to produce full bodied, richly textured wines with concentrated spicy red fruit. Grenache is also widely planted in Languedoc and

70

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

Roussillon where it is often blended with varieties such as Syrah, Mourvedre, Carignan and Cinsault. The wines may vary in style depending on the blend of grapes and the vineyard climate but most tend to have a spicy, perfumed character reminiscent of the local herbs. Outside Europe, the highest-quality Grenache is probably produced in Australia, particularly in the BarossaValley and McLaren Vale. These wines used to be produced in intensely concentrated, full-bodied styles with high levels of alcohol. Now, they are made with more restraint. Old bush vines yield low volumes of highly concentrated grapes, giving robust, ripe wines with intense flavours of red berries and peppery spice. Grenache tends to be destemmed and crushed on arrival at the winery. Pre-fermentation maceration is common, promoting the extraction offlavour and colour before alcohol levels rise in fermentation. Some producers choose to retain a proportion of whole bunches to enhance the ripe red fruit flavours of this grape.

Fermentation is usually conducted in open top fermenters, often made from stainless steel or cement, though some producers may choose old oak. Gentle cap management techniques, such as punching down, are used on premium wines to produce wines with more finesse. Post-fermentation maceration may be carried out if the winemaker wants to enhance the tannic structure of the wine. However, usually Grenache will be drained off the skins at the end of fermentation. Grenache is usually matured in large vessels such as foudres made from old oak, as the toasty notes from new oak can overwhelm Grenache's fruit flavours. Grenache is rarely made as a varietal wine and more usually blended with other varieties. In hot climates it can be jammy and high in alcohol and therefore grape varieties that are even more tolerant of heat, such as Carignan and Mourvedre, can lend fresher fruit flavours as well as greater tannin and colour to the blend.

FACTORSTHAT AFFECTTHE PRICE OF WINE

71

Factors thatAffectthePriceofWine~here are a num_beroffactors that_ influence the price of a bottle of wine.

10

It is impossible to discuss all of these in detail in this chapter, not least because there are so many differences between individual markets. However, it is possible to highlight the key common factors that apply throughout the world. These include the costs associated with the production, packing, transport and retailing of wine.

PRODUCTIONCOSTS Production costs can be divided into grape growing and winemaking.

In addition to practical considerations, the price of grapes can be dramatically affected by market forces (see page 72).

Grape Growing

Winemaking

Establishing a vineyard is very expensive. The land itself is not cheap, especially if it is located in a region with a reputation for producing premium quality wines. The soil needs to be prepared, vines bought and planted and the trellis (if one is to be used) built. It takes many years to see a return on these initial investments . In an established vineyard, vines need attention throughout the year. Labour is usually the largest production cost. This can be kept low by relying on a seasonal, casual workforce or mechanisation. If growers are able to share labour or machines then further savings are possible. However, in some isolated vineyards or sites with extremely steep slopes these economies are not available and production costs are much higher.

The most obvious costs involved in winemaking are equipping and maintaining the winery with the necessary equipment. The most high-tech machines can be very expensive but even small, modestly equipped wineries will need to invest a lot of money relative to their size. Some equipment (such as bottling facilities) can be shared, reducing some of these costs. Another important consideration is the amount of time the wine may need to be kept before release for sale. Some wines are matured for several months or even years, as required by local production regulations . Storage facilities can be expensive to maintain. Furthermore, a great deal of money is tied up in stock that cannot be sold to generate a profit straight away. Incredibly steepvineyards, suchastheseinMosel, are moreexpensive to cultivate thanflatland,addingtoa producer's costs.

72

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

Any delay in being able to take a profit from the wine needs to be factored into the sales price. PACKAGING

Bottles, labels, capsules, closures and cartons all need to be designed and purchased. Unusually shaped or heavy bottles cost more. It is cheaper to export wine in bulk and bottle it in the market where it is to be sold but this is only an option for large producers and it is not always permitted by local wine laws. TRANSPORT, DISTRIBUTION AND SALES

For a very small number of producers the cost of getting a wine to market is negligible because they only sell their wine to people who visit their winery. However, the majority of producers seek to sell their wine further afield, often in both domestic and international markets. Transport, distribution and sales are a very complex part of the wine trade and are highly regulated. In the majority of cases, producers have to rely on other businesses to transport and distribute their wines, therefore it is important that they choose partners who offer both value for money and accessto reliable sales.

TAXES

Nearly every government in the world taxes alcoholic beverages. The level of tax charged varies significantly from country to country but it can add substantially to the price of a bottle of wine. Such taxes are seen as essential in controlling the consumption of alcohol by increasing the retail price and are an important source of revenue for governments. RETAILERS

Most wines are sold in shops or restaurants and these businesses need to make a profit from these sales.Wines will generally cost more in restaurants than in shops. This is because restaurants expect to generate more profit from wine, but also because the price takes account of the occasion, the environment and the level of service. MARKET FORCES

Ultimately, the price of a bottle of wine is determined by how much the destination market is prepared to pay for it. The costs of production, packaging, distribution and retail must all be taken into account to ensure the product is commercially viable.

TYPES OF WINE PRODUCER

There are three main types of wine producer: co-operatives, merchants and estates. None of these words has legal significance and they rarely appear on labels. Throughout the world it is quite common for a single producer to make different wines that are bottled under estate and merchant labels.

Co-operatives These arewinebusinesses ownedbytheirmembers, typicallygrape growers. Thegrowers delivertheirgrapes to awinerythatisownedby theco-operative andrunbya winemaking teamthatisemployed by theco-operative. Thisisgoodforthegrowers because theyare guaranteed a buyerfortheirgrapes butit cansometimes be challenging forthewinemaker whomightnotalwayshavecomplete controloverthequalityofthegrapes supplied bytheiremployers . However, thisdoesnotmeanthatco-operative winesarealways inferior,andinsomeregions, thelocalco-operative regularly produces someofthebestwinesfromthearea. Co-operatives areverycommon in Europe. Thisisbecause the average vineyard holdingfora growerin Europe issosmallthatit is rarelyeconomical forthemto produce andmarkettheirownwines . Co-operatives doexistin therestoftheworldbuttheyareless common.

Merchants Merchants buygrapes, juiceorwinefromeithergrowers orcooperatives. Merchants will havecontracts withtheirsuppliers and,in theory,havegreater controlovertheirsource material thansomecooperatives. Producers canrejectgrapes thatarenotupto standard but in regions wheregrapes arein highdemand orlimitedsupplyit canbe difficultto guarantee a regularsupplyofsuitable grapes. These

businesses canoperate onaverysmallscaleandfocusonpremium wineproduction, oroperate onalargescaleandproduce a rangeof winesat differentqualitylevels. Merchants arecommon throughout theworldbutespecially outside of Europe. Intheseregions grapegrowers havefarlargerholdings compared with European growers andthistypeofcontractual arrangement ispopular withproducers whoonlyhaveto dealwitha relatively smallnumberofgrowers . Manyofthelargewinebrands are madethisway. Merchants aresometimes referred to usingtheFrench nameforthis typeof business: negociant.

Estates These businesses makewineonlyfromthegrapes thattheygrow.Asa result,theytypicallyproduce wineona relatively smallscale. Thisgives theproducer thegreatest amountofcontrolintheproduction process andconsequently, in mostregions, theseproducers areresponsible for thebestwines.However, because estates relypurelyontheirowncrops, theycanhavefewerblending optionsandthiscanbeachallenge in years wherethegrowingconditions havebeenpoor,for example dueto frostor hail. Estate winesaremadethroughout thewinemaking worldandare sometimes referred to usingtheFrench nameforthistypeof business:

domaine.

FACTORSTHAT AFFECTTHE PRICEOF WINE

Where high demand exists for a product that is available in limited supply, the retail price can far outweigh the costs. For example , over the last ten years, demand for premium estate wines from Bordeaux has put pressure on supply, driving up prices substantially. However, market forces may in time lead to a reversal of this trend .

While some wine businesses are profitable, there are others that struggle due to lack of demand. Some steep vineyard sites in Mose! have been abandoned because the costs of production could only be recovered by pricing the wines at a level consumers were not prepared to pay.

73

74

11

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

WineandtheLaw In countries where it is legal to purchase and consume alcohol, legislation relating to wine is concerned with three important issues: ensuring it is safe for human consumption; checking the information on the label accurately describes what is in the bottle; and, as alcohol is both toxic and addictive, providing the necessary regulations to reduce the harm it can cause to individuals and societies.

FOOD SAFETY With regard to food and beverage legislation, the primary concern of the authorities will always be to ensure that what is being sold is safe and fit for human consumption . This is a complex and technical area of the law and concerns the many processing agents and chemicals that are used by grape growers and winemakers. The vast majority of these products are not discussed in Chapters 4 to 9 and also, unlike food labelling, they hardly ever feature on wine labels . However, one example that can illustrate the importance of this legislation is 50 2• 50 2 is almost universally used in winemaking, but ifit is consumed in very high doses it can be toxic. Even though the levels of 50 2 found in wine are very small, this chemical's potentially harmful effects on human health means that its use in winemaking is very tightly regulated. In most countries the words 'contains sulfites' must appear on the label if the amount of 50 2 in a wine is above a certain level. In practice, a small amount of 50 2 is produced naturally during fermentation so these words are likely to be required even if no 50 2 is added in the winemaking process.

LABEL INTEGRITY It is the responsibility of the person or company that puts a product on sale that the description of the product and any claims made on the packaging are accurate. This of course means that labelling information needs to be clear and able to be checked . Wine is no exception and there are many dos and don'ts when it comes to wine labelling. However, certain aspects are more important than others.

Geographical Indications

Gls is relatively easy to control within the boundaries of a single country because only one legal jurisdiction is involved . However, it is less straightforward if a producer in one country decides to label their wine with a GI from another country. Therefore, over time, the World Trade Organization (the global body that manages international trade agreements) has developed a system for Gls that is now used by all major wine-producing countries . This system relies on defined boundaries and regional names. This ensures that everyone uses the same approach and as a result it is much easier for individual countries or groups of countries to reach agreements that recognise and respect each other's Gls. For example, 'Chablis' was used as a labelling term by Australian producers . Of course, these wines could never have been labelled as such when sold in the EU but now, as a result of a trade agreement, this term can no longer be used in Australia either. In exchange for more equitable trading arrangements , the Australians agreed to recognise and prohibit the use of EU Gls on their labels. The rules and regulations are complex but there are two important points of interest. First, if a GI is stated on the label then typically at least 85 per cent of the liquid in the bottle must come from the stated GI. This rule does not apply universally and it is best to see this as a standard from which there is some deviation: some local laws are less strict and others are more strict (for example, for PDO wines 100 per cent of the grapes must come from the region stated on the label). Similar rules can also apply to vintage dates and grape varieties . Second, there are significant variations between the way that GI legislation is written in the EU and non-EU countries.

Geographical indications ('Gls') refer to a product's region or place of origin and are a common feature on wine labels . This is because the area where grapes are grown can have a defining influence on the style and quality of the wine. A GI is a designated vineyard area within a country. These areas can be very large and cover an entire region (e.g. Bordeaux) or they can be very small covering no more than a single vineyard (e.g. La Romanee in Burgundy). Understandably, the use of Gls is tightly controlled to ensure a wine is genuinely the product of the grapes grown in the location stated on the label. For wines that sell at a premium price, fraud is a very real risk. The use of

European Union - European Union (EU) wines with a GI are divided into two quality categories : wines with a Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) and wines with a Protected Geographical Indication (PGI). Broadly speaking, PDOs are smaller areas with more t ightly defined regulations, whereas PGls are larger and have fewer regulations. Although PDO and PGI are permitted label terms, they rarely appear on the label. Instead, producers tend to use long-established traditional labelling terms . For example, Appellation d'origine contr6/ee (AC) is used in France instead of the French term for PDO (which is Appellation d'origine protegee).

WINEAND THELAW

That said, the French term for PGI- Indication geographique protegee (IGP) - is increasingly used on labels instead of the traditional term Vin de Pays. European Gls are unique because, typically, local laws will also specify what grape varieties can be grown, and what grape growing and winemaking techniques can be used. By identifying the grape varieties and processes that were used to produce a region's best wines, the system was designed to protect what was seen as the unique identity of local wines, promoting quality and preventing fraud. Therefore, in theory, each PDO produces wines with a unique flavour that cannot be copied by any other wine. This is reinforced by the fact that according to PDO regulations 100 per cent of the grapes must come from the stated region of origin for these wines . Note that many PDO wines do not state the grape variety on the label. This can mean that some of the finest expressions of Chardonnay, for example, come in bottles labelled as Chablis AC or Meursault AC. Given that the PDO system is very restrictive, many producers prefer to make wines in the PGI category because it allows the use of non-traditional varieties in the blend (for example Sauvignon Blanc in the south of France) and the rules governing production are less strict. However, local laws are still likely to regulate vine yield and limit production volumes . The PGI category is very diverse and can include wines of exceptional quality made using grapes grown in vineyards that simply fall outside of the PDO boundaries, as well as high-volume inexpensive wines from international grape varieties such as Chardonnay and Merlot. Unlike PDO wines, the grape variety or varieties are usually stated on the label. Wine without a GI is the category that offers European producers the most flexible production rules. For example, it allows brand owners to create multi-regional blends by sourcing grapes from vineyards throughout a country, or even multinational blends by sourcing grapes from different countries in the EU. There are no other limits on production beyond those that are necessary for product safety and accurate labelling. The individual regulations for each country and region can be found in their relevant chapter in Section 3 of this book. Non-EU countries - Nearly all non-EU wines in the international market fall into the category of wines with a GI. Each country has developed its own way of dividing its vineyard areas into Gls. Sometimes political boundaries are used but more frequently vineyards are divided into other more specific areas, such as regions, zones, districts and so on. However, importantly, there are no local laws to define and limit what grape varieties can be planted . Unl ike in the EU,the legal terms (such as AVA, Zone or Ward) are rarely seen on the label. The individual regulations for each country can also be found in the relevant chapter in Section 3 of this book.

EXAMPLES OF EU AND NON-EU WINE LABELS These two Chardonnay labels, one from Burgundy and the other from California, show the labelling conventions typical of EU and non-EU countries. The Chablis is not varietally labelled and the legal category (here abbreviated to Appellation controlee) is clear to see. On the other hand, Chardonnay is prominent on the California label and the legal category, AVA, is not shown.

,)

,o

ALBERT BICHOT

ROBERT MONDAVI WI NERY

•. ,

Legally Defined Quality and Style Indications There is another set of labelling terms, that has evolved in the EU and been defined by local laws, to indicate both quality and style. These terms are observed by all EU countries . The EU has been keen to limit the extent to which these labelling terms are copied in other countries . For example, Australia has a long tradition of making high-quality fortified wines in a Sherry style. These w ine were labelled using Sherry terms such as Fino and Amontillado but this is no longer permitted. SAFE CONSUMPTION When consumed in moderation, alcohol is not regarded as harmful to health . However, alcohol can significantly

75

76

UNDERSTANDING WINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY

affect the behaviour of anyone who consumes too much (often in very socially unacceptable and dangerous ways). For some people it can be highly addictive and, when consumed to excess,it can have a very negative impact on both short- and long-term health. In some cultures alcohol is not considered socially acceptable and its consumption is banned as a result. In countries where alcohol consumption is permitted, legislation is used to try and control accessto alcohol and limit its potentially harmful effects. Legal controls focus on two areas in particular. First, a minimum legal age is set for both the purchase and consumption of alcohol. These restrictions seek to limit young people's accessto alcohol as this age group is considered more vulnerable to its potentially harmful effects. Second, there is a legal limit on the amount of alcohol someone can have in their blood when driving a vehicle. This is typically expressed in terms of milligrams of ethanol per millilitres of blood. Alcohol reduces co-ordination, slows reaction times and

increases risk-taking. Therefore driving or operating machinery under the influence of alcohol significantly increases the risk of injury and death for the operator/driver and those around them. As well as sett ing and enforcing regulations, some governments also encourage safe consumption by publishing sensible drinking guidelines. Typically, alcoholic drinks are broken down into fixed quantities of alcohol or'units : and governments recommend the maximum number of units men and women should consume in the course of a day and over the course of a week. Many governments also often place limits on the advertising and marketing of alcohol. This can be through voluntary industry codes, through direct legislation, or a combination of both. These are normally designed to place limits on the lifestyle claims that can be made for a product in advertisements and/or encourage or require the use of responsible drinking messaging in advertising and on packaging .

77

INTRODUCTION TO FRANCE

Introductionto FraneeFr~nce produces

huge vo~umes of wine in a w'.de r~nge of styles. It 1stherefore more practical to cover these wines m a number

12

of short chapters rather than in one long chapter. In this brief introduction we cover the wine laws that apply throughout France, and show how the different wine regions relate to each other on the map.

FRENCH WINE LAWS

The geographical indications (Gls)below are common to all the wine regions in France.Where additional labelling terms exist, these will be covered in Chapters 13 to 21. PDOWines

PGIWines

TheFrench forPDQ isAppellation d'origine protegee (AOP) butthe traditional termAppellation d'origine controlee (ACorAOC) ismore widely seenonwinelabels.Itiscommon foroneplotoflandto be covered bybotha generic anda moreprestigious appellation. Eachyear theproducer canchoose whichappellation theywishto use,a decision ofteninfluenced bythequalityofthevintage . InChapters 13to 21PDQ wineswillbereferred to as'appellation' wines.

TheFrench forPGIisIndication geographique protegee (IGP). Manyproducers usethistermontheirwinelabelsalthough the traditional termVindePays(VdP)isalsooftenseen.

FRANCE 150km

l----'-~

SO' N

50--'------'-,

•

100ml!es

Wines withouta GIaretermedVindeFrance.

~~~ ' ~ - l..~

~

t

"".-·~"?/:' \

' ""

'-

-::....(

\ •.-·, Lllle0

N

BELGIUM

t.

GERMANY

·'-_,_

°l -~-~r--.

Englis h C h a n n e I

c::::J C6tes de Gascogne IGP

D

VindeFrance

\

,.,/, ,,--,·

(!

r. ._. .- (.

l

7 \,

50'N

\

i .....,..... liLUX~:i

Paysd'Oc IGP

J

"\_.-,:.,_,.].

Re,ms

v "th

~

~ i,1•'" "'"

J

Paris >'

\

~,o,,_

y

q,

!

4B•N

i.'l>t!f,.

"

BURGUNDv°ljonO

LOIREVALLEY

asbeurg

ALSACE

\

o;

f

\J

C:,

Tours

•~"'''·~--; i

~sel~ ,.,......__ Troyes

FRANCE

-~

~

AMPAGNE

Mul h::.e0.:~

5?-·

f

/'

,)SWITZERLAND

~,,,-...,. 5· ,--

£,;,

BEAUJOLAIS

46°N

'

Bay of Bisc a y

9'

Lyon

\

J

ITALY ,>

I

BORDEAUX

~

Go,0

W

.,,'::::;---,2 '1J11("

KEY

44 'N

~ ·~_;,. ~ S UTH WEST~ FRANCE ~

.,

SPA IN

Toulouse

-

4000m+ 2000-4000 m

p

-~.,,.,,. -,! r e l-....... -"\,•-·

42' N

\

1000-2000 m

' ' 1,;- ~ ,-s ANDQR~8,.'

500-lOOOm

MEDITERRANEAN

SEA

42' N

200- 500 m 0- 200 m

78

13

UNDERSTANDINGWINES: EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY

Bordeaux Bordeaux is the largest appellation

region in France, in terms of both volume and

value. It is home to many of the most prestigious names in fine wine. However, these wines only represent a tiny proportion of total production and there is a massive gap between the resources available to a few very wealthy producers and the vast majority of growers and producers.

CLIMATE AND GRAPE GROWING Bordeaux has a moderate maritime climate that benefits from the effect of the Gulf Stream. This warming ocean current extends the growing season: spring frosts are rarely a problem and grape ripening can continue well into October. However, the Atlantic also brings high levels of rainfall and humidity. The vineyards are protected from the worst of the Atlantic storms by the Landes forest and the coastal sand dunes that lie to the west of the region. Rain falls throughout the year and can disrupt flowering and fruit set, promote rot and dilute the flavours in the grapes at harvest. Consequently, vintage variation is an important consideration in Bordeaux although the top producers can greatly reduce the differences in style and quality between the vintages by rejecting unhealthy and unripe grapes. Changes in canopy management techniques have resulted in healthier grapes (plus a decline in the use of sprays) and a marked rise in the levels of sugar and flavour development at harvest time. GRAPEVARIETIES AND WINEMAKING Almost all red Bordeaux wines and most Bordeaux whites are produced from a blend of grape varieties. The variability in the weather, in particular rainfall, means Avineyard inthe HautMedoc showingthehigh gravelcontentof thesoil.

that it can be very risky to rely too heavily on one variety. The different varieties permitted in Bordeaux flower and ripen at different times, meaning that one bad frost or heavy shower is unlikely to ruin an entire crop. Thirteen grape varieties are permitted under the appellation regulations, but in practice three black grapes and two white predominate.

Black Varieties Cabernet Sauvignon dominates in the Haut-Medoc, and it is also very important in the Bas-Medoc and the Graves.The high stone/gravel content of the soils here raises vineyard temperature and consequently these are the only areas where Cabernet can reliably ripen. Here it can account for three-quarters of the blend in the finest wines. Cabernet Franc is widely used in Saint-1:milion and, to a lesser extent, in the Medoc and Graves. It produces wines with less body and tannin than Cabernet Sauvignon. It can have herbaceous or stalky flavours when unripe but when ripe it can contribute vibrant fruit and floral notes to a blend. Like Cabernet Sauvignon it prefers well drained warm soils. Merlot is the most widely planted variety in Bordeaux and is particularly important in the premium wines of Saint-1:milion and Pomerol. This is because Merlot can successfully grow on the cooler clay soils found in these areas, whereas Cabernet Sauvignon would struggle to ripen. Merlot's softness means it is usually the grape that is predominant in high volume, inexpensive wines. Petit Verdot has far smaller plantings than the three black varieties above. It ripens fully only in very hot years, giving a very deep-coloured, tannic wine that ages slowly. It never plays more than a minor role in a blend, where it is used mainly to add tannin, colour and some spicy notes. Winemaking practices are very varied. This is a reflection of the style of wine being made and the resources available to the producer. There is little agreement over which fermentation vessels produce the best wines: some of the best producers use the traditional oak vats as well as steel or concrete vats to increase their blending options. Most wines are blended in the spring following the vintage, although some winemakers prefer to keep their different parcels of wine separate until the end of maturation. In order to maintain the quality and style

BORDEAUX

of their top wine, most of the leading chateaux now make second and even third wines from blends that are not suitable for the grand vin (best wine) . Some wine may even be sold off to a negociant. Top-quality red Bordeaux is aged in small oak barriquesof 225 litres. In the finest chateaux, all the wine may be put into new casks.Lesserproperties may use a smaller proportion of new casks and generic Bordeaux wines are unlikely to see oak at all. Constant improvements in the winery have led to riper, fruitier and more concentrated wines even in difficult vintages. White Varieties Given its thin skin and affinity for noble rot, Semillon is the most important variety for sweet wines in Bordeaux. It is also blended with Sauvignon Blanc in the premium dry white wines of Pessac-Leognanand Graves,where it adds body to these wines. In Bordeaux, Sauvignon Blanc produces wines with citrus and green fruit aromas. It is used increasingly for varietal, dry white wines: the one exception to the generalisation that all Bordeaux wines are blends. In blended wines it provides high acidity, which is particularly necessary for sweet wines. Muscadelle has a pronounced grapey, floral flavour and plays an important supporting role in sweet and dry white wine production .

It only makes up a small percentage of any blend. Similar to the red wines, dry white Bordeaux is also made in a range of styles.Those at the lower end of the market tend to be fresh and fruity, fermented in temperature controlled, inert vesselswith minimal further ageing, but some show toasty hints of oak. Premium dry whites from Pessac-Leognanare frequently fermented and matured in new oak barrels and have a richness and concentrated nutty flavour overlaying the fruit. The great sweet wines of Bordeaux are made from fruit that has been infected by noble rot. The best examples are fermented and matured in new oak barrels for anything up to three years.

REGIONSAND WINES The Dordogne and Garonne rivers combine to form the Gironde Estuary and divide the Bordeaux vineyards into three broad areas.West and south of the Gironde/ Garonne lie the districts of Medoc, Gravesand Sauternes. This area is often referred to as the Left Bank. Most of the area between the Dordogne and the Garonne is covered by the appellation Entre-Deux-Mers. Finally,the principal districts to the north and east of the Gironde and Dordogne are Saint-Emilion and Pomerol, commonly referred to as the Right Bank. There are over 50 different appellations in Bordeaux. They range in size from the very large generic

BORDEAUXCLASSIFICATIONS With the exception of Saint-Emilion, Bordeaux's classification systems lie outside of the appellation system. Furthermore, the classifications do not rank individual vineyards but individual estates, commonly known as the chateaux. Over the years the estate may vary in size due to the purchase or sale of individual vineyard plots. Thus a chateau name is more of a brand than a designation of a specific vineyard.

TheMedoc andSauternes In1855,ontheoccasion oftheParisUniversal Exhibition, theBordeaux Chamber ofCommerce wasapproached to produce anofficiallistof theirbestredwinesfromtheMedoc andwhitewinesfromSauternes. Thisisnowknownasthe1855Classification. Overthe intervening years theclassified chateaux haveundergone numerous changes intheir number, sizeandownership, andin thequalityofthewinemade; howfarthe1855Classification actually represents thecurrentquality levelsofthewinesisa constant source ofdebate. Nevertheless, the classification stillstands virtuallyintact.Chateaux thatarelisted withinthisclassification arereferred to ascrusclasses. IntheMedoc, thechateaux weredividedintofiveranks. Thetoprankconsists of Chateaux LafiteRothschild, Latour, Margaux andMoutonRothschild, together withChateau Haut-Brion fromtheGraves. InSauternes there arethreeranks, Chateau d'Yquem occupying thetoprank. The1855Classification accounted foronlyaverysmallnumber of theestates oftheMedoc andtherefore afurtherclassification ofau bourgeois waslaterintroduced fortheotherchateaux. Currently, cru bourgeois isonlyawarded to winesin aspecific vintage, ratherthanto thechateau itself,andtherefore winesfromnewvintages mustbe submitted eachyearto gainclassification.

Graves (Pessac-Leognan) ThewinesoftheGraves areclassified withparallel, butseparate, lists forredandwhitewines.There isnoranking: all listedwinesmaysimply callthemselves crusclasses. Allthecrusclasse chateaux nowliewithin thelimitsofthePessac-Leognan, asthisappellation wascreated after theGraves classification wasdrawnup. Saint-Emilion Grand Cru Theclassification system in Saint-Emilion isintegrated intothe appellation system. WithinSaint-Emil ionthereisaseparate appellation Saint -Emilion Grand Cru,andwithinthisappellation thereisa classification ofthebestchateaux. Thelowerstepwithinthe classification issimplySaint-Emilion Grand CruClasse. Above thiscomes Saint -Emilion Premier Grand CruClasse, whichissubdivided into Premier Grand CruClasse A(thebest),andPremier Grand CruClasse B. There arereclassifications, withthepossibility of promotion and demotion, whichoccurat leastonceeverytenyears .

79

80

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

KEY 100- 200 m 0- l00m

FR

45"30 ' N

~

C E '-.__,.,..,

Bay of Biscay

_J ~

45•oo·N

45 00 ' N

BORDEAUX

e SOkm

t--~~,........_

_

_._,_~----,-,

30mllH

44"30 ' N

t. f\J

appellations, which cover the whole vineyard area, down to the small commune appellations. Unlike Burgundy, these various appellations do not form a neat hierarchy based on quality and it is easier to look at them in groups based on the styles of wine made in them . Generic Appellations The output of the generic appellations is mainly red labelled as either Bordeaux or Bordeaux Superieur (the latter designation has slightly stricter appellation rules and requires a higher level of alcohol in the final wine) . The remainder is white labelled as Bordeaux and rose labelled as Bordeaux Rose or Bordeaux Clairet. The standard of these basic Bordeaux wines has improved considerably and continues to do so as export-focused producers are trying to ensure that their wines can compete with similarly priced wines from other parts of the world . At their best, red Bordeaux and Bordeaux Superieur are early drinking medium-bodied wines with ripe red and black fruit, and sometimes cedar notes from oak. The cheapest can be lighter in body and have more astringent tannins than the better wines . The best Bordeaux rose is fresh and fruity with an increasing number of producers making high-quality examples. Clairet is a style of wine that is mainly popular on the French market. It undergoes a longer maceration than a typical rose and is deeper in colour and fuller in body.

White Bordeaux is increasingly dominated by Sauvignon Blanc and shows a vibrant grassy character. The Reds of Medoc and Graves The Medoc lies to the north of the city of Bordeaux and Graves lies to the south . The northernmost part of the Medoc is called the Bas-Medoc, and the wines from here are labelled simply Medoc . Here, the soil is predominantly clay, but there are outcrops of gravel. These wines tend to have a higher proportion of Merlot in the blend than those just to the south and tend to be more early-drinking in style. From Saint-Estephe southwards lies the more highly rated area of the Haut-Medoc . Within the Haut-Medoc there are a number of smaller appellations , sometimes referred to as 'communes: in which most of the higher classified chateaux can be found . From north to south, the four with the highest reputation are Saint-Estephe, Pauillac, Saint-Julien and Margaux. These wines have a high percentage of Cabernet Sauvignon in the blend and generally display a core of blackcurrant fruit, complemented by cedar notes from oak. They can have grippy tannins when young, and often have a long ageing potential. Immediately to the south of Bordeaux lies the PessacLeognan, the most highly rated area in Graves. Soils, like those of the Haut-Medoc, are gravelly and well-suited to

BORDEAUX

81

Cabernet Sauvignon, but in general the wines are a little lighter in body and more fragrant than the finest wines of the Haut-Medoc. Wines from the top chateaux are made with as much care as any in Bordeaux, with prices to match. Graves extends to the south of Pessac-Leognan, making red wines that are similar in style, but less concentrated and complex, and usually with a higher proportion of Merlot. Saint-Emilion and Pomerol The wines of the Right Bank are dominated by Merlot and to a lesser extent Cabernet Franc. Saint-1:milion is the larger of the two principal appellations, with three distinct groups of vineyards on differing soils. First are the vineyards on a plateau to the north and west of the town of Saint-Emilion. Here, areas of warm, well-drained gravel and limestone soils encourage the inclusion of Cabernet Franc and, occasionally, some Cabernet Sauvignon. Second, there are vineyards on the escarpment to the south and east with clay limestone soils. The most prestigious wines of Saint-Emilion come from these two sub-regions. The wines have medium to high tannins but, compared with the more structured wines of the Left Bank, they have a soft and rich mouthfeel with complex red berry fruit and plum aromas, developing tobacco and cedar notes as they evolve. Finally, the vineyards on sandy soils at the foot of the escarpment are typically a source of lighter-bodied, less prestigious wines. The reputation of nearby Pomerol is as high as that of Saint-Emilion. The wines tend to be richer, with a spicier, blackberry fruit character. A movement that has been particularly associated with these Right-Bank appellations is the appearance of full-bodied, incredibly ripe wines made in tiny quantities from small plots of land, and with no expense spared in the vineyard or the winery. The collective term vins de garage was once frequently employed to describe these

wines (and the term garagiste used to describe the winemaker); however, many of them are now famous in their own right and have been classified within the Saint-Emilion appellation system. Pomerol and Saint-Emilion are surrounded by a group of appellations that produce Merlot dominated wines that are stylistically similar to the more famous appellations.

Newoakbarriquesbeing madeinacooperagein Bordeaux. Theheatis neededto softenthewood soitcanbebentintoshape.

Cotes de Bordeaux There is a group of lesser-known red wine appellations that have agreed to share the name Cotes de Bordeaux. The appellations of Blaye, Cadillac, Castillon and Francs are able to put their names in front of Cotes de Bordeaux. The wines from these appellations tend to be Asortingtableina vineyard intheMedoc. Someproducers

chooseto dothis inthe winery.

82

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

Thebotrytis-affected grapes

be labelled with a generic appellation name). The appellations of Graves and Pessac-Leognan are permitted to produce white wines as well as reds. The white wines of Graves and Entre-Deux-Mers tend to be made from Sauvignon Blanc in an unoaked style. Pessac-Leognan is the home of many of the very best dry whites, and here the whites may be eligible for cru clam! status. They tend to be blends of Sauvignon Blanc and Semillon and have usually been fermented and/or matured at least partly in new oak, giving a medium to full body and toasty oak flavours. Some producers in Medoc and Sauternes also produce premium dry whites. However, these wines cannot be sold using these appellations and instead they are sold using the generic Bordeaux appellation.

usedforSauternes cannot beharvested bymachine andmustbeselectively pickedbyhand.

Merlot based and meant for early drinking. The best wines can offer excellent value for money. The producers in Cotes de Bourg who make wines of a similar style chose not to join this group. Note that Premieres Cotes de Bordeaux is a sweet wine appellation, unconnected with the Cotes de Bordeaux group. Premium Dry White Wines A few appellations are permitted to produce dry white wines. Entre-Deux-Mers, a large appellation located between the Rivers Garonne and Dordogne, can only produce white wines (red wines from this area must

Sweet Wines The top sweet wine appellations of Bordeaux are grouped on the banks of the Garonne and its tributary the Ciron. The rivers create the ideal misty autumn conditions for noble rot to develop on fully ripened grapes. The level of noble rot in the vineyard varies from year to year. Passeri/logeis needed to help concentrate sugars in years when there is little noble rot. The best wines come from Sauternes, which lies on the west bank of the Garonne. Within Sauternes lies the village of Barsac. Producers in Barsac have the right to use either the appellation of Barsac or that of Sauternes. In these appellations, Semillon dominates because of its thin skin and susceptibility to botrytis. Sauvignon Blanc supplies refreshing acidity and fruity aromas, and Muscadelle, where used, adds exotic perfume. The best wines tend to be high in alcohol, sweet yet balanced by high acidity, and display the apricot and citrus peel aromas of noble rot, along with notes of toast and vanilla from oak fermentation and/or maturation. There are a number of other sweet wine appellations near Sauternes that are made in a similar style.

83

THE DORDOGNE AND SOUTH WEST FRANCE

TheDordogne andSouthWestFranceThesewi~esmaybedivided'.ntotwo

14

groups. First, there are the wines of

the Dordogne, many of which are made from the same grape varieties as those used in Bordeaux. Second, there are a number of regions that make wines from varieties often never seen in Bordeaux, with styles that differ considerably - these we shall call the wines of South West France.

THE DORDOGNE To the east of the vineyards of Entre-Deux-Mers lie the vineyards of the Dordogne. Here the climate is similar to that of Bordeaux, although with less moderating maritime influence. The major appellation is Bergerac, which may be used for both red and white wines made from the same varieties as in Bordeaux. Monbazillac is a source of good value botrytised sweet wines made from Semillon and Sauvignon Blanc. SOUTH WEST FRANCE

Cahors is situated to the east of Bordeaux. Historically, these were described as 'black' wines, and were very tannic and long -lived. The region is located either side of

the River Lot. Now a broad range of styles is produced , depending on whether the vineyards are in the fertile valley bottom , on the poorer soils of the slopes or on the plateau above. The most important grape variety is Malbec. The other varieties planted are Merlot and Tannat. At their best, the wines are aged in oak, deeply coloured , high in tannin, with intense, dark berry fruits. They mature slowly to reveal notes of cedar and earth. To the south-east of Bordeaux, there is considerable production of IGP wines, of which the most important is Cotes de Gascogne.These are generally dry, light bodied white wines made from Ugni Blanc,with aromas and flavours of green apples. Further south towards the Pyrenees is Madiran. Here,

FRANCE

45' N

Bay a f Biscay

44"N

~-,·-•,./

SPAIN

j

I

~

(....._1(._'-·

KEY -

1500m+ 1000- 1500 m 500- 1000 m 200- 500 m 100- 200 m 0- lO0m

THEDORDOGNEAND SOUTHWESTFRANCE

84

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

red wines are produced from blends led by the deeply coloured, high tannin variety Tannat. These wines traditionally needed a long period of bottle ageing to soften their tannins. Today, riper grapes and modern winemaking techniques mean that the best wines have concentrated black fruit and high levels of softer riper tannins.

Right in the foothills of the Pyrenees is Juram;:on where both dry and sweet white wines are made. The most important are the complex sweet wines made from the high acid Petit Manseng. The grapes remain free of botrytis and undergo passeril/age. The wines have pronounced apricot and grapefruit aromas, sometimes accompanied by spicy notes from new oak.

BURGUNDY

85

Burgundy The large number of producers and appellations in Burgundy can make this region

15

seem very complicated. However, in essence Burgundy is quite simple. It is the home of Chardonnay and Pinot Noir and this region still provides the benchmark of excellence for these varieties against which all other producers of these wines around the world are judged.

CLIMATE AND GRAPEGROWING Burgundy covers a wide area and the climate ranges from cool continental in the north around Chablis to moderate continental further south. Rain can frequently disrupt both flowering in early summer and harvest later in the year. Pinot Noir is particularly susceptible to grey rot and this can also be a problem in a wet growing season. Among the other natural climatic hazards that the grower may face are spring frosts, particularly in the Chablis region, where they can appear as late as May, and localised summer hailstorms, which can often destroy considerable proportions of a grower's crop. A vineyard's location is extremely important in determining its quality level in the appellation hierarchy. Basic village-level vineyards tend to be located on flat sites or at the bottom of slopes, whereas those of premier cru or grand cru level are often found mid-slope. These desirable hillside locations are less prone to frost than those on flat land. The highest-quality vineyards generally have a south or east facing exposure, offering protection from prevailing westerly winds. The soils in Burgundy are very varied. A large number of small geological faults, combined with gradual erosion, mean that precise soil types change significantly over small areas.These variations are often linked to subtle changes in the styles of the wines although the exact role the soil plays in this is the subject of much debate. What is certain is that the soils on the hillsides tend to be shallower with better drainage, whereas the soil on the flat land is deeper and more fertile.

GRAPEVARIETIESAND WINEMAKING The vast majority of wines in Burgundy are produced from Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, although other grape varieties including Aligote and Gamay are also grown .

PinotNoir Pinot Noir accounts for over a third of the total vineyard area. It is grown throughout the region, but the most important plantings are in the Cote d'Or. Classic Burgundian Pinot Noir has red fruit flavours in youth that evolve into flavours of earth, game and mushroom as the wine matures. The wines tend to have high acidity and low to medium levels of tannins, but this can vary according to the vineyard, the producer and the vintage. A wide range ofwinemaking techniques is used on Pinot Noir, varying from producer to producer. The use of whole bunches has gradually become more popular.

For the best wines, 16 to 18 months' barrel ageing is normal. Generally speaking, the better wines will be aged in a proportion of new oak, although this will depend on the producer.

Chardonnay Chardonnay accounts for nearly half the total vineyard area. The character of Chardonnay varies dramatically from the lean, steely, high-acid wines of Chablis in the north of the region, via the often fabulously complex, expressive wines of the Cote d'Or, to the more fullbodied, riper-fruited wines of Macon in the south. Burgundian winemakers were the pioneers of the techniques that are now associated with premium Chardonnay production around the world: barrel fermentation, barrel ageing (typically six to nine months), MLF for white wines and use of the lees during maturation. Some of the most expressive and sought after Chardonnays made using these techniques come from the Cote d'Or. Debates continue regarding how much new oak is appropriate, and the ideal level of toasting for barrels. Whichever techniques are used, the best wines are well-balanced and complex expressions of Chardonnay that can mature in bottle for a decade or more.

Vertical shootpositioning onthe hillat Corton. Light canclearlypenetrate the canopyandthefruitis unshaded.

86

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

Around 15 years ago it started to be noticed that some Burgundian Chardonnays were not ageing as expected. Some bottles of many premium wines showed signs of premature oxidation for their age. This is now an established problem in Burgundy but as yet no cause, whether it be vineyard- or winery-based, has been identified definitively.

KEY

BURGUNDY ,__

1000 m+

--,----'---.--' ~~ 30mllei

500-1000 m 200-S00m 0-200 m

47"30 ' N

-

GRANOCRU PREMIERCRU

47"00'N

47'00 N

Other Varieties Aligote is a white grape that tends to produce neutral wines with high acidity . It is capable of mak ing highquality wines when grown in sites where it can reach full ripeness, but as these locations are usually reserved for more profitable Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, such wines are rare. Gamay produces early drinking red wines with ripe berry fruit and low tannins. It can be used in some regional appellations, but only Pinot Noir is allowed for wines of village level and above. BURGUNDY APPELLATIONS (REGIONS, VILLAGES AND VINEYARDS)

Chablis Chablis is a village appellation that lies in the valley of the River Serein in the northern-most part of Burgundy. The best vineyards are generally planted on slopes with favourable south-facing aspects. Some of these lesser vineyards are classified as Petit Chablis. The major climatic problem of the region is frost. Sprinklers and heaters are both used as protective measures. The only grape permitted is Chardonnay. Thehillof Corton isonthe leftandthemainslopeof theCoted'Or isontheright. Beauneisinthedistance. TheVillages vineyards areon theflatwhereasthepremier

cruandgrandcrusitesare ontheslopes.

BURGUNDY

Basicvillage level Chablis is often grown on north facing slopes and flatter land, whereas the premiercru and grandcruvineyards are located on the south-facing hillsides,giving greater concentration and ripeness to these wines. Petit Chablis and Chablis can be very austere, with green fruit and high acidity; however, the better examples display riper fruit flavours. The wines of Chablis Premier Cru and Chablis Grand Cru tend to be located on hillside sites with a better aspect. They generally show riper, more concentrated fruit (citrus, rather than green apple), and have more body, yet are still balanced by high acidity. A number of producers ferment or age a portion of their grandcruand sometimes premiercruwines in old oak, which can give a rounder texture and subtle flavours. Others prefer to retain pure fruit flavours by fermenting and storing the wines in stainless steel or concrete .

KEY

COTED'OR

5OO- lOOOm 2OO- SOOm

-

CJ CJ CJ CJ

Gra dscrus COTE'otN~TS HAUTESCOTE-5.DE NUITS COTEDEBEAUNE HAUTESCOTESDEBEAUNE BOURGOGNE

47"N

ANCE

The Cote d'Or

The vineyards of the Cote d'Or form the heartland of Burgundy. The MassifCentral runs alongside the western limit of the Cote d'Or, providing favourable east and south-east facing hillside vineyard locations. The Cote is split into two. Many of the fullest-bodied, longest-lived Pinot Noirsare produced in the Cote de Nuits. The more southerly Cote de Beaune also produces red wines from Pinot Noir,generally in a fruitier style, but

it is more famous for producing the best Chardonnays in the region. This is reflected in the appellation system. Allof the red grandscrus,except one, are produced on the Cote de Nuits,while all the white grandscrus,except one come from the Cote de Beaune.

THE HIERARCHYOF BURGUNDYAPPELLATIONS Regional Appellations

Theappellations ofBurgundy forma hierarchy basedonthequalityof thevineyard sites.Atthebaseofthehierarchy aretheregional appellations. Theyaccount forhalfoftheproduction oftheregion. Mostregional appellation winescomefromvineyards thatdonot havetherighttoa superior appellation, although therearesomewines thathavebeendeclassified froma superior appellation. Such declassification maybedueto excessive yieldsorbecause a quality mindedproducer wantsto preserve theprestige ofthesuperior appellation bynotincluding lower-quality wines. Bourgogne Rouge andBourgogne Blanc arethemostgeneric appellations andcancomefromanywhere inBurgundy. Theyare usually madefromPinotNoirandChardonnay. Therearealsoa numberofregional appellations thateachcover slightly morerestricted areas.Theseinclude Bourgogne Hautes Cotes deNuits,Bourgogne Hautes Cotes deBeaune andBourgogne CoteChalonnaise. IntheMaconnais theregional appellations include Macon forredandwhitewinesorMacon Villages forwhitewines only. Commune Appellations

Thenextstepinthehierarchy isthatofcommune appellations suchas Chablis orGevrey -Chambertin. Theseaccount forabouta thirdofthe totalproduction. Usually, justthenameofthecommune willbegiven

87

onthelabel.Occasionally, ifthewinecomesentirely froma single vineyard thatisnotrecognised asa premier cruorgrand cru,the vineyard namemayappearaswell.Notetheterm'village' issometimes usedinsteadofcommune . SingleVineyard Appellations: Premiers Crus andGrands Crus

Above thevillage appellations arethepremier cruandthengrand cru sites- vineyards thathaveconsistently madehigh-qualitywines.Itis rarethatthevineyard willbelongtojustoneowner(thisistermeda monopole); mostvineyards willbedivided between a number of different owners, eachofwhomwillgrowandharvest theirindividual parcelofvines. Inall,therearemorethan600premiers crusspreadbetweenChablis, theCoted'0randtheCoteChalonnaise. Together, theyprovide approximately a tenthofBurgundy's production. These winesmust statepremiercru onthelabel.Ifthewinecomesfroma singlevineyard the nameofthevineyard alsoappearsonthelabel.Producers mayalso blendwinesfromvarious premier cruvineyards withina village inwhich casenovineyard nameappearsonthelabel. Atthetopofthehierarchy arethegrand cruvineyards accounting for littlemorethan1percentofthetotalproduction. Thereare33ofthese intheCoted'0randoneinChablis. Theycanberecognised bythefact thatonlythevineyard appearsonthelabel.Thetermgrand crumust appearonthelabel.

88

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

KEY 500- 1000 m RUL.(: Y

200- 500 m

COTECHALONNAISE & MACONNAIS •

MERCUREY•

t. N

"""

i----~--..,20mlles

GIVRY o Chalon-

sur-Sa6ne

46 30'N

POUILLY FUISS~_,... --.ll"< ~ A \

MACON _

D

MACONVILLAGES

Well-exposed vineyards in Pouilly-Fuisse underthe Roche deSolutre.

From north to south, the key villages of the Cote de Nuits (with their most famous grands crus sites) are Gevrey-Chambertin (Chambertin, Chambertin Clos de Beze),Vougeot (Clos de Vougeot), Vosne-Romanee (Romanee-Conti, La Tache and La Romanee), and NuitsSaint-Georges.

On the Cote de Beaune, the important villages (and their grands crus) are Aloxe-Corton (Corton, CortonCharlemagne), Beaune, Pommard, Volnay, Meursault, Puligny-Montrachet (Montrachet), and ChassagneMontrachet (Montrachet). All, with the exception of Pommard and Volnay, produce white wine as well as red. The three villages with the highest reputation for their white wines are Meursault, Puligny-Montrachet and Chassagne-Montrachet, with the last two villages sharing the grand cru of Montrachet. Cote de Nuits-Villages can be a red or a white wine and is produced from those vineyards that lie on the Cote de Nuits, but that do not qualify for one of the more famous village appellations. Cote de Beaune-Villages must be red and can come from any one, or a combination, of the villages on the Cote de Beaune; however, there are exceptions. The regional appellations of Bourgogne Hautes Cotes de Nuits and Bourgogne Hautes Cotes de Beaune are to the west of and at a higher altitude to the main strip of vineyards. Their altitude and greater exposure to winds gives them a cooler climate and means that the wines typically have slightly less body and concentration. The Cote Chalonnaise The Cote Chalonnaise lies to the south of the Cote d'Or. Chardonnay and Pinot Noir are also the main grapes here, but due to the higher altitude of these vineyards the harvest is later and ripening less reliable. Also, although the vineyards are still found on hillsides, their aspect is less consistently towards the east. As a result the wines

BURGUNDY

are lighter and tend to mature earlier. These wines are seen as less prestigious than those of the Cote d'Or. There are four village appellations. Rully produces more white wine than red. It is also an important centre for the production of sparkling wine. Mercurey is the village on the Cote Chalonnaise whose red wines enjoy the highest reputation. Givry, whose reds are particularly admired, is the smallest of the village appellations. Montagny produces only white wines. These communes each have premier cru vineyards but no grandscrus. Bourgogne Cote Chalonnaise applies to all wines made on the Cote Chalonnaise from Pinot Noir for red, and Chardonnay for white. It is classified as a regional appellation. Maconnais Chardonnay is the most widely planted grape of the Maconnais, and the reds tend to be made of Gamay, although some Pinot Noir is still grown. Macon, the local regional appellation , can be red or white . The better white wines show a good balance of fresh apple or citrus fruit, medium acidity and medium

to full body . There may be a hint of creaminess from MLF. The reds tend to be light and fruity and made for early drinking . Wines labelled Macon Villages or Macon, followed by the name of a particular village, are white wines that generally represent excellent value for money. Certain individual villages, such as Lugny, have built up a considerable following for their wines. A wine called Macon Villages may come from any one, or a combination, of the villages. The wines are generally similar in style to white Macon, but tend to display more ripeness, body and character. There are a number of village appellations in the Maconnais region, of which the two most famous are Pouilly-Fuisse and Saint-Veran. The best wines from these villages display ripe notes of tropical and stone fruits and most are matured for a period of time in barrel to enhance texture and add flavours. The vines are planted on the limestone slopes of the Roche de Solutre with east and south-east exposures. These amphitheatre like slopes, which act as natural suntraps, help produce some of the richest and ripest Chardonnays in Burgundy, which are often complemented by toasty oak flavours.

89

90

16

UNDERSTANDING WINES:EXPLAINING STYLEAND QUALITY

Although it is possible to make red, rose and white wines in Beaujolais, production Beaujolais is dominated by the red wines made from Ga may. Therefore only these wines will be considered here. Styles range from wines that are light and fruity and best consumed when young, to those that can develop complexity with bottle age.

GRAPE GROWING The climate here is similar to the southern Maconnais and is ideally suited to the early budding and ripening Gamay. If not well managed, Gamay can produce large yields, which results in lower-quality wines. It is therefore no surprise that the best wines are made from grapes grown in the granite soils that have low levels of nutrients. This limits the yields and as a result the flavours in the grapes are more concentrated. The traditional method of pruning in the region is called gobelet.The vines are pruned to spurs around the head, and then the shoots are tied together, to hold them vertically. However, an increasing number of grape growers are now training their vines along wires to allow for mechanisation. Gamay gives fragrant wines with aromas of raspberry and cherry fruit. The wines rarely have more than medium levels of tannin and body, and the lightest styles can even be served lightly chilled.

APPELLATIONS AND WINES There is a hierarchy of appellations in Beaujolais. At the bottom is the regional appellation of Beaujolais, this is followed by Beaujolais Villages and at the top are the individual appellations of the Beaujolais crus.

Beaujolais and Beaujolais Nouveau To the east and south of the region lies the alluvial plain of the River Sa6ne and it is here that Beaujolais is produced, mainly by carbonic maceration and semicarbonic maceration . This is also the major source of Beaujolais Nouveau, a wine that is specifically made for early drinking. It cannot be released to the consumer until the third Thursday in November after the vintage, and cannot be sold by growers or negociantsafter the following 31 August. Wines labelled as Beaujolais Nouveau can only be of Beaujolais or Beaujolais Villages quality; the ten cruscannot be sold in this way. Both Beaujolais and Beaujolais Nouveau are light in body

Gamayvinesengobeletearly intheseason.

BEAUJOLAIS

MACONNAIS

lOmllH

• Beaujola is crus

FRANCE

46 N

46 °N

BEAUJOLAIS

KEY

lO00m+

500 - l000m

200 - S00m

BEAUJOLAIS

and tannin, with red berry fruit and often notes of kirsch, banana and cinnamon-like spice from carbonic maceration. Beaujolais Villages and the Beaujolais Crus To the north and west of the region, the vineyards are planted on a series of rolling hills, where the granite soils are found. Thirty-nine villages here have the right to call their wine Beaujolais Villages. Individual village names rarely appear on wine labels. Beaujolais Villages tend to be made from blending wines from different villages. Ten villages are entitled to their own appellation ; these are the Beaujolais crus.The four with the greatest

production are Brouilly, Morgon, Fleurie and Moulina-Vent. Moulin-a-Vent and Morgon often produce the most structured wines. The fruit concentration and level of tannins mean that these wines can improve with bottle-ageing. Brouilly and Fleurie tend to produce lighter, more perfumed styles. A range of techniques may be used in the production of these wines . Many of these wines undergo a crushed-fruit fermentation and some will receive oak ageing, often in large vats rather than casks;the wines rarely display pronounced aromas or flavours of new oak. Other producers use semicarbonic maceration or a small proportion of whole bunches to give brighter fruit aromas.

91

92

17

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

AlsaceLocated on the border between Germany and France, Alsace is unusual for a French wine region in that most of its wines are varietally labelled. Still wine production is focused on aromatic white grape varieties made in dry, off-dry and sweet styles. Some red wine is also made.

CLIMATE AND GRAPE GROWING

Alsace has a cool to moderate continental climate. The Vosges Mountains shelter the vineyards from the prevailing westerly, rain-bearing winds and the lack of clouds results in sunny summers and dry autumns. These conditions ensure that the grapes can achieve high levels of sugar ripeness, although in the driest years drought can be an issue. The best vineyards are located on the steepest slopes with east and south-east aspects.The more northerly part of the vineyard area has the coolest climate and the least protection from the Vosges.The lesservineyards lie on the plain between the Vosgesfoothills and the Rhine. Here the grapes are often used for the production of Cremant d'Alsace,the local AC sparkling wine. (Cremant is covered in more detail in Chapter 42 Sparkling Wines of the World.) Alsace has had a dramatic geological history and as a

consequence there is a great variety of soils in the vineyards that lie on the foothills of the Vosges.This geological complexity is a key factor that contributes to the variety of styles of wines produced, and the influence of geology on wine production is more clear here than in many other regions. Grape growing practices vary depending on whether the vineyards are on slopes or on the plain. On the slopes vines are trained low to benefit from radiated heat and the rows are oriented to maximise the vine's exposure to the sun. Harvesting is done by hand. On the plain the vines are trained high to minimise the risk of spring frosts. Organic and biodynamic viticulture is widely practised in Alsace in part due to the low disease pressure in the sunny, dry conditions. Many growers face a key logistical challenge at harvest time because they have a number of small plots of vines,

ALSATIAN APPELLATIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS

The appellation system in Alsace is very simple. There are only two principal appellations for still wines: Alsace and Alsace Grand Cru. There are two other classifications for Alsace wines: VendangesTardivesand Selectionde grains nobles.These depend upon the sugar ripeness of the grapes. Both Alsace and Alsace Grand Cru wines can apply to use these terms. However, this simplicity can cause problems as producers seek to distinguish between the different qualities of wine that they produce. Becauseof this, it is common to find on labels statements such as Reservepersonnel/e and Cuveespecia/e.These, however, have no legal status.

Alsace Alsace accounts forthevastmajorityoftheregion's production . Most winesaremadefromasinglegrapevarietyandthesewinesare varietally labelled. If agrapevarietyfeatures onthelabel,100percent ofthegrapes usedmustbefromthenamed variety. Asmallnumber of blends arealsomade; thesewinesarenotvarietally labelled. Some villages havetherightto addtheirnameto thisappellation forcertain stylesofwine,although suchwinesarerare. Alsace Grand Cru There areover50vineyards thateachhavetheirowngrandcru appellation. Thewinesmustbeproduced fromasinglenoblegrape variety(Riesling, Muscat, Gewurztraminer orPinotGris);however, a few exceptions tothisruledoexist.Thelabelmuststatethenameofthe vineyard, thevintageand,whereappropriate, thegrapevariety . Controversy hasdogged theAlsace Grand Cruappellation fromthe start.Themajorissuecontinues to bethatofvineyard boundaries.

Manygrands crusareconsidered bysometopproducers and commentators to befartoolargeandencompass landnotworthyofthe appellation. Forthisreason someproducers withgrandcruvineyards choose notto labeltheirwinesasgrandcru.

Vendanges Tardives (VT) Thismeans 'LateHarvest'. These winescanonlybemadefromoneofthe fournoblevarieties andmusthavea specific minimum sugarripeness depending ongrapevariety. Inthebestwinesthegrapes will have undergone passeril/age, andtheremaybesomeinfluence of noblerot. Selection deGrains Nobles (SGN) These winescanonlybemadefromoneofthefournoblevarieties and musthavea certainminimum sugarripeness depending ongrape variety . Minimum sugarripeness levelsaresethigherthanthoseforVT, andareusually achieved withnoblerot.These winesarenotproduced everyyearandonlyeverin smallquantities.

ALSACE

93

planted with different varieties. Because the varieties ripen at different times, the vintage may be spread over quite a long period. This normally starts towards the middle of September and may last until the end of November or even the beginning of December for VT and SGN wines (see section Alsatian Appellations and Classifications).

WINEMAKING AND WINESTYLES A range of grape varieties is grown in Alsace. The most important are Riesling, Gewurztraminer, Pinot Gris and Muscat, often termed the 'noble' varieties. They are the only grapes that can be used for VT, SGN and grand cru wines. The vast majority of Alsatian wines are made from a single grape variety. Blended wines tend to be inexpensive and made from juice that was not selected for varietal wines. They are either labelled Edelzwicker or Gentil, or otherwise they carry a producer's brand name. Some very high-quality blends are made, including some from grand cru vineyards, but these are very rare indeed . Most of Alsace's grape varieties are aromatic and therefore winemaking is focused on retaining the aromas and flavours of the grapes. Traditional producers ferment their wines in large old oak barrels, often more than 100 years old. On the inside of these there is a thick tartrate deposit, which prevents the wood from having any influence on the wine . In modern cellars, stainless steel vats are now more commonly used, facilitating the control of temperatures at the time of fermentation. MLF is normally not encouraged for aromatic varieties since this would mask the pure fruit flavours, although some producers allow it to occur. Bottling usually takes place in the spring following the vintage, while the wine is young and fresh. Most wines are then ready to drink, but many are capable of further evolution in the bottle . With the exception of VT and SGN styles, the best wines have traditionally been dry but in recent years more and more wines, particularly at grand cru level, have been made with noticeable sweetness. This has presented producers with a problem as there is no official labelling scheme to indicate the level of sweetness in a wine and consumers often have no indication on the bottle to tell them whether they are buying a dry or sweet wine. VT wines can vary in style even more, ranging from dry to medium sweet; again, there is no official requirement to indicate the level of sweetness in the wine. SGNwines are always sweet although the extent of the influence of noble rot will vary from wine to wine. Knowing the house style of the producer can therefore be very important.

not typically show as much floral character as those from Germany.

steepnessof slopearevital

Gewurztraminer

ingredients to qualityin

Gewurztraminer is renowned for its pungent aromatic spicy nose, reminiscent of lychees, roses and sweet baking spices. The skin of the grape has a light pink tinge, giving a golden colour to some of the wines.

Alsace.

48 ·3o·N

.,..., ..., ,."'

GERMANY 4s•oo·N

48' 00' N

)

Mulhouse o

Riesling Riesling is the most widely planted of the noble varieties . The best are medium- to full -bodied, dry with medium alcohol, high acidity and display citrus and stone fruit aromas often with a pronounced stony/steely character. However, many wines are now being made with some residual sugar. As a point of comparison these wines do

Aviewacrossto grandcru vineyards. Aspectand

\

ALSACE

•t !' / (

'

"

10

"

" "

KEY

50km

30mlle5

·-... )

:> .

'... ,,.

l000m+

r

(__,,..--

47"30°N

500-l000m 200-S00m 100- 200m

SWI •ZERLAND 0- l00m

94

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

Large oakvatsare traditionaltotheregion,but nowmanywinemakers are usingstainlesssteelor, increasingly forreds,small

textured and have a pronounced flavour intensity with fresh and dried fruits and a honeyed character.

Muscat There are a number of grape varieties called Muscat, two of which are grown in Alsace. The best wines come from Muscat Blanc Petits Grains, and are intensely aromatic with flavours of orange blossom, rose and grape. They tend to have a light to medium body and low to medium acidity. Unfortunately, Muscat Blanc Petits Grains is prone to poor fruit set and rot, and so the less aromatic Muscat Ottonel is more widely planted because it can be relied on to crop more regularly.

oakbarrels.

a

a

Gewurztraminers tend to be full-bodied with a rich oily texture, low to medium acidity and high alcohol: wines of 14% abv are not uncommon.

PinotGris The best Pinet Gris are rich, full-bodied and high in alcohol, but often with more acidity than Gewurztraminer. They can have a similar colour to Gewurztraminer, but are less aromatic. On the palate they can be richly

Other Grape Varieties Pinot Blanc is widely planted. It tends to be grown in the more fertile soils of the plain rather than on the better sloped sites. It is widely used for the production of sparkling wines, but as a still wine, it is generally light, simple and refreshing, and non-aromatic in style. Auxerrois has similar characteristics to Pinet Blanc, but is slightly spicier and more full-bodied. It is sometimes blended with Pinet Blanc. Sylvaner used to be widely planted but has now made way for noble varieties. It can give wines that are delicately perfumed with some richness but far less than Gewurztraminer. It is best drunk young. Pinot Noir is the only black grape permitted in Alsace. Typically these wines lack the weight and concentration of Burgundian Pinet Noir and are often at their best as a light fruity red or rose. Some winemakers make more concentrated wines with new oak flavours.

THE LOIREVALLEY

TheLoireValleyThe Loire is France's longest river. However, the most important

95

vineyards

18

of the Loire Valley only lie along the last few hundred kilometres of the river as it flows west towards the Atlantic. This is a very varied wine region that is made up of a large number of appellations. No one signature style is produced here; instead, there is an incredibly diverse range of white, red and rose still wines.

The Loire Valley can be loosely grouped into four subregions. From east to west they are the Central Vineyards, Touraine, Anjou-Saumur and Nantais . These are not appellat ions themselves and, furthermore, unlike most other French regions there is no regional generic appellation for the whole of the Loire. (Production of Rose de Loire and Cremant de Loire is focused in Anjou and Saumur respectively.) There is, however, an IGP Val de Loire - that covers the whole region. These wines are typically straightforward wines displaying freshness, a light body and simple fruit flavours.

CLIMATE AND GRAPE GROWING The different sub-regions of the Loire Valley are subject to different climatic influences . Overall the climate is cool, but the Central Vineyards, which are well inland, have a continental climate whereas the Nantais region, with its coastal location, experiences a maritime climate. The vineyards of Anjou are slightly warmer and drier than might be expected given their proximity to the ocean. They are protected by the Mauges hills and certain vineyards there benefit from warm stony soils. By comparison Touraine , which is further inland, has a cooler, wetter climate and clay soils. The vineyards lie at the northern limit for the production of the grape varieties grown, and variations in the weather patterns from year to year can mean that vintages differ widely . Fungal disease linked to high levels of rainfall can be a part icular issue. As with many other cool climates the best vineyards tend to be those that experience the most sunshine and warmth. The most desirable locations are therefore those with a southerly aspect, generally on the mid-slope, and facing the river for extra heat and reflected light. WHITE GRAPE VARIETIES AND WINE STYLES Many grape varieties are permitted in the Loire. Only the most important local varieties are discussed here. Sauvignon Blanc Sauvignon Blanc is mainly grown in the Central Vineyards and Touraine . The Central Vineyards area has by far the smallest production of the four sub-regions, but it contains two of the most prestigious appellations for Sauvignon Blanc wines: Sancerre and Pouilly-Fume. These vineyards are located on very chalky, well-drained stony soil. The wines from these regions tend to be dry

and high in acidity, w ith hints of green apple and wet stones. It is often said that those from Pouilly-Fume have subtle smoky notes. Certain individual villages such as Chavignol , and vineyards such as Les Monts Damnes (both in Sancerre), have created high reputations for particularly expressive wines. Some of these wines are able to evolve in the bottle, although in most cases Sancerre and Pou illy-Fume are not wines for ageing. Winemaking techniques vary from producer to producer . Gentle pneumatic pressing and temperature controlled stainless steel vats are used to create fresh, fruity wines. Certain producers ferment and mature their wines in old oak vessels and keep the wines on the lees to give them a broader texture. A few use new oak. Whether or not MLF takes place depends on the style of wine the producer wants to create, and is most likely to be encouraged in cooler vintages in order to lower the acidity of the wines. To the west and south of Sancerre, Sauvignon Blanc is also produced from vineyards lying on the tributaries of the Loire. Here the most important appellation is Menetou-Salon, which provides a source of more moderately priced wines made in the same style as Sancerre and Pouilly-Fume. The majority of Sauvignon Blanc, however, comes from the Touraine region. Here, this grape is used to

Oneofthetopvineyards in Sancerre . Notethewell· drained chalkysoilinthe foreground andthesection of vineyard inthe background thathasbeen clearedforreplanting.

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

96

make white Touraine, a generic appellation that covers the whole of the Touraine region. The wines often appear under a varietal label such as Sauvignon de Touraine. They often have less concentration than those from the more prestigious appellations, and are usually made in a simple fruity style. Chenin Blanc Chenin Blanc is a high acid non-aromatic grape variety that is responsible for the greatest white wines of both Touraine and Anjou-Saumur. One peculiarity with this variety is that even within one bunch it is common for grapes to reach different levels of ripeness. This can result in green, herbaceous aromas if care is not taken during the harvest to exclude unripe grapes. For this reason, several passes through the vineyard may be necessary at harvest time to ensure grapes are picked at the desired level of ripeness. The wines made from Chen in Blanc can be dry or sweet, still or sparkling . The variety of styles that this grape produces is directly related to the degree of ripeness that it has achieved at the time of picking. Barely ripe fruit (with only enough sugar to produce a wine with 10-11 % abv) is used for sparkling wines, while the dry, medium and sweet styles of still wine reflect the use of increasingly ripe berries, including

KEY 1000m+ 500 - 1000 m 200 - 500 m 100- 200 m 0- 100m

those shrivelled in the sun or affected by noble rot . Recent years have seen a move to seek greater ripeness even for dry wines, giving wines with higher alcohol levels that often have a few grams of residual sugar. Young wines can have flavours that vary from fresh apple through to tropical fruit, depending on the ripeness of the grapes. The dry wines can also have a steely, smoky character and the sweet wines often have the apricot and citrus peel flavours of noble rot . Dry and sweet Chen ins can age for decades. With age, they become richer and rounder and develop aromas of honey , toast and hay, which balance well with the high acidity common to all of these wines. Climate and soil can both have an important influence on the style of Chen in Blanc wines, and as a result there are clear differences between wines made in different regions . Vouvray, located to the east of the city ofTours, makes both still and sparkling Chenin Blanc wines . The still wines range in style from dry to lusciously sweet depending on the vintage. The cool climate and clay soils here mean that Vouvray tends to be light to medium in body, with fresh fruity and floral notes . It is rarely fermented or matured in new oak. To the west, Saumur and Anjou have similar climates and soils. Saumur is renowned as a source of sparkling Chenin Blanc made by the traditional method, whereas Anjou is

48.N

48 N

MENETOUSALON"--...,a ..f.ql!'r

.-

SANCERRE

47°N SAUMURCHAMPIGNY

ATLANTIC OCEAN

FRANCE

46.N

THE LOIREVALLEY

•

Nantais Anjou-Saumur

LJ o

TO

20

30

40

50mlles

Touraine CentralVineyards

,,

THE LOIREVALLEY

97 Chenin Blanc bushvinesin Savennieres.

better known for dry wines, that are often (but not always) matured in new oak. Savennieres and Coteaux du Layon are located towards the west of Anjou-Saumur. The relatively warm, dry climate here compared with that ofTouraine leads to wines that are medium- to full-bodied, and less floral in style . Savennieres produces full-bodied Chenin Blanc in a dry style. Air circulation around these well-exposed vineyards impedes the development of noble rot, but enables late-harvested Chenin Blanc grapes to be used for full-bodied, complex dry wines. The best wines are noted for their ability to evolve for decades in the bottle. Coteaux du Layon makes some of the most renowned sweet wines in the region. The appellation is located in the sheltered valley of the River Layon to the south of the Loire, where noble rot develops well. The two most favoured sites, Quarts de Chaume and Bonnezeaux, have their own appellations and rank among the world's greatest sweet wines. Melon Blanc This variety is sometimes referred to as Muscadet or Melon de Bourgogne . It ripens early and is frost-resistant, making it well suited to the cool climate. The vast majority of Melon Blanc is grown in the Nantais region, which lies mainly to the south of the Loire as it reaches the Atlantic. The wines are generally known as Muscadet and are made in a number of different appellations, usually with Muscadet in their title. The appellation of Muscadet covers the widest area but the greatest production comes from the more highly regarded appellation of Muscadet Sevre et

Maine. All wines from the Muscadet appellations are dry with medium alcohol (the maximum permitted alcoholic strength for the wines is 12% abv). Traditionally, the wines were fermented in large old oak vessels but now concrete or stainless steel vats are more common. The wines display high acidity, a light body and subtle green fruit flavours. They should be drunk young. Muscadet (Sevre et Maine) Sur Lie is a speciality from the area. The wine is bottled in the spring following the vintage, having spent the winter on its lees (lie is the French for lees). This lees contact gives the wines a richer texture. The wine is handled very little, to retain delicacy and freshness.

RED GRAPEVARIETIESAND WINE STYLES Cabernet Franc Cabernet Franc is well suited to the Loire as it flowers and ripens early. It is made in a range of styles, dependent on site climate and soil, as well as winemaking techniques. In Touraine, Cabernet Franc is grown in Chinon to the south of the Loire and Bourgueil and Saint-Nicolas-deBourgueil to the north. In all of these appellations light, fruity wines for early drinking tend to come from sandy soils, whereas fuller-bodied, more tannic versions come from south-facing slopes with limestone and clay soils. Some producers choose to mature their wines in oak, and the best wines have the capacity to evolve in bottle over many years. To the west, Saumur and Saumur-Champigny also produce red wines from Cabernet Franc. Overall the wines here tend to be lighter in body and tannin than those from the Touraine appellations, but display juicy berry fruit and

98

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

sometimes floral notes. They tend to be best drunk young, particularly Saumur, and can often be served chilled. There are, however, a few producers making fuller-bodied styles that are capable of further ageing. Other Black Varieties Gamay is the second most planted black grape variety in the Loire and is mainly planted in Touraine and Anjou where it makes fruity, usually early drinking wines . A small amount of Pinot Noir is grown in the Central Vineyards. The best sites are usually reserved for Sauvignon Blanc, and so these red wines tend to be quite rare and generally light in style. ROS~ WINE STYLES Rose wines are mainly produced in Anjou-Saumur with significant amounts also made in Touraine and Sancerre. Rose de Loire can be produced in both Anjou-Saumur and Touraine, but in practice it is mainly made in Anjou-

Saumur. It is always dry and must have a minimum of 30 per cent Cabernet Franc and/or Cabernet Sauvignon grapes in the blend. Anjou-Saumur has another two appellations for different styles of Rose, of which the highest quality is Cabernet d'Anjou . This is always medium-sweet in style and is made from a blend of Cabernet Franc and Cabernet Sauvignon. Rose d'Anjou is less sweet and is made predominantly of Grolleau (a local high yielding black grape) blended with Cabernet Franc and other local varieties . The rose wines ofTouraine can be made from a wide array of black grape varieties and are generally dry, fresh and fruity in style . Sancerre rose must be made from Pinot Noir and is usually pale in colour, light in body and dry with delicate fruit flavours. Rose wines may be made either by direct pressing or a short maceration on the skins. They are usually fermented in inert, temperature-controlled vessels to retain fruit flavours.

THE NORTHERN RHONE

99

TheNorthern RhOne Many of the vineyar_dsof th.e Northern

19

Rh~ne ar_esituated on steep slopes next to the River Rhone between V1enne m the north and

Valence in the south. Although they are responsible for only a small percentage of the total production of Rhone wines, these northern vineyards are home to many of the premium wines.

CLIMATE AND GRAPE GROWING At this point along its course the Rhone Valley is quite narrow and steep. The vineyards are mainly planted close to the river where the best sites occupy steep slopes with a south-facing aspect. These sites often lie in lateral valleys that feed into the Rhone, valleys that also serve to protect the vines from the cold north winds known as the mistral, which can easily damage them . Vines are supported either by an individual stake or by a tepee-like arrangement of stakes. The climate is similar to that of Beaujolais: moderate and continental. Temperatures are noticeably cooler than in the Southern Rhone. GRAPEVARIETIES AND WINEMAKING The Northern Rhone is most closely associated with powerful red wines made from Syrah. However, although only a small amount of white wine is made it has a significant reputation thanks in large part to the popularity ofViognier among drinkers of premium wines. Black Varieties Syrah is the only black variety permitted in the Northern Rhone. At this latitude and with the cooling effect of the mistral, Syrah is at the very northern limit of where it can ripen successfully. Consequently the most prized sites for Syrah have southerly exposures and are on very steep slopes. This is particularly important in the cooler northern reaches of the region.

The wines tend to be deeply coloured and have medium to high levels of tannin with black fruit , and sometimes black pepper or floral aromas. The use of oak is dependent on the winemaker; some use a high proportion of new oak for their best wines whereas others prefer to use older oak or larger barrels. Fermenting Syrah with white varieties has traditionally been practised in a number of the crus, but this technique is now rarely seen. The addition of the white grapes can help to stabilise the colour extraction from the red grapes; Viognier in particular can also add an extra aromatic intensity to the wine.

Tyingvinesontostakeswith raffiainthesteepvineyards of CoteRotie.Each vineis individually staked.

Thevineyards of Hermitage riseuponwell-exposed steepslopesbehindthe townofTain.

100

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

KEY 1500m+ 1000-1500 m 45 •3o''N

45 "3D"N

Cotes du Rhone can be made here too. Most of these crusof the Northern Rhone are tiny, with only SaintJoseph and Crazes-Hermitage covering a significant area.

500- 1000 m 200- 500 m 100- 200 m

--

0- 100 m

,.

:.

FRANCE

:

SAINTJOSEPH

I' /

CoteRotie These vineyards around the town of Ampuis are the most northerly appellation of the Rhone valley. Cote Rotie, which translates as 'roasted slope; gives some idea of their exposure to the sun. Only red wines are produced, although up to 20 per cent Viognier can be added . Its use is limited and, when it is used, it is unusual to include more than a small percentage. These wines are deeply coloured, full-bodied, spicy and the best have an aromatic, floral freshness and textural elegance that distinguishes them from Hermitage. Condrieu This is a white wine made solely from the Viognier grape. The area under vine has grown significantly in recent years and the best wines come from low-yielding old vines, grown on steep, well-exposed, terraced vineyards . Chateau-Grillet is a single property appellation within Condrieu that produces wines in a similar style.

CROZESHERMITAGE

1J~ l:::::~:g:E

Tournon- ) ur-Rh6ne CROZES HERMITAGE

7

NORTHERN RHONE

t•..,cf\

20

R./sere 45 ·oo ·N

o Valence

aokm t \Smiles

N

White Varieties Viognier makes full-bodied white wines with perfumed aromas of blossom and apricots, and flavours of stone fruits. The wines tend to have low acidity and high alcohol as the grapes do not develop their signature aromas until very late in the season when they have reached a very high level of sugar ripeness. The grapes need careful handling in the winery so that the wines do not develop an overtly oily character that can overwhelm the varietal aromas. New oak is increasingly being used but it too has to be handled carefully as oak flavours can easily overwhelm primary aromas. A small number of wines are made in an off-dry style from late-harvested grapes. Marsanne and Roussanne are also grown in the Northern Rhone and are usually blended together. Marsanne has richness and weight whereas Roussanne offers acidity and a perfumed fruit characteristic. These wines do not have the aromatic intensity ofViognier but they can age well and develop complex hazelnut aromas. REGIONS AND WINES Most of the wines in the Northern Rhone come from one of the cru appellations, although theoretically generic

Saint-Joseph Saint-Joseph runs along the western bank of the Rhone from Condrieu in the north to Tournon in the south. The vast majority of the wines here are reds made from Syrah. Some white wines are made from Marsanne and Roussanne.The best wines generally come from the terraced vineyards nearTournon, which can have a flavour intensity and structure similar to Hermitage. Excellent wines are also produced just south of Condrieu. Large volumes of relatively light-bodied wines, often incorporating elements made using carbonic maceration, come from the more fertile, flatter sites on the valley floor and the plateau above the slopes. These wines can be among the lightest-bodied of the Northern Rhone, expressing the pepper-perfumed aspects of the Syrah grape. Hermitage Hermitage is located on a steep south-facing slope, behind the town ofTain-l'Hermitage. It is divided into a number of /ieux-dits,named sites, which are not part of the appellation system. They vary in steepness and aspect, which gives wines of subtly different style and body. The best Hermitage has traditionally been a blend of wines from these different sites, but some producers have started to release wines made from specific lieux-dits.Red Hermitage is generally the fullestbodied of the Northern Rhone red wines and ages well. Although up to 15 per cent of Roussanne and Marsanne may be fermented with Syrah, this is now rarely done and instead they are made into white wines that account for approximately a fifth of Hermitage's production.

THE NORTHERN RHONE

Crozes-Hermitage The most important appellation in terms of volume is Crazes-Hermitage, whose vineyards lie on mixed terrain around the hill of Hermitage. North of Hermitage the vineyards are on slopes whereas most of the vineyards to the south of Hermitage are on a flat plain. The red wines are made from Syrah (with the option of adding up to 15 per cent Marsanne or Roussanne).Their quality, style and price varies significantly depending on the location of the vineyards. Lighter wines are from the higher yielding flatter sites in the south. More concentrated, complex and tannic wines come from vines growing on the steeper slopes to the north. Some of the more

expensive wines may be aged in oak. However, overall the red wines of Crazes-Hermitage do not enjoy the same reputation as those from Hermitage and Cote R6tie. Some white wines are also produced.

Cornas This is the most southerly of the red wine crusand is by far the warmest. The vineyards lie on the sheltered, well-exposed sun-baked south-facing slopes of the many lateral valleys that exist here. Unlike the other appellations, Comas must be made from 100 per cent Syrah. The wines are deeply coloured, full-bodied, and in a style and quality similar to Hermitage.

101

102

20

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

TheSouthern RhoneThe vineyard area ~f the So~thern Rhone i~ much ~reater than that of the Northern Rhone and 1t produces an 1mpress1verange of wines, from high-volume and inexpensive to premium. Production is dominated by red wine, although there are some high-quality white and rose wines too.

CLIMATE AND GRAPEGROWING The Rhone valley opens out south of Valence and the vineyards are planted on much flatter terrain than those of the Northern Rhone. Many, but by no means all, of the best sites have very stony soils that absorb the sun's heat and warm the vineyard, aiding ripening. In some sites, particularly in areas of Chateauneuf -du-Pape, these stones or ga/ets completely cover the soil surface. The climate in the south is different too. It is Mediterranean, with mild winters and warm dry summers when drought can be a problem. In this part of the Rhone the north winds known as the mistralgain speed and can cause extensive damage to vineyards. There are fewer slopes to protect the vines from the wind, meaning windbreaks have to be planted. For the most part, Grenache is bushtrained low to the ground to offer protection from the wind and to benefit from the warmth of the soil. Syrah is more easily damaged in the wind and it benefits from the support offered by trellising systems.

GRAPEVARIETIES AND WINEMAKING Instead of the wines being made from just one ortwo different varieties, as is the case in the north, Southern Thevineyards ofthe Southern Rhonearenot restricted to a narrow valley astheyareinthenorthand manyareplantedonflat openterrain.

Rhone wines are often complex blends. In certain circumstances wines are made from a dozen or more grape varieties.

Black Varieties Grenache dominates most of the red wines of the Southern Rhone and is by far the most widely planted variety. The warm summers mean that Grenache can ripen fully here, producing wines with concentrated spiced red fruit flavours . However, in hot years the fruit flavours can become baked and jam my. Syrah and Mourvedre play a supporting role to Grenache. Syrah provides blends with extra colour and tannin but it can struggle in the hottest sites. Mourvedre, on the other hand, is at the northern limit of where it can ripen successfully and thrives in these locations. It is deeply coloured and very high in tannins. When it is fully ripe it can develop dense black fruit flavours as well as gamey and meaty aromas that are highly prized by many top producers, especially in Chateauneuf-du-Pape. Cinsault can also perform a supporting role in red wine blends providing red fruit flavours rather than tannin or colour, but it is best known as a blending partner to Grenache in the production of fresh, fruity roses. It is not only the range of grape varieties used that varies, but also the winemaking methods. Consequently, it is almost impossible to describe a typical Southern Rhone red, although all winemakers must find a way of managing potentially high tannins and high alcohol levels in order to produce a balanced wine. Techniques vary from cold pre-fermentation maceration and storage in stainless steel to warm extractive fermentations in traditional open fermenters and maturation in large old oak vessels. Usually winemakers will make up their blends from wines that have been fermented using different techniques. New oak is used by some, although a number of traditional producers believe it overwhelms the flavours of Grenache. The styles of the wines vary from light- to medium-bodied fresh, fruity wines with low tannins to highly tannic full-bodied reds with flavours of spice, meat and/or earth . White Varieties The cultivation of white grapes remains a minority concern in the Southern Rhone. There is no Southern Rhone equivalent to Condrieu or Viognier. Clairette, Grenache Blanc and Bourboulenc are the notable additions to the Northern Rhone trio ofViognier,

103

THE SOUTHERN RHONE

Anoldbushvinein Chateauneuf-du-Pape. The

Marsanne and Roussanne, which are also grown here. The best whites are usually richly textu red and fullbodied, high in alcohol, with low to medium acidity and subtle fruity aromas. New oak is rarely used.

largestones,orgalets,are clearlyvisiblecovering the soilsurface .

REGIONSAND WINES In the Southern Rhone, production is d ivided between the regional and village appellations and the crus. Generic Appellations Cotes du Rhone accounts for more than half of the entire production of appellation wines in the Southern Rhone, most of which is red wine . Most are mediumbodied, fruity but simple wines. Fruity roses and white wines are made under this appellation too. Within the Cotes du Rhone, a number of villages are entitled to call their red and, in some cases,white and rose wines Cotes du Rhone Villages. To qualify, more stringent minimum alcohol levels and maximum yields must be observed and a greater percentage of the blend must be made from Grenache, Syrah and Mourvedre . There are a number of individual villages that can add their name on the label if 100 per cent of the wine comes from the named village, for example, Cotes du Rhone Villages Cairanne. These are the best w ines outside of the crus,and have more body, structure and spiced red fruit flavours than generic Cotes du Rhone. All of these named villages have the option to apply for crustatus. Chateauneuf-du-Pape Situated on the east bank of the Rhone, Chateauneufdu -Pape is by far the largest of all the crusin the Rhone valley . It has a particular place in French wine history, because it was the first area to have Appellation contr6/ee status . The vineyard area is notably flat, although small variations in aspect can have a marked impact on how well Syrah and Mourvedre perform. The appellation 's size and the associated wide range of soil types, aspects and the large number of grape varieties winemakers can choose from (13 in total) means that there is a lot of diversity among the red wines for which the appellation is most famous. Grenache dominates as elsewhere in the Southern Rhone. Some very successful Chateauneufs are 100 per cent Grenache, while others make far greater use of the gamey, meaty quality of Mourvedre. The best wines are all full-bodied and richly textured with concentrated spiced red fruit flavours that balance the characteristic high alcohol. Unfortunately, the very factors that offer consumers such interest and variety also mean there is a lot of mediocre Chateauneuf that is rather dilute and unbalanced by the high alcohol. A small quantity of white Chateauneuf-du-Pape is made . Tavel and Lirac These are the only two Southern crusthat are on the west bank of the Rhone. They are most famous for the production of rose. The roses, made mainly from

44'00'N

0

44'00'N

Nimes

COTESDU RHONE

D

-!

COTESDU RHONEVILLAGES--

Goffe

KEY

du Lion

-

1----,-0--~

•~0 - ,~,. - ,,,~ , Mkm

1soom+

1000- 1500 m

500- l000m

200-S00m

100- 200 m

0- l00m

104

UNDERSTANDING WINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY

Avineyard in 6igondas. The redwinesfromthiscruare oftensimilar in styleto the morefamousChateauneuf· du-Pape.

Grenache and Cinsault, are full-bodied compared with Provence roses, intensely flavoured and capable of developing greater complexity when aged in bottle (for more information see section Provence in Chapter 21). Only roses can be made in Tavel. Lirac also produces top quality red and white wines in the style of Chateauneufdu-Pape.

Other Villages Promoted to Crus Other Southern Rhone villages that lie in and around the hills to the east of Chateauneuf have been promoted to cru status. Gigondas and Vacqueyras are the two most

long-standing crus.They make red wines, usually Grenache-led blends, in a similar full-bodied, spicy style to Chateauneuf-du-Pape and many of the wines are as good as those that come from the more famous appellation. However, given the global success of Chateauneuf-du -Pape these crusare likely to remain in the shadow of their more famous neighbour. Some crus also permit rose and white wine production . Beaumes de Venise has a separate AC for its fortified Muscats called Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise. See Chapter 45 Fortified Muscats for more details .

105

SOUTHERN FRANCE

Southern FranceThe vineyards of southern France lie along the Mediterranean

coast

from Italy in the east to the Spanish border in the west. They are split into

21

three broad areas: Languedoc and Roussillon to the west of the Rhone, and Provence to the east. The prevalence of the local IGP, Pays d'Oc, for the wines of Languedoc and Roussillon, alongside a number of more traditional appellations means that a great diversity of wine styles can be found in this part of France.

CLIMATE AND GRAPEGROWING

GRAPEVARIETIES AND WINEMAKING

This region has a warm Mediterranean climate with summer temperatures often in excess of 30°C, mild winters and low rainfall levels especially during the growing season. Consequently, in most years this area can offer ideal conditions for growing grapes. However, the region is by no means uniform. Vineyards planted inland in the foothills of the mountains that surround this region are noticeably cooler than those on the coastal plain and often have less fertile, well-drained soils that are better suited to quality viticulture. Strong winds can also have a significant impact on the climate. Cool dry winds blow from the north, cooling the eastern and western ends of the region. The mistralblows down the Rhone valley and the tramontane blows through the gap between the Massif Central and the Pyrenees. The warm dry climate means that the biggest grape growing challenge is drought, whereas fungal diseases are less of a problem here than anywhere else in France. However, the region can occasionally experience summer floods.

Black varieties account for the majority of the plantings in the region . The last 20 years has seen dramatic changes to the composition of the vineyards and today both black and white wines reflect a mix of local and international varieties.

Black Varieties The most important local varieties include Grenache and Syrah. Grenache is well suited to the warm, dry summer climate, whereas Syrah tends to perform better in the cooler sites. Carignan is also widely grown. This grape is naturally high in tannin, acidity and colour but can lack fruit or finesse, although old vine Carignan on poor soil can produce quality wines. Its popularity in the past was due to its ability to produce enormous yields; however, plantings have been reduced significantly, a trend that is likely to continue. Nevertheless, it is still so widely planted it is permitted by all AC regulations. There are smaller plantings of Cinsault, which is used in rose production or to add red fruit flavours to red blends. Mourvedre can ripen successfully only in the warmest Ploughing during the growing seasonto keep weedsundercontrol.

106

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

KEY -

2000m+

,

1500- 2000 m

Massif Central

1000- 1500 m

FRANCE

500- l000m 200- 500 m

,. 44 N

100- 200m 0- 100 m

\

,

G o ffe du Lio n

Pays d'OcIGP LanguedocAC

MEDITERRANEAN SEA 42'N

D ~

SOUTHERN FRANCE

SPAIN 40

sites and plays an important role in blends adding richness, colour and complexity . There are also significant plantings of international varieties, particularly Merlot, but also Cabernet Sauvignon, that are used in the production of IGPwines. Most wines of the South of France have benefited from investment in modern equipment, improved cellar hygiene, temperature control, oxygen management and the judicious use of new and old oak. Semi-carbonic maceration is practised by some producers as it can play an important role in softening the tannins in Carignan. White Varieties Grape varieties that were not traditionally grown in the region now dominate the plantings of white varieties. Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc are the two most widely planted varieties and are used in the production of IGPwines . There are smaller but still significant plantings of Viognier . The most widely planted local varieties are Muscat and Grenache Blanc. Muscat is used in the production of sweet fortified wines, but is also sometimes used to make dry wines with aromatic grapey aromas. Grenache Blanc makes dry wines that have a soft peachy fruitiness, full body and low acidity, but tend to oxidise easily. It is often blended with other local or Rhone varieties. There are a number of local varieties that are grown throughout the region such as Picpoul in Pinet, Mauzac in Limoux, Maccabeu in Roussillon, Rolle in Provence and Clairette in Languedoc and Provence that are prized in their specific locales. Of these, Picpoul is perhaps best known, producing wines with refreshing high acidity and green fruit and citrus flavours.

60 km

LANGUEDOCAND ROUSSILLON The majority of the wines from the south of France come from the vineyards of the departements of Aude, Herault and Gard traditionally known as Languedoc, whereas the vineyards of the departement Pyrenees-Orientales are known as Roussillon. There is a large coastal plain area between Beziers and Montpellier. Further inland and towards the Spanish border the vineyards become more hilly and rugged. Appellation Wines Languedoc is a generic appellation that covers all the appellation vineyards from the Spanish border to Nimes. The best sub-regions within Languedoc can add their names to the label alongside Languedoc AC, for example, Pie-St-Loup. Above this there are a number of more geographically specific appellations such as Cotes du Roussillon and Minervois, which have their own individual regulations. Certain areas within these appellations have been recognised for their quality and now have their own sub-appellations such as MinervoisLa Liviniere. The appellation system continues to evolve as the sub-regions of the Languedoc apply for full AC status. Most appellations permit the production of red, white and rose. The vast majority of these wines are red and based on the quartet of grapes: Carignan, Grenache, Syrah and to a lesser extent Mourvedre . It is very difficult to describe a typical wine from each of the appellations, not only because of the possible variations in the blends but also because many appellations cover significant geographical areas with different climatic and soil conditions dominating in different zones. The cooler

SOUTHERN FRANCE

areas produce wines with more finesse and lighter tannins and often produce the best Syrahs. In the warmer areas Mouvedre is at its best and wines have greater body and some meaty, gamey flavours. However, in the larger appellations, wines can often be blends of these different styles. The best wines are full-bodied and have concentrated spicy red fruit often with oak flavours. Rosestend to be soft and fruity wines . A few examples can show this diversity. Cotes du Roussillon is more consistently rugged and mountainous than the other areas of the Languedoc. Bright sunlight , low rainfall and particularly strong winds can produce concentrated wines . The best vineyards are in the north and qualify for Cotes du Roussillon Villages. Fitou, just to the north of Cotes du Roussillon Villages, is split into two separate areas: a warm coastal strip that produces fuller-bodied wines and another cooler area inland and at altitude, where lighter wines predominate. Corbieres covers warm sites near the coast and vineyards planted at altitude that are cooled by the tramontane.It has been subdivided into 11 subregions, the best of which, Boutenac, has its own AC. Minervois lies on the slopes of the Massif Central. The vineyards do not reach the coast but vary in their qualities due to altitude, the richness of the soil and the extent of their exposure to the cooling influences from the Atlantic. It too is subdivided and the best subregion, La Liviniere, has its own AC. Whites can vary as dramatically as the reds depending on the grape variety and location . Picpoul de Pinet is near the coast, the cooling sea breezes helping to retain the natural high acidity of the Picpoul grape . By contrast, Limoux benefits from the cooling effect of altitude and is a source of premium oaked Chardonnays.

IGPWines More IGP wines are made in this area than in any other region of France, and they are vital for the commercial survival of grape growing in the south of France. Most are sold under the regional name of Paysd'Oc, which covers all the departementsthat make up LanguedocRoussillon. The success of these wines is the result of a number of factors . The IGP regulations permit a wider range of grape varieties as well as varietal labelling, and the warm, sunny climate means that large volumes of ripe, fruity wines can be produced here relatively easily compared with other areas of France and therefore many of the wines are excellent value for money. PROVENCE The landscape is very varied and is broken up by many prominent ranges of hills . These offer protection from the mistral,and provide a great variety of different site climates and soils. Roses account for the vast majority of production. These wines tend to be very pale in colour, light-bodied and dry on the palate, and display delicate flavours of grapefruit and red fruits. Red wines range from fresh and fruity to more full-bodied, barrel-matured styles. The best white wines often make a feature of the aromatic qualities of Rolle or Clairette. Cotes de Provence is by far the largest appellation in Provence. Roses account for the vast majority of production. Along the coast there are three isolated pockets of vineyards, each with its individual Appellation contr6/ee.The most important of the three is Bandol, located to the east of Marseille. It produces premium reds based on the Mourvedre grape, which is able to ripen reliably on the region 's south-facing terraces slopes. These are dark, full-bodied wines with powerful tannins, and they require bottle age before they show their full spectrum of bramble, meat and liquorice-spice flavours .

107

108

22

UNDERSTANDING WINES:EXPLAINING STYLEAND QUALITY

GermanyGermany is the country producing the highest concentration of world-class Rieslings. Whether dry and steely, medium-sweet and floral, or lusciously sweet, German winemakers' mastery of this variety is unquestionable. However, there is more to German wines than one variety. In particular, the amount of red wines being made is increasing and Pinot Noir, here called Spatburgunder, has a growing reputation for premium quality.

CLIMATE AND GRAPEGROWING Most of the wine regions in Germany have a cool continental climate, with all the associated problems, although the vineyards in the far south in Baden are not iceably warmer. Summers can be wet; however, the rain generally declines in autumn during the final stage of ripening. The long, cool ripening period gives the grapes time to reach sugar ripeness while retaining their acidity. When the conditions are right, noble rot will develop and botrytised sweet wines can be made in every region in Germany. Annual weather conditions vary considerably, leading to significant variation in the quality, quantity and styles of wine made from year to year. In such marginal conditions, small differences in vineyard location can make significant differences in the quality of wine. In nearly all regions the best sites are found on steep and often stony slopes with a southerly aspect, which maxim ise the available heat and sunlight. Vineyards witha favourable These vineyards have to be worked by hand and on the aspectanda high most extreme slopes equipment has to be manoeuvred concentration ofslateonthe into place by winches. On these slopes, vines are headsurfacebenefitfromextra pruned, individually staked and the canes tied in at the warmth. top of the stake to maximise grape exposure to light and

circulation of air. Where vineyards are located near a river, reflected sunlight can also help the grapes to ripen, and the air movement created by flowing water can help protect against frosts. Because of the fact that wines are classified by must weight (the level of sugar in the grape juice), the harvest can be spread out over a number of weeks and months. It is possible to make a range of Qua/itcitsweineand Prcidikatsweineeach year from an individual vineyard. Pickers will pass through the vineyard several times in order to ensure that they get the ideal grapes for each category of wine. Grapes can also be sorted and categorised after each picking.

GRAPEVARIETIESAND WINESTYLES In order to satisfy the demands of the local market, the ongoing trend in German winemaking is for dry styles of wine. These wines, both red and white and at all quality levels, will quite often simply be sold as Qualitcitsweine. Prcidikatsweineare largely the preserve of white wines and in order to keep things simple these styles will only be discussed in the context of Riesling which, in terms of vineyard plantings and wine quality, is the most important grape variety in Germany. It is important to note that other grape varieties are also produced as Prcidikatsweine.

Riesling Riesling is the most widely planted grape variety in Germany. The variety expresses itself differently from region to region, and even from vineyard to vineyard, due to variations in the climate and soil. Flavours can range from delicate and floral to a richer peachy fruit character. Wines can range from bone dry to lusciously sweet. The dry styles are often labelled as Qualitcitsweine. They range from light and fruity to very concentrated and intense and many of the very best are labelled GrossesGewcichs(GG)- see section German Wine Laws and Labelsopposite. On the other hand, nearly all wines labelled as Prcidikatsweinewill have residual sugar, but up to the category Ausleseit is possible for these wines to be made in a dry style. The key to understanding Prcidikatsweineis to think of them as an indicator of style. Kabinett - These wines are the most delicate Prcidikatsweine.Rieslings made in this style will be light

GERMANY

in body, with high acidity and flavours of green apple or citrus fruit often balanced with residual sweetness . The sweet styles will have an alcohol level between 8-9% abv whereas drier styles can reach 12% abv. It is possible to sweeten these wines after fermentation by adding unfermented grape juice (Siissreserve) but this is not a technique that is used to make high-quality wines. The best sweet styles of Kabinett are made by stopping the fermentation early, before the yeast has converted all of the sugar in the juice to alcohol. This achieves a better sugar/acid balance. Spatlese - These wines are made in the same way as Kabinett but they are more concentrated, riper and

have a little more body, alcohol and, where relevant, sweetness, compared with a Kabinett wine from the same region. Citrus and stone fruit aromas (peach or

apricot) are common characteristics of Spiitlese wines made from Riesling. These wines are made from individually selected extra-ripe bunches of grapes. Whether dry or sweet, Auslese wines are richer and riper compared with Spiitlese wines from the same region and regardless of style noble rot can play an important part in the flavour profile of these wines. Auslese -

Beerenauslese (BA) and Trockenbeerenauslese (TBA) -

Noble rot is essential to achieve the must weights necessary for TBA. It is not essential for wine labelled BA(it is possible to reach the minimum must weight without noble rot); however, noble rot is typical for these wines. Some sites are well suited for these wines but BAand TBAare not necessarily made every year and

GERMAN WINE LAWS AND LABELS

The vast majority of wine produced in Germany is PDOand this will be the focus here. Some PGIwines are made and they are labelled Landwein. Wine without a GI is simply labelled Deutscher Wein. ForPD0winethereare13delimited regions, someofwhicharecovered inthischapter. However, theseregions arenotlinked to specific grape varieties asisthecaseinthewidely copiedFrench appellation system. Instead, winesaretypically varietally labelled andclassified by minimum mustweightat harvest. Therearetwofundamental levels inthesystem, Qualitatswein andPradikatswein, andthelatteris subdivided intosixPriidikat categories. EachPriidikat canbemadein a varietyofdifferent sweetness levels. Thekeyinformation isshown inthetable. WineLabels AllPD0winesmustcomefromonlyoneregionandthenameofthe regionwillappearonthelabel.ForPriidikatsweine thePriidikatlevel willalsoappearonthelabel.Varietal labelling iscommon andlabels mayalsoinclude information aboutthefollowing threeareas: Sweetness- Drywinescanbelabelled trocken andwinesthatareoffdryormedium canbelabelled halbtrocken. Someproducers feelthat halbtrocken hasa negative association withlowerquality winesanduse thetermfeinherb instead.Unlike theothertwoterms,feinherb isnot legally defined. Many winesdonothaveanyindication ofsweetness on thelabelbutthiscanoftenbededuced fromeitherthewinecategory orthealcohol level. Vineyard location- Thisiscommonly statedonGerman winelabels. Thenameofthevillage comesfirstandthisisfollowed bythenameof thevineyard. Forexample, a winelabelled Piesporter Goldtropfchen is fromthevineyard ofGoldtropfchen locatedinthevillage ofPiesport. Thevastmajority ofthewineslabelled thiswaywillbefromsmall singlevineyards. However, lowerqualitywinesthataremadefrom grapesthatcomefroma largenumber ofneighbouring vineyards can belabelled inthesameway(forexample, Piesporter Michelsberg).

Minimum must weightat harvest lowest

!

highest

Category of PDO wine

Winestyle

Qualitiitswein

dryto medium sweet

Priidikatswein

drytomedium sweet drytomedium sweet •Auslese drytosweet • Beerenauslese (BA) sweetonly •Eiswein sweetonly • Trockenbeerenauslese (TBA) sweetonly • Kabinett

•Spiitlese

Thereisnothing onthelabelto indicate whethera wineisfroma single vineyard ornotbuttheretailpriceisnormally a veryreliable indicator. Indications ofquality- ThePriidikatlevelsarea goodindicator of style,something discussed inthesectionRiesling. However, thereare nolegally defined labelling terms,suchasPremier CruandGrand Cru, thatcanbeusedto indicate thequalitylevelofa wine. Thishastosomeextentbeenaddressed byanindependent group ofGerman wineproducers calledtheVerband Deutscher Pradikatsweingiiter (VDP). Themembers haveclassified their vineyards which,byconsensus, include thevastmajority ofthebest sitesinGermany. Thisclassification istypically onlyseenonlabelswhenmembers makedryQua/itiitsweine fromthebestvineyard sites.Thesedrywines arecalledGrosses Gewachs andthisisindicated bythelettersGG anda bunchofgrapesthatareembossed ontheneckofthebottle. Thevarieties permitted bytheVDP varyfromregionto region.Itis important to notethatGrosses Gewiichs isa trademark oftheVDP and isnotpartoftheGerman winelaw.Nevertheless, theseareconsidered to betheverybestdrywinesmadeinGermany.

109

110

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

medium -sweet Qua/itiitsweine made from the variety has declined. Silvaner is the third most widely planted white grape variety and is mainly found in those regions where it has traditionally been strong, in particular Rheinhessen and Franken. Silvaner is made in both dry and sweet styles. It generally gives wines that are both less acidic and less overtly fruity than Riesling and can sometimes have an earthy quality . On the right site it is capable of producing high-quality wines. There are important and growing plantings of Grauburgunder/Rulande r (Pinot Gris) and Wei8burgunder (Pinot Blanc), which are often labelled using the French or Ital ian name and typically made in a dry style.

GERMANY 80

100 km

49

GERMANY

,/

/

\·,__,..

KEY 2000 - 4000 m 1000- 2000 m

volumes vary considerably when they are made. These wines are sweet and low in alcohol with flavours of honey, dried stone fruit, candied peel and flowers . They rank among the best sweet wines in the world .

500- 1000 m 200-500 m 0-200 m

Eiswein - These are genuine rarities and are made infrequently. Importantly, noble rot is not a key component of this style and the focus is rather on varietal purity . The best of these wines achieve a very fine balance between acidity and sweetness. Winemakers also seek to maintain varietal flavours, which can be accentuated by using carefully selected yeast, handling the juice with care and avoiding processes that could mask the flavours of the grape, such as MLF or new oak. Other White Grape Varieties Miiller-Thurgau (Rivaner) is a crossing made in the 1880s between Riesling and Madeleine Royale. It ripens earlier than Riesling but it does not have the same high level of acidity or flavour intensity. It can produce an attractive floral and fruity wine but in Germany it rarely produces wines of high quality . It remains the second most widely planted white variety but it is now in steady decline as the market for the inexpensive medium -dry/

Black Grape Varieties Spatburgunder (Pinot Noir) is the third most planted grape variety in Germany. It thrives in the warmer vineyard areas and is particularly important in Pfalz and Baden. Wines are dry and either relatively light and fruity or made in a more concentrated style that often includes oak aromas. Dornfelder is the other black variety that is widely planted. It produces particularly deeply coloured wines . Other varieties include Portugieser, Trollinger and Schwarzriesling (Meunier). These varieties typically produce light-bodied and fruity wines although intensely coloured and flavoured examples with some oak character exist. The vast majority of these wines are sold as Qualitiitsweine and consumed by the domestic market . WINE REGIONS Mosel This region includes the River Mose!, from where it joins the River Rhine (Rhein) to the German border and its two small tributaries, the Saar and the Ruwer. White grapes and Riesling in particular dominate production. Riesling is the only permitted variety for GG wines . Production is concentrated in the centre of the region in an area known as the Middle Mose! where there are a number of villages that have an established reputation for top -quality wine . The best known are Piesport, Bernkastel and Wehlen. The best vineyards are found on very steep slopes with slate soils right next to the river. The Rieslings here are typically lighter in body , lower in alcohol and higher in acidity compared with the wines of Rheingau, Rheinhessen and Pfalz. Floral and green fruit flavours predominate. The cooler Saar and Ruwer account for only a tiny percentage of the overall plantings in the Mosel. The best wines are similar in both style and quality to the Middle Mosel often showing an even higher level of acidity . In cooler vintages grapes from even the best sites do not ripen fully and are used in sparkling wine production.

GERMANY

111

Nahe The vineyards of the Nahe are spread over a wide area that lies in between the Mosel and Rheinhessen. The best vineyards are situated on the banks of the River Nahe itself in the short section between the villages of Schlossbockelheim and Bad Kreuznach. These vineyarl;ls are on steep south-facing slopes. The best wines are made from Riesling, which is the most widely planted variety here, and can be made in a style that lies in between that of the Mose I and the fuller bodied wines from Rheingau, Rheinhessen and Pfalz. This is the only permitted variety for GG wines. They have the pronounced acidity of the Mose I but they can have a slightly riper fruit character as the climate here is warmer. Rheingau The Rheingau is a small but prestigious region. Most vineyards are situated on the slopes of the north bank of the River Rhine (in the west of the region) and the River Main (in the east) and have a southerly aspect. This, combined with the protection offered by the Taunus hills to the north, provides optimal conditions for ripening grapes. The majority of the vineyards lie on the slopes to the west of the region and surround the villages of Johannisberg and Riidesheim. Riesling dominates plantings and the majority of the wines are made in a dry style. The Rieslings have a medium to full body and a distinct ripe peach character to their fruit flavours. The humid conditions generated by the Rhine mean that some of Germany's best BA and TBA wines are made here too. The vineyards to the east of the region on the Main are centred around the village of Hochheim. The Rieslings can be riper and fuller bodied due to a slightly warmer climate . Some excellent Spatburgunder is also made here to the west of Ri.idesheim in the village of Assmannshausen. GG wines can be made from Riesling or Spatburgunder. Rheinhessen This is the largest vine-growing region. A very broad range of black and white varieties are planted here. Mi.iller-Thurgau and Riesling are the two most planted varieties of either colour. Black varieties, mostly Dornfelder, Portugieser and Spatburgunder, make up approximately 30 per cent of the plantings. GG wines here can be made from Riesling or Spatburgunder . The reputation of Rheinhessen was based on the steeply sloping vineyards on the west bank of the Rhine centred around the village of Nierstein. This area, often referred to as the Rheinterrasse, produces some of the fullest-bodied Rieslings in Germany. In recent years a number of growers working in areas that do not have a long-standing reputation for wine production (for example the area in the south of the region near Worms) have started to produce top-quality wines. As a result, Rheinhessen has gained a reputation for innovation and excellence.

Pfalz Pfalz is the second largest wine-growing region in Germany . The majority of the vineyards can be seen as a continuation of the vineyards of Alsace. They run in a narrow 80 kilometre strip north from the French border and lie to the east of the Haardt Mountains, which are a continuation of the Vosges.This means that the Pfalz is the driest of the German regions and in very warm years the vines can suffer from water stress. Riesling is the most widely planted variety and has the longest reputation for high-quality winemaking. Mi.iller-Thurgau is also widely grown, while plantings of Grauburgunder and Wei8burgunder are gradually increasing. Black grapes account for just under 40 per cent of the vineyard area. Dornfelder is the second most widely planted variety of either colour and there are significant plantings of Portugieser (for the local market) and Spatburgunder (which is gaining an international reputation). GG wines can be made from Riesling, Wei8burgunder or Spatburgunder. The most established quality vineyards surround Forst and Deidesheim, an area often referred to as Mittelhaardt. Set on the steep slopes to the west of the villages, the vineyards here produce a ripe, fuller-bodied style of Riesling. As has happened in Rheinhessen, young and energetic growers are making top-quality wines outside of this core region. The majority of wines are now made in the drier styles. Baden Baden is the warmest and most southerly wine region and produces the fullest-bodied German wines with the highest alcohols. Baden's vineyards are spread over a large geographic area although in terms of vineyard area it is only the third largest vine-growing region in Germany. Most of the vineyards are spaced out over a narrow strip of land that follows the Rhine to the Swiss border . Nearly a third of the plantings are concentrated

KEY 500- 1000 m 200- S00m 100- 200 m 0- l00m

112

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

Aspectandslopearekey factorsthatdetermine fruit qualityinMosel,

in the areas of Kaiserstuhl and Tuniberg, which are situated opposite Colmar in Alsace. The best vineyards are on the south-facing slope of the Kaiserstuhl (an extinct volcano) and make the most of the available warmth. This area has developed a reputation for top-quality Spatburgunder, the most widely planted variety in Baden. There are also substantial plantings of Mi.iller-Thurgau, followed by Grauburgunder, Wei8burgunder and then Riesling. GG wines can be made from a range of white and black varieties.

Franken White winemaking dominates in Franken but, unusually for Germany, Riesling is neither the most widely planted nor is it considered to be the most prestigious grape variety. Here Silvaner comes into its own. The early flowering and ripening Silvaner is susceptible to frost damage, and is planted in the warmest sites. Consequently, Silvaner is able to achieve a concentration that is rarely achieved elsewhere in Germany. The best wines from the south-facing slopes around Wi.irzburg are dry with a richness on the palate and often an earthy quality. They are bottled in distinctive flask-shaped bottles. GG wines can be made from Silvaner, Riesling, Wei8burgunder, Grauburgunder or Spatburgunder.

AUSTRIA

AustriaAustria is best known for the quality of its dry white wines, both from its own grape variety Gruner Veltliner, and from Riesling. However, Austria is also home to many fine red wines made from the local varieties such as Zweigelt and Blaufrankisch and sweet botrytised dessert wines made from Welschriesling.

CLIMATE AND GRAPE GROWING The Alps cover the western parts of Austria and consequently the wine producing areas are found at the eastern end of the country. These vineyard areas have a cool continental climate, with short summers and very harsh winters. The more northerly regions can experience cooling northerly winds, whereas those closest to the Hungarian border are warmed by easterly winds. There is much less variation in annual weather patterns than in northern Europe. GRAPE VARIETIES AND WINEMAKING White Grape Varieties The most widely planted variety is Gruner Veltliner, a high-quality grape that has given Austria a point of difference in export markets. It tends to produce fresh but unexciting wines if yields become too high, but when grown with care it is capable of producing full bodied, concentrated wines with naturally high acidity. In youth it often gives flavours of citrus or stone fruit, sometimes with hints of white pepper, and develops layers of honey and toast as the wine ages.The majority of producers ferment and store their wines in stainless steel, however, old oak casksare also commonly used, and some producers may mature a proportion of their best wines in new oak barriques.

The second most planted white variety is Welschriesling (note this is not the same grape variety as Riesling).When produced in a dry style its wines are usually fresh but simple, displaying citrus and green apple flavours and high acidity. However, due to its susceptibility to botrytis it is also capable of producing high-quality dessert wines. Riesling is less widely planted and the best examples tend to come from Wachau, Kamptal and Kremstal. These are usually dry and medium- to full-bodied, with ripe, peachy primary fruit. The best examples are capable of maturing in bottle. Other widely planted varieties are Chardonnay, MullerThurgau and Sauvignon Blanc, the last of which has a growing reputation particularly in the southern region of Steiermark. Black Grape Varieties The most widely planted black variety is Zweigelt (Blaufrankisch x St Laurent) which gives very deeply coloured reds with soft tannins and bramble fruit. Blaufrankisch, which is the most highly regarded of the Austrian black varieties, produces wines with medium tannins, high acidity and a peppery, sour cherry flavour. St Laurent is an Austrian speciality that gives wines similar in character to Pinot Noir. Oak ageing is common

AUSTRIANWINE LAWS The vast majority of wine made in Austria is PDO.PGIwines are labelled Landwein and wines without a geographical indication are labelled Wein.

PDOWines There arefourfederalstatesandafurther16smaller areas thatqualify forPDQ status . These caneitherhavethestatusQualitiitswein orDAC.

Trockenbeerenaus/ese (TBA), andStrohwein orSchi/fwein, where bunches of grapes arelaidoutonbedsofstraworreedsduringthe winter,to concentrate sugars.

Qualitatswein - Thefourfederalstatesandseven ofthesmaller areas aredesignated fortheproduction ofQualitiitswein. Winescanbemade from35permitted grapevarieties andthewinescanbemadeinany style. AQua/itiitswein mayalsobelabelled witha Pradikat level.This labelling system worksinthesamewayasthePriidikatsweine thatexist in Germany. InAustria thesetermsaremainlyreserved formediumsweetandsweetwinesandtherearetwoadditional Priidikate. These areAusbruch, whichisa classification between Beerenaus/ese (BA)and

Districtus Austriae Controllatus (DAC) - Nineofthesmaller wine regions haveelected to become DAC. lfthe producers in a regioncan agreeonagrapevariety(orvarieties), a styleof wine(andasetof regulations to gowithit) thattheythinkbestreflects theirarea,then theregioncanbeawarded DAC status . Once thishashappened, only winesthatconform to thisstylecanusethenameoftheappellation. Otherwinesmadeintheseareas thatdonotconform to thisstylecan onlybelabelled withthenameoftherelevant federalstate.

113

23

114

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

KEY 4000 m+

•1

AUSTRIA

2000 - 4000 m 1000- 2000m

(Styria), and Wien (Vienna). The first two account for the vast majority of production .

t---~~--,~,m-llu~•ookm

CZECH REPUBLIC 49 N

500- lOOOm 200-500 m 0- 200m

48 'N

AU,STRIA .,.

,.

, f} )-

.t··

48N

.,,r~ '--J .......,_\. Ne~~f:dlersee ,, ,...✓•

('

\ > -~

BURGENLAND

0 Graz

4TN

..l-5 /

HUNGARY

47N

,.-·----~._;-·-·---t-·(.(

..,,. •-"'-•y-''

\.

SLOVENIA

("''·.h....,

for these wines. A number of producers are blending these Austrian varieties with international varieties such as Pinot Noir, Cabernet Sauvignon or Merlot. REGIONS AND WINES For PDO wines, the four federal states are Niederosterreich (Lower Austria), Burgenland, Steiermark Wachau issituatedina steep-sided valleycutoutby the River Danube.

Niederosterreich (Lower Austria) This is the largest of the regions for both production and exports . The majority of the vineyards lie on the banks of the Danube and further north towards the Slovak border. Of the eight sub-regions, Wachau is the most renowned for high-quality dry wines made from either Gruner Veltliner or Riesling. Steep, often terraced, south facing vineyards next to the Danube maximise exposure to the sun, and allow GrunerVeltliner and Riesling grapes to develop highly concentrated flavours. To date, Wachau has not chosen to become a DAC and has instead relied on its own classification system. Kamptal DAC and Kremstal DAC lie just north ofWachau and produce wines in a similar style and quality from either Gruner Veltliner or Riesling. Weinviertel DAC is Austria's largest vine -growing area and was the first Austrian DAC.The wines can only be made from Gruner Veltliner. There are two levels to this DAC. Klassikwinesmust be made in a light, fresh and fruity style with no discernible oak flavours . Reserve wines must have a higher minimum alcohol and are allowed to be matured in oak. Burgenland This region lies to the east of Austria, along the border with Hungary, and is best known for top-quality sweet wines and red wines. Dry whites are made too, principally from Pinot Blanc, Welschriesling, Gruner Veltliner and Chardonnay.

AUSTRIA

Neusiedlersee, a vast shallow lake in the north of the province, is the key for sweet wine production in this region. The vineyards for sweet wine production are situated on the low-lying ground near the lake to benefit from autumn mists that come from the lake and the wetland regions on its margins. These are ideal conditions for botrytis, which can almost be guaranteed every year. Welschriesling is one of the most widely used grape varieties for these sweet wines .

The best red wines in Austria come from the higher ground away from the lake and in the hills further south. Zweigelt is the most widely planted variety. Other varieties including Blaufrankisch and St Laurent, and internat ional varieties such as Pinot Noir, Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon are also grown. Neusiedlersee is a DAC for Zweigelt. There are three DACs for Blaufrankish, the largest of which is Mittelburgenland.

115

116

24

UNDERSTANDING WINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY

region of Tokaj (note the wine it produces is called Tokaji) is located in the foothills of the TokajThe Carpathian Mountains in the far north east of Hungary and close to the Slovakian border. It has a long-standing reputation for producing premium botrytised sweet wines, but Late Harvest sweet wines and dry wines are becoming more popular.

CLIMATE AND GRAPE VARIETIES

Tokaj's climate is moderate and the best vineyards are located on hillside slopes with southerly aspects.The Bodrog and Tisza rivers and their many tributaries help generate the early morning humidity necessary for the development of noble rot. There are three principal white grape varieties that are used in the making ofTokaji; they are often blended. Furmint is the most widely planted variety and makes concentrated, high acid white wines with flavours of apples when young, developing into nuts and honey as they age. It can make premium quality dry white wines but due to its late ripening and susceptibility to botrytis it is better known as the principal grape variety used for sweet Aszu wines. Harslevelu is also late ripening and contributes perfume to a blend. Sarga Muskotaly (Muscat Blanc Petits Grains) is also used for its aromatic qualities.

a

WINE STYLES

Tokaj has long been famous for its sweet wines, which rank among the best in the world, but producers are increasingly making top-quality dry wines as well. The dry wines are bottled in 75 cl bottles whereas the sweet wines are by tradition bottled in distinctive 50 cl bottles. Depending on the degree of noble rot development,

a producer will often make a number of different styles of wine in each vintage. To allow for this, pickers may separate the grapes into three different categories during the harvest. Where noble rot has been widespread pickers pass through the vineyards several times selecting individual aszu (rotten) grapes. Bunches that remain unaffected by noble rot are collected separately. There is also a selection known as Szamorodni, which means 'as it comes'.This involves bunches that are partially affected by noble rot. These three different harvests can then be used to make a variety of different styles of wine. DryWines Dry wines without botrytis - This category is gaining importance. It allows producers to make wine in years where there is not much noble rot. These dry wines can vary in style from simple, unoaked wines that are made to be drunk young to more concentrated age-worthy blends, which are often fermented and matured in new oak. These wines are usually made from Furmint. Tokaji Szamorodni - These wines are made from the grapes harvested as Szamorodni and may be dry (szdraz) or sweet (edes),depending on the amount of noble rot that is present. By the nature of the harvest the dry

TOKAJI SWEET WINE LAWS

As of the 2013 vintage, the producers ofTokaj have been working in line with new regulations regarding the winemaking and labelling of their sweet wines. At the time of writing, these regulations were awaiting EU approval. If these laws are approved it is still essential to be aware that wines made to the traditional laws (vintages up to and including 2012) will still be on the market for many years. It is therefore useful to be familiar with both the traditional laws as well as the proposed changes. Traditional Laws Theminimum residual sugarforTokaji Aszuwastraditionally 60g/Land thewineswouldbelabelled ona scaleofthreeto sixputtonyos depending onthelevelofresidual sugarabove thisminimum amount. Minimum ageingrequirements werestipulated whereby thewineshad to spend24months in oakandcouldonlybereleased fromtheJanuary inthefourthyearafterharvest. Thesweetest winesintheAszticategory couldbelabelled AszuEszencia; aminimum of 180g/Lresidual sugar wasrequired.

2013Laws Theminimum residual sugarforTokaji Aszuhasbeenraised to 120g/L. Thisisthelevelofsugarthatwastraditionally needed forawineoffive puttonyos. Wines witha lowerlevelofresidual sugarmustnowbe labelled asLateHarvest orTokaji Szamorodni depending onhowthey aremade .Thelabelling termAszuEszencia hasbeenabolished (but notethatthetermTokajiEszencia stillexistsforwinesmadefromthe free-run juiceofasztiberries). WinesintheTokaji Aszucategory arealso nowsubject to shorterageingrequirements; a minimum of 18months in oakisneeded andthewinescanbereleased intheJanuary ofthe thirdyearafterharvest.

117

TOKAJ

FAR LEFT: Grapes inTokaj showingthedifferent rates at whichnoblerotaffects the bunches. LEFT: Thepickerisselecting individualasz,igrapes, whichcanbe seenin the bucket.

wines will show noble rot characters. The wines must be aged in cask for a minimum of one year and be two years old before release. Most wines are aged for longer. Casks for the dry wines are not completely filled, to enable f/or-like yeast to form naturally on the wine; the wine develops a character similar to that of a Fino Sherry. This yeast does not have a role to play in the sweet styles, which consequently may have an oxidative character although the modern trend is to produce a less-oxidative wine by filling casks for sweet wines completely. Sweet Wines Aszu wines - The production ofTokaji Aszu starts with a base wine that is made from healthy grapes. Before, during or after fermentation, the aszu berries are macerated in the base wine. The maceration usually lasts for 12 to 60 hours. Traditionally the botrytised berries were made into a paste, but using uncrushed aszu berries avoids the extraction of bitter flavours. This

mixture is pressed and then the wine is matured for a period oftime in oak. The amount of aszu berries used determines the sweetness of the final wine. The unit used to express the level of sweetness is the puttony. Classic Tokaji is deep amber, with high acidity and intense aromas, and flavours of orange peel, apricots and honey. The wines become more concentrated and intense as they rise up the sweetness scale.

Tokaji Eszencia (Essence, or Nectar) - These are extremely rare wines that are seldom available outside the region of production. Eszenciais made using just the free-run juice of the aszu berries. The must is so sweet it can take years to ferment, and even after that time the wines remain very low in alcohol (usually less than S% abv). The legal minimum level of residual sugar is 450 g/L. This is balanced by very high acidity and the wines have an enormously concentrated flavour. They are able to mature and retain their freshness for a century or more. Modern style sweet wines - These wines are usually made from grapes that have spent extended time on the vine and are often labelled as Late Harvest. Some may use botrytis-infected fruit. Where noble rot is present,

these wines are produced by fermenting the botrytised grapes (the method used for wines such as Sauternes or TBA) rather than by the macerating process used for Tokaji Aszu. They may also be matured for less time than Aszu wines. These wines are typically labelled with the term Late Harvest.

118

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

25

GreeceGreece's most interesting wines arguably come from the country's many indigenous varieties. These grapes thrive in hot, arid conditions, and provide Greece with a unique selling point on export markets. The three grape varieties that have received most recognition on export markets are each linked to a particular wine region: Xinomavro from Naoussa, Agiorgitiko from Nemea and Assyrtiko from Santorini.

CLIMATEAND GRAPEGROWING Overall Greece has a hot Mediterranean climate. In the summer, temperatures can reach well over 30°(, although coastal areas tend to be moderated by the sea. Altitude and wind, which in the islands to the south-east of the mainland are strong enough to destroy unprotected vineyards, can also have a cooling effect . Most of the best vineyards are to be found in these cooler sites away from the blistering heat commonly associated with Greece. Rainfall levels can vary, but even in the wetter areas in the west of the country the almost complete lack of rain in the growing season can cause water stress. Drought is a particular concern on the eastern side of Greece,which lies in the rain shadow of the mountains where there is little available water for irrigation. REGIONSAND WINES There are over 200 grape varieties native to Greece, very few of which are grown elsewhere. These varieties are

GREECE

•1

KEY

well adapted to survive in the arid, hot conditions found in Greece and many can produce high-quality wines. There are some plantings of both black and white international grape varieties but most PDO wines require the use of native varieties . Of the many wines that are made in Greece the following three have gained the widest international reputation.

NaoussaPDO Naoussa is in northern Greece in the region of Macedonia. The vineyards are at altitudes up to 400 metres and are noticeably cooler than the surrounding area. This PDO is for red wines that are made exclusively from Xinomavro, a variety that is often compared with Nebbiolo. It has high levels of tannin and acidity and its wines have traditionally had a medium colour that quickly fades to tawny and they tend to lack fresh fruit aromas even in their youth. As with Nebbiolo these wines are long-lived and can develop complex spice and earthy aromas with age. Some winemakers are now choosing to make their wines in different styles. Some are more deeply coloured and less tannic; and some are aged in new oak. NemeaPDO Nemea is in the north of the Peloponnese close to the narrow strip of land that joins the peninsula to the rest of mainland Greece. This is a PDQ for red wines that are made exclusively from Agiorgitiko. The vineyards are spread over a wide range of altitudes from 230 to 900 metres. The best fruit comes from the vineyards in the middle of this range. Fruit from the hotter lower slopes can be overly jammy and tends to be made into fruity wines for early consumption. The fruit from the higher slopes has a higher acidity and less fine tannins. It can add freshness to a red blend but it is best suited to rose production. The best wines have a deep ruby colour with high levels of smooth tannins, low to moderate acidity and sweet spice and red fruit flavours . These wines have a great affinity for new oak and age well.

2000- 4000 m 1000- 2000 m 500- 1000 m 200- S00m 0- 200 m

36 N

3ffN

Mediterranean

Sea CRETE

Santorini PDO Santorini is a windswept volcanic island in the Aegean Sea.The winds are so strong that a unique training method has to be used here to protect the vines. The permanent wood is trained very low into a basket

GREECE

119

GREEKWINE LAWS The wine laws of Greece follow those of other EU countries, with wines classified as Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) or Protected Geographical Indication (PGI).For export markets producers of dry PDO wines may either use the term Protected Designation of Origin or, less frequently, Appellation d'origine de qua/ite superieure (a subcategory within the PDO classification) on their wine labels. On the domestic market the Greek equivalent of PDO is used (Prostatevomeni Onomasia Proe/efsis).

shape and the fruit grows on the inside . The PDO covers red and white wines made in dry and sweet styles, but it is the white wines made from the Assyrtiko grape that have the highest reputation. Dry wines from this grape display perfumed aromas and concentrated flavours of ripe citrus and stone fruit, balanced by the natural high acidity of the variety . The sweet wines are known as Vinsanto. Late-harvested grapes are sun-dried for up to 14 days. The wines are then aged in old oak barrels for a minimum of two years, although many producers age their wine for far longer. The luscious sweetness is balanced by high acidity and the older wines show a marked oxidative character of caramel and nuts.

Aclose-up ofanAssyrtiko vinein Santorini. Thebasketliketraining systemprotects the vineandthegrapes againsttheverystrong windsexperienced here.

120

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

Introduction to Italy Italy is home to a la~ge number of grape var'.etie~, many of which

26

are rarely seen outside of the country. The d1vers1tyof these varieties and the styles of wine they produce mean that it is simpler to cover Italy over a number of short chapters. In this brief introduction we cover the wine laws that apply throughout Italy and show how the different wine regions relate to each other on the map.

ITALY ,oo.. t---'-r~--½-~-e

,so-'-,2

• t N

00mllu

~ --

~

./

.

ITALIAN WINE LAWS

The geographical indications below are common to all Italian wine regions. PDOWines

TheItalianforPDO isDenominazione di OrigineProtetta(DOP) butthefollowing traditional termsaremorewidelyseenonlabels: Denominazione di OrigineControllata {DOC) - Thewinesinthis category aresubjectto geographical boundaries aswellaslimitations ongrapevarieties andproduction methods. Denominazione di OrigineControllata e Garantita{DOCG) - In

additionto meetingallDOC requirements thesewinesmustbebottled intheareaofproduction andaresubjectto a Ministry ofAgriculture tasting. PGIWines

TheItalianforPGIislndicazione Geografica Protetta(IGP)butthe traditional termlndicazione Geografica Tipica(IGT)iscommonly used. 40"N

'

TYRRHENIAN SEA ALABRI J

J

SICILY

~&\}

'----r ..___ ./ ,

KEY

OtherLabelling Terms Classico - Overtime,theboundaries ofa numberofappellations have

expanded to allownewplantings outsidetheoriginal zone.Theterm Classico acknowledges winesthathavebeenmadesolelyfromthe original classified landandincludes manyofthebestwinesfromthe area.

Palermo. • •,.·

ALGERIA .}__, TUNISIA

40' N

Riserva - Thistermacknowledges wineswithbothhigheralcohol levelsandlongerageingthanthe minimums stipulated bythe appellation laws.

I

1500 m+

1000- 1500 m

200- 500 m

0- 200 m

500- 1000 m

121

NORTHERN ITALY

Northern Italy Northern

Italy produces a wide range of wine styles from the full-bodied

27

tannic reds of Barolo to the delicate white wines of Soave. All this is possible because of diverse geography and an incredible number of unique local grape varieties. This chapter will cover the regions of Alto Adige, Trentino, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Veneto and Piemonte.

CLIMATE AND GRAPEGROWING The vineyard regions of Northern Italy are located in the foothills of the Alps and on the extensive plain of the River Po. Overall, the area has a moderate climate with dry, short summers . The Alps form a barrier that extends the length of the north Italian border, and shelte r the vineyards from rain. Local rivers, including the Po, and glacial lakes, such as Lake Garcia, provide a moderating influence to inland areas. Areas that lie close to the sea can have higher levels of rainfall, meaning that fungal diseases can be a problem. The vineyards in the north of Italy were traditionally planted with high yielding vines at low densities. A complex trellising system called pergola was common. In this system the vine canopy is t rained high with the fruit hanging down below a horizontal canopy of leaves. This protects the grapes from sunburn as well as allowing air to circulate, minimising the risk of rot . Pergolas are still used when high acidity and low sugar levels are required (such as for sparkling wine grapes) and also when wines are to be made from dried grapes, which need to be free from damage and disease. However, higher density plantings using VSPtrain ing are now more common. TRENTINO-ALTO ADIGE AltoAdige Centred around the town of Bolzano in the foothills of the Alps, Alto Adige is Italy's most northerly wine region . The vineyards are planted on terraces on the south-eastand south-west-facing valley sides of the River Adige. The region has a moderate climate , with short, dry summers and low rainfall during the growing season. Most of the vineyards experience a large diurnal range due to their altitudes, making them ideal for the production of aromatic whites and elegant, light-bodied reds. The most notable white wine here is Pinot Grigio. It tends to be made in a dry style, with a light to medium body, high acidity and citrus and green fruit flavours (for further details on how this variety is typically produced see section Pinot Gris/Grigio in Chapter 8). Gewurztraminer, Chardonnay and Pinot Blanc are the next most important white grapes. Red wine production is dominated by Italian variety Schiava, producing light fruity wines with low to medium tann ins and flavours of raspberries and plums. Almost all wines are labelled under the regional name of Alto Adige DOC.

AUSTRIA 47 N

NORTH-EAST ITALY a

20

40

60

80

100km

SLOVENIA COLLIO 46"N -

46' N

ADRIATIC SEA

Trentino Trentino is located directly to the south of Alto Adige. The valley is wider here than further north and vines are planted on the valley floor as well as the slopes on both sides of the valley. Trentino has dry summers and low rainfall during the growing season, similar to Alto Adige, but overall the vineyards experience a slightly warmer climate. This is due to Trentino's more southerly latitude, the greater number of vineyards at lower altitudes, and the mountains to the west side of the valley that protect the region from the cooling influences of Lake Garcia. The main varieties are Chardonnay and Pinot Grigio. The wines made from grapes grown on the valley floor tend to be medium-bodied with medium acidity and ripe stone fruit flavours . Those made from grapes grown at higher altitudes are more similar to the whites from Alto Adige. Merlot and the Italian varietyTeroldego are the two most planted black grapes, grown mainly on the mid -slopes and valley floor. The latter grape produces wines with a deep colour , medium to high tannins, high acidity and a medium to full body with aromas of black fruit . The wines are normally matured in oak, and the

KEY lS00m+

1000-1500 m S00-l000m

200- 500 m 100- 200m 0- 100 m

122

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

Vineyards inAltoAdigeset againsta mountainous backdrop.

best examples have the ability to age. Most wines are labelled under the regional name ofTrentino DOC. FRIULI-VENEZIA GIULIA The wine region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia is located in northern Italy's eastern corner. The most northerly vineyards in the region are located in the foothills of the Alps. The climate is moderate and continental, cooled by cold air from the mountains. The vineyards in the south of the region are based on the flat plain near the Adriatic Seaand experience a warm maritime climate . A large number of grape varieties are planted, producing rich, ripe white and red wines, the most prevalent being Pinot Grigio and Merlot. Friuli-Venezia Giulia produces some of the richest Pinot Grigio in Italy, the medium- to full -bodied wines displaying juicy peach and tropical fruit flavours. Merlot is the most planted black variety, making medium-bodied wines with medium acidity and tannins and ripe red fruit flavours, often with a hint of spice from oak. The native white Friulano is also widely grown giving wines with medium to high acidity, medium body and aromas of pear, red apples and herbs. Wines from the plain are labelled Friuli Grave DOC. They tend to be white, and made in a simple, fruity style. The regions of Collio DOC and Colli Orientali DOC, both located in the hills, are known for premium, more concentrated white wines with Colli Orientali also noted for its reds. VENETO Veneto is one of Italy's largest wine-producing regions and home to some of its best known wines, Soave and

Valpolicella. The region extends from the southern end of Lake Garda in the west to Venice in the east and ranges from the foothills of the Alps in the north to the flat plains of the Po in the south . The climate is warm with moderate rainfall. Cooling influences come from altitude, exposing the vineyards in the foothills to a large diurnal temperature range, and breezes from Lake Garda cool the vineyards in the west of the region . The flat plain is affected by moist air and fog from the River Po, increasing the number of sprays needed to combat disease and rot. The flat fertile plain is a source of fruit for inexpensive, high volume brands growing international grape varieties such as Pinot Grigio, Chardonnay and Merlot and Italian grapes like Corvina, Garganega and Trebbiano. High yields mean that these wines are usually simple and fruity . They are labelled Veneto IGT. Prosecco is a sparkling wine DOC, the greater part of which is in Veneto, although some of the vineyards are located in Friuli-Venezia Giulia (for more details see Chapter 42 Sparkling Wines of the World) . Soave Soave is east of Verona and has two distinct parts : foothills to the north and a flat plain in the south , near the River Po.The soils on the foothills are made up of limestone and clay with some volcanic rocks. These soils are naturally cool, and this together with the influence of altitude, slows down ripening, leading to grapes with full flavour ripeness yet high acidity . The wines are capable of maturing for a number of years. The vines on the plain are planted on sandy, alluvial soils that aid ripening so

123

NORTHERN ITALY

the grapes are fruitier with medium acidity and the wines are meant to be drunk young. The main variety is the Italian white grape Garganega but small amounts of other white grape varieties can be added to the blend. The wines typically have medium to high acidity levels, a medium body and display aromas of pears, red apple, stone fruit and sometimes white pepper. They do not typically display any aromas or flavours of new oak. The best examples can age, developing aromas of almonds and honey . Wines made using grapes from the entire region can be labelled Soave DOC but wines made using grapes from the foothills can be labelled Soave Classico DOC.

GrapedryinginValpolicella. Thegrapesarestored indoors inveryshallow stackable cratesto keep themfreeofrotasthey shrivel.

Valpolicella Valpolicella is north-west of Verona, and has a similar topography to Soave. The foothills in the north have limestone, clay and volcanic soils, which slow down ripening so the grapes have more acidity. The soils in the flatter south of the region are gravel and sand, which is warmer, so the grapes are fruitier with less acidity . The main grape in Valpolicella is Corvina, an Italian grape native to the region, which has a thin skin, moderate colour, low to medium tannins and high acidity. In order to increase the colour and tannins of the wine, local grape varieties can be added to the blend. Wines made using grapes from the entire region can be labelled as Valpolicella DOC and wines made using grapes from foothills can be labelled Valpolicella Classico DOC. The wines are simple and fruity, with light tannins, and display red cherry flavours; they are rarely caked and are made to drink immediately. The passito method - The passito method is widely used in the Veneto to increase structure and flavour concentration (and colour in the case of red wines) .

The grapes are picked early when they are still high in acidity and dried indoors, concentrating the sugars and flavours. The fermentation does not get underway until the winter months. There are two types of passito wine in Valpolicella. Wines labelled Amarone della Valpolicella DOCG are dry or off-dry in style. They are full-bodied, with high alcohol, medium to high tannins and intensely concentrated red berry and spice flavours. These wines are usually aged in large oak casks.Wines labelled Recioto della Valpolicella DOCG are made from grapes that are so sweet the fermentation stops naturally. These sweet wines have intense red fruit flavours, high alcohol levels, a full body, and medium to high tannins . The Soave region makes a sweet white wine by the same method, labelled Recioto di Soave DOCG. The ripasso method - The ripassomethod uses grape

skins from a fermenting Amarone della Valpolicella. Shortly before fermentation finishes the Amarone is drained off the skins. The skins remain unpressed and are added to a vat ofValpolicella that has finished its fermentation. Yeast, which are also transferred in this

process, ferment the remaining sugar on the Amarone grape skins, during which time the grape skins give more colour, flavour and tannins to the wine they have been added to. Wines made in this method can be labelled Valpolicella Ripasso DOC and are medium to fullbodied with medium to high tannins and flavours of stewed red cherries and plums . PIEMONTE Piemonte is located in the north-west corner of Italy. Mountains to the north provide a rain shadow

protecting the region from northern winds and precipitation. The climate is moderate and continental with long, cold winters and summers that can be subject to thunderstorms, hail and fog . Some moderating influences come from the Po River in the southern part of the region and Lake Maggiore in the north. The area is noted for its foothills, ranging from 1SOto 600 metres,

124

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

PIEMONTE

>--~-,........._ _ ____._,,O_m_ll~ ~ •Okm

~

-1

urin

45 00'N

45 00 N

·---

\

44 30 ' N

DOLCffiO D'ALBA l

• l

c·' )

({

LIGURIA

Gulf

of

Genova

KEY 1500 m+ 1000- 1500 m 500- 1000 m 200- 500 m 100- 200 m 0- l00m

which provide different aspects and altitudes for viticulture. The main grapes for Piemonte are the black varieties of Nebbiolo, Barbera and Dolcetto and the white varieties of Cortese and Moscato (Muscat). There are many designated wine regions within Piemonte, but the more famous wine areas are located south of the main city Turin, around the towns of Asti and Alba. Barolo DOCGand Barbaresco DOCGare the most prestigious appellations in the region, but a number of other DOC and DOCGwines are made in the wider area around the two towns. There is no IGT or IGP for the region with all wines achieving either DOC or DOCG status. Barolo The wine region of Barolo is a horseshoe-shaped valley spanning several villages each having steep (300 to 500 metre) south-facing slopes. Barolo DOCG must be made entirely from Nebbiolo, a black grape with high levels of acidity and tannins but little colour. The grapes ripen slowly at these altitudes developing perfumed aromas of sour cherries, herbs and sometimes dried flowers. In the best years the wines are full -bodied with high acidity

and tannins and they have the ability to develop in the bottle. The wines are often made from grapes sourced from different villages. A village name may appear on the label if the grapes are sourced purely from that area, for example Barolo Serralunga d'Alba DOCG. The best wines come from named vineyards or crus,which may appear on the label, such as Barolo Cannubi DOCG.The region does grow other grapes, mainly Dolcetto and Barbera, which are labelled using the generic Alba DOC. Barolo DOCGmust be aged for three years before release, of which 18 months must be in oak. Traditionally, Barolo was aged for several years in large oak barrels to soften harsh tannins. Today, improvements in vineyard management and gentler methods of extraction result in wines with smoother, riper tannins, and mean that many producers now choose to mature their wines for shorter periods of time . Oak maturation may take place in small barrels (often including some new oak) or larger casks depending on the style that the producer wants to achieve. All Barolo wines tend to benefit from further bottle ageing. This continues to soften the tannins and adds further complexity, giving the wine aromas of truffles, tar and leather. Barbaresco The smaller region of Barbaresco is also renowned for Nebbiolo. It has south-facing slopes at lower altitudes than those of Barolo (200 to 400 metres). The lower altitude and influence from a local river means that Nebbiolo ripens earlier here compared with Barolo and is fruitier and less perfumed. It has similar acidity and tannin levels, which gives the wines the ability to age in bottle. By law, Barbaresco DOCG must be aged for two years before release, with nine months in oak. As the region is smaller than Barolo, there are fewer mentions of villages on the labels but higher quality wines will be from a single named vineyard or cru. Asti and Alba The wider area around Asti and Alba is home to a number of DOCs and DOCGs.The majority of these appellations are named after a grape variety followed by their nearest town. The black Barbera grape is the most widely planted variety and is used to produce Barbera d'Alba DOC and Barbera d'Asti DOCG, the latter often regarded as higher quality. It is a late ripening grape, with medium to deep colour, low to medium tannins and high acidity, displaying aromas of red cherries and plums and sometimes black pepper. The wines are typically made in two styles: youthful and fruity with no oak influence, or barrel-aged to give spicy flavours. Dolcetto is also widely planted. It is earlier ripening than Nebbiolo and Barbera and therefore can be planted in the coolest sites. Dolcetto d'Alba DOC tends to produce many of the finest wines. The wines have a deep, often purple, colour with medium to high tannins and medium acidity. They display aromas of black plums,

NORTHERNITALY

Winesmaturing inBarolo. Notethatheretheproducer

red cherries and dried herbs. Both Barbera and Dolcetto can be drunk young but the best examples can age for several years. Nebbiolo is also widely planted throughout this area. Asti is also famous for its sparkling wines made from Moscato (see Chapter 42 Sparkling Wines of the World). Gavi The white wine region of Gavi is located in south-eastern Piemonte. The vines are grown in hills where the altitude and sea breezes result in long, slow ripening of the white grape Cortese, emphasising its natural high acidity and floral character. The wines are labelled as Gavi DOCG or Cortese di Gavi DOCG. If the grapes come from the town of Gavi itself the wines may be labelled Gavi di Gavi DOCG.The wines are pale and light-bodied, with high acidity and aromas, and flavours of citrus, green apples and pears. Protective winemaking is the norm with cool fermentation in stainless steel but some producers use

125

is usingbothlargeand smaller oakvessels.

old oak vessels for fermentation and lees stirring to add complexity to the wines . Most of the wine is ready to drink on release from the winery but wines from the best producers can age well in bottle.

126

28

UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

Centra I ltaly This part of Italy is most widely associated with the grape variety Sangiovese and the most famous wine made from it, Chianti. However, there is more to central Italy than this. Refreshing whites and premium full-bodied reds from both local and international grape varieties are made with great successthroughout the region. This chapter will cover the regions of Tuscany, Umbria, Lazio, Marche and Abruzzo.

CLIMATE AND GRAPEGROWING South of the Po Valley, the wine regions of central Italy are dominated by the Apennine Mountains, which run the length of the Italian Peninsula. Grapes are planted in the hills and valleys of this mountain range with altitude providing a moderating influence on the hot climate. Coastal regions on both sides of the country benefit from cooling sea breezes.

TUSCANY Tuscany stretches down the western coast of central Italy. The region can be divided roughly into three parts: the mountainous Chianti region in the north, the hills and valleys to the south and the flat coastal plain. Sangiovese is the dominant and most prestigious grape throughout these three areas making wines with high levels of acidity and tannin. It is late to ripen, so needs a warm climate, hence its home in this part of Italy. The wines have aromas of red cherries, plums and dried herbs and are usually aged for a period of time in oak to soften the tannins and sometimes add spicy flavours. Aviewacrossthe vineyards inChiantiClassico, showing the hillylandscapeand the importanceofaltitudeand aspect.

Both small barrels and larger casks can be used. With bottle age the wines develop meaty and gamey aromas. Red wines predominate in this part of Italy although some white wines are also made throughout the region .

Chianti Chianti is based in the foothills of the Apennines between the cities of Pisa,Florence and Siena. It covers a wide area, which is divided into seven sub-zones. Sangiovese is the dominant grape, but the wines are often blends with small amounts of other black grapes (of both French and Italian origin). Producers of large volumes of Chianti will source their grapes from the greater region and use Chianti DOCGon the label. Higher-quality Chianti DOCGw ines may be made from the grapes from a particular sub-zone, the name of which can appear on the wine label (note this does not include Chianti Classico DOCG).The sub-zones of Chianti Rufina DOCGand Chianti Colli Senesi DOCGare particularly well known for the quality of their wines . Chianti ClassicoDOCGhas its own DOCG and is not a sub-zone of Chianti DOCG. Its vineyards are at higher

CENTRALITALY

altitudes than those of Chianti DOCG,slowing the ripening of Sangiovese, and resulting in wines with greater acidity and more herbal aromas. Chianti Classico wines must be aged for 12 months before they are released onto the market. Chianti Classico Riserva DOCG must be aged for 24 months of which at least three months must be spent bottle ageing. Gran Selezioneis the highest designation for Chianti Classico wines; the grapes must be sourced from a single estate and the wines aged for six months longer than Riserva. There are no stipulations concerning oak ageing, and it is therefore the producer's decision as to whether the wine is matured in oak and for how long. In practice, however, the vast majority of wines are matured in oak for at least part of their time before release. Southern Tuscany The vineyards of southern Tuscany are at lower altitudes than those in the north and have a warmer climate; however, cool maritime breezes from the south-west can moderate the temperatures. Brunello di Montalcino DOCG and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano DOCG are the best known appellations in the region. Due to the climate, wines from this part ofTuscany are often more intense and fuller-bodied than the wines from Chianti. The regulations for Brunello di Montalcino stipulate that the wines must be made entirely from Sangiovese and undergo a minimum ageing of five years before they are sold, two of which must be spent in oak. Vino Nobile di Montepulciano can be a blend of Sangiovese with other permitted varieties and must be aged for a minimum of two years before it is sold. Producers from both Brunello di Montalcino and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano can declassify their wines to DOC as necessary (for example, if there is a poor vintage or the vines are very young). These wines are called either Rosso di Montalcino DOC or Rosso di Montepulciano DOC respectively. The Coast The relatively flat coastal region ofTuscany is cooled by sea breezes rather than altitude . Black Bordeaux varieties and a number of other international grapes are widely planted here. The Tuscan coast witnessed the birth of the first 'Super-Tuscan'.The original wine was made from Cabernet Sauvignon and sold for a premium price despite not being eligible for PDQ status. Super-Tuscans were a turning point for the international image of Italian wines as they re-established Italy's reputation for excellence . Many Tuscan producers have followed this example and make high -quality wines from international varieties, sometimes with Italian varieties as part of the blend . Many are bottled as Toscana IGT but the relatively recently formed appellations of Bolgheri DOC and Maremma Toscana DOC both permit wines to be made entirely from non-Italian varieties including Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Syrah.

127

\ VERDICCHIODEi CASTELLIDI JESI

X

ADRIATIC SEA

MA ~ 43' N

1'

t--: -:-N _T _R _A_L"_I_T_A_L_Y_ __ ,

--

,_

,.,-

~V