Timelines of Everything

TIMELINES OF EVERYTHING

s mi th so nia n

TIMELINES OF EVERYTHING

Senior Art Editor Smiljka Surla Senior Editor Sam Atkinson Project Editors Steven Carton, Ben Ffrancon Davies, Sarah Edwards, Sarah MacLeod, Ben Morgan, Sophie Parkes, Laura Sandford, Pauline Savage, Amanda Wyatt US Editors Kayla Dugger, Christy Lusiak Project Designers Sunita Gahir, Alex Lloyd, Gregory McCarthy, Stefan Podhorodecki, Michelle Staples, Jacqui Swan, Sadie Thomas Illustrators Acute Graphics, Peter Bull, Edwood Burn, Sunita Gahir, Clare Joyce, KJA Artists, Arran Lewis, Alex Lloyd, Maltings Partnership, Gus Scott DK Media Archive Romaine Werblow Picture Researchers Sarah Hopper, Jo Walton Managing Editor Lisa Gillespie Managing Art Editor Owen Peyton Jones Producers, Pre-Production David Almond, Andy Hilliard Senior Producers Alex Bell, Mary Slater Jacket Designers Surabhi Wadhwa-Gandhi, Juhi Sheth, Smiljka Surla Jackets Design Development Manager Sophia MTT Jackets Editor Amelia Collins Publisher Andrew Macintyre Art Director Karen Self Associate Publishing Director Liz Wheeler Design Director Phil Ormerod Publishing Director Jonathan Metcalf Consultant Philip Parker Contributors Laura Buller, Peter Chrisp, Alexander Cox, Susan Kennedy, Andrea Mills, Sally Regan DK Delhi DTP Designers Jaypal Singh Chauhan, Syed Mohammed Farhan Senior DTP Designers Neeraj Bhatia, Jagtar Singh Jackets Designer Juhi Sheth Jacket Senior DTP Designer Harish Aggarwal Jacket DTP Designer Rakesh Kumar Jackets Editorial Coordinator Priyanka Sharma Managing Jackets Editor Saloni Singh First American Edition, 2018 Published in the United States by DK Publishing 345 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014 Copyright © 2018 Dorling Kindersley Limited DK, a Division of Penguin Random House LLC 18 19 20 21 22 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 001–306015–Oct/2018 All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under the copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise), without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Published in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN: 978-1-4654-7493-3 DK books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk for sales promotions, premiums, fund-raising, or educational use. For details, contact: DK Publishing Special Markets, 345 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014 [email protected] Printed and bound in the United Arab Emirates A WORLD OF IDEAS: SEE ALL THERE IS TO KNOW www.dk.com

THE SMITHSONIAN Established in 1846, the Smithsonian—the world’s largest museum and research complex—includes 19 museums and galleries and the National Zoological Park. The total number of artifacts, works of art, and specimens in the Smithsonian’s collection is estimated at 154 million. The Smithsonian is a renowned research center, dedicated to public education, national service, and scholarship in the arts, sciences, and history.

Traveling through time The earliest events in this book took place a very long time ago. Some dates may be followed by bya, short for “billion years ago,” mya, short for “million years ago,” or ya, short for “years ago.” Other dates have bce and ce after them. These are short for “before the Common Era” and “Common Era.” The Common Era dates from when people think Jesus was born. Where the exact date of an event is not known, “c.” is used. This is short for the Latin word circa, meaning “around,” and indicates that the date is approximate.

T The story of the Universe Life on Earth The age of dinosaurs End of the dinosaurs Human ancestors Agriculture Working with metals Towns and cities The story of the wheel The written word

BEFORE 3000 bce

PR

E H I S T O RY

3000 bce– 500 ce

36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84

D

12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

CIENT WO N RL EA H

Mesopotamia Fun and games Ancient Egypt Ancient monuments The Great Sphinx Sharing stories Jewelry The story of sports Ancient Greece Mathematics The story of democracy Rise of the Celts The Persian Empire The Battle of Issus The story of philosophy The story of sculpture Early Imperial China Measuring time The Roman Empire Roman technology Religion The destruction of Pompeii Fun and festivals Ancient Indian empires The transformation of the Roman Empire

E TH

1450–1750

TH

E

China’s Golden Ages Early Islamic empires Empires of the Americas Germanic peoples Medieval Europe The Battle of Crécy The Vikings The Crusades Kingdoms of Southeast Asia Angkor Wat Rise of the samurai Castles Early North America Settling the Pacific The colonization of the Pacific African kingdoms The Mongol Empire Maps and mapmaking Plagues and epidemics Weapons and armor

500–1450

M

ED

I E VA L W

LD

90 92 94 96 98 100 102 104 106 108 110 112 114 116 117 118 120 122 124 126

132 134 136 138 140 142 144 146 148 150 152 154 156 158 160 162 164 166 168 170 172 174

OR

Technology of writing Ships Renaissance Exploring the world A route to India The story of painting The Reformation Spanish America The fall of Tenochtitlán The Ottoman Empire Astronomy Big battles The Battle of Lepanto Edo Japan Colonial America The Scientific Revolution Slavery in the US The Mughal Empire Ming and Qing China Chemistry The story of dance The Golden Age of Piracy

A

ON TI

AG

F EXPLOR O E

T E

A

GE

O F R E VO

IO

TH

1750–1914

N

The Enlightenment The Great Lisbon Earthquake Natural disasters The story of music Imperial Russia Birth of the US Crossing the Delaware River The Industrial Revolution Aboriginal Australia The colonization of Australia The Storming of the Bastille The French Revolution Medicine The Napoleonic Wars South American independence Trains Spreading the news Engineering The US frontier Frontier wars The 1848 Revolutions Biology The British Empire The American Civil War Colonialism in Africa Telecommunications Photography Crime detection Aircraft and aviation Getting the vote Physics Cars Great adventures The voyage of R.M.S. Titanic

LU

T

AFTER 1914 248 250 251 252 254 256 258 260 262 264 266 268 269 270 272 274 276 277 278 280 282 284 286 288 290 292 294 296 298 300 302 304 306 308 310 312 314

World War I The 1920s The 1930s Archaeology The Soviet Union The story of skyscrapers World War II in Europe War at home The Holocaust The D-Day landings The Pacific War Indian independence African independence The story of spying Middle East conflicts Household appliances The Korean War The Vietnam War The 1960s Postcolonial Africa The Cold War Race to the Moon Apollo launches The Cuban Missile Crisis The Civil Rights Movement Fashion Space exploration Booming nations Computing Feminism The internet Youth culture The story of robotics US presidents British rulers Glossary Index

D

180 182 184 186 188 190 192 194 196 197 198 200 202 204 206 208 210 212 214 215 216 218 220 222 224 226 228 230 232 234 236 238 240 242

DERN WO O RL EM H

PREHISTORY Before 3000 BCE

8

Prehistory The period before written records were invented around 5,000 years ago is known as prehistory. Most of what we know about this time comes from remains left behind, such as tools, bones, and ruined buildings. Until recently, it was difficult to tell how old these objects were, but scientific advances have allowed us to put together a much clearer picture of not only human history, but also the origin of life on Earth, and even of the Universe itself.

13.5 billion years ago The first stars are born.

13.8 billion years ago The Universe comes into existence with the Big Bang.

10

4.3 billion years ago Life begins on Earth.

4.6 billion years ago The Sun, planets, and other objects that make up our solar system are formed.

252 million years ago Dinosaurs become the dominant life form on Earth.

66 million years ago The dinosaurs die out in a mass extinction event.

1 million years ago The ancestors of humans begin to use fire.

7–6 million years ago Apes in Africa evolve the ability to walk upright.

200,000 years ago Modern humans first appear in Africa.

The Big Bang

Early life

Dinosaurs

Early humans

The Universe started with the Big Bang (see pages 12–13). Over billions of years, stars, galaxies, and eventually our own solar system were formed.

The first forms of life on Earth were simple organisms, but they evolved over time into the many varieties of plants and animals known today (see pages 14–15).

Millions of years ago, dinosaurs walked, swam, or flew on Earth (see pages 16–17). Until they became extinct, they were the dominant animals on the planet.

The ancestors of humans, known as hominins, evolved from tree-dwelling apes (see pages 20–21). Over time, they began to use tools and make fire.

The wheel One of the most important technological developments of the prehistoric era was the wheel (see pages 28–29). Invented independently by different cultures around the world, the wheel revolutionized transportation. It was also crucial to later advancements in farming, construction, industry, and engineering.

c.9000 bce Metalworking begins in Mesopotamia in West Asia.

c.11,000–9000 bce The development of farming allows people to produce their own food.

9000–4000 bce Early farmers establish the first villages.

c.4000 bce The first great cities arise in Mesopotamia.

c.3500 bce The first wheels used for transportation appear in Mesopotamia.

c.3300 bce The Egyptians develop hieroglyphs, the first system of writing.

c.8000 bce Communities begin to construct walls around their settlements.

Settling down

Working with metal

The first cities

Writing

Early humans moved from place to place in search of food. With the development of farming (see pages 22–23), people built villages and worked the land.

As humans discovered the technology of creating items from copper, bronze, and iron (see pages 24–25), they crafted stronger tools and weapons.

Some villages continued to grow, becoming towns and eventually cities (see pages 26–27). These population hubs were bustling centers of trade.

With the invention of writing (see pages 30–31), people could leave records to be read by later generations. The period known as prehistory came to an end.

11

The Big Bang

Matter forms

The Universe materializes Within a second, the incredible out of nothing. It is smaller energy of the expanding Universe than an atom but has all produces tiny particles of matter. the energy and mass it Most of these collide, destroy will ever have. In the first each other, and vanish, but a trillionth of a trillionth of tiny fraction remain. These a trillionth of a second, it leftovers build up to form expands to the size of a larger particles called protons football—a process and neutrons—the building known as inflation. blocks of atoms.

13.8 billion years ago

1 second later

First atoms It takes 300,000 years for the Universe to cool sufficiently for protons and neutrons to form the first atoms: hydrogen and helium. These gases form a thin cloud that fills the Universe. Light can now travel freely, making space transparent. This ancient light can still be captured by astronomers today.

13.7997 billion years ago

The story of the Universe The Universe began 13.8 billion years ago in an event called the Big Bang. The Big Bang was not an explosion of matter in space, but the sudden appearance and expansion of space itself. The expansion has continued ever since, creating a cosmos of unimaginable vastness. Although light travels extremely quickly, it still takes it billions of years to cross the Universe. This means that peering into deep space allows us to look back in time and study the Universe’s early years.

12

Stars and galaxies Gravity pulls thicker areas of gas into clumps that get tighter and tighter. This heats their cores, triggering nuclear reactions, and so giving birth to stars. The newborn stars cluster by the billion in vast whirlpools—galaxies.

13.5 billion years ago

The Solar System

Life begins

The Sun dies

The Big Freeze

Our local star, the Sun, forms from a cloud of gas and dust left by dying stars. Not all the material is absorbed by the new star though—a gigantic disk of dust and gas is left in orbit around it. Over time, the particles of matter in this disk stick together to form the planets, moons, asteroids, and comets of our Solar System.

Farther from the Sun than scalding Venus but not as far as freezing Mars, planet Earth is just the right temperature for liquid water to settle on its surface. A random chemical reaction between carbon-based chemicals in the water produces a molecule that can make copies of itself, as DNA can today. It is the first form of life.

About 5 billion years in the future, the Sun will turn into a red giant star as its supply of fuel begins to run out. It will swell in size, its outer layers engulfing the planets Mercury, Venus, and probably Earth. The heat will vaporize any water left on Earth, and possibly our planet’s crust, too, making life impossible.

The Universe may continue expanding forever. Matter and energy will become ever more thinly dispersed, preventing new stars from forming. After the last star burns out, the Universe will be permanently dark and freezing cold—an endless void with no activity.

4.6 billion years ago

4.3 billion years ago

5 billion years in the future

Over 100 trillion years in the future

YOU ARE HERE

13

14

66 MYA

252 MYA

363 MYA

Four-legged vertebrates evolve from fish. At first they use their muscular limbs for paddling, but their descendants eventually clamber onto land in search of prey. Plants have now colonized the land, and small animals such as millipedes, mites, and scorpions live among them.

First steps on land

Prehistoric rainforests Earth’s climate is now warm and wet, and lush rainforests cover much of the land. The forests are home to giant millipedes and dragonflylike insects as big as eagles. Fossils of the trees will eventually form the coal we use in the modern world.

Reptiles and relatives

Earth’s climate dries out, and deserts replace forests. Reptiles and related animals called synapsids become the dominant vertebrates on land. Unlike other vertebrates, which breed in water, reptiles and synapsids lay waterproof eggs and so can breed in dry places.

Earth’s climate cools and sheets of ice cover much of the northern continents. The grasslands south of the ice are home to mammoths, woolly rhinos, saber-toothed cats, and other ice-age mammals. Many of these species vanish as humans spread around the globe.

The Ice Age

2.6 MYA to 10,000 BCE

360 MYA

Another mass extinction takes place near the end of the Devonian Period. Most of the species that vanish lived in the ocean, including reef-building organisms and armored fish. Poisoning of the ocean by volcanic eruptions may be to blame.

Poisoned oceans

Small mammals survive the asteroid strike and evolve into a wide range of new species, taking the place of dinosaurs. Some mammals adapt to life in the ocean and become even bigger than dinosaurs.

299–252 MYA

The rise of mammals

Dinosaurs become the dominant animals on land. Birds evolve from small feathered dinosaurs, and the first small mammals evolve from synapsids.

66–3 MYA

Age of the Dinosaurs

359–299 MYA

About half the world’s animal species disappear in a mass extinction at the end of the age of dinosaurs. The likely cause is an asteroid hitting Earth.

230–65 MYA

Death of the dinosaurs

The Great Dying

The greatest mass extinction in history occurs before the age of dinosaurs. Around 95 percent of the world’s species disappear. It takes almost 30 million years for life on land to recover.

4.3 billion years ago (bya)

Life begins in water, possibly near hot volcanic springs in the deep ocean. The first life forms are carbon-based molecules that have the ability to make copies of themselves. Once they start multiplying, the process of evolution begins, and the self-copying molecules become more complex.

Origin of life

780–630 million years ago (mya)

An explosion of life

600 MYA

Soon after the Snowball era ends, complex organisms that may be the first animals appear. They are softbodied, leaf-shaped creatures with no obvious organs, limbs, or mouthparts. They probably live on the ocean floor and feed on particles of food absorbed through their skin.

First animals

541 MYA

The first animals with hard body cases, jointed legs, biting mouthparts, and gripping claws appear. This apparently sudden burst of evolution, called the Cambrian explosion, gives rise to all the major types of invertebrate animals alive today.

After oceans first formed on Earth, it didn’t take long for life to appear on the planet. How life began remains one of the great mysteries of science, but most scientists believe the first living things developed from carbon-based chemicals in water. No trace of these remains, but the animals and plants that evolved from them left numerous fossils behind. The fossil record shows that the story of life on Earth has had twists and turns, with occasional mass extinctions wiping out the dominant species and allowing new forms of life to emerge.

Life on Earth

3.7 BYA

Single-celled organisms evolve. They will be the only forms of life on Earth for most of the planet’s history. Many grow in mounds on the ocean floor, using sunlight to photosynthesize. They release the gas oxygen as a waste, changing Earth’s atmosphere.

Earth’s surface freezes and a thick layer of ice encases the whole planet for millions of years. Life on the surface is wiped out during this “Snowball Earth” period, but microorganisms survive under the ice in the ocean.

Snowball Earth

444 MYA

First cells

525 MYA

Around 85 percent of all marine species disappear in a series of major extinctions. The cause is unknown, but some scientists suspect climate change is to blame.

Death in the ocean

First vertebrates The first vertebrates—animals with backbones—appear. They are fishlike animals that swim like tadpoles and have simple mouths for sucking. Later, their descendants evolve hinged jaws, allowing them to grab prey and tear flesh.

Fish rule the ocean in the Devonian Period, which is also called the age of fish. Sharks are now common, but the most fearsome predator is Dunkleosteus, a 20 ft (6 m) long predator with an armored body and huge jaws equipped with a fleshcutting beak.

The age of fish

419–359 MYA

Dunkleosteus

The age of dinosaurs

Rhamphorhynchus

Modern humans have existed for about 200,000 years, but dinosaurs dominated life on Earth for nearly 200 million years. This vast span of time is called the Mesozoic Era and is divided into three distinct periods. The reign of the dinosaurs and other giant reptiles came to an abrupt end in a mass extinction 66 million years ago, but not every kind of dinosaur was wiped out.

Eudimorphodon Plateosaurus

Cryolophosaurus

Stegosaurus Isanosaurus Scelidosaurus Eoraptor Coelophysis Anchiornis

240 million years ago

220

210

200

190

180

Triassic Period

Jurassic Period

The first dinosaurs appear in the middle of the Triassic Period. They are small, nimble animals that scamper on powerful hind legs, using their stiff tails to balance and their small arms to handle food. This successful formula soon leads to variations. Some dinosaurs evolve into plant-eaters, growing longer necks that help them reach leaves or armored skin for protection. Others specialize in hunting. While dinosaurs rule the land, other prehistoric reptiles adapt to life in the ocean and air.

In the Jurassic Period, plant-eating dinosaurs reach gigantic sizes, making them the largest animals ever to walk on Earth. Exactly why this happens isn’t clear, but one theory is that predators target smaller animals, driving a process of natural selection that makes both prey and predator become larger and larger. Meanwhile, the smallest dinosaurs evade predators by taking flight—they evolve into the first birds.

Nothosaurus Liopleurodon

Mixosaurus

16

170

160

Argentinosaurus Diplodocus

Quetzalcoatlus

Pteranodon

Therizinosaurus

Confuciusornis

Allosaurus

Tyrannosaurus

Sauropelta

Triceratops Velociraptor Struthiomimus Iguanodon

150

140

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

Cretaceous Period During the Cretaceous Period, Earth’s continents slowly drift toward their current configuration, moving about as fast as human toenails grow. There are now more kinds of dinosaurs than ever, including flightless, feathered giants and small but ferocious carnivores with hooklike foot claws that might be used to disembowel prey. At the end of the Cretaceous, all types of giant prehistoric reptiles disappear in a mass extinction, perhaps victims of a catastrophic asteroid strike, but birds survive.

Albertonectes Mosasaurus

17

End of the dinosaurs Almost 66 million years ago, a catastrophic event occurred that wiped out more than half of life on Earth, including the dinosaurs. Most experts believe this mass extinction was caused by an enormous meteorite crashing into Earth. Such a huge impact would have created a worldwide cloud of dust and fumes, choking animals and blocking out the Sun’s light and warmth. The planet’s climate would have changed dramatically, making life impossible for many species.

Australopithecines

Upright walking

Several species of bipedal ape, Australopithecines, spread across the grasslands of East Africa. The most famous Australopithecus is Lucy, a female whose 3.2 million-year-old bones were discovered in Ethiopia in 1974.

In the African forests, apes evolve the ability to walk upright. This frees their hands for carrying and throwing. The first known ape which may have been bipedal (two-legged) is called Sahelanthropus tchadensis.

7–6 mya (million years ago)

4 mya

Human ancestors

Humans originated as African apes and are related to chimps and gorillas. Around 6 million years ago, our closest ape ancestors, called hominins, began to walk on two legs. Over time, they developed bigger brains and learned to make tools and control fire. As hominins evolved, they left Africa to settle all over the world.

Hand axe Homo erectus moves out of Africa and into Asia. It invents a new kind of stone tool —a hand axe with a leaf-shaped cutting blade. This is the first tool made to a design.

1.8–1.75 mya

Making fire Homo erectus uses fire, allowing the species to cook, keep warm, and protect itself from wild animals. The earliest evidence of fire is a 1 million-year-old collection of charred animal bones found in a cave in South Africa.

1 mya

Warming climate The climate warms, causing sea levels to rise. Big game animals, such as mammoths, die out. Humans adapt by eating new plant foods and catching more fish. The bow and arrow, a new invention, allows them to hunt small game such as deer.

14,000–12,000 ya 20

Homo heidelbergensis Homo heidelbergensis appears in Africa, later moving into West Asia and Europe. It is the first hominin species to build shelters and use spears to hunt animals.

700,000 ya (years ago)

First art Humans in Europe and Asia produce the first works of art: paintings and carvings of animals and people. The paintings, created in caves, probably serve a ritual purpose, such as contacting animal spirits to bring about a successful hunt.

35,000 ya

Last Neanderthals Neanderthals die out, perhaps unable to adapt to the rapidly changing climate. Our own species (Homo sapiens sapiens) is now the last type of human on the planet. However, today, most of us carry some Neanderthal genes.

39,000 ya

Homo habilis

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AUSTRALIA

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Modern humans left Africa 120,000 years ago, beginning a journey that would take them to every inhabitable place on Earth. Sea levels were much lower than they are now. A bridge of land linked Asia and America, and the distance by sea to Australia was far shorter than it is today.

SO

Following the first use of stone tools by Australopithecines 3.3 million years ago, Homo habilis (“handy man”) spreads across East and southern Africa. It makes simple chopping tools by smashing river pebbles.

Human migrations

ya

ANTARCTICA

Homo erectus Homo erectus (“upright man”), the first hominin with the body size of modern humans, evolves in Africa. Like an ape, Homo erectus has a low, flat forehead and a projecting jaw with big teeth.

1.9 mya

Neanderthals Our closest hominin relatives, the Neanderthals, appear in Asia and Europe. They are the first hominins to bury their dead —they do so in caves with offerings.

400,000 ya

Homo sapiens sapiens Modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) appear in Africa. Modern humans and Neanderthals have similarly large brains. Both learn to make clothes from animal skins, allowing them to move to cooler regions.

200,000 ya

Cro-Magnons Modern humans called Cro-Magnons move into Europe, where they live alongside Neanderthals. They are the first humans to sew, using bone needles, and make jewelry from shells and bones.

45,000 ya

Homo floresiensis Homo floresiensis, a tiny hominin just 3 ft 6 in (1 m) tall, lives on the island of Flores in Indonesia. It is thought to have died out around 50,000 years ago.

100,000 ya 21

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Scythe The scythe is an agricultural tool used to mow grass and reap crops. It is swung along the ground, and the sharp blade slices the grass or crop at the base. The first scythes may have been developed around 500 bce.

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24

Oldest gold treasure

In Varna, in what is now Bulgaria, people are buried with thousands of items of gold jewelry. The oldest gold treasure in the world, it will lie hidden underground for over 6,000 years before being discovered by accident in 1972.

Metalworking begins

c.4500 bce c.3100 bce

Iron is first made by the Hittites of western Asia, who use it to make weapons. Although iron is the most common metal, it requires great heat to extract from rock. Instead of being poured into molds, it is softened and beaten into shape.

Iron

Metalworking begins in western Asia, where the world’s first farmers live. Early farmers find naturally occurring copper nuggets and hammer them into beads. Soon after, they make objects from gold, silver, and lead.

The people of western Asia discover how to extract copper from copper-rich rocks by heating them in a fire (this is called smelting). They pour the molten copper into molds to make tools. Most people still use stone tools, so this period is called the Copper-Stone Age.

The Copper-Stone Age

Pouring bronze

In western Asia and Central Europe, the use of bronze becomes widespread. Bronze is made by melting copper with a small amount of tin. This results in a much harder metal. A trade in tin, which is a rare metal, also develops.

The Bronze Age

Malachite is a copper-rich mineral found in rocks.

Bronze is a soft metal that is relatively easy to melt and pour into a mold. Gold, silver, copper, tin, and lead are also soft metals. Iron is harder and melts at a much higher temperature.

The use of metals was one of the greatest technological leaps in history. Unlike stone tools, metal ones can be molded or beaten into any shape, and metal blades are easy to resharpen. The first metal tools were made mostly with copper, a soft metal that was easy to find. Later, people discovered how to work iron—a much harder metal that had to be extracted from rock in a furnace.

Working with metals

c.9000 bce c.4500 bce c.2200 bce

Peru and Bolivia

Indian steel

The first European blast furnaces begin operating in Germany, Switzerland, and Sweden. They use water wheels to power bellows that blow air into the furnace, and because of this, are built by rivers.

c.600 bce

European blast furnaces

800–300 bce c.700 bce

Indian metalworkers make the highest quality steel in the ancient world. It is later exported to China and the West, where it is called “wootz.” It is used to make exceptionally sharp, hard-wearing swords.

1200–1101 bce

In Peru and Bolivia, people begin large-scale smelting of copper. They use gold, silver, and tumbaga (gold mixed with copper or silver) to make beautiful works of art in various colors.

The Iron Age The use of iron spreads from Western Asia to Europe, and India’s Iron Age takes off at around the same time. Iron’s hardness makes it ideal for tools, cooking pots, and nails, as well as weapons.

c.1200 bce

6th century 5th century

bce bce

13th century ce

25

In China, people discover how to make iron in a blast furnace—a furnace powered by a blast of hot air. The resulting iron can be remelted and poured into molds to make cast iron. Blast furnaces will not be invented in the West for almost 2,000 years.

Cast iron

The Iron Age reaches subSaharan Africa, where the Nok people of Nigeria use iron to make spearheads, knives, and bracelets. The use of iron tools helps farming spread across Africa.

African iron

Iron working spreads throughout Europe, where readily available iron weapons lead to an increase in warfare. This 6th-century- bce Greek vase shows blacksmiths using a forge (a powerful fire) to soften iron before shaping it with a hammer.

Iron-Age Europe

The Sanxingdui people of China make large bronze statues with masklike faces. Their bronze includes lead, as well as tin and copper, making a stronger, heavier metal. The biggest statue, of a tree, stands almost 13 ft (4 m) high.

Chinese statues

9000 – 4000 Prehistoric communities

bc e

Early farmers establish villages with basic buildings and shared structures. The first of these are found in Mesopotamia in West Asia. Gradually, they expand to become small towns with organized communities.

8000 bce Walled settlements Communities begin to surround their settlements with protective walls. In the town of Jericho in Palestine, a huge stone wall is constructed for defense, surveillance, and flood protection, keeping the 3,000 inhabitants safe.

Towns and cities The first settlements started in prehistoric times. Basic buildings provided shelter and safety as these communities grew into towns and villages. With more opportunities for trade and work, the populations of many increased, eventually resulting in the growth of major cities. The birth of new technologies enabled many of these towns and cities to develop even faster into the modern metropolises we know today.

Byzantine bazaars In the Byzantine Empire, around the Mediterranean, public areas and main roads in cities start to become closed off by shops. These eventually evolve into bazaars —covered markets where locals barter to get the best price for goods.

Replacement walls

500–700

King Philip II of France orders a new wall to be built around Paris, stretching beyond the outskirts of the city. It is 8 ft (2 m) wide with around 70 towers. Many other medieval European cities also rebuild their original walls to contain their growing centers.

ce

Factory towns During the Industrial Revolution, people move to work in factories. New towns grow rapidly around the factories to house workers.

1190

1807 Street lights

1750–1800

The first public street lighting that uses gas is demonstrated in London. This becomes the norm across towns and cities, solving the problem of limited light at night.

Early cities The first great cities develop in Mesopotamia. These are each ruled by a king. Grand stone structures called ziggurats are built, containing shrines, staircases, and towers.

4000–3000 bce

Trading hubs Mesopotamia’s cities become important trading centers, using rivers to transport goods. Long-distance trade takes place between cities in Mesopotamia and in the Indus Valley in Pakistan. Luxury items such as spices, textiles, metals, and precious stones are exchanged.

Sewer systems The first sewer systems are constructed by the Indus Valley civilization. Underground tunnels carry water from place to place, allowing most homes to have a bath, toilet, and water supply.

2900–2300 bce

2600 bce

Record-breaking Rome Rome becomes the first city to reach a population of 1 million people. Most Romans live in blocks of flats called insulae that are 6 or 7 stories high, maximizing space in the city.

City-states In ancient Greece, cities establish themselves as independent states with their own political systems. Athens, Sparta, and Thebes are some of the most important city-states.

1 ce

800 bce

Skyscrapers

City slickers

The first high-rise building, nicknamed a “skyscraper,” is built in Chicago, IL. Building upward saves space in the packed city center and is possible due to the invention of the elevator and sturdy steel.

Half of the world’s population now lives in cities. Megacities, which have populations of more than 10 million, have become more common. Tokyo, Japan, is the biggest city in the world, with around 13 million people living there.

1863 Underground railway The world’s first underground railway system opens in London. Moving transportation underground saves space and provides a quicker way to get around the bustling city.

1885

2008

“What is the city but the people?” William Shakespeare, Coriolanus, c. 1608 ce

27

“The greatest inventors are unknown to us. Someone invented the wheel—but who?”

c.3500 bce

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G e Gea ars rs t o g w h e e a re t o ls et o s p e h e r to t h at w t h e d e i n d ma cr ork a ex a c h i n e n d f o r e a s e t 4 t h m p l e s . T h e c e of h e a e c a n e nt u a p p e a r l i e s fo u d w i l l r y bce a r i n t t as c n d i n meve nt i n C h h e u in har io achi ally b a and ts, clo nes su e b i c c ks , c h yc l e c a rs, s.

Spoked The first wheel

Early wheels To improve the design, the Sumerians chipped away at the log to create two wheels and an axle. Pegs fixed on the sled hooked it onto the axle.

28

e d n t o ks c a t i b e h i m i nve c o r i r r i g e r to l ow d . c A r e k i n g m s w a t ro m ro u n r e t f G r ro t a n s fo i n g re d g h g i r w t ra a l l o s fe t o h n d a tr un o gr

Isaac Asimov, science-fiction writer, 1988

Making grooves Over time, the movement of the sled over the roller wore grooves in the log roller, which helped keep the sled in place.

The first cart The Sumerians later fixed individual wheels onto an axle and attached the sled to it securely by drilling holes in its frame.

’ es t d e en a m ew a n c i l o p s t i c h s c r s , a n d eve w t h a by r A e r, re on

The earliest wheels used for transportation are seen on Mesopotamian chariots and carts. They are built from solid wood and allow people to travel more easily than ever before.

Teaming up The Sumerians decided to combine the sled and roller, finding that the sled glided over the rollers more smoothly than over the ground.

a g b ee r of T h e r m e d e r w h wa t e t h e r s fo w a t t h e , ra ill. t ra n f t h e u s e s t re a m e r a m o ine s ow b e p ing ’t ch m a t- f l ow p l e, to i l l wo n t h e r s o o a . m f e ind r an ce np t h a T h e w t e d fo i n 6 0 0 s, en i nv ye a r 0 70

Early humans realized that heavy objects could be moved more easily if they were rolled instead of dragged. It took thousands of years to develop the wheel. Many inventions developed over the past 3,500 years would not have been possible without it.

Wheels for transportation

Simple sled Rollers proved awkward to move around, so the Sumerians developed a sled with a curved front that could be pulled along more easily.

e t o Wa rindingy the invl. This

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Rolling along The ancient Sumerians realized that they could move bulky objects more easily if they rolled them over round log rollers.

The story of the wheel

l hee r n i s o n w er f c o nt i

heel Th e a n c ie re a li ze th nt Eg y pti a n s at w h e e ls can be m ad e li g h c h u n ks fr te r by c u tt in g o s p o ke d w m th e m . Th e s e h Eg y pti a n e e ls a ll ow th e s to o u tr u e n e m ie s in batt le n th e ir a n d tr goods m o re q u ic k ad e ly.

Wheels can be seen in so many objects around us that it is tricky to imagine a time when they didn’t exist. Nobody knows exactly how the wheel evolved to form the wheel we see today, but archaeologists think it all began thousands of years ago with simple log rollers and sleds.

The first wheels are potters’ wheels. They begin to appear in different cultures across the globe in around 3500 bce. Made of hardened clay, the wheel allows people to create better bowls and jars.

Inventing the wheel

b 00

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The Penny Farthing The enormous front wheel enabled high speeds, but the Penny Farthing was dangerous. It lost popularity in the 1880s with the introduction of “safety bicycles.”

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Pneumatic tires

1808b8ce 10

Unt il pne umatic tires were inve nted , travelers had to put up with unc omforta bly bum py jour neys on veh icle s with woo den or hard ene d rub ber whe els. Pne umatic tires are fille d with air, mak ing for a muc h more comfortable ride.

3b4ce 10180 e

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29

The written word Spoken language has existed since prehistoric times. The need to keep records of trade led civilizations around the world to invent ways of writing language down. This allowed knowledge to be collected and passed on from person to person both reliably and over great distances. It’s thanks to the written word that we know the thoughts and ideas of people who lived thousands of years ago.

c.650 bce

World’s first writing The Egyptians invent hieroglyphs, a system of around 700–800 picture signs, which stand for words, sounds, and ideas.

c.800 bce

Roman alphabet

Greek alphabet

Brahmi script

In Italy, the Romans adapt the Greek alphabet to write their own language, Latin. The Roman alphabet goes on to become the world’s most widely used script.

The Greeks adapt the Phoenician alphabet, adding letters for vowels. It has 24 letters, and is usually written from left to right.

This script is developed in India, using signs for consonants with additional markings for vowels. Brahmi is the ancestor of around 200 later Asian scripts.

c.150 bce

3rd century ce

c.300 bce

30

c.800 bce

c.3300 bce

Mayan writing

Runes

Arabic script

In Central America, the Mayan people develop a writing system with signs standing for syllables as well as ideas. They carve monumental inscriptions, paint text on vases, and write on fig tree bark.

In Scandinavia and modern-day Germany, people begin to use runes, with 24 signs. The system is inspired by contact with the Roman alphabet, but uses straight lines, so it can be easily carved onto wood or stone.

Arabs create an alphabet with 28 letters, written from right to left. With the spread of Islam, the Arabic script is later adopted across North Africa and much of Asia.

c.3200 bce

c.2600 bce

Cuneiform

Indus script

The Sumerians of Mesopotamia (see pages 36–37) invent cuneiform, a writing system of shapes pressed into clay with a reed stylus.

The Indus people of India invent a script that remains undeciphered to this day. Evidence suggests it was written from right to left.

c.1200 bce

c.1850–1650 bce

Phoenician alphabet

c.2500 bce

Chinese writing The earliest surviving Chinese writing uses picture signs called “ideograms.” Each picture stands for an idea or an object. The signs later develop into the script used in China today.

First alphabet

Phoenicians (from the eastern Mediterranean coast) simplify the Proto-Sinaitic alphabet. They use 22 signs, all standing for consonants. The script later inspires the Hebrew, Arabic, and Greek writing systems.

To the east of Egypt, the first alphabet, Proto-Sinaitic (or Canaanite), is created. Based on Egyptian hieroglyphs, people only need to learn 30 signs to be able to write.

5th century

c.860–880

The Rosetta Stone

Japanese scripts

Slavic scripts

Japanese people adapt Chinese writing to create a script called kanji. They also invent two other scripts, hiragana and katakana, with signs standing for syllables. As a result, Japan has three writing systems.

Bulgarian churchmen adapt the Greek alphabet to create the Glagolitic and Cyrillic alphabets, which they use to translate the Bible into Slavic languages from Central and Eastern Europe. Cyrillic later evolves into the modern Russian alphabet.

The Rosetta Stone is an inscribed basalt block, discovered by French soldiers in Egypt in 1799. Carved in 196 bce, the same text is written on it in Ancient Greek, hieroglyphs, and demotic (an everyday Egyptian script). In 1822, French linguist Jean-François Champollion used the inscriptions on the stone to work out how to read hieroglyphs, which until then had been impossible to decipher.

31

THE ANCIENT WORLD 3000 BCE–500 CE

The Ancient World The earliest civilizations established their cultures around huge rivers that could support farming, such as the Tigris and Euphrates in West Asia, and the Nile in Egypt. As technology developed and trade expanded after 3000 bce, great empires also sprang up across Europe and East Asia. As these new societies took shape, many of them came into conflict with one another in competition for land and resources.

c.2500 bce The first recorded war takes place, between the cities of Umma and Lagash in Mesopotamia.

2589–2566 bce The Egyptians construct the Great Pyramid at Giza.

34

c.950–612 bce The Assyrians of Mesopotamia create an empire stretching from Egypt across West Asia.

c.1900 bce The Amorites conquer most of Mesopotamia, which they rule from the city of Babylon.

550 bce Cyrus the Great founds the First Persian Empire, based in West Asia.

c.509 bce The people of Rome in Italy overthrow their king, and begin to expand the city’s influence.

490–479 bce The Persians make two unsuccessful attempts to conquer the cities of Greece.

508 bce The Athenians of Greece establish the first democracy.

336–323 bce Alexander of Macedon unites Greece and conquers the Persian Empire. Greek cities are founded as far east as India.

c.450–50 bce The Celtic La Tène culture develops in modern-day Switzerland.

321–185 bce Chandragupta Maurya of South India invades the north and establishes the Maurya Empire.

Mesopotamia

Land of the Pharaohs

Ancient Greece

The Celts

The earliest cities were built in West Asia, in a historical region known as Mesopotamia (see pages 36–37). The cultures of this area invented farming and the wheel.

Ruled by kings known as pharaohs, the ancient Egyptians (see pages 40–41) built large monuments called pyramids to house their royal dead.

In Athens, one of the warring city-states of ancient Greece (see pages 52–53), great thinkers developed early philosophy and democracy.

Spread across Central and Western Europe, the Celts (see pages 58–59) were warriors who shared a single culture. They were experts at crafting metal.

Pottery The process of creating pottery was first discovered in prehistoric times, but in the ancient world, many cultures— particularly the Greeks—perfected pottery design as an art form. Objects such as this Greek amphora (jug) give historians many visual clues about the fashions, stories, and societies of the ancient world.

221 bce The king of Qin unites the kingdoms of China under his rule, becoming Shi Huangdi (“First Emperor”).

27 bce After a civil war, Octavian becomes Rome’s first emperor, taking a new name, Augustus.

202 bce–220 ce The emperors of the Han Dynasty rule China for more than 400 years.

30 bce Egypt is conquered by the Romans, bringing an end to the rule of the pharaohs.

c.320 ce Chandra Gupta I conquers the Ganges Valley in northern India, founding the Gupta Empire.

79 ce Mount Vesuvius in Italy erupts, destroying the towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum.

476 ce Rome falls to Germanic invaders, but its empire survives in the east as the Byzantine Empire.

The Persian Empire

Imperial China

Rome

Ancient India

Centered in West Asia, the Persian Empire (see pages 60–61) was split into provinces, each one ruled by a regional governor known as a satrap.

Emperor Qin Shi Huang created the first of a series of imperial dynasties that would go on to rule China (see pages 68–69) for the next 2,000 years.

Beginning as a small hilltop town in Italy, Rome (see pages 72–73) became the capital of an empire that spanned much of Europe, North Africa, and West Asia.

Greatly influenced by the religions of Hinduism and Buddhism, a series of empires sprang up across the Indian subcontinent (see pages 82–83).

35

Mesopotamia Mesopotamia means “the land between the two rivers,” referring to the Tigris and the Euphrates in western Asia. It was here, more than 5,000 years ago, that the world’s first cities were built. The Mesopotamians invented organized religion, royalty, armies, law, and many other fundamental features of civilization as we know it.

Early beginnings Farming people in northern Mesopotamia develop systems to supply their fields with water. Fine Mesopotamian painted pottery is exported across southwest Asia.

c.6000–4000 bce

Babylonians

Ziggurat

Akkadians

The Amorites, a people from the western deserts, conquer most of Mesopotamia, which they rule from Babylon. They are known as the Babylonians, and their new empire is called Babylonia.

The first ziggurats (stepped temples) are built in Ur, Eridu, Nippur, and Uruk. These huge stone structures were built as places of religious worship.

King Sargon of Akkad (a region in northern Mesopotamia) conquers all of Sumer, creating the world’s first empire. The Akkadian language gradually replaces Sumerian in Mesopotamia.

c.1900 bce

c.2350 bce

Hammurabi’s law code

Hittites and Kassites

Assyrians

King Hammurabi reigns over Babylon. He is famous for his law code, which, although based on earlier codes, he claims to have received in person from Shamash, the god of justice.

The Hittites and Kassites invade Babylonia using iron weapons and fast chariots pulled by horses. The Kassites conquer Babylonia, which they rule for 500 years.

The Assyrians of northern Mesopotamia create an empire stretching from Egypt to western Persia. They speak Aramaic, which becomes the standard language used across southwest Asia.

c.1595–1530 bce

c.950–612 bce

1792–1750 bce 36

c.2100 bce

Sumer

First city

Kings and writing

Northern Mesopotamians move into the flat southern plains, later called Sumer. They establish large villages, build the first temples, and invent the potter’s wheel.

Villages at Uruk join together to form the world’s first city. It has walls, monumental architecture, and a society split into specialized classes, including priests, merchants and craftworkers.

Around a dozen city-states emerge. Each is ruled by an ensi (king), who lives in a palace and claims to govern on behalf of the local god. Cuneiform writing (see page 31) is invented.

c.5000 bce

Warfare The first recorded war in history takes place, between the cities of Lagash and Umma. A carving shows King Eannatum of Lagash leading his army to victory, marching over fallen enemies.

c.2500 bce

c.4500 bce

Royals tombs of Ur Kings and queens of Ur are buried in tombs with treasures made of gold, silver, lapis lazuli, and carnelian. The tombs also contain the bodies of servants who have been sacrificed.

c.3300–3100 bce

Bronze Sumerians learn how to make bronze by mixing copper and tin. At first they use it to make tools and weapons, eventually creating sculptures with it.

c.2750–2400 bce

c.3000 bce

The Standard of Ur This box was found in a royal tomb in the city of Ur. It was made around 2500 bce and its mosaic decoration shows what life was like in early Mesopotamia. This side depicts warfare, while the other side shows life during peacetime.

Fall of Assyria

Cyrus the Great

There are widespread rebellions against Assyrian rule, led by the Babylonians and the Medes. The Assyrian cities are burned, and Babylonia takes control of the Assyrian Empire.

King Cyrus the Great of Persia conquers the Babylonian Empire. He claims to rule on behalf of Marduk, the chief god of the city of Babylon.

614–612 bce

539 bce 37

The royal game of Ur

Tic-tac-toe

Board games are popular in ancient Egypt, with some royalty deciding to be buried with their games. A favorite game is senet, which is played on a board marked with 30 squares.

This game is played on a board of 20 squares with foursided dice and two sets of seven pieces. The aim is for a player to get their pieces from one end of the board to the other.

People all across the Roman Empire play a version of tic-tactoe (also known today as noughts and crosses). The Roman version is called terni lapilli (meaning “three pebbles at a time”).

c.3500 bce

c.2600 bce

1st century bce

Senet

Chess This skill and strategy game is first played in either Northern India or Central Asia. As trade routes from India and Persia in West Asia expand, chess will reach Europe by 1000 ce.

c.2800 bce c.500 bce

Dice People have been rolling objects as part of games for thousands of years, but the oldest known dice come from Shahr-e Sūkhté, a Bronze Age city in modern-day Iran. Dice soon become common.

Go Invented in China, go is played on a grid board, with players taking turns to place white and black stones at the grid intersections. It is one of the oldest board games that is still played today.

Fun and games People have been sitting down to play games together for many thousands of years. Board games were popular in ancient Egypt, while card games were created in imperial China. Today, old favorites are enjoyed alongside new fantastical storytelling adventures. Games provide hours of entertainment and competition at every roll of the dice or choice of a card. 38

c.600

4th century ce

Pachisi The Indian game of pachisi is played on a cross-shaped board. Six or seven cowrie shells are thrown to decide how many places a player moves their pieces. Emperor Akbar (1542–1605) has a gigantic board built, on which humans are moved around as game pieces.

Dominoes

21st century 1974

Monopoly American Elizabeth Magie invents “The Landlord’s Game” to warn children against pitfalls of capitalism. Magie’s original board uses made-up street names, but later versions of the game (now called Monopoly) each use real place names from a city around the world.

c.13th century

Families and groups of friends rediscover tabletop games as a fun group activity. There is a huge rise in people playing games and a surge in the production of new games. There are now many thousands of titles on the market to choose from.

Originally called mokshapat, this board game is invented by an Indian saint named Gyandev. It is meant to help children understand the difference between good and evil, with the ladders representing good and the snakes representing evil.

Role play

Snakes and ladders

Fantastical role-playing games become popular with the release of Dungeons and Dragons. With its nonhuman characters and magical narrative, the game soon spreads around the world.

Modern board games

In the 12th century, the Chinese created two-sided tiles with dots to represent numbers on each side. They were given the name “dominoes” in Italy and can be used to play a variety of games.

1904 9th century

Playing cards The Chinese invent the earliest playing cards. When cards reach Europe, the suit markings are cups, gold coins, swords, and polo sticks. In about 1480, the French suits familiar today (hearts, diamonds, spades, and clubs) become standard.

1944

1870 Mahjong This tile-laying game is first developed in China and becomes popular across Asia. The game of skill and strategy is usually played with a set of 144 tiles featuring Chinese symbols.

1933

Clue

Scrabble

This classic crime mystery board game is invented by British musician Anthony E. Pratt. Players are suspects who must follow clues to decide which of them is the murderer, where the crime was committed, and what weapon was used.

An American architect named Alfred Butts invents the word game Scrabble to mix spelling skills with a scoring system. During the 1950s, it becomes such a big hit that stores ration supplies per customer.

39

Ancient Egypt Around 3000 bce, the people of Egypt created the world’s first united state. It was governed by a king known as a pharaoh, who was believed to be the representative of the gods on Earth. For 3,000 years, Egyptians wore similar white linen clothing, spoke the same language, and followed a regular cycle of work, governed by the annual flooding of the River Nile. 2181–2055 bce

“Hail to you O Nile! … Come, O Nile, come and prosper!” Hymn to the Nile, c.2100 bce

2589–2566 bce

Dark period

Great Pyramid

The fall of the Old Kingdom after a period of political strife and widespread drought is followed by a time of disunity, called the First Intermediate Period. There are few monumental building projects during this time, as the power of royal authority was in decline.

At Giza, Pharaoh Khufu builds the Great Pyramid, which remains to this day the world’s biggest stone building. The whole nation takes part in the project, either hauling stone or growing food for the workforce.

2055–1710 bce

1650 bce The Hyksos

Middle Kingdom

A people from western Asia, the Hyksos, move into northern Egypt and destroy the Middle Kingdom. They bring with them the new technology of fighting from horsedrawn chariots. While the Hyksos rule the north, Egyptian pharaohs continue to govern in the south.

Egypt is reunited by Pharaoh Mentuhotep II, the founder of what historians would later call the Middle Kingdom. This period is remembered for its great achievements in art and literature, which leave behind clues about the daily lives of ancient Egyptians.

Mentuhotep II

332–30 bce

664–332 bce

Ptolemaic Dynasty

Foreign rulers

Egypt is ruled by 15 Macedonian pharaohs, all called Ptolemy. The capital of Egypt during this period is Alexandria, founded by Alexander the Great on the Mediterranean coast. The last ruler is Queen Cleopatra (ruled 51–30 bce). Egypt is then conquered by the Romans, bringing an end to the rule of ancient Egypt.

During the Late Period, Egypt is conquered by a series of foreign powers. The first invaders are the Nubians, followed by the Assyrians and the Persians. Finally, in 332 bce, King Alexander the Great of Macedon, ruler of an empire that extends from Greece, takes control.

Coins showing Cleopatra

1279-1213 bce Ramesses the Great Ramesses II rules for an astonishing 66 years and fathers around 100 children. He has many colossal statues built of himself, as well as a temple at Abu Simbel, where he is worshipped as a god.

c.4500 bce

c.3300 bce First settlements

Early writing

Farming people settle in villages by the Nile. They grow wheat and barley, keep cattle and sheep, and make polished red pottery with blackened tops. This early culture is later called Badarian, after the site of El Badari, the remains of which were excavated in 1923.

Egyptians invent the world’s first writing system: hieroglyphics. It uses hundreds of picture signs, standing for ideas, words, and sounds. These are carved on stone or painted on sheets of papyrus, a writing material made from the reeds along the Nile. Early hieroglyphs on wooden labels

2667–2648 bce

c.3100 bce

Stepped pyramid

A kingdom united

Pharaoh Djoser, the first ruler of a period that historians call the Old Kingdom, builds the first pyramid. This is a royal tomb where the king’s body, preserved as a mummy, is thought to live on after death. Djoser’s pyramid has stepped rather than smooth sides and is Egypt’s first monument to be built out of stone.

Egypt, previously two kingdoms, is united under one king. The first king we know of is called Narmer. He is shown in art as a warrior defeating enemies while wearing the crowns of Upper (southern) and Lower (northern) Egypt.

Narmer wears the white crown of Upper Egypt.

1550–1525 bce

Narmer wears the red crown of Lower Egypt.

1504–1425 bce

New Kingdom

Egyptian Empire

Ahmose, ruler of Thebes, drives out the Hyksos and reunites Egypt, founding what would become known as the New Kingdom. Pharaohs are no longer buried in pyramids, but in hidden tombs in the Valley of the Kings, in the desert to the west of Thebes. The Theban god Amon-Re becomes chief Egyptian god.

Thutmose I aggressively expands Egyptian rule into Nubia, a country that lies to the south of Egypt, as well as into areas of western Asia. The Egyptian Empire continues to grow under his successors, Thutmose II (1492–1479 bce) and Thutmose III (1479–1425 bce).

Depiction of Amon-Re

1336–1327 bce

Thutmose I

1352–1336 bce

Tutankhamun

Sun worship

Under the rule of Pharaoh Tutankhamun, the old religion is restored. After his death at the age of around 18, Tutankhamun is buried in a tomb filled with treasures. Discovered in 1922, the tomb of Tutankhamun is the only unrobbed Egyptian royal tomb ever found.

Pharaoh Akhenaten makes sweeping changes to Egypt’s religion, closing down the temples to the gods and introducing worship of the Aten, a disk that represents the Sun. He builds a new capital called Akhetaten (modern-day El Amarna), with open-air temples for the worship of the Sun.

41

Ancient monuments For most of prehistory, people lived as nomadic huntergatherers and left behind little trace of their existence. It was only after people became settled farmers that they began to build monuments, such as tombs and temples. Most were simple structures, but some were built on an enormous scale that required hundreds of laborers—a sign they were built for powerful leaders.

Dolmens In western Europe, people begin to build dolmens—tombs using three or more huge standing stones supporting a flat tablestone. These are covered with earth or rocks to form a mound called a barrow.

c.4000 bce

10

,0 0

0–

90

Abu Simbel 00

bc

e

0 c .4 5

First temple People in Göbekli Tepe in Turkey build the world’s oldest religious structure, with more than 200 pillars arranged in 20 circles. Unusually, it seems to have been built by hunter-gatherers in the process of becoming farmers.

Korean dolmens In Korea, people begin to build dolmen tombs. Some stand above ground, but others have an underground burial chamber. About 45,000 are built, giving Korea the world’s largest collection of dolmens.

70

0

0–

2

0 00

e bc

At Abu Simbel in southern Egypt, Pharaoh Rameses II has a great temple carved out of solid rock. It is dedicated to three gods. Colossal statues of the pharaoh sit outside and line the temple’s entrance hall.

Standing stones In Brittany in France, farming people set up more than 3,000 standing stones in long lines. Their purpose is a mystery, but it is possible that each one was placed in honor of a dead person.

126

e

bc

c.2

50

4 1 24 4–

e

bc

bc

e

Sanchi Stupa At Sanchi in India, Emperor Ashoka builds a great stupa— a domed monument holding relics of the Buddha. Stupas are places of pilgrimage for Buddhists, who walk around them praying and meditating.

42

c.2

b 00

ce

Great Pyramid of Cholula The people of Cholula in Mexico build a pyramid temple to worship the god Quetzalcoatl. Over the next thousand years, it is rebuilt on a progressively bigger scale, until it is the largest pyramid in the world.

Newgrange

Stonehenge

In Ireland, people use 200,000 tons of rock to build an enormous, mound-shaped tomb with a long passage leading to a central burial chamber. The passage is aligned with the midwinter sunrise, which lights up the burial chamber for 17 minutes.

In Wiltshire, England, people arrange standing stones in circles. Some of the stones are hauled hundreds of miles from Wales. Their purpose is unclear, but certain stones align with the midwinter Sun, so Stonehenge may be used to establish calendar dates.

c.2

c.3

0 20

950

–2 5 0 0

First pyramid The Egyptian pharaoh Djoser builds the first pyramid as his tomb. It has stepped sides in six levels and is made of stone. The steps may have been seen as a stairway to the heavens for the pharoah.

Pyramids in Peru People at Caral in Peru build the first pyramids in South America. They have stepped sides like Djoser’s, but they serve as temples rather than tombs. They are arranged around a plaza in the middle of a great urban center.

bce

26

e

bc

30

–2 6

11 b

ce

Pyramids and Sphinx At Giza, the largest of Egypt’s pyramids are built by the pharaohs Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure. Khafre’s is guarded by the Great Sphinx, a colossal statue of a lion with the head of a pharaoh.

Ziggurats In Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), rulers build stepped temples, called ziggurats. Each is seen as the home of the local god, whose statue is kept in a shrine at the very top.

8 25

9–

2

4 50

c.2

6

b 00

ce

e

bc

Easter Island statues On Easter Island in the Pacific Ocean, islanders carve 887 statues of their chieftains and ancestors. These have eyes of white coral with black obsidian pupils, and caps made of red stone.

c.2100 bce

Monk’s Mound At the meeting of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Illinois rivers, North Americans build Monk’s Mound, an immense, pyramid-shaped mound of soil and clay. Its base is as large as that of Egypt’s Great Pyramid.

90

13 11

0– 12

00

0 115 13–

ce

00

–15

00

ce

ce

Angkor Wat In Cambodia, King Suryavarman II constructs Angkor Wat, a Hindu temple containing his tomb. It takes around 30 years to build and today remains the world’s largest religious structure.

43

The Great Sphinx The ancient Egyptians built sphinx statues to guard important areas such as tombs and temples. The most famous sphinx is the Great Sphinx of Giza, situated on the west bank of the River Nile. It was carved out of a huge outcrop of limestone that sticks up above the desert floor to guard the pyramid of Khafre in Giza. It was built 4,500 years ago, and is one of the largest and oldest statues in the world. The Sphinx has a human head, probably that of Pharaoh Khafre, and the body of a lion.

Sharing stories Many of the earliest stories were composed as poems, as the rhythm and repetition of poetry made it easier for storytellers to learn them. With the invention of writing around 6,000 years ago, these stories began to be written down. Drama and, much later, the novel developed as new forms of storytelling. Today, books are still a popular format for reading stories, but they are also available digitally as e-books or online.

“Those who tell stories rule the world.” Hopi American Indian proverb

In the story, the Monkey King had a magic staff that could shrink or grow in size.

13th century

46

13th–15th century

16th century

1623

Scandinavian sagas

Medieval romances

Monkey magic

First Folio

Most Icelandic sagas are tales of historic voyages, battles, and kings of northern Europe. Some sagas tell of a legendary past full of dwarves and giants. As well as sagas, the Icelanders write down stories of Thor and Loki from Norse mythology.

Tales of chivalrous knights going on quests and having heroic adventures are known in medieval Europe as romances. Old French and British legends of King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table are written down as romances in the late Middle Ages.

Journey to the West (also known as Monkey) is a Chinese novel based on the true story of a monk’s journey to bring Buddhist scrolls from India to China. The novel adds characters from Chinese mythology, such as the Monkey King.

Shakespeare adds many words to the English language and has a huge impact on the development of literature around the world. After his death, 36 of his plays are collected together for the first time in the First Folio.

1864

1884

1887

1914–1918

Science fiction

Great American Novel

Science and fantasy meet in French writer Jules Verne’s Journey to the Center of the Earth and, later, 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1870). These stories are early masterpieces of what we now call science fiction.

US novelist Mark Twain’s Adventures of Huckleberry Finn vividly portrays the American South and the language of its people. It is considered one of the “Great American Novels”—works that capture the spirit of America.

Elementary, my dear Watson Scottish writer Sir Arthur Conan Doyle creates the world’s best-known fictional detective, Sherlock Holmes, as well as his sidekick, Dr. Watson, in his novel A Study in Scarlet.

War poets A number of British and French soldiers fighting on the front lines in World War I write about their horrific experiences in haunting poetry. Sadly, many of them never come home from the war.

The tale of Gilgamesh from Mesopotamia in modern-day Iraq is the oldest surviving epic.

After 2100 bce

The story of Aladdin and the genie was added by the French writer Antoine Galland in the 18th century.

Ancient Greek actors wore masks to identify the character they played.

5th century bce

8th–15th century ce

c.1000–1012

Ancient epics

Greek drama

1001 stories

First novel

Societies of the ancient world produce long poems called epics. Performed by storytellers rather than written down, these epics celebrate a civilization’s culture through stories of great heroes.

Early Greek plays involve only a single actor and a chorus (a group of performers who comment on the action). Playwrights add a second and then a third actor to the stage, laying the foundations for Western drama.

One Thousand and One Nights is a collection of popular stories from Arabia. Although they appear in Arabic folk tales, many of its well-known characters—Sinbad, Aladdin, and Ali Baba—will be added much later.

The Tale of Genji by the Japanese lady-in-waiting Murasaki Shikibu is maybe the world’s first novel. Written on sheets of paper pasted and folded together, it tells the story of “Shining Genji,” the son of an ancient Japanese emperor.

18th–19th century

1812–1822

1818

1865

Rise of the novel

Once upon a time

Gothic horror

Wonderland

The novel becomes an extremely popular form of literature. Many European and American writers produce their novels in serial form. They are published in sections as monthly parts to make them more affordable to the public.

Brothers Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm collect traditional German folk tales such as Snow White and Hansel and Gretel, in Children’s and Household Tales. The cruelty and violence of the original stories is toned down in future editions.

Mary Shelley writes Frankenstein, one of the greatest works of Gothic horror—a type of story that deals with the supernatural, ghosts, and haunted houses. One of the last examples of Gothic horror is Dracula (1897) by Bram Stoker.

English clergyman Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonderland is full of nonsense speech and fantastical characters. It brings about a “Golden Age” in which children’s books focus on entertainment rather than education.

1920s Stream of consciousness A new style of writing, called “stream of consciousness” attempts to show fragments of thoughts and feelings as they pass through a character’s mind.

1950s

1960s

1997–2007

Postcolonial writing

Black voices

Harry Potter

As European powers lose hold of their international empires, writers from former colonies in Africa, South America, and Asia—particularly India—begin to write about the experience of being colonized.

African-Americans inspired by the Civil Rights Movement (see pages 290–291) write about the experiences of their people. The decade also sees the rise of female African-American poets.

British novelist J.K. Rowling’s seven books about Harry Potter and the wizard school of Hogwarts become a worldwide phenomenon. The novels have since been translated into around 80 languages and have sold more than 450 million copies.

47

“I adore wearing gems, but not because they are mine. You can’t possess radiance, you can only admire it.”

y jewelr bles c e t z A z te c n o

Elizabeth Taylor Actress and jewelry collector

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Humans have always worn jewelry, whether it is made from simple items such as shells and feathers, or expensive metals like gold and silver. Modern manufactured materials such as plastics have expanded the range even further. Throughout history, there have been many reasons for people to wear jewelry. Some societies and cultures have used jewelry to protect against evil, some to display wealth or rank, and some simply for decoration.

1325– 1 52 1

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The Scythians are nomads living in Central Asia who carry their wealth with them. They wear jewelry and decorate their armor and clothing with gold ornaments. This comb is topped with a group of fighting warriors.

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This decorative breastplate was found in the tomb of Tutankhamun, an Egyptian pharaoh. It is made of gold, inlaid with blue lapis lazuli, red carnelian, and turquoise.

17

Art Nouveau Jewelry in the Art Nouveau (“New Art”) style is very popular in Europe and the US. It takes its inspiration from elements in nature, with long swirling lines suggesting curling ivy or dragonfly wings.

c.1900

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The Incas of Peru value gold, which they describe as “the sweat of the Sun.” Only the emperor and nobles, who are believed to be closest to the gods, are allowed to wear gold items such as this ceremonial mask.

155 160 8– 3 c.1400

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Eliz

49

The story of sports The story of sports began thousands of years ago, when ancient people first started playing ball games. As time passed, new sports emerged, along with competitions and international events at which to play them. In modern times, sports are a major source of exercise, entertainment for spectators, and a way for millions of professional athletes worldwide to test their skills.

Bowling beginnings Discoveries of ancient balls and pins in an Egyptian grave date bowling back 5,000 years. Modern tenpin bowling will begin in 1841 in the US.

3200 bce

c.2000 bce

Modern Olympics

Table tennis

The two US baseball leagues—the American League and the National League—compete for the end-of-year championship for the first time in what is today known as the World Series.

French aristocrat Pierre de Coubertin arranges a revival of the ancient Olympic Games. The competition is held in Athens, Greece with about 300 athletes from 14 countries. Events include swimming, cycling, weightlifting, wrestling, athletics, and the first marathon.

The world’s first soccer league competition gets underway in England. Twelve teams take part, with Preston North End crowned champions at the end of the season.

During winters in Victorian England, houseguests make their own entertainment by turning their dining tables into mini tennis courts to play the first games of ping pong (also known as table tennis). Champagne corks are used as balls.

1903

1896

1888

1880s

World Series

Soccer league

Football leagues

Tour de France

50

Ancient ball game The Mayans play a speedy ball game called pitz. The objective is to pass a rubber ball through a stone hoop without using hands or feet. The Aztecs, Incas, and Olmecs play similar games.

The first Tour de France is held, lasting 19 days and covering 1,508 miles (2,428 km) along French roads. Although 60 competitors start the race, only 21 finish. The race was born to help boost the flagging sales of the cycling newspaper L’Auto.

This game is first played on the beach in Santa Monica, California. Today, the sport is played on beaches and artificial sand courts all around the world.

The National Football League begins with a meeting in Canton, Ohio. A second football league, named the American Football League, gets underway 40 years later. In 1967, the champions of the two leagues face each other in the first annual Super Bowl.

1903

1920s

1920

Beach volleyball

Ancient Olympics

Marathon message

Hand tennis

At Olympia, a religious site in southwest Greece, the first recorded Olympic Games are held. They honor the protector of the people, Zeus. The Games are held every four years, with competitors often traveling long distances to participate.

When a messenger named Pheidippides runs from the Battle of Marathon to Athens, Greece with news of a victory, the distance of 25 miles (40 km) becomes the measurement for a marathon. In 1921, the distance will be standardized as 26.2 miles (42.195 km).

European monks play the earliest version of tennis using their hands to hit the ball. By the 1870s, a similar game named Sphairistike is played in the UK with wooden rackets. Renamed tennis, the game’s first championship will be played at Wimbledon in 1877.

776 bce

490 bce

1100s ce

Boxing gloves Wearing padded boxing gloves becomes compulsory for competitive fighters. However, similar attire had already been seen in ancient Greece, where fighters covered their hands in animal hide, and in ancient Rome, where gladiators used metal to really pack a punch!

1867

Bicycle design

The Marylebone Cricket Club in London introduces rules to turn a 16th-century game into the sport we now call cricket.

Italian artist and inventor Leonardo da Vinci sketches the first bicycle design, complete with pedals and a chain. Bicycles and competitive cycling sports do not develop until centuries later.

1788

1490

Cricket

World Cup The biggest soccer competition gets underway in Uruguay. Thirteen teams contest it, with the host nation emerging as the champions. The tournament has been held every four years since, except when World War II twice caused its postponement.

1930

Women’s World Cup Paralympics The first Paralympic Games takes place in Rome, Italy. More than 400 athletes take part in events including archery, swimming, table tennis, and basketball.

1960

The first competition of the FIFA Women’s World Cup is held in China, with the US beating Norway 2-1 in the final. The tournament has been held every four years since.

1991 51

c. 750 bce

750–500 bce

c. 700 bce

Two epic poems are composed, according to tradition, by Homer. The Iliad tells of a mythical war against Troy, and the Odyssey is the story of one hero’s journey home from the war.

The Greeks establish overseas settlements around the Mediterranean and Black Seas. These include Emporion (Empuries) in Spain, Neapolis (Naples) in Italy, Massilia (Marseilles) in France, Syracuse in Sicily, Naucratis in Egypt, Cyrene in Libya, and Olbia in the Ukraine.

Iliad and Odyssey

Greek pottery Greek artists in Corinth begin to make “black figure” vases, with figures painted in black on the red or white background of the vase. Around 525 bce , Athenians invent the “red figure” style, with outlines of figures left in the red of the clay while the background is painted black.

From c. 1600 bce

From c. 2900 bce

Greek colonies

Mycenaean civilization On the Greek mainland, the Mycenaeans build fortified palaces at Mycenae, Thebes, and Athens. They are warlike people, fighting from chariots and wearing bronze armor with boar-tusk helmets.

Minoans of Crete

On the island of Crete, the Minoan civilization builds large palaces and trades with the Greek mainland. Bulls are sacred animals in their religion.

IONIC

776 bce

c. 600 bce

The Greeks begin to build stone temples, replacing earlier timber buildings. Two main styles emerge — sturdy Doric on the mainland, and the more delicate Ionic in Ionia (in present-day Turkey).

Greek architecture

DORIC

Olympic Games

Athenian democracy

508 bce

The Athenians drive out Hippias, a tyrant ruler, and establish the first democracy. All citizens can vote directly on laws —but women, slaves, and foreigners are not considered to be citizens.

The first recorded Olympic Games are held at Olympia in honor of the god Zeus. Held once every 4 years, the games give the Greeks a common dating system.

The first great civilization in Europe began in ancient Greece. During the high point of Greek culture (800–300 bce ), the Greeks invented science, philosophy, theater, and democracy. They introduced the alphabet to Europe, and their art, architecture, and literature left a lasting legacy.

Ancient Greece

53

550 bce Sparta becomes the leader of a confederation of city-states.

735–715 bce Sparta conquers the city-state of Messenia.

404 bce Sparta finally defeats Athens, overthrowing its democracy.

395–387 bce Sparta wins a war against Corinth, Argos, Thebes, and Athens.

431 bce 478–454 bce The alliance led by Athens against Peloponnesian Wars begin between Persia becomes the Athenian Empire. Sparta and the Athenian Empire.

338 bce Philip of Macedon defeats Thebes and Athens at the Battle of Chaeronea.

378–362 bce Sparta wins a series of wars against Thebes for leadership of Greece.

Extent of influence By 500 bce, city-states controlled the entire Greek mainland, as well as coastlines across the Aegean Sea.

Pottery as history

rranean Sea

Athens Mycenae Sparta

Corinth

Crete

Aegean Sea

PERSIAN EMPIRE

Greek vases were painted with scenes from myths, warfare, sporting events, and daily life. Unlike bronze statues, which were mostly melted down for their metal by later civilizations, painted vases have survived because they were often buried as tomb offerings.

Olympia

Medite

431–404 bce

336–323 bce

387 bce

Athens and Sparta fight the Peloponnesian Wars, which end in a Spartan victory. Sparta replaces Athens as the dominant city-state.

The Greeks were divided into scores of city-states. Each city-state, known as a polis, included the city and surrounding countryside. It operated as a small state with its own laws, calendar, public assemblies, and coins.

Greek city-states

Plato, Phaedo (c. 380 bce)

“I believe that the Earth is very large and that we (Greeks) … live in a small part of it, like ants or frogs about a pond.”

Alexander the Great Uniting Greece under his rule, Alexander of Macedon conquers the Persian Empire. A new age begins, in which Greek cities are founded as far east as India.

Peloponnesian Wars

Academy

447 bce

490–479 bce

499 bce

The philosopher Plato founds the Academy, an exclusive “school” where he gives lectures and poses problems to be solved.

Herodotus writes the first history book, an account of the Greek–Persian Wars, together with descriptions of the customs of foreign peoples.

c. 440 bce

First history book

Parthenon The Athenians rebuild the temples on the Acropolis, a hilltop citadel in Athens. The Parthenon, a new marble temple to Athena, is constructed at the same site.

Greek–Persian Wars The Persians make two unsuccessful attempts to conquer Greece. Resistance is led by the cities of Athens and Sparta. The Persians sack Athens, but are then defeated at sea and on land.

Greek drama

The Athenian playwright Aeschylus writes his first recorded tragedy. Plays are performed in honor of Dionysus, god of wine, at first in the marketplace and later in an open-air theater.

s c i t a m e h t Ma

n d in g d if fe re n t fi n e e b e v a h le c ti m e s , p e o p w o rl d . In m o s t e th S in c e p re h is to ri in s g in th re nd measu y o n d b a s ic e b r fa d e p way s to c o u n t a lo e v ati c s s o o n d e m e th a m , o o ks , d raw in g s , s b re s u a lt u h c c u s ts c a to ri c a l a rt if e c o u n ti n g , a n d h is e d u s tra c k th e e v o lu ti o n o f th e s e ry th in g lp v e e h t e s v o a h lm a ls o in to th d a an o d ay, w e u s e m T . s a e id l a c ti a m m ath e b u ild in g th in g s . to e m ti g n lli te w e d o, fro m

c.2560 bce Building the Great P yramid

ns’ kn ow le dg e An cie nt Eg yptia lp s th em to he es gl of rig ht an ra m id , an Py bu ild th e G re at er w ho se nd wo al ur arch ite ct s prec ise ve ol co nstru ct io n inv d th e an ts en m re m easu at le ast of t pe rfe ct al ig nm en ent-d ay es Pr . es on st 2. 5 m illi on azed by am e ar m at he m at ici an s Eg yptia ns’ e th ex pl how co m ca lcu lat io ns are.

c.3000 bce ns Ancient fractio

on e of th e first An cie nt Eg ypt is e fract io ns . civ ilizat io ns to us refe rre d to is t en em nc Th is ad va s, an an cie nt ru py Pa ind Rh e in th ok w ritte n bo xt te ics at m at he m at wo n’t th e arou nd 15 50 bc ou sa nd s th til un ed er be di sc ov m b in to a in of ye ars later t. yp Eg in es eb Th

c.30,000 bce Ancient tallies

m be rs are Befo re w ritte n nu or ic pe op le invente d, preh ist od , clay, wo in ks m ake m ar co unt to bo ne, or ston e in g days ss pa as th in gs su ch he rd s. r ei or an im al s in th

36 24 4 1 2 3

5

12

7 8

6 9

10 11 12 60

54

48

c.3500 bce First numbers

n m er ian civ ilizat io Pe op le in th e Su q) Ira y da (m od er nin M es op otam ia system to us e st fir e th e vis de fo r th e nu m be rs d an st sy m bo ls to stem is of ob je cts. Th e sy at it us es th ng ni ea m , al sexa ge sim is base d on th e is Th . se ba its 60 as d of co untin g on Su m er ian m et ho unt each fin ge r co th ei r ha nd s. Th ey ha nd to re ac h se gm ent on on e at by five (th e 12 , an d m ult ipy th rs on th e ot he r nu m be r of fin ge . re ha nd ) to ac h 60

c.3000 bce Piece of Pi

pe op le in Th e Ba by lo ni an late th at a lcu M es op otam ia ca e is ab ou t nc re fe m cu circle’s cir e of its siz e th re e tim es th im po rta nt is tio ra is Th di am eter. cle of any cir y as it ap pl ie s to an at th is th ow kn w no size. We ith th e w .., 2. 59 nu m be r is 3.141 al po int cim de e th r te af nu m be rs m be r nu is Th r. co nt in uin g fo reve th e G re ek is re pres ente d by ). sy m bo l pi (π

c.500 bce o The golden rati

eks are Th e an cie nt G re , kn ow n as tio ra a by fasc in ated ch th ey hi w , th e go ld en ratio to draw ed us be n ca di sc over ctan gl es . re of s attract ive patte rn es us in g th is Th ey bu ild te m pl to create sh ap es ratio, as it is sa id g to th e eye. sin ea pl th at are

1655 To infinit y

a nu m be r go in g Th e co nc ept of n as inf in ity, ow kn on fo reve r, se d sin ce has be en di sc us ve r, Br itis h we Ho . es an cie nt tim W hn al lis is th e m at he m at ici an Jo e up w ith a m co to first pe rs on ∞ is st ill us ed . ity in inf r fo l bo sy m ity to day. in inf t en to re pres

b

a

a

0 000, 000, 00 10, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000 000, 000, 000, 000, = 1 googol 000, 000, 000,

1920 Googol

an Ed wa rd US m at he m at ici ne -yea r-o ld ni Kasn er as ks hi s ll th e nu m be r ca to t ha ne ph ew w ro s, an d he ze 0 1 fo llowe d by 10 e nu m be r Th l.” go oo “g su gg ests of ze ro s is ol og 1 fo llowe d by a go fo llowe d by a d1 a go og ol pl ex , an ro s is a go og ol pl ex of ze gg est bi e th , ian ex pl go og ol to date. na m ed nu m be r

a+b 8

c.500 bce Triangle theoryician

at he m at An cie nt G re ek m ts a th eo ry of en es pr Py th ag oras es gl , w hi ch ca n rig ht-a ng le d tri an th e le ng th of t ou rk wo be us ed to an d is us ed in , es sid n ow kn any un ob le m s. It is pr h at m r m any ot he , ula rm a² + b² = c² kn ow n by th e fo e th to refe r w he re th e lette rs th e tri an gl e. e of sid ch ea of th le ng

1415 atics Artistic mathem

ts di sc over Re na iss an ce ar tis to m ake h at m e us n th ey ca e th re epi ct ures lo ok m or g di stant in aw dr by l na di m en sio is ge om et ric al Th r. le al sm s ct ob je , n as pe rs pe ct ive ap proach , kn ow r ne sig de n lia Ita is fir st ad opte d by un el le sc hi . Br an d ar tist Fi llip o

c a

c.630 ce Zero

b 2= 2 a2 + b c

to re pres ent Th e id ea of ze ro ce d in a ro noth in g is int du an di m an us cr ipt by In ag upta , m ah Br m at he m at ici an ce . 0 w ritte n arou nd 63 e of th e on is ro ze Th e creatio n of ou gh s in greate st brea kt hr w rite hu ge to us m at h, as it al lows th e ne ed to t nu m be rs w ith ou . create new di gi ts

5 1 2

3

1202 ence Fibonacci sequ

ici an Fi bo nacc i Ita lia n m at he m at se qu en ce of devis es a sp ec ial ch nu m be r is ea ch hi w nu m be rs in th er th e two ge to fo un d by ad di ng 13 , it: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, nu m be rs befo re be n ca ce en qu se is 21 , an d so on . Th l ira sp rfe ct us ed to draw a pe on to be us ed to go ill w d an , rn patte prog ra m s, to o. w rite co m pu te r

c.800 rs Known numbe

at ici an Pe rs ian m at he m nu m be r a ts ap ad i izm ar Al -K hw u-Arab ic nd Hi ch system in w hi e r th nu m be r sy m bo ls stan d fo th e system te ea cr of ob je cts, to In th is, th e y. da to ed us t m os are us ed 9 to 0 nu m eral s m be rs . In nu l al t en es pr to re m be rs w ill nu e es 30 0 ye ars, th ro pe. Eu be int ro du ce d to

55

Democracy had its origins in the where citizens met in assemblies important decisions. Democracy declined in the different form: Voters could now choose representatives to make

The story of

Greek democracy

56

In the ancient world, important decisions were made by the wealthy. This all changes when a statesman from the Greek city-state of Athens named Cleisthenes revamps the system by giving ordinary citizens political rights. As a result, historians now refer to him as “the father of Athenian democracy.” However, women, slaves, and foreigners are not part of the new democracy, which lasts two centuries.

The Magna Carta (“Great Charter”) is written by English barons after a period of heavy taxation by the king. This important document states that the monarch is not above the law, and promises to protect certain rights through a council of 25 barons, which gradually develops into a parliament. By 1265, the English parliament features ordinary people alongside nobles.

Representatives of the 13 former British colonies that make up the newly formed United States of America meet to establish rules about how the new nation should be run. This leads to the drafting of the US Constitution, the supreme law of the United States, which among other rules, states that the country should have an elected president.

A STATUE OF CLEISTHENES

KING JOHN SIGNING THE MAGNA CARTA

THE FIRST PAGE OF THE US CONSTITUTION

JOSEPH JENKINS ROBERTS

507 bce

1215 ce

1787

1847

Magna Carta

US Constitution Independence for Liberia The colony of Liberia, settled by freed US slaves who had decided to emigrate to Africa, declares independence. Joseph Jenkins Roberts, a merchant and politician, becomes the first president of Liberia, which is the first democratic nation in the history of Africa.

in the West ancient city of Athens, to cast their votes directly about Middle Ages, and when it reappeared it took a decisions on their behalf in gatherings called parliaments.

democracy

End to Apartheid

Civil rights campaigner Martin Luther King Jr. gives his famous “I have a dream” speech in Washington, DC. The government introduces the Civil Rights Act in 1964, keeping employers from discriminating against people on the grounds of race, religion, or nationality. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 gives most black people the right to vote.

The wall that had split communist East Berlin from democratic West Berlin for 28 years is finally knocked down when East and West Germany are reunited. Democracy begins to return to all of Germany.

A blow against apartheid comes when prominent antiapartheid campaigners are released from prison, including Nelson Mandela, who had been imprisoned for 27 years. The South African word for “separateness,” apartheid refers to huge restrictions to the freedoms of black people in South Africa that were enshrined by law for more than four decades. Apartheid law is eventually abolished in 1991.

MARTIN LUTHER KING JR. IN WASHINGTON, DC

KNOCKING DOWN THE BERLIN WALL

NELSON MANDELA

VOTING WITH AN ELECTRONIC MACHINE

1963

1989

1990

2005

“I have a dream”

Fall of the Berlin Wall

Electronic Voting Estonia is the first country to hold elections using electronic voting machines. These are a way to encourage young and busy people to vote in governmental elections, creating a more democratic society.

57

Rise of the Celts During the Iron Age, the people we now call Celts spread across most of Europe from their original homeland north of the Alps. Celtic peoples shared common religious beliefs and spoke related languages, which are still spoken today in parts of northwest Europe. The Celts were feared warriors and skilled metalworkers.

– 80 0

ld cu

c.1300

U r nf i e

The U l t u re r nf ie ld cu p lt r e s e n t- d ay It u re, f ro m eas a ly d t a c n e s p re a d n t ra l E u ro p e , s c o n t a c ro s s t h e a we a in e nt . W h e n lt t h ey a hy p e r s o n d b u r ie d re c re m ate d ie s , , o r n a m ofte n w it h b a n d e r n t s a n d w e o n ze apons .

bce

“The whole race… is madly fond of war, high spirited, and quick to battle…” Strabo, Geographica, early 1st century ce

c.8 00 –50 0b ce

tt

ta t alls w h a f H f ro m e a d le o p l e, e i r d op p e o y t h s , Pe Celtictria , buwr eapon, whichtric ls e se us e T h e o w A b ro n z d b o w g e o m i r s t i s n w i t h t s , a n d w i t h t h e f u re . is ult e en c a m o ra t t a t t orn ll dec . Halls Celtic s a d a re t e r n f i n e p at r l y d e a cle

c. 45 0– 50 bc e

e ur re c u l t i t h ltu n e e d w cu a Tè over he ne h e L k c n . T Tè of t lwor atio d L a p l e et a e c o r a m e o Pe a t e m g d e r n s i t e i n at e e cr w is l Tèn day o l f re a n - d , ltu e L er an c u r t h o d e r l a ny r t e i n m w i t z re m t h e i e af S e m inc . w h f ro e s u n d t s a v fo ac h n t i f re e ar ultu be c

58

c .4

00

–3

C e Ga lt u n o s m o ls i t h e r t h ve n e c i t y ra r n i n t o I t a l y o id Ita f M t h e l y. I w h at y M n ’ e m s ac ila lpu aj 39 no e a ro s s n ) , a n m ( m o r Et 6 bce w st o t h e d th ode rusc , f R o t h e A Po V e n s e r n - d a n m ay p a l l e tt G a a n s c e n n i n y to l e t lli ( all e Ga the s. T he uls m he ).

90

bc

e

390 bce k Ro m e Gauls sacd ransack Rome,

m tu re a n G a u ls c a p ey a re p reve nte d fro ill H th l h o g it u p o a a lt h a nt C e th e im p o rt c a ptu ri n g c k of g e e s e ra is e s th ls o u fl a a G n e e th wh ay Ro m a n s p ve. a la rm . Th e m to m a ke th e m le a so a h u g e ra n

in Br a n s o st of e nte r m o R id c rm re d q u e a i n d r u c a pt u , n o c em sm y is Th gles e Druidi ludes n . c e at A 6 0 c t h at i n , i s o n e in ion e c rifi lig ions . a re a n s a c w re l i g m a n s h u m t h e fe t h e R o of d by ne ban

nqu

58–51 bce

ers Gaul Th e Ro m a n g e n e ra l J u liu s Caes ar co n We ste rn E q u e rs G a u l in u ro p e, a n d le ad s two to B ri ta in . ex p e d it io n s H is G a lli c Wa rs b o o k , Th e , a d eta ile d in c lu d e s ac of C e lt ic s c o u nt oc a n d th e ro iety th e d ru id p le of ri e sts .

ce

La lt w h rg e fo i c t o i w o ch rtif C e p p i d t h e R i e d c ns a e l t o , th ic sp m nte t h e e f i r s t E u ro re a d a n s c r s , p t A e i s M l p r u e . O a c ro a l l to p s a s. a p nchi One wns pida a s o n o n 5 ,0 p u g , i f t h o r re 0 0 l at i n B e b t h o a n o n o ava i g g f d1 e 0,0 f b e t r i a , w s t 0 0 we i t h pe en op l e.

Ce

c.2

00

–10

0b

ce

Caesar co

–

84 43–

n sio a v n an i rit ain n d m o R of B va d e a i t a i n .

41 0

Some high-ranking Celts wore torcs like this one around their necks as jewelry. The Snettisham Great Torc was made between 150 bce and 50 bce, from a mixture of gold and silver.

Hy w w el D m o as d a st a C (Hy d of e l t w u rin mod ic ki el th g t er ng e G h n .H o e 10 -day e ru od) th W le c a d e nt l e s ur y.

A F 41 r u o l l o ft 1 er l k e in wi n i t n C g B r i g t h he d e ltic om tain e c R la s b in oll o m a n g e g 41 p to u ag i n t 0 – 4 s e o an d s o I re a y e s a e m 1 1 , n f R o l a i n W re e r e w m o nd a st g e C a n f M , Co les, ill sp the eltic a n r n S o re w c k , a n d a l l , ot l a e n . B th n ir tt e Is d, an le y. Snettisham Great Torc

9 27

c.330 b

ce

oins C eltic c

s, o ld c o in m a ke g G re e k l u a G C e lts in m o d e le d o n ll o, po ow in g A c o in s s h h a r iots . Th e e and c h o rs e s , e rs io n s b e c o m . ic C e lt v c t a n d sty li ze d stra m o re a b

–2

b 78

ce

e ec d e s e r a .

G nv e of rmy i reecin n o ca dG d

to l t i a n e ate o n i n t l e i n . e s t ia f C n e In huge alka are de mov hey seGalat A h e B e y , b u t re t l e d t Th e he al c c ee , w er G r to l i a a l at a e An e ar th

s va

i

“Celts” or “Gauls”? The Celts lived in hundreds of tribes and nations, and never thought of themselves as one single group. The name “Celt” comes from keltoi, the Greek name for a tribe that lived in what’s now southern France. The Romans called Celts Galli (Gauls), which led to areas they settled being called Gallia (France), Galicia (Spain), and Galatia (Turkey).

59

The Persian Empire The Achaemenid Persian Empire, which lasted from the 6th to the 4th century bce, was the world’s first major empire. It was vast and powerful and, at its height, stretched from Egypt to northwest India. Unlike many other ancient empires, the Persians showed respect for the customs of the people they ruled.

550 bce Cyrus the Great

547–546 bce Lydia and Lycia

Darius’s palace at Susa

Darius the Great had several palaces, including one at Susa (in modern-day Iran). The walls were decorated with brightly colored glazed bricks and showed an imperial guard of archers as well as mythical animals.

539 bce Babylon

525 bce Cambyses II

King Astyages of Media (a region of modern-day northwest Iran) is overthrown by his subject Cyrus. Cyrus founds the Achaemenid Empire, also known as the First Persian Empire.

King Croesus of Lydia (a region in modern-day western Turkey) sees the fall of Media as a chance to invade the region. Cyrus counterattacks, and eventually conquers Lydia and Lycia (in modern-day southern Turkey).

Cyrus conquers the Babylonian Empire (see page 36). He makes his capital Babylon, whose Ishtar Gate is shown above. Cyrus allows the Jews, who have been exiled in Babylon, to return home to Jerusalem.

Cyrus’s son, Cambyses II, conquers Egypt. Cambyses captures the Egyptian pharaoh Psamtik III. Psamtik is initially well treated, but is later executed for secretly trying to act against the Persians.

492 bce

490 bce

480–479 bce

c.457 bce

Darius’s conquests

Darius conquers Macedonia and Thrace. He sends ambassadors to all Greek cities, demanding they accept him as king. In Athens and Sparta, the ambassadors are executed.

60

Defeat at Marathon

Darius sends an army by sea to invade Greece. The Persians capture many Greek islands, and loot and destroy Eretria. They are then defeated at Marathon by an army from Athens.

Second Persian invasion

Darius’s son Xerxes I makes a second attempt to conquer Greece. The Persians ransack Athens, but are then defeated at Salamis and, a year later, at Plataea (see page 154).

Artaxerxes I

The son of Xerxes, Artaxerxes I, allows the Jews to rebuild the Jerusalem Temple, which had been destroyed by the Babylonians. This is described in the Torah and the Bible.

How the Persians ruled sp

LYDIA

Sea

Med

ian

Eretria

IO NI A

Plataea Salamis Sparta Athens Marathon

Ca

MACEDONIA Blac k S ea THRACE

The Persian Empire was too large to be ruled directly by a single king. It was therefore divided into 20 provinces, called satrapies. Each had a satrap (governor), usually a Persian noble appointed by the king. The provinces paid tribute (taxes) to the king, provided soldiers for his armies, and were punished if they rebelled. Otherwise, they were free to manage their own affairs, preserving their languages, customs, and religions.

LYCIA

iterra Sea nean

MEDIA Jerusalem

Babylon

EGYPT

Persepolis

Red

Se

a

Arabian Sea

THE PERSIAN EMPIRE IN C.500 bce

522 bce

522–486 bce

Darius the Great

Organizing the empire

After Cambyses’ death, a Persian nobleman named Darius seizes power. At first he does not have the support of the people, but with his loyal army, he is able to suppress any revolts in his first year.

c.440 bce First historian

Herodotus, a Greek living in the Persian Empire, writes The Histories, the first-known history book. He describes the rise of the Persians and the customs within the empire.

Darius the Great reorganizes government, creating the satrapies (see panel), a civil service, and a network of roads for official use. He issues a gold coin called a daric to be used as money across the empire.

424–423 bce Three kings

After Artaxerxes’ death, three of his sons proclaim themselves king. Xerxes II is murdered by his brother Sogdianus, who is then killed by Ochus. Ochus then rules as Darius II.

518 bce Persepolis

499–493 bce Greek rebellion

Darius builds a new capital at Persepolis (called Parsa in Persian). His great palace has walls covered with stone relief sculptures, showing the citizens of the empire bringing gifts in tribute to him.

The eastern Greek cities of the region of Ionia rebel against Persian rule. They are helped by western Greeks, from Athens and Eretria. After the rebels are defeated, Darius vows to punish Athens and Eretria.

401 bce

336–330 bce

The Greeks in Asia

Cyrus the Younger tries and fails to seize power from his brother, Artaxerxes II, using 10,000 Greek soldiers. After Cyrus’s death, the Greeks fight their way home from Asia.

The fall of the empire

Alexander the Great of Macedonia conquers the Persian Empire. He defeats Darius III in two great battles, at Issus and Gaugamela, and burns down the palace at Persepolis.

61

The Battle of Issus This Roman floor mosaic from around 100 bce was discovered during excavations at the buried city of Pompeii in southern Italy. It is made out of around a million small mosaic tiles. The artwork is thought to illustrate the Battle of Issus between the armies of Alexander the Great and Darius III of Persia in the year 333 bce . Alexander, seen on horseback (above), leads his army into battle. King Darius of Persia, riding in a chariot drawn by horses, is preparing to flee, only turning to glance back at his opponent.

64

Philosophy means “love of wisdom” in Ancient Greek, and it describes a way of thinking about the world. Philosophers ask questions about the nature of reality, and the meaning of life itself. Two traditions of philosophy appeared in the ancient world. In Europe, the Greeks attempted to answer these questions without relying on religion. In Asia, philosophy and religion were seen as two parts of a single subject.

The story of philosophy

Analytic philosophers question how philosophy itself is affected by the rules of language. Austrian Ludwig Wittgenstein says that we can only talk or write about things that we can experience.

The language of philosophy

From 1921

The rationalists believe that reason (the mind’s ability to understand) is the foundation of all knowledge. French philosopher René Descartes concludes that because he knows he can think, he must really exist.

All in the mind

From 1637

In the 18th and 19th centuries, political philosophers write about the best way for people to live and work together. Anglo-Irish politician Edmund Burke argues that societies exist to help us fulfil each other’s needs.

Political philosophy

From 1756

The existentialists place the individual person at the center of their philosophy. The earliest existentialist is Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, who says that each individual must give meaning to their life by living it sincerely.

Individual meaning

From 1843

Dutchman Desiderius Erasmus and the humanists of the Renaissance (see pages 136–137) reject organized religion in favor of individual relationships with God. They place people themselves at the center of their philosophy.

Renaissance ideas

15th–16th century

The empiricists believe that experience is the foundation of all knowledge. English philosopher John Locke says that it is impossible to know anything beyond what we can discover though our senses.

World of experience

From 1689

Idealist philosophies all feature the belief that true reality cannot be known. Immanuel Kant says that knowledge comes from the senses. This means we cannot experience things as they are, only as we see, feel, hear, taste, or smell them.

The world as we know it

From 1781

The post-structuralists believe that to study a thing, you must also study the environment around it. For example, Bulgarian thinker Julia Kristeva argues that the feminist movement is influenced by ideas from the male-dominated society that it is attempting to resist.

Examine the background

From 1960

65

Accept your reality

The religion of Zoroastrianism is started by the prophet Zoroaster in Persia in West Asia. It has ideas concerning the nature of God and the concept of evil that will influence many later religions.

Good and evil

From 7th–6th century bce

The first great thinker to examine abstract ideas— concepts such as goodness and justice—is Socrates. He asks a series of questions to explore these subjects. Socrates is famous for saying that “the only thing I know is that I know nothing.”

Siddhartha Gautama, later known as the Buddha, is an Indian prince who gives up his life of luxury for one of poverty. The religion he inspires teaches that following a middle path between these extremes leads to enlightenment (true happiness).

The middle path

Question everything

Respect for tradition

From 6th–4th century bce

Sextus Empiricus of the Roman Empire writes down the ideas of the ancient Greek Skeptics, who believed that nothing can be known for certain.

Nothing is certain

2nd century ce

Plato’s student Aristotle disagrees with his teacher. He believes that knowledge is gained only through experience of the real world—we know a horse is a horse because we have seen horses before.

A student of Socrates, Plato believes that things in the real world are only shadows. He imagines there is a perfect “ideal form” of things that exists outside our knowledge.

Socrates, as quoted in Plato’s Theaetetus, c.369 bce

“Philosophy begins in wonder.”

Early philosophers in ancient Greece are “natural philosophers” who try to explain the world around them. For instance, Thales of Miletus theorizes that everything that exists is made of water.

Natural philosophy

6th–5th century bce

The real world

An ideal world

5th–4th century bce

The Stoic philosopher Zeno of Citium from Cyprus argues that the Universe is governed by natural laws. People must accept the existence of cruelty and injustice.

Following “the Way” Also known as “the Way,” Daoism is based on ideas written down in a book called the dao de jing. It teaches that a force called the dao connects all living things, and that people must live in harmony with this force.

4th–3rd century bce

From c.4th century bce

Philosophy and religious belief combine in a system of thought called Scholasticism. Medieval philosophers such as the Italian priest Thomas Aquinas seek to bring together the teachings of ancient philosophy and their Christian faith.

Chinese philosopher Confucius believes in an ordered society and the importance of tradition. People should honor their ancestors, and those with power over others should use that power with respect for those they rule.

From 5th century bce

The religion of Islam spreads through parts of Asia and North Africa after the death of the prophet Muhammad. Islamic philosophy deals with questions about the nature of the universe, but also involves science, logic, and mathematics.

Islamic philosophy

From 632 ce

Medieval philosophy

The Islamic philosopher Averroes studies the work of the ancient Greek thinker Aristotle, and brings together the theories of Western philosophy with the religious beliefs of Islam.

From 1100

East meets West

From 1100

The story of sculpture Sculptures are three-dimensional works of art created from materials such as stone, wood, metal, or plastic. They have been created since the earliest times and can be small enough to be held or so large that they take up the side of a mountain. A sculpture can be a personal object or Chinese craft a grand public work to celebrate status or achievement. Artists of the Shang Dynasty Venus figurines Small female statuettes may have been fertility goddesses thought to help women conceive.

c.3

5 ,0

00

Egyptian giants The ancient Egyptians place massive statues of their pharaohs outside temples and tombs. The figures are carved from hard granite rock and have stiff postures, giving the appearance of great power.

bc

e

5 c.1

First figures Small sculptures of humans, usually female, and of animals are made throughout Europe. Some are carved from stone, bone, or ivory. Others are molded from clay, which is then fired.

50

70 –10

in China make bronzes (a mix of copper and tin), often in the shape of animals, to be filled with food and buried with the dead.

1500 bce

45

e

bc

Greek sculpture Sculptors in Greece portray the human body in a lifelike manner never seen before. Their bronze and marble statues are brightly painted, although the colors will gradually fade away.

The Terracotta Army

0b

ce

More than 8,000 life-size statues of clay soldiers, each one individually modeled, protect the enormous burial tomb of Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China.

0 21

e

bc

Rialto Bridge This late-Renaissance bridge in Venice, Italy, is lined with colorful shops. Arch of Titus This Roman arch, dedicated to the Emperor Titus, is decorated with carved panels of his military triumphs.

c.1

Roman sculpture

00

Medieval saints

ce

The walls of Gothic cathedrals in Europe are decorated with statues of Christian saints and figures from the Bible.

Roman houses, gardens, and public spaces are filled with sculptures. They range from realistic portrait busts of ancestors and famous citizens to large marble statues depicting stories of gods and heroes.

Buddha statues

20

Robed statues of Buddha from Gandhara (in modern-day northern Pakistan and Afghanistan) are naturalistic in style, reflecting Greek and Roman art.

66

0–

50

0 0 115

–14

00

2 c.1

00

Guardians in stone The Rapa Nui people, the Polynesian inhabitants of Easter Island in the Pacific Ocean, carve large stone figures to represent their ancestors. They stand on platforms facing out to sea.

Modernism

1927–1941

Romanian-born sculptor Constantin Brancusi starts carving directly in marble and wood. These smooth outlines and simple geometric forms influence modern sculpture in the 20th century.

Mount Rushmore 19

19

02

07

The Thinker

Gutzon Borglum carves the giant heads of four American presidents (George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln) on the face of Mount Rushmore in the US.

Frenchman Auguste Rodin is the most important sculptor in Europe at this time. His most famous work is a statue of a man deep in thought.

19

The Three Graces Neoclassical works, such as this by Italian sculptor Antonio Canova, refer back to the order and harmony of Greek and Roman sculpture.

18

30

s

14

Abstract forms In Britain, sculptors Barbara Hepworth and Henry Moore begin to create abstract sculptures and semi-abstract figures inspired by landscape and natural shapes, such as shells and pebbles.

Gian Lorenzo Bernini Bernini transforms Rome by creating dramatic statues and spectacular fountains with figures that seem full of movement. This highly decorative style is typical of the Baroque era in art.

c.1

64

0– 16

Fountain of the Four Rivers Bernini’s fountain in the Piazza Navona surrounds an ancient Egyptian obelisk.

19

Moving sculptures

32

American sculptor Alexander Calder suspends colorful shapes of steel on wires to create abstract mobiles, sculptures that move by motor power or with the flow of air.

60 19

c.1

30

0– 16

20 00

99

06

Giant spider Louise Bourgeois’s giant sculpture of a female spider is called Maman (Mummy). It is balanced on spindly legs and stands 30 ft (9 m) high.

The Renaissance Sculpture enters a new golden age in Renaissance Italy. Donatello’s magnificent statue of a horse and rider (1453) in Padua is the first bronze of its kind to be created since Roman times.

Public sculpture Anish Kapoor’s Cloud Gate in Chicago, IL, is one of the world’s largest outdoor sculptures. It is made of 168 highly polished stainless-steel plates that reflect and distort the city around it.

67

Rival philosophies Two rival philosophies played a key role in Early Imperial China. Confucianism stressed the importance of education and respect for parents and elders in creating a harmonious society. The Legalists argued that only strict laws and harsh punishments would make people behave properly. The First Emperor enforced Legalism, while the Han Dynasty promoted Confucianism.

Standardization The emperor introduces standard weights, measurements, and coins, and a common writing system. His coins are circular with a square hole in the middle, representing a square earth encircled by the dome of the heavens.

Book burning In an attempt to suppress free thought, the emperor orders a large-scale burning of books, including the histories of the kingdoms he has conquered and works of Confucian philosophy and poetry. Only texts supporting Legalism are permitted.

Fall of the Qin

Great Wall First Emperor The teenage Ying Zheng comes to the throne of the western kingdom of Qin. Between 230 and 221 bce, his armies conquer all six rival kingdoms. He takes a new title, Shi Huangdi, or “First Emperor.”

246–221 bce

68

The emperor sends 300,000 soldiers north to build the first Great Wall, protecting China against northern raiders. He also unifies China by knocking down the internal defensive walls that had previously separated the warring states.

220 bce

215 bce

213 bce

The second Qin emperor, Qin Er Shi, is a weak ruler who can’t prevent widespread revolts. After his death in 207 bce, the dynasty collapses in the face of rebellion. Two former rebel leaders, Xiang Yu and Liu Bang, will engage in a war to decide who will rule China.

Liu Bang defeats Xiang Yu and establishes the Han Dynasty, ruling as Emperor Gaozu. He builds a new capital at Chang’an and recruits Confucian scholars to serve in his government.

210–207 bce

202–195 bce

Han founder

Early Imperial China In 221 bce, China, previously divided into warring kingdoms, was united by the king of Qin, who became the First Emperor. He used force to impose the same way of life throughout China, but his rule was so harsh that the Qin Dynasty quickly collapsed after his death in 210 bce. It was followed by the Han Dynasty, which ruled more leniently and created the First Golden Age of China. Fall of the Han

Emperor Wudi Emperor Wudi reigns, and extends Chinese rule into Central Asia, Korea, and modern-day Vietnam. He makes Confucianism the state philosophy, but still imposes Legalist punishments.

Central Asia Zhang Qian, a Chinese diplomat, travels to Central Asia, returning in 125 bce. His reports lead to Han expansion in Central Asia. Long distance trade begins between China and the West, along the Silk Road.

Civil service exams

Grand historian

Emperor Wen introduces examinations for government appointments. Previously, civil servants have been appointed on recommendations from nobles and senior officials.

Sima Qian, a Han court official, writes a monumental history of China. To later generations, the book will be known as The Records of the Grand Historian.

165 bce

141–87 bce

Han rule collapses as China breaks up into three kingdoms: Shu, Wei, and Wu. The ruler of each kingdom uses the title emperor, claiming to be descended from the Han. It is a time of constant warfare.

c.85 bce

Counting China A Han census records the population of China as 58 million people.

138–c.50 bce

2 bce

Paper A court official named Cai Lun manufactures the first paper, from bark and rags. It is cheaper to write on than bamboo or silk.

c.105 ce

220 ce

Terracotta Army After his death, the First Emperor was buried in a vast tomb with an army of 7,000 life-size terracotta warriors buried in nearby pits. The emperor believed that these soldiers would protect him in the afterlife.

69

ce

20

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c.1500 bce

Water clocks

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In the distant past, people kept track of time by measuring the height of the Sun in the sky, or by judging how long it took a candle to burn. Timekeeping became more accurate with the invention of mechanical clocks about 700 years ago. Today, we measure time in fractions of seconds and have instant access to digital clocks on our computers and phones. r d a l e of y n le p a

Measuring time

e

Italian physicist Carlo Ravelli, Discovery, 2007

c.1

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P German clockmaker Peter Henlein makes mechanical clocks that are small enough to fit into pockets. They are driven by a steel spring that turns the clock’s wheels as it unwinds.

65

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1847

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Aztec calendar

The Aztec people of Central America used calendars carved in stone. The 20 days of a month were represented by 20 symbols around the central face. There were 18 months in a year, making 360 days—5 days short of a full year. The remaining five days were considered unlucky days.

71

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Roman technology Under the Romans, Europe and the Mediterranean world saw great technological advances. Often the Romans used the inventions of earlier peoples, but on a greater scale. For example, they did not invent arches, but used them for support in many buildings. Thanks to arches, mass-produced bricks, and concrete, the Romans constructed hundreds of massive structures, many of which remain standing today.

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Ro m an s bu ild th aq ue du ct , th e Aq ei r first ua Ap pi a, to ca rry water 10 m ile s (16 km ) to Ro m e, al m ost co un de rg ro un d. La m pl etel y te r aq ue du cts, su ch th e 40 –6 0 ce Po nt du G ard in Fran ce, us e arch es to span rivers an d va lleys .

Th e V Ro m fo i a l i n k r t h e A p p i an a i R n g o — t ro a L c o ate r, Ro m m a n h e f i r ds n a e t s a l o n e c t h e w w i t h r m y— t l o n g ng ed ho s o le b w u i s b ro a lon hich y lon emp thern uilt, d g d s o g , s i re i sta l d i e t ra i w i l I ta l y. n c rs c g ht l b e es q u a n m ro a d s i c k a rc l y. h

bui p i re v e r a e a n s t h e e m e ats o te r. Th m R o ro s s n e s g w a s e r s a c ve sto l ow i n l ows u i t h a h a e l of f p e a l e s w i c k . s ,a st ha elv nn g h c a yhole s thems ld on a n re t e x i n g a t i e e n k eh lea ild n c m i s t h ws to c s p o n g t bung co e by eral allo sive we e i d n e s et rt us l ma d mi cret ma ntius e’s r n a nc s staateriater ant. Co y on axe mpir s. o n C ma g m wa we apl of Mthe e ture h n e a c Ro i l d i n w i t h e c h s i l i c of t r u ry e s l d w u l a i n e b v l i d u B o te nt u e a o o b e a s re c r g t s t Th w nc 2nd bce se em ale. ce) t co th sc 10 es .3 g y (c l a r ur

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Late 1st ce b c e nt u r y

Measuring tools The Romans were able to plot the routes of dead-straight, long-distance roads and figure out the precise yet incredibly gentle slope of aqueducts that carried water for many miles. Before these structures were built, surveyors used simple tools to make careful measurements.

Underfloor heating

Roma n engin eer Sergi us Orata invents unde rfloor heati ng. Hot air from a furnace is fed throu gh the space unde r a raised floor that is supp orted on colum ns of tiles.

Measuring slopes

Roman surveyors ensured roads were straight by using a tool called a groma. This had a cross with weights hanging from it that helped keep it upright and level when lining up distant points.

The chorobates was a wooden table with a trough on top, filled with water. Keeping the water level allowed surveyors to check that structures were built to the right height.

St e

In Ro m am eng n a m e d a n Eg y pt , a i n e sc H e n g in e e ro inve nts ie nt ist . A c u o bv io u r io s it y a ste a m s w of a s p p u r p o s e, it c it h n o h e r ic a o n s ist s lw t h at s p in s a ro ate r b o il e r u ste a m nd wh eme en t w o n o rg e s f ro m z z le s .

c . 80 c

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ur y

ce

Late 1st century ce

s of o k a d e d of bo m k i n e st a g e s s ( a e a r Firwith ppapyru. Thes t thany n d ll r s o k n o ate n i e t u a B o l s k i e c re o n v e e v e n a ar e c d . im an eed) mor lls an them r c h ro c e m u n g s c re p l a lo

c.90 bce

Planning roads

Pantheon

The Roman emperor Hadrian builds the Pantheon, a temple in Rome. Its concrete dome still stands and remains the world’s largest unreinforced concrete dome.

126 ce

The Colosseum The Romans built amphitheaters to watch gladiators fight. Unlike earlier amphitheaters, which were dug out of hillsides, the Colosseum in Rome was a freestanding structure, with three stories supported by 80 arches made of brick and concrete.

75

Buddhism

Jainism

Confucianism

In eastern India, a wealthy prince named Siddhartha Gautama renounces luxury and embarks on a quest to overcome human suffering. His quest ends when he reaches nirvana (blissful enlightenment) while meditating. He becomes known as Buddha and dedicates his life to guiding others, founding the religion of Buddhism.

In northern India, a wandering holy man named Mahavira establishes Jainism. Followers of the faith, which has no god, reject worldly pleasures and lead nonviolent, vegetarian lives. They believe in an endless cycle of reincarnation.

The teachings of Confucius, a Chinese scholar and philosopher, are compiled in five books. Confucianism is a way of life based on values such as kindness and respect for family. Unlike most other religions, it is not based on supernatural beliefs.

century bce 6th

century bce 6th

5th century b – h ce 6t

Zoroastrianism In Persia (modern-day Iran), a priest named Zarathustra has a series of visions that inspire a new religion— Zoroastrianism. He teaches followers that there is a single god and an eternal battle between good and evil.

6th century bc – h e 7t

c.1500 bce Hinduism The Vedas—a collection of hymns and chants that form the oldest texts of Hinduism—are written in northwestern India. Hindus follow many gods and goddesses and believe in reincarnation after death.

76

Religion Religious ideas have existed since prehistoric times, when our ancestors began to bury their dead with precious items—a sign they believed in an afterlife. Since then, hundreds of religions have developed, many growing from older ones. Nearly all religions teach belief in life after death, but not all religions involve a supernatural being such as a god or goddess.

c.2 0

0 0 b ce

Judaism The first major religion based on a single god develops among the Hebrews, a group of seminomadic farmers and herders in Israel. They record the laws laid down by God on scrolls, forming the Bible.

Cao Dai

Shinto

Ngo Van Chieu, a government official in Vietnam, creates the religion of Cao Dai after being contacted by a spirit during a seance. Cao Dai combines aspects of Christianity and Buddhism and promotes peace, tolerance, and vegetarianism.

Shinto becomes the state religion of Japan. Followers of the ancient religion, which is thousands of years old, worship invisible spirits at shrines, believing them to bring good luck. Shinto spirits are everywhere, and shrines can be natural features such as rocks, trees, or mountains.

1926

1868

Daoism Chinese philosopher Laozi writes the Dao de jing, the main book followed by Daoists. Daoists believe there is an invisible force—the Dao—running through the Universe and controlling it. Followers try to live in harmony with this natural force and lead peaceful, unselfish lives.

c .4

t h c e n t u r y bc

e

“Our greatest glory is not in never falling, but in rising every time we fall.” Chinese philosopher Confucius

1st ce

ntury c

e

Christianity In Judea (modern-day Israel), the Jewish preacher Jesus of Nazareth is executed by the Roman government, who see him as a threat. His teachings, which emphasize forgiveness and peace, give rise to the religion of Christianity. It will eventually spread to become the world’s biggest religion.

7t h c

e nt u r y

Islam An Arab merchant, Muhammad, establishes the religion of Islam after an angel appears to him in a series of visions, reciting the word of God. The angel’s commandments are recorded in the Qur’an, the holy book that all Muslims follow.

1853

Baha’i Mirza Husayn-Ali, a nobleman in Persia (modern-day Iran), has a religious revelation that inspires a vast body of religious writings, creating the main scriptures of the Baha’i faith. Baha’is believe in the unity of all religions and the equality of all people, whatever their nationality or faith.

14 9 9

Sikhism Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, has a mystical experience after bathing in a river in northwestern India. He renounces Hinduism and begins teaching a new faith that combines elements of Hinduism and Islam. Sikhs believe in a single god and reincarnation after death.

77

THE DESTRUCTION OF POMPEII Mount Vesuvius erupts As the Roman Empire rose to power, bustling towns and cities, including Pompeii and Herculaneum in southern Italy, grew and flourished around the base of the sleeping Mount Vesuvius. Then, on August 24, 79 ce, the mountain unexpectedly erupted, shrouding 15,000 unsuspecting Roman citizens in darkness and death. An active mountain

Around 62 ce , the Bay of Naples experiences a series of destructive earthquakes as gas builds up inside Mount Vesuvius. The violent tremors are felt in the nearby towns of Herculaneum, 4.3 miles (7 km) to the west, and Pompeii, 6 miles (10 km) to the southeast. Seventeen years later, in August 79 ce , molten lava hardens inside Vesuvius’s main cone and more gas builds up, leading to several days of violent earth tremors.

A cloud in the sky

On August 24, in the port of Misenum, 18 miles (30 km) west of Mount Vesuvius, the 18-year-old scholar Pliny the Younger spots a towering cloud rising from the quiet mountain. Just after noon, a tall column of hot ash, rock, and gas rises to more than 12.5 miles (20 km) in the sky. Winds start to carry the super-hot ash and rocks southeast toward Pompeii. Later, harmful gas spurts from the rumbling mountain as lightweight volcanic rock, known as pumice, rains down on the surprised Pompeii citizens. They start to panic, grabbing their valued possessions as they flee toward the beach looking for a way to escape.

Darkness descends

By the afternoon, a thick layer of ash and pumice builds up in Pompeii, causing buildings to collapse. The ash from the fiery mountain blocks out the Sun and the Bay of Naples descends into an early night. The darkness and crumbling buildings add to the panic as citizens gather at the shore.

The lightweight pumice floats in the water, making it hard for the overcrowded boats to flee the horror. As evening sets in, boiling hot, fist-sized rocks fly down through the ashy darkness and the terrified people of Pompeii scramble for shelter among the ruined buildings.

The towering inferno

At midnight, the eruption cloud reaches its highest peak at around 18.5 miles (30 km) in the air. The towering column of ash and gas collapses and a cloud of scorching gas and debris, known as a pyroclastic flow, rushes down from the mountain toward the town of Herculaneum. The super-hot cloud moves at speeds close to 435 mph (700 kph) and reaches a searing temperature of 750°F (400°C). The citizens have nowhere to hide and perish instantly as the volcanic cloud gusts through the city streets.

The dust settles

Overnight and into the darkness of a volcanic morning, the eruption cloud collapses several times, launching more terrifying pyroclastic flows down from the mountain. This time they also head southeast toward Pompeii, adding to the thousands of victims that have already perished. Pliny the Younger and thousands of survivors head inland away from the fiery disaster. As they look back into the bay, they notice that Herculaneum has vanished, buried under 65 ft (20 m) of ash, pumice, and volcanic rock. The Bay of Naples is shrouded in darkness for several days as the volcanic cloud finally settles, and Mount Vesuvius is quiet once more.

“Ashes were already falling, hotter and thicker... followed by bits of pumice.” Pliny the Younger, Letters VI 16

78

79

Fun and festivals The first museums, zoos, and festivals were already drawing crowds in ancient times. Rulers and royalty also created spectacular shows to reflect their own power and wealth. Singing and storytelling have been important for a long time in many cultures, and theaters and music halls put performers on stage in front of paying audiences. Over the centuries, millions of people have gathered to enjoy the greatest shows on the planet.

The first zoo

Early museums

The first historically recorded zoo is created in the Egyptian city of Nekhen. Visitors come to see baboons, leopards, hippos, gazelles, and crocodiles. The mummified remains of these animals will be discovered thousands of years later.

The oldest known museum, devoted to Mesopotamian history, is built by the Babylonian princess Ennigaldi in her palace in Ur (in modern-day Iraq). Many museums begin as private collections of art or artifacts displayed in wealthy homes.

c.3500 bce

c.530 bce

Circus Fireworks First invented in China in about 600 ce, Italian explorer Marco Polo brought fireworks to Europe in 1295. When the first colored fireworks are invented in Italy in the 1830s, public displays become even more spectacular.

1830s

1768

World’s Fair

80

English stunt rider Philip Astley holds a horse show, performing tricks inside a ring. Eventually, he adds clowns, musicians, and other performers, resulting in circus. By the 18th century, the popularity of the circus spreads from Europe to the US.

Public aquarium

The first international World’s Fair is held at the Crystal Palace in London. Industrial, scientific, and cultural exhibits are displayed for months at a time. Thousands of visitors have since enjoyed more than 100 of these festivals in 20 different cities.

The world’s first public aquarium, called The Fish House, opens at the London Zoo. Around 300 different types of marine life are on display. This is the first time aquatic creatures have been kept and displayed in enclosed tanks.

1851

1853

Opera house The world’s oldest opera house opens in the Italian city of Naples. The Real Teatro Di San Carlo showcases the work of leading composers, orchestras, and singers. The building later survives a fire and bombings during World War II.

1737

Big screens The first public cinema screening shown to a paying audience is presented by the French brothers Auguste and Louis Lumière in Paris, France. They show 10 short clips they had filmed.

1895

Mayan festivals In Mayan culture, there is a festival every 20 days. Huge crowds gather at the local central plaza for religious rituals, live music, and intricate dances. Performers entertain the crowds by dressing up as gods and mythical creatures.

Colosseum

India’s Golden Age

This great Roman amphitheater opens with 100 days of games, including gladiator battles and fights between wild animals. The games are watched by up to 50,000 spectators at a time, and continue to be held until the 5th century.

The Gupta Empire is called the Golden Age in Indian entertainment. People gather to watch a variety of dance, theater, and musical spectacles. The classical music and dance styles from this era are still practiced in Asia today.

c.80 bce

c.320–550 ce

c.250 bce–900 ce

Carnival

The Globe Theatre Royal festivities

Based on a spring festival from ancient Greece, the world’s largest carnival celebration opens in Brazil. More than half a million people celebrate on the streets and beaches of Rio de Janeiro every year.

French king Louis XIV stages grand entertainment at the Palace of Versailles, near Paris in France. The program includes operas, concerts, fireworks, light displays, and theater.

1723

1682

The home of Shakespeare’s plays opens in London. The Globe Theatre accommodates 1,500 people on the inside, while crowds gather outside to enjoy the atmosphere.

1599 Pride

Theme parks Radio Canadian-American engineer Reginald A. Fessenden invents an electric generator that can produce continuous sound waves. His first public radio broadcast is from Brent Rock in Massachusetts on Christmas Eve.

1906

The first theme park opens in Indiana. Santa Claus Land features rides and attractions with a festive theme. Theme parks soon become popular across the country, with Disneyland becoming the world’s leading theme park by the 1950s.

1946

Rock spectacular

Joyful crowds gather in New York to celebrate the first gay pride event. Pride carries an important message to promote the equality and rights of the gay community. Annual celebrations have since been held in cities around the world.

A record-breaking audience for a rock concert attends Rod Stewart’s performance on Copacabana Beach in Rio de Janeiro. More than 3.5 million people gather there on New Year’s Eve for the free concert.

1970

1994 81

Kushan Empire e

e

2 73 b ce

30 5–

Elephant exchange

30

3b ce

Chandragupta defeats an invading Macedonian army, led by King Seleucus. In a peace treaty, Seleucus gives Chandragupta the Punjab (in modern-day northern India and Pakistan) in exchange for 500 war elephants.

c. 32

1b

Maurya Empire

Inspired by Alexander the Great’s invasion of the Indian subcontinent, Chandragupta Maurya conquers the Nanda Empire of northern India. He establishes the Maurya Empire, whose capital is Pataliputra.

82

0c

bc

60 bc e

Bodhi tree The Buddha is thought to have found enlightenment (true wisdom) while sitting under a bodhi (fig) tree.

c.297–

Mauryan expansion Bindusara, the second Mauryan king, expands the empire into southern India. He is also known as Amitraghata, which means “destroyer of enemies.” Bindusara maintains good diplomatic relations with the Greeks and enjoys the sweet wine and figs they bring.

2 6 8 b ce

Ashoka the Great Following Bindusara’s death, civil war breaks out. The victor is Ashoka the Great. He converts to Buddhism and promotes the religion by sending missionary monks to Sri Lanka and Central Asia and building many stupas (mounds holding relics of the Buddha and other holy leaders).

c.2

Peace pillars After conquering Kalinga in eastern India, Ashoka decides to stop waging war. He sets up pillars across the empire, topped by sculptures of lions, elephants, and bulls. The pillars are inscribed with apologies for his previous actions. He also warns those who will rule after him not to conquer new territory.

Dharma wheel The Buddha’s first sermon, entitled Setting in Motion the Wheel of the Law (“Dharma”), was shown in art by a wheel.

18 5

Shunga Empire Brihadratha, the last Mauryan king, is assassinated by Pushyamitra Shunga, the chief of his guard. Shunga founds an empire in his own name that covers the central area of the Maurya Empire.

c.3

The Kushans, a nomadic people from Central Asia, conquer northwest India and modern-day Afghanistan. They follow a new form of Buddhism called Mahayana (meaning “great vehicle”), which spreads to Central and East Asia.

ce

Buddha statues Art flourishes under the Kushans. Inspired by Greek art, sculptors in Gandhara make statues of the Buddha, who in previous times had been represented only by symbols such as the dharma wheel.

0

c.1

3 –1 03

c.7 5

Ancient Indian empires

Southern trade The Satavahana Dynasty reaches its height under Gautamiputra Satakarni. It controls the Deccan plateau of southern India and trades by sea with the Roman Empire, exchanging spices and exotic animals for Roman gold.

Gupta Empire

c.32

0

From 321 bce, a series of great empires arose in the Indian subcontinent (modern-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh). The era also saw the rise of a new world religion, Buddhism, promoted by Mauryan emperors. The religion continued to thrive under the later Guptas, though they were Hindus. The Gupta period is considered to be India’s Classical Age, when the arts and sciences flourished.

c .4

99

c.38

0–415

c . 3 3 0 – 3 80

Chandra Gupta I conquers the Ganges Valley in northern India, founding the Gupta Empire. The Guptas are Hindus who build the first stone temples to Hindu gods, such as Vishnu, Shiva, and the elephant-headed Ganesha.

Reclining Buddha Some of the earliest Buddha statues show him lying on his deathbed. This style later spreads across East Asia.

Gupta expansion Samudra Gupta expands the empire, conquering more than 20 kingdoms. The defeated kings are allowed to continue ruling, but must send tribute to Gupta. On his inscriptions, he boasts that he is “invincible.”

Classical Age

The Gupta Empire is at its peak under Chandra Gupta II, a patron of art, literature, and science. It is thought that Kalidasa, the greatest poet and playwright in the Sanskrit language, may have been one of the court poets.

Math and astronomy

Aryabhata, the mathematician-astronomer, writes the Aryabhatiya, the earliest-surviving Indian book about mathematics. He correctly argues that Earth is a rotating sphere, and that the Moon and planets shine because of reflected sunlight.

Indian sculptures Hindu and Buddhist temples throughout the subcontinent are covered with intricate carvings of people, animals, and nature. The sculptures are full of activity, giving an impression of what life was like in ancient India.

83

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“Sobs choke my speech. The city which had taken the whole world was itself taken.” St. Jerome, in a letter upon hearing of the sack of Rome, written in 412.

The transformation of the Roman Empire From the 4th century, the Roman Empire started to fall apart as Germanic invaders swept into western Europe. These Germanic conquerors established new kingdoms there, but preserved many Roman institutions and customs. In the east, the Roman Empire survived as the Greek Byzantine Empire.

84

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610

–6

41

85

THE MEDIEVAL WORLD 500–1450

The Medieval World After the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 ce, Europe was divided into squabbling kingdoms, but civilizations in Asia continued to flourish and expand. China developed many technological and artistic innovations. In the Middle East, the new religion of Islam took hold, and scholars made great strides in the study of math, astronomy, and medicine. During this period, advanced cultures also appeared across the Americas, Africa, and Southeast Asia.

618–907 The Tang Dynasty rules in China.

c.610 According to Islamic belief, the Prophet Muhammad receives revelations from God, and founds the religion of Islam.

88

750 The Islamic Abbasid Dynasty establishes a new capital at Baghdad in modern-day Iraq.

711 An Islamic army begins the conquest of most of Spain and Portugal.

800 The Frankish king Charlemagne is crowned Holy Roman Emperor.

802 King Jayavarman II is the first ruler of the Khmer Empire in modern-day Cambodia.

960 The Song Dynasty takes control of China.

841 Vikings settle on the coast of Ireland, founding modern-day Dublin.

1066 William of Normandy in France becomes king of England after his victory at the Battle of Hastings.

1050 The Inuit people begin to settle in the Arctic regions of North America.

Rise of Islam

The Americas

Medieval Europe

The Crusades

Islamic empires (see pages 92–93) spread across the Middle East, North Africa, and Spain, bringing the teachings of this new religion to many cultures.

In Central and South America, a series of civilizations grew (see pages 94–95). These cultures dominated the continent until the arrival of Europeans.

After the fall of Rome, new kingdoms rose and fought for power across Europe (see pages 98–99). Christianity spread over the whole continent.

As both religions grew in power, Christianity and Islam clashed in a series of bloody wars known as the Crusades (see pages 104–105).

Chain mail Armor made from chain mail was constructed from small iron or steel rings linked together to form a mesh. Chain mail offered protection against blades, and was popular throughout medieval Europe and other parts of the world. It was cheap enough that soldiers other than knights could afford it, and the mesh made it very flexible and easy to wear.

c.1100–1400 Great Zimbabwe in southeast Africa emerges as a trading empire.

1095 Pope Urban II launches the first of eight Crusades—holy wars to take the city of Jerusalem from Muslim control.

1205–1206 Genghis Khan unites the Mongol tribes under his rule.

1192 Minamoto Yorimoto is named shogun (military leader) of Japan. This begins an era of rule by the samurai class.

1280 A Polynesian people known as the Maori settle in New Zealand.

1264–1368 Mongol conquerors found the Yuan Dynasty in China.

1346 The Battle of Crécy during the Hundred Years’ War ends in an English victory against the French.

1325–1521 The Aztec people create an empire in modern-day Mexico.

c.1540 The Inca city of Machu Picchu is established in modern-day Peru.

1347–1352 The Black Death plague spreads across Europe, killing between 30 and 60 percent of its population.

Rise of the samurai

Settling the Pacific

African kingdoms

The Mongols

A series of conflicts across Japan saw the rise to power of the samurai (see pages 110–111). These were elite warriors who lived by a strict code of honor.

Polynesian people settled previously uninhabited Pacific islands (see pages 116–117). They created cultures on Hawaii, New Zealand, and Easter Island.

South of the Sahara desert, rich and powerful kingdoms appeared in Africa (see pages 118–119). Trade with North Africa brought with it the religion of Islam.

Under the leadership of the warrior Genghis Khan, nomadic Mongol tribes from northern Asia (see pages 120–121) invaded as far as Europe and China.

89

690–705

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f th rlord, mand sei n, Ai, o l o a l Fa en, a w ozongong’s s, but hidss

a u W Z h a oz o n e e n Z h e r o r e . Z h e t h r n 9 07 a i s s p i h in n E m t h ro d o n t at i o n y. C h g d o m t e c t h l ac e b d i y n as a l k i n r. i s p c e d a n g D eve r owe fo r e Ta w i t h s fo r p th ed, ting id figh div

Chinese empress

Emperor Wuzong, who reigns during this time, is a devout Daoist who wants to rid China of foreign influences. He persecutes several religious groups, including Buddhists and Christians, and destroys 4,600 Buddhist temples.

or er h u p g co of Emhe hi e try, c t ti g n s . H o e a tis ar rei een aulturey of peeps s. r A -y e i s s g c e m d k o r s e 3 g an ad an h e 4 n zo n o f T n a c r t s , c i n g h T u a i nt s a e a a n X po he th d 0 s s b l i te 1 0 t a m o e of s e p ro u p t ro 6 L i fe ate a’s st b of L C e re i B a p o e m h i H e i n a’s e m b , w h o t gr w er w wo r i te s a e ate s e d a s i l l n a t r k s , c ro u n t p o e u re e l e d 1 , t . b 0 , a n f r i e n ra t i n 0 0 d win dship g e. ,

Gaozong’s widow, Empress Wu Zetian, takes power. She will be the only woman to rule China. She builds many Buddhist monasteries and proclaims herself ruler of a new Zhou Dynasty, which collapses before her death.

Religious persecution

First built in 652 during the Tang Dynasty, this pagoda housed Buddhist texts and Buddha figures that the monk and traveler Xuanzang brought to China from India.

The Giant Wild Goose Pagoda

China went through two Golden Ages during the Tang and Song dynasties. Under the Tang (618–907), China was a great imperial power, with a sophisticated culture open to foreign ideas. In the 8th century, the Tang capital, Chang’an, was the largest city in the world. The Song Dynasty (960–1269) was a time of economic transformation, when the population doubled from 50 to 100 million.

China’s Golden Ages

701–762

90

g a n rd e r s s T u e ze China is reunited under the Song Dynasty by the conquests of Zhao Kuangyin, who rules as Emperor Taizu.

Song founder

960–976

904

Central Asia conquered Li Shimin rules China as Emperor Taizong, conquering Central Asia and parts of Korea and modern-day Vietnam. He will be remembered as one of China’s wisest rulers.

Islam in China

c.1090 The inventor Su Song builds a water-driven mechanical clock tower.

c.11th century 1044 sees the earliest description of gunpowder weaponry, in a Chinese military manual.

984 The first canal lock is invented, with gates that can capture water.

9th century The development of woodblock printing leads to the widespread distribution of printed books.

747 Emperor Xuanzong builds a “cool hall” in the imperial palace with fan wheels and water sprays.

During its Golden Ages, China was technically far ahead of the West. Chinese inventions of the time included printed books, gunpowder weaponry, and water-driven mechanical clocks.

Impressive inventions

Saad ibn Waqqas, uncle of Prophet Muhammad, travels to China as an ambassador for Islam. Although he fails to persuade Emperor Gaozong to become a Muslim, the emperor builds China’s first mosque, in the city of Canton.

626–649

c.1115 The use of the maritime compass for navigation is recorded for the first time.

1125–1234

Tang law code Emperor Gaozong issues a great law code with 502 laws, listing penalties such as death, forced labor, and flogging. It lays the basis for later law codes across East Asia.

Wonder crop

91

Tang founder Li Yuan, a regional governor, takes power as emperor and establishes the Tang Dynasty. In 626, his son, Li Shimin, forces him to retire, but gives him the title Gaozu (high founder).

618–626

650 652

1023 11th century The Song Dynasty issues the world’s first paper money, called jiaozi.

Paper money

China adopts a new variety of early ripening rice from Champa (modern-day Vietnam), which can produce up to three harvests a year. It is drought-resistant and can grow on higher ground.

Nomads (travelers) from the north called the Jurchen Jin invade and conquer northern China, forcing the Song Dynasty to move south. The Southern Song Dynasty will survive until its conquest by the Mongols (see pages 120–121) in 1279.

Jin-China wars

AL-ANDALUS Black Sea

Tangier

MOROCCO

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ea

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92

Fez

ANATOLIA SYRIA Damascus PERSIA ean Se a AFGHANISTAN Baghdad

EGYPT

PALESTINE

Medina

Mecca

ARABIA

s p d e r l a m Pa l o d e o a m a u n of I s r r u n a ( m o n t r t h l s I b i r s ve s i r go No . a e A r e a d i e s o d Pe h e y a n d o c c o l( r T t n armria , a an). gyp s Mo r rE ra I y y S a u e fa d q as n co frica A

4– 63 98 6

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Th ba t h e c a l i p e A b sid D U hs b a n m a afte as i d yn y s a e r y in m o w c a a d s o v e b e c o st y . r C h t h e d e r n p i t a T h e t h ro m e i n e A b - d l at y e w i n s e b a ay B a s t a g o f a r m s i d s I ra q . g h d b l i s h Ce y t de In ad n t r o w fe a 7 5 1 al As in co t a , i a . nt ro l

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e st o f A Mus Spain li m a r m M o ro c c o t o c y c ro s s e s f ro onque m S pa in rm a t h ey c n d Po r t u g a l, o st of a ll a l-A w h ic h n d a lu b r in d ist in c g w it h t h e m s . Th ey t M u s li m ive a rc h ite c t h e ir tur ru t h e fa ll le in S pa in la a l st y le. o f G ra n ad a in sts u nt il 1492 .

The religion of Islam began early in the 7th century in Arabia in southwest Asia. According to its teachings, the archangel Jibril (Gabriel) first revealed God’s Word to the Prophet Muhammad. Within a hundred years, Arab armies had carried their religion to other parts of Asia, North Africa, and Spain, creating powerful Islamic empires. Meanwhile, Arab scholars began to further the study of science and medicine, influenced by the civilizations they conquered.

b ra t s t o f s A u h rly ues i d l y o c a l i p l i m a E n q s ra p a r l y u s e , co read the e ) as Mestin rn-

EXTENT OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD, 750 ce

U as s in u ’aw iya he ass Afte r t r t h c a li p h , M fo u n d s t h e fo u s c a li p h a n d t y. H e e s b e c o m ay yad D y n a it y of c t h e U m t h e a n c ie nt e n ew h s t e k ia a r y m S G re a t s c u s in Da m a l of Is la m . Its by 7 1 5 . c a p ita c o m p lete d e is Mosqu

y ynast Ali, D d a y f m ay at io n o

Early Islamic empires cine f medischolar o y d u St Is la m ic

te r gh nds u i v d a fo u u n r i , t h eh a n t , r a s a t s i h rc a d Fir a al-F y me nd m lled Fez in ed a a h t i m a l t e ) c a t a rd n d Fa we os qu hool yine reg ity a . s y a i of a m (s c a o u n ow i ve r o d a ar . It is r un ce t u e n Q o a l - o c c st- ev i ste r x r i Mo he f ll in e i t t as is s

it y n as rs ia n Th e Pe a (a ls o k n ow e s in h S s li ib n he na) pub Av ic e n of M e d ic in e . T n d o n y o e n b a s T h e C m e s p re a d fa a n d it b o o k’s la m ic wo r ld , a rd Is n st a d to r s the es the c b e c o m t b o o k fo r d o x . e e t l p a o r ic u med ieva l E in m e d

1 02 5

85 9

Seljuk

The Life of Muhammad

E m p i re

A M u s li c a ll e d t m Tu r k is h d y n h fro m C e S e lj u ks , o r ig ast y e vast e m nt ra l As ia , c r in a ll y e ate s p ire fr to Sy r ia o m Afg h a n is a a n d (moder A n ato li ta n S e lj u ks n - d ay Tu r key a ). T ca 1 0 5 5 . M p t u re B a g h d a h e d in a li k- S h ah g re ate s t of t h e I is t h e ir r u le rs .

10

m

M o A l o r o ra p o m o ra c c a n v i d w d e e r s v i d s t r i b Em s e o u , ex e s m p i b e M a r t t t h te c o r r o w o f n d e n , re Th mes akes est the Mu the s I s l ey a t h e h i n e r n A S a h l i m a m l s o i r c M o f r a ra i a ic Sp take pita rocc c a . ain co l in o fo r n t r 1 0 6 a t ol o 2. im f e.

c.570 Muhammad is born in the Arabian town of Mecca.

m r ya ma ay i a n O h e K h at i c e s t e a n a r t h e m l c u l at d ev i s s s a i d s Omn ma m ca ar to r. He ifamoue a a ye d a a T h rsi y y f m. , n Pe K h a h o f a c a l e o r o e t r y y y a g t te u t h p o Kh a l e n c u ra h e a n o f m a r ac e t ctio f O b t o c o l l e y at o i ba Ru

1 0 37

Al

Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam, is said to have received his revelation from the archangel Jibril in the form of the verses of the Qu’ran (an Islamic sacred book). By the time of his death, Muhammad had united the whole of Arabia under Islam.

c.610 The Prophet begins preaching the message of Islam, but gains many enemies. 629 He returns to Mecca with an army of Muslim converts.

54

c.607 He is visited by the archangel Jibril in a mountain cave.

622 Muhammad flees to safety from Mecca to Medina.

c.1 3 07

azari

1206

al- J n Ismail haped like a s r c lo c k a m o n g t h e A wa t e is t n f the e le p h a h in e s o y t h e us mac db in g e n io o r ld c re ate r i. w za M u s li m g in e e r a l- J a en

632 Muhammad dies in Medina. Abu Bakr becomes Islam’s first caliph (religious leader).

D e st r uc B a g h t i o n of

25

dad A Mon gol arm y A f r s o ia m B a g h d c a p t u re s a n C e n t ra l ad, k d lo o il t li s n peo g p le a nd bu thousands o r n f in fa m g t d e st r u o u s li b ra r ie s h e c it y ’s c t io n b . r in g s a Th e the A b b a s id D y n e n d to n ast y.

1258

13

M

Ib u N n B sli f i r o r t h a tt u m p l a s t o f A f r t a , f t ra i r v c o c m life es t any a , s e m Ta ele h r t t m i t ra v e i m e . a t h e j o u r n s o u n g i e les le H w e t o r in m o (1 2 d m e i s s i l l m ys to n t h e s t 0,0 o re a i d a k h o o f t h 0 0 k t h a to h e i n h l y e I m ) n 7 av i s 5 s e l a m i a n d ,0 0 0 vi c w o r s i te d ld.

Geometric patterns Islamic teaching does not allow pictures of humans or animals in holy places. Mosques and other religious buildings throughout the Islamic world are richly decorated with geometric patterns of tiles.

93

Empires of the Americas The first humans arrived in Central and South America many thousands of years ago. Crossing an ice bridge from Siberia, they traveled south. There they built thriving civilizations on strong foundations of religious beliefs and artistic crafts. These great empires eventually fell at the hands of European conquerors. c.500 bce Zapotec c.900– 200 bce Chavín de Huántar

c.2800 bce Norte Chico

Chavín de Huántar becomes an important center for politics and religion in the Andes mountains. Locals decorate their pottery with carvings of animals, such as jaguars and eagles.

The Zapotec people create acentral site for their ceremonies at present-day Monte Albán in Mexico. Also known as the “Cloud People,” they pray and make offerings and sacrifices to their many gods.

The first South American civilization, Norte Chico, establishes the first big towns in modern-day Peru, where pottery, weaving, and farming become commonplace. This ancient civilization flourishes until 1800 bce.

c.900 bce First pyramids

c.1200–400 bce The Olmec Double-headed turquoise serpent Double-headed turquoise serpents were featured in Aztec religious ceremonies. Snakes symbolized the serpent god Quetzalcoatl, while the mineral turquoise was highly prized at the time.

94

In the jungles of what is now Mexico, the Olmec people build temples and make sculptures of their rulers and gods. Although not much is known about the Olmec today, they do influence later Mayan, Aztec, and Inca Empires.

Stepped towers, similar to pyramids, are built all around Central and South America as part of temple complexes. The first known example is created by the Olmec people at La Venta in modern-day Mexico.

c.100–600 ce Teotihuacan The biggest city in the ancient Americas was Teotihuacan in present-day Mexico. The Temple of the Sun, shown here, is an enormous structure stretching 207 ft (63 m) high. Trade flourishes until a fire in 600 ce destroys the city.

Human sacrifice People throughout the empires of the ancient Americas believed that their gods desired human sacrifices. Priests would remove the victim’s heart and present it to the gods as an offering. These sacrifices were usually performed inside temples and on mountaintops. This image shows an Aztec priest sacrificing two victims to appease the gods.

987–1187 Toltecs The Toltecs, from what is now northern Mexico, seize the great Mayan city of Chichen Itza and take charge for two centuries.

400–650 ce Nasca lines People inhabiting what’s now known as the Nasca desert in Peru draw huge pictures on the ground of birds and other shapes. They do this by taking away the ground’s top layer to reveal the light soil beneath.

1325–1521 Aztec Empire The Aztec people arrive in what’s now Mexico. Legend says that they built their capital city, Tenochtitlán, on Lake Texcoco, where an eagle held a snake in its beak while perched on a flowering cactus.

AFTER 1438 Inca Empire Inca ruler Pachacutec expands the Inca Empire, which now stretches from present-day Ecuador to Chile. The Inca city of Machu Picchu is established high in the Andes mountains, and remains undiscovered until 1911.

The arrival of Spanish conquerors during the 16th century brought an end to the Aztec and Inca Empires. Driven by greed and with little concern for the natives, the Spanish soon destroyed both civilizations. Hernán Cortés took over the Aztec Empire, while Francisco Pizarro overthrew the Incas.

250 ce Mighty Mayans The Mayans reach their peak, building temples and expanding cities. Tikal, in present-day Guatemala, is one of the biggest Mayan cities, home to 100,000 people. Other great cities include Chichen Itza and Uxmal. By 800 ce, many Mayan cities are ruined by famine.

c.1325 Ancient game The people of Central and South America played ball games as far back as 1400 bce, and the Aztecs develop their own version, which they call ullamaliztli . The court represents the world, while the ball is the Sun and Moon.

95

96

113 –10 1 bc e

c.50 bce

The Rom ans occ upy the west ban k of the Rhin e, whe re they offe r protectio n to loya l Ger man ic tribe s. The first Ger man tow ns are built here by the Rom ans. Late r on, the regi on is divid ed by the Rom ans into Ger man ia Infer ior, (with its cap ital in Colo gne ) and Ger man ia Sup erio r (with Main z as its cap ital).

12 bce–9 ce

Roman inva

s

ion The Rom an s cros s th e R hi ne an d co nq ue r al l of G er m an y up to th e R iv er E lb e. The invasi on en ds in w he n G er m an di saster by A rm in iu s am ic tr ib es le d bu ou t th re e Rom sh an d w ip e th e Te utob ur an le gi on s in g Fo re st in 9 ce.

3 5 0 – 37

6 ce

m i g ra The H tio un f ro m t s s w e e p w e n s h s ett in g e ste p p e s st wa rd o o of G e r ff a m as s m f As ia , m a n ic ove m e p e o p le nt such g s V is ig o ro u p, c a ll e . O n e d the ths, se tt le s a t h e Da c ro s nub f le e in g e in 376 afte s r the Hu ns.

Age o f

40

Sutton Hoo helmet

This is a replica of a helmet that was buried with a 7th century Anglo-Saxon king at Sutton Hoo, England. Based on late-Roman cavalry helmets, its decoration is Germanic in style.

e

6c

T t h e h e Va S p R h i n d a Va n n a l i n t i n . L e , ra s , A l a d a o A a t e va ls n k i n f r i c a r, i n g e G s , a n 4 g a d M a d o m . T h e 2 9, t u l , a S u e lta , w y e he nd bi c , S h i c sta Va m o ro a rd h s n b v i n i a i n c l l i s h d a l s e i nt s , a n u d e t h e c ro o d C s S i r ow s s ors icily n ica , .

The Germanic peoples lived in many different tribes east of the River Rhine and north of the River Danube. From the 4th century, they began a mass migration into the Western Roman Empire, hoping to find land to settle on and to share in its wealth. They eventually brought down the Western Roman Empire, replacing it with new Germanic kingdoms.

Roman Germany

Thr e e Fir A m G e r m st G e R o m b ro an rm ani fina an E nes, l ic peo lly d mpi aun c p e fe re . T c h a l e s , t h i n v asi ate e l h a e C r g y db y t h ra v a g e - s c a i m b r i , o n T eR l o m e G a u e i n va e u t o n l an sio an gen d S n o s, and e ra p a i n f t h e l Ga , ius but ar Ma e rius .

Germanic peoples

4

s

c .4 4

9 ce

axon b e g in lo-S , and JutesCeltic Ang s n o x . T h e t of t h e s, Sa r ita in s as t of B e we A n g le T h e c o n q u e s e n t o t h e k n o w n o rd d r iv the er b on w e t n s a r n d w il l la n g lo - S a x r. B r ito ,a y r ig n e t he A c o u n h , f ro m t n in g fo re ea e ls t h e W we a lh , m

e

9–

o m r i c , r) f R y Ala nde on k o d b ( p l u ove , s ac s , l e ac k n m pa i n l u d e s e s g ot h n d s t h e d S t i n c l a st Th e Visitaly a . Theyaul an thaain. It f 711. m p to Th e I 10 G o s ad in 4 ern ngd y S ue i nv m e u t h a k i n - d a o n q o r Ro to s h i n g o d e l i m c lis f m us M tab o e s st t h e m o nt i l ce u 18 40

Last Western empe

ror

ma n Th e last We ste rn Ro gu stu lus , Em pe ror, Ro mu lus Au ce r, a oa is overt hrown by Od wh o ma ke s Ge rm an ic ch ieftai n Od oace r is him se lf kin g of Ita ly. g Th eo do ric later mu rde red by Kin ths in 49 3. go the Great of the Ostro

476 ce

mes Gaul becoe Franc

e is u n ite s th e, K in g C lov ib e rm a n ic tr Fra n ks , a G e rs th e last and conqu v in c e Ro m a n p ro re m a in in g sta b lis h e s th e e in G a u l. H e n d y n asty a n d M e rov in g ia C h ri sti a n it y in c o nve rts to l b e c o m e s 49 6. G a u la n d ra n c e ), th e Fra n c ia (F Fra n ks . of th e

482 ce

aly

d It , bar e o p l e r Lomombard pce of othqeuer n L n The n allia s, co the o p l e a r ks ing a l e a d a n i c p e . T h i s m s of t h e n m G e r t o f I t a l y i g ra t i o l e s . m o s of t h e m i c p e o p e l i ve s . e n d G e r m a n rd s’ n a md y, I ta l y ba mbar o Lo m Th e d ay, i n L o on t

568

ce

In 800 ce, Pope Leo III crowns the Frankish king Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor. Charlemagne’s Carolingian Empire unites much of western and central Europe.

After

97

BEFORE As the Western Roman Empire broke apart, Germanic invaders founded new kingdoms across Europe (see pages 84–85). Their leaders quickly became Christian, and they gained authority from the Church, which taught that rulers were chosen by God.

Vikings found Dublin

Charlemagne crowned

After raiding Ireland, the Vikings build a fortified camp by the Liffey River. This permanent settlement becomes the town of Dublin. The Vikings go on to found settlements at Limerick, Wexford, Waterford, and Cork.

In Rome, Pope Leo III crowns the Frankish King Charlemagne as the first Holy Roman Emperor. Charlemagne (ruled 800–814) unites much of western Europe in his Carolingian Empire.

800

841

Medieval Europe

The First Crusade Pope Urban II proclaims a crusade (holy war), against the Muslims, who rule the Middle East. In 1099, the crusaders capture Jerusalem, founding four Christian states in the Middle East. Seven more crusades follow.

In Europe, the Medieval period, or Middle Ages, lasted from the 5th to the 15th centuries. It followed the fall of the Western Roman Empire (see pages 84–85). Medieval Europe was dominated by the Catholic Church (headed by the pope in Rome), and by ruling classes of warriors. The majority of the population was made up of peasant farmers.

1095

St. Francis founds an order of friars, whose role is to spread Christianity by preaching. Unlike monks, who live apart from the world in monasteries, friars live in towns among ordinary people.

1209

Franciscan order

Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa

Hundred Years’ War Edward III of England proclaims that, as the son of a French princess, he has more right to rule France than the new king, Philip of Valois. This begins more than a century of on-and-off warfare between England and France.

1241

1337–1453

The Almohad Muslims of southern Spain suffer a crushing defeat in a battle against a Christian army. The Christian reconquest of Spain from Muslim control is under way.

1212 98

Hanseatic League Hamburg, which has salt mines, and Lubeck, which has a herring fishery, form a trading alliance to produce salted herring. This marks the start of the Hanseatic League, a great trading association of northern German towns.

The East–West Schism

Vladimir the Great Prince Vladimir the Great of Kievan Rus in Eastern Europe adopts a branch of Christianity known as the Eastern Orthodox Church. He orders a mass baptism of his people.

Following disagreements over theology (beliefs) and methods of worship, the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church fully separate. The Orthodox leaders reject the Pope’s claim to have authority over them.

988

1054

Humbled emperor

The Battle of Hastings

After a quarrel, Pope Gregory VI excommunicates Henry IV, the Holy Roman Emperor, denying him Church membership. To earn the pope’s pardon, Henry stands barefoot in the snow for three days at Canossa in Italy.

Duke William of Normandy invades England, where he defeats and kills Harold Godwinson, the last Anglo-Saxon king, at Hastings. In 1085, William orders a huge survey of his kingdom, which is later called the Domesday Book.

1077

1066 Joan of Arc Joan of Arc, a farmer’s daughter who claims to hear the voices of saints, leads the French to victory over the English. She is eventually captured by the English, accused of witchcraft, and burned at the stake for it.

Black Death

Gutenberg Bible

A deadly plague is carried to Europe from Central Asia on merchant ships. It spreads everywhere, killing between 30 and 60 percent of Europe’s population.

1347–1352

In Germany, Johannes Gutenberg uses his printing press, invented around 1439, to produce the first printed Bible. As more people are able to read the book for themselves, many begin to question the teachings of the Catholic Church.

1429–1431

AFTER At the end of the 15th century, Medieval Europe is shaken by a series of events. Christopher Columbus lands in the Americas in 1492, changing Europeans’ view of the world. New theories spread by printing also lead to the rejection of many long-held ideas and beliefs.

c.1439 99

THE BATTLE OF CRECY The longbow strikes back On August 26, 1346, in Normandy in northern France, an invading English army gathered for battle on high ground near the town of Crécy and faced a French army that outnumbered them by more than two to one. However, as the combat-hungry French prepared to charge at the English defenses, the English king, Edward III, prepared a strategy that would surprise and overwhelm the dominant force of his attackers. The Hundred Years’ War

In February 1328, the death of the French king Charles IV leads to a succession dispute between the kingdoms of France and England. King Philip VI of France lays claim to the throne, as does the English monarch, Edward III. This power struggle leads to the beginning of the epic conflict that will become known as the Hundred Years’ War in May 1337. Other disputes between the French and English keep the fighting going for more than 100 years. These include the control of the valuable wool trade and disputes over areas of land. On June 24, 1340, Edward III and his navy are victorious against the cumbersome French fleet at the Battle of Sluys. The English navy dominates the English Channel, allowing invading forces to be transported efficiently to the continent.

The English invade

In July 1346, an invading English army lands in Normandy and takes the town of Caen. Philip VI rallies his troops and with the assistance of King John of Bohemia, who is blind, and a regiment of around 6,000 mercenary crossbowmen from Genoa, they move north to engage the English. In August, Edward III and his invading army of about 14,000 men gather in preparation for battle on the hills between the towns of Crécy and Wadicourt. Word of the marching French army arrives, so the English dig trenches and construct staked barricades to protect their position. Edward III orders his knights to dismount, and the English divide into three units of

100

spearmen, knights, and longbowmen. They are under the command of the king, his son (known as the Black Prince), and the Earl of Northampton.

The battle commences

On August 26, Philip VI and his 30,000-strong army of mounted knights, infantry, and crossbowmen arrive at the Crécy battlefield. At noon, a unit of horsemen report back to the king about the English position and recommend that his army rests and attacks the following day. With dominant numbers and an eagerness to prove the might of their army, the French noblemen persuade Philip VI to attack immediately. At around 4:00 p.m., as the French army marches toward the English, a rainstorm hits the battlefield and the Genoese crossbowmen are unable to shield their crossbows from the pouring rain. On the hill, the English longbowmen are prepared and protect their bowstrings from the downpour. The crossbowmen launch an attack, but their arrows land short as their range is reduced by their damp weapons.

The French retreat The English longbowmen step forward and bombard the misfiring crossbowmen with their arrows. Their much greater range and their ability to reload faster creates chaos in the enemy ranks. Many crossbowmen fall, and in a state of panic, the French army starts to flee the battlefield. The cowardice of the Genoese is punished by the mounted French knights who slay

their retreating allies. In the mud and chaos, the French cavalry charges up the hill. Again, the English archers bombard their attackers with arrows and many horses tumble, taking their riders with them. A second charge on the English is led by blind King John, who is tied to his horse and pointed in the direction of his foes. This charge is more successful, beating back the Black Prince’s troops, but help from the Earl of Northampton neutralizes the French offensive and the English manage to hold their position.

Victory of the longbowmen

Throughout the evening, Edward III watches from the top of the hill as charge after charge by the French fails to break through his troops’ defenses. The English longbowmen dominate the battle as more French soldiers fall on the muddy battlefield, including Philip’s brother Charles II of Alençon. Just before midnight, the wounded Philip VI abandons the battlefield and seeks refuge at the castle of La Boyes. The French soldiers and remaining knights follow suit, leaving more than 21,500 dead on the battlefield. The English, who count their losses at fewer than 100 men, hold their position on the hillside throughout the night before continuing their invasion of Normandy. In 1347, after a year of besieging, King Edward III takes the port of Calais and secures a strategic foothold in northern France that will serve the English army in its ongoing war against the French for the next 200 years.

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A huge haul of Viking treasure was found in 2007, more than 1,000 years after a Viking leader buried it for safekeeping. The Vale of York Hoard contained 617 silver coins, along with various ornaments and other treasure. The coins were found inside a large cup made during the 9th century in modern-day France or Germany. It’s made of solid silver, covered with a thin layer of gold.

Viking treasure

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Originally from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, the Vikings were farmers and traders. From the 8th century onward, they left their homelands to invade territories far and wide, raiding and ransacking their way around Europe. They were master craftspeople, building huge wooden longships to travel, and making fine jewelry to trade with other populations. By the 11th century, they had established themselves in settlements across the continent.

The Vikings

79

Viking raids reach as far as the city of Constantinople, now known as Istanbul in modern-day Turkey. They catch the city off guard, sailing in on 200 longboats to loot monasteries and homes.

No E rw m e g er I re a t ra i a n a l d V t l a n d i n i k i n isl h d g b e i s s e . B u i s e tt g s e e l t l F c o t l e t o e m st a l a u ro m m e t m e n n m a e n t b l i s s o nch this he c t go rshl in h uth fu n ity es o and a r t h ew o , n d w e r a bas f D u b n to lin e s tt a e , t o f c ks t h e y . the on t i s lan he d.

ra i d ing a k i h V Fir nown nly witthe k e n t in d f i rs s u d c k o te r y T h e c c u r s l e a tt a o n a s . T h e o rrib e m land eir t e s fa r n E n g e t h a i d s rr di st inu L i n r t h e a c o nt u r t h e c e. n o k i n g s w i t h f Fr a n V i g e, and pa land m e a r in Ir

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The Vikings built these long and light boats for travel, and also battle. They were vital to the Vikings’ success as raiders and conquerors.

Viking longboats

The Crusades In the 11th century, a Christian army set off to regain Jerusalem, a sacred site in both Christianity and Islam, from Muslim control in a military expedition known as a crusade. This was the first of eight crusades that would take place over the next 200 years. The Christians were ultimately unsuccessful.

Crusading call Pope Urban II declares the First Crusade, calling upon European Christian knights to help take Jerusalem from Muslim control. Hundreds take a holy vow to join the crusade and wear a cross as a sign of their commitment.

Capture of Jerusalem The army of the First Crusade sets off in 1096, reaching the walls of Jerusalem three years later. It captures the city amid terrible scenes of slaughter, and the Crusaders set up four Christian kingdoms in the Middle East.

Second Crusade

Battle of Hattin

After a Muslim army captures the Crusader city of Edessa in 1144, a leading French churchman, St. Bernard of Clairvaux, launches the Second Crusade to win it back. The crusade ends in failure for the Christians.

Saladin, a Muslim warrior, revitalizes the Muslim forces in the Middle East. They defeat a Christian army at the Battle of Hattin, and storm most of the Crusader kingdoms, including Jerusalem.

1187 1099

Third Crusade Led by King Richard I the Lionheart of England and King Philip II Augustus of France, the Third Crusade recaptures the trading port of Acre from Saladin’s forces, but fails to retake Jerusalem.

1147–1149

1095

1189–1192

104

Clermont Venice

Genoa Marseille

Zara

“Let such as are going to fight for Christianity put the form of the cross upon their garments.”

Black Sea

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Acre Hattin Jerusalem

Pope Urban II in a speech given at the city of Clermont, 1095

Cairo

LANDS OF THE CRUSADES

Fifth Crusade

Fourth Crusade This crusade sets off to recapture Jerusalem, but ends in disaster. A Christian army reaches the Orthodox Christian city of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. Instead of carrying on to Jerusalem, the soldiers sack Constantinople and steal its treasures.

The Fifth Crusade makes a new attempt to regain Jerusalem, this time by first conquering the powerful Muslim state of Egypt. The Crusaders are trapped by the annual flood of the Nile River and forced to retreat.

1217–1221

Sixth Crusade Frederick II, the German emperor, launches the Sixth Crusade. It involves very little fighting, and he makes a treaty with the Sultan of Egypt that restores Jerusalem to the Christians for a short time.

End of the Crusades Saintly Crusader King Louis IX of France leads two unsuccessful crusades. Captured in Egypt in 1254 during the Seventh Crusade, he dies in Tunisia in 1270 while on the Eighth Crusade. He is later made a saint.

1228–1229

Acre, the last major Crusader-controlled stronghold in Palestine, falls to a Muslim army. It marks the end of Crusader influence in the Middle East. No further crusades are organized to Jerusalem.

1291

1204 1248–1270

105

BEFORE From 600 bce, people living by the Red River in modern-day northern Vietnam created the Dong Son culture. They were fishers and rice farmers, as well as skilled metalworkers of bronze and iron.

106

Khmer Empire

an II, Ki ng Jayava rm se en lly na r tio di S w ho is tra r the s of r e v le th e o u of r e R , k as th e fo un de t ra t a , J ava in re pi Em S u m a p e n in s u la n d er Kh m a bo di a, M a lay t B o r n e o, h e pa d o m od er n- day C am de r m m s T . e s a g W d un on n n h gi i re la e h a th is C pa K Sout un ite s m a ny a E m p ire is e r. state m ay e y Th . le a b ru s hi h y w C ed n-d is m , S r iv ij a oasta l p o ow The oder fluenc ts re lig io n is H in du of at c in g s fo ll n e m i r p f ip , g sh o or o s es am ya k base d on w ad h is m an unan in. i et n u n a n , a n d u s a iva S r iv ij a a n a B u d d Sh d V an n nu Vi sh F ism h ay sta b li s h m p va l a a M Fu e of F oder h . u a d C a n d e ie s in I n d ia t n H i n s k r i t . re a t n g m n g st a d i n t h e r t h e n ste r i a l a l S e 8 02 s o o m na m e , c o nt r i n t h e T h re a t e y s o u a a n d a o f o c 0 0 b e o w e r t ra d e e a . c da odi elt m. .13 D p S 50 –c pice hina m b o n g i e t n a t ra d e 6 s a e C h k C e h V by e t e th M out ed , th Sou es er me e a c i S o n n d c th i u t 50 lue In be c.3 I nf w i t h e s e u s e ag e. Ch onq -Vie u of asty s an nd u c a m o r W D y n uer un us a t lang q e F r d ri N p e a n c o n i n e s re Hin nsk o a ce Em a’s H and . Ch r m , as r S 0 i t s n o s i f r e e 5 Ch ade -Vi last yea d th out c. i nv N a m w i l l 0 0 t e n u g h l e 1 , 0 ex r o . ru an an e th gion t h e H n c re th flue the e in bc

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11

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Kingdoms of Southeast Asia

Southeast Asia lies at one of the world’s great crossroads, in the middle of a trade and pilgrimage route between India and China and the Spice Islands. From the 1st century ce, wealthy kingdoms emerged here. Rulers took Indian names, and adopted both Hinduism and Buddhism. Later, Muslim traders brought Islam to the region.

Dai Vie

t Th e fa ll of C h in a ’s Ta n g D y na N a m -V ie sty s e e s in d e p e n t g a in its de th e 11 th n c e. Fro m c e ntu ry, th e state is c a V iet (G re ll e d Da i at V iet) . It w il l ev e ntu ove r C h a ll y ta ke amp th e s o u th a to .

907

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Sukhothai Ayutthaya Strait of Malacca

South Angkor China Sea

PACIFIC OCEAN

Malacca

INDIAN OCEAN

Palembang

CAPITAL CITIES OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN KINGDOMS

Fi k i r st s u S ng Th ag c c e i I nt do ai e s a i n s s h ra m

n a c a of l t a l a c ate e d i n . S u M a u l t a n o u n d l ay s i a n s a f a e S is M ult e T h c c a d ay r s t s s t h a he la n- fi Ma oder f the slam n. T rich its m e o t s I l i g i o ows to c a O n o p re g r u e c a d t ate ate f u l d a l a te. a s d M u r n s ay u n r n l t a w e h e ro s u p o of t i c e t h I fo t h e i l l w l p d ut odi ou at oth r. a n t ro s s s t n h i 0 c o ra t Ay athib ya, a om t uer bngko s 40 m ha gd nq A o n c.1 R a y u tt k i n c o a n d n g t A s i a o m A a i to a i m i d d . T h o o n o t h l c o a n k i n g 767 g kh e ean e til 1 Su Wrop s, th un r t Eu e as d l 1 l t ra w i l 35

T t a st f u t h Su hai blis Khmlly re it k k h b c e h ot i n g d i n g t e r r e l s ha om he ule n c t mo om ury i. B , c fir , d e p r i , S u y t h a l l st rn se kh e ed -d s m o 14 ay o t h a t h T h st i 12 a i l of an 38 d.

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AFTER In 1511, a Portuguese fleet captured Malacca. The Portuguese were followed by the Spanish, the Dutch, the British, and the French, all conquering separate territories. Most of Southeast Asia eventually fell under European rule.

Reclining Buddha This 130 ft (40 m) long statue of the reclining Buddha is from Ayutthaya in central Thailand. The Buddha is shown in a peaceful state just before death.

107

Angkor Wat The largest religious monument in the world, Angkor Wat (meaning “temple city”) was originally built as a Hindu place of worship. It was constructed in the early 12th century in the reign of Suryavarman II of the Khmer Empire (in modern-day Cambodia). Hidden for centuries by jungle, it was rediscovered by Europeans in 1860. The outer walls represent the edge of the world, and the moat the cosmic ocean. The lotus bud designs on the towers are important Hindu symbols.

Rise of the samurai According to legend, the first emperor of Japan, Jimmu, came to power in the 7th century bce. His descendants controlled the country for more than 1,800 years. But in the late 12th century, the elite warrior class known as the samurai became the real power behind the throne. This began a time of conflict between warlords that would only end with the unification of Japan in 1603.

Ashikaga Shogunate Two years after seizing control, Ashikaga Takauji is formally recognized as shogun. He then founds his own dynasty, the Ashikaga Shogunate.

Kamakura Shogunate Yoritomo is formally recognized as shogun. His base of operations is at the city of Kamakura. The transfer of power from the emperor’s capital at Kyoto is the beginning of an era in which the samurai class would become Japan’s military and social elite.

“Respect, Honesty, Courage, Rectitude, Loyalty, Honor, Benevolence.”

Genkō War The Kamakura Shogunate is brought down with the help of one of its former generals, Ashikaga Takauji. Emperor Go-Daigo restores imperial power for a short time.

Yamamoto Tsunetomo on the virtues of a samurai, Hagakure: The Book of the Samurai, 1716

133 4 127 5 118

119

133

3

2

First shogun At the battle of Dan-no-ura, the Minamoto clan defeats Divine wind the imperial favorites, the Two attempts by China to Taira clan. Minamoto invade Japan, in 1274 and 1281, Yoritomo is named shogun fail when their navies run into (military dictator), and the typhoons (tropical storms). On Japanese emperor both occasions, the kamikaze becomes a powerless (“divine wind”) is credited with figurehead. saving Japan from foreign invasion.

8

Firearms The first European explorers to reach Japan are Portuguese merchants, who introduce their firearms to Japan. The Japanese favor the new weapons so much that their use in Japan eventually becomes more common than in Europe.

Katana

c.14

00

Fall of the Ashikaga Shogunate

Oda Nobunaga brings the Ashikaga Shogunate to an end when he drives the shogun out of Kyoto.

The long, curved, two-handed sword known as the katana becomes popular among the samurai class. The katana is worn blade-side up so that it can be drawn and used in one swift movement.

c.14

Betrayal Oda Nobunaga dies in an attempt by one of his own men to seize power. His loyal aide Toyotomi Hideyoshi gets revenge, then continues Nobunaga’s efforts to unite Japan.

160 158

5 1 57 1 57 156 154

3

8

2

160

3

0 The Edo Period Tokugawu Ieyasu becomes the first Tokugawa shogun and rules over an era known as “The Great Peace.” With no wars to fight, many samurai become government officials.

Battle of Sekigahara With this decisive battle, Tokugawa Ieyasu finally unites Japan under one ruler, finishing the work of Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi.

3

85

Honor and allegiance

Battle of Nagashino Oda Nobunaga

Ninja The samurai clans begin to make use of professional experts in espionage, sabotage, and assassination called shinobi (meaning “to sneak”). These shinobi, later known as ninja, can perform tasks that would have been against a samurai’s strict code of honor.

As part of his plan to unite Japan under his own rule, Oda Nobunaga installs Ashikaga Yoshiaki as a shogun that he can control. He then restricts the shogun’s powers.

The combined forces of Oda Nobunaga and Tokugawa Ieyasu devastate their enemies with innovative firearms tactics that change the face of Japanese warfare.

The samurai class was bound by a strict code called bushido. In this unwritten set of laws, death was seen as preferable to living without honor and discipline. The samurai swore loyalty to a daimyo, or lord. In turn, a daimyo was forced to give his allegiance to the shogun, the leader of the military government. For much of this period, the shogun was the true ruler of Japan—the emperor was a powerless figurehead.

Japanese castles were made of wood and stone and were built to defend strategic sites such as ports, crossroads, and river crossings.

Soldiers wore individual armor, so war banners were used to identify the various regiments within each army on the battlefield.

Emperor (symbolic hereditary ruler of Japan)

Shogun (leader of the military government)

Daimyo (wealthy landowners and heads of the samurai families)

Samurai (elite warriors sworn to serve their lords to the death)

111

Castles Ancient civilizations built walls around their towns and settlements to protect them from attack, but castles as we think of them today only developed around 1,000 years ago. With their tall towers, strong walls, and wide moats to hold off attackers, they dominated the landscape of medieval Europe and elsewhere.

Motte-and-bailey castle In Europe, powerful lords pay to build castles out of earth and wood to keep attacking armies out. They consist of a mound (motte) topped by a tower (keep), and a yard (bailey) at the foot of the mound, all protected by a wooden fence.

Roman fort The Roman army construct stone forts, or camps, throughout their empire. They build them all to a similar layout, containing barracks, workshops, baths, and stores. Each fort is called a castrum, which is where the word “castle” comes from.

c .9 5

0– 10 70

e

c.2

7

e–

bc

3

c 00

Stone keep

c.1

c.1070

Castles throughout Europe are now being built of stone. Keeps are three or four stories high. At first the towers are square in shape, but later they become circular as this means they are more difficult to attack.

0

Strong defenses

–11 50

110

40 0–1

0

Inside the castle

112

2

0 –13 00

Castles are home to the lord, his family, and their servants. The hall, where meals are served, has a large fireplace. There are bedchambers, a chapel, a kitchen, and even toilets (called “garderobes”).

Knights returning from the Crusades (see pages 104– 105) bring back new ideas about castle building. Castles are now built on cliff tops or surrounded by moats to make them stronger. They have thick walls, tall towers, and defensive, fortified gatehouses at the entrance.

Indian hill fort

0 66 –16

Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha empire in India (see pages 162– 162), builds and restores more than 300 hill forts in his war against the Mughals. Their huge stone walls exploit the natural features of the land.

16

7 70 1 – 67

Vauban forts During the reign of King Louis XIV of France, the great military engineer Sébastien de Vauban constructs hundreds of fortresses and towers along the borders of France.

80

1 A bastion

c.1

1 6 00 0–

Star fort

57

Tall towers and walls are easily destroyed by cannon fire, so a new type of fortification called a star fort is developed in Italy. They are low in height, and protected by sections called bastions coming off the center.

c.1

5

1 00 –

Japanese castle Rival warlords (daimyo) in Japan build themselves strong castles as symbols of their authority. These castles are mostly made of wood, standing on tall stone platforms surrounded by rings of moats.

600

Built for show Castles are now being built for show as much as for defense. Living quarters are becoming luxurious and spacious. Towers are covered with battlements to make them look impressive, and they have round holes to fire guns through.

Brick castle

c.1400

Because of a lack of stone in the plains of northern Europe, castles there are often built of brick. Malbork Castle, in present-day Poland, is built by the Teutonic Knights, a religious crusading order. It is still the largest castle in the world today.

c.1300

113

Early North America The first people to arrive in North America no doubt did so without realizing it. Like their ancestors, they were hunting mammoths and other animals, following them along the Siberian coast and across the land bridge between Asia and North America. Once in Alaska, over the following thousands of years, these people gradually spread across what is now North America. By 10,000 bce, life was well established there.

c.25,000 bce

Land bridge During the last Ice Age, Asia and America are connected by a flat, grassy, treeless landscape (tundra) called Beringia. Hungry humans hunt animals and follow them across the tundra. Some historians believe people also arrive by boat.

c.22,000 bce

c.10,000 bce

Home in Beringia

Crowfoot Chief Siksika

Bridge closed Sea levels start to rise and Beringia is submerged. By now, hunter-gatherers have reached the prairies of modern-day Canada and the eastern side of the modern-day US.

9500 bce

9000 bce

Moving south

People make their homes in Beringia for generations. According to some scientists, they are trapped there by huge ice sheets, but when the ice melts, they will move south into modern-day Canada and the US.

Hunters spread throughout the North American grasslands into the American Southwest. They make sharp, stony spearheads (Clovis points) to hunt big animals such as the mastodon (a prehistoric relative of the modern-day elephant).

Amazing maize In the Eastern Woodlands (a large part of modern-day eastern Canada), people hunt, fish, and gather, while in the desert regions of the Southwest, people learn how to grow corn (maize) and other crops. They also make tools, such as hammers and grinding gear, as well as pottery.

114

“As long as the Sun shines and the waters flow, this land will be here to give life to men and animals.”

Hopewell culture These hunter-gatherers and farmers live in villages of rectangular houses with thatched roofs. They grow sunflowers, squash, and other seed-bearing plants. They also make pottery in new shapes such as bowls and jars, and pipes that are decorated with models of animals.

Adena culture

Cahokia

The Adena people use plants to make shoes, clothes, and bags. They also build amazing land sculptures such as Ohio’s Serpent Mound with only baskets, digging sticks, and manual labor. Mounds such as these were probably used to bury important tribe members.

8500 bce

c.800 bce

c.700 bce

The impressive city of Cahokia is near modern-day St. Louis. Its people build huge mounds topped by temples, surrounded by city streets, suburbs, and then farmland. It is as large as London or Paris at the same time.

c.100 bce

Mighty Mississippians The people of the Mississippian culture build giant earth pyramids and set up huge trading networks connecting the eastern half of North America. They exchange pottery, woven items, copper, rare crystals, and shells.

Hunting bison People living on America’s Great Plains have hunted mammoths for a very long time, but as these die out, bison become the main target. Hunters make “buffalo jumps” to kill large numbers of bison at once. They build funnels from trees, rocks, poles, and people. Stampeding herds of bison rush through the funnels and over cliff edges.

c.700

1050

1050

Pueblo culture The Pueblo people in the Southwest use earth bricks, stone slabs, and mud and sticks to build their homes. Soon, they construct large apartmentlike structures. They weave cloth from cotton, grow a range of vegetable crops, and use coal.

Inuit ancestors The ancestors of the Inuit people arrive in the frozen lands of the Canadian Arctic. These hunter-gatherers live in groups of around 100 people, moving camps season by season to follow whales, caribou (reindeer), seals, and other prey.

115

Settling the Pacific Many thousands of years ago, European ships never sailed far from land. But skilful sailors in the Pacific Ocean made voyages of up to 3,000 miles (4,800 km) to settle on tiny islands.

N o r t h Po l e Asia

North America

c.50,000 bce Melanesia Melanesia is first settled by people from Southeast Asia. Sea levels are relatively low at this time, so there is more land. People can travel to these new regions by a combination of sailing and walking.

1600–500 bce Lapita people The Lapita people spread through Micronesia and part of Polynesia. They are traders and expert sailors. Their descendants, the Polynesians, will venture even further out in the Pacific Ocean. 1025–1121 Polynesians set out Polynesians begin to sail east, settling an area of the Pacific from the Society Islands to the Gambier Islands.

1280 New Zealand Polynesians reach New Zealand, which they call Aotearoa (“Land of the Long White Cloud”). The settlers, who are called Maori people, adapt to the cooler climate in New Zealand. They hunt large flightless birds, such as moa (above).

1330–1440 Extinction Ten species of moa become extinct in New Zealand, caused by Maori hunting, deforestation, and the introduction of rats, which eat the birds’ eggs. Many other small animals also go extinct.

116

MICR

800 ce Cook Islands People from Tahiti, Tonga, and Samoa colonize the Southern Cook Islands. These people are skilled at carving wood and stone. All of the Pacific voyagers use canoes that have one or more supports, called outriggers. These boats are fast, but can also sail in rough waters. 1200–1290 Social systems Different social systems evolve on different islands. On densely populated islands, such as Tahiti and Hawaii, chiefs have great power, receiving tribute and labor from ordinary people. More equal societies are created on the thinly populated smaller islands.

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A

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1300–1500 Easter Island Easter Islanders set up 887 huge stone statues of their ancestors and chiefs, called Moai. Modern-day experiments show they were probably transported upright from quarries using ropes and log rollers.

Gambier Islands

Easter Island

Intrepid explorer English captain James Cook’s voyages prove to be pivotal in European understanding of the geography and inhabitants of the Pacific Ocean. On his three voyages, he maps the east coast of Australia, New Zealand, and the Hawaiian Islands, and records a string of places previously unknown to Europeans.

The colonization of the Pacific By 1300 ce, Polynesians had settled a vast area of the Pacific, from the Hawaiian Islands to New Zealand and Easter Island. When Europeans arrived later, they were amazed to find such widespread islands inhabited by Polynesians.

1722 Easter Island visit Jacob Roggeveen from the Netherlands is the first European to visit Easter Island. He finds a thriving society, where the Moai are still standing, and people are still using canoes. 1642 Tasman Dutch explorer Abel Tasman visits New Zealand, where his boats are attacked by Maori war canoes. After four sailors are killed, Tasman sails off.

1769 Secrets of navigation British explorer James Cook asks Tahitians how they managed to navigate across the vast ocean on their simple canoes. He hears that the islanders used the Sun, Moon, and stars to navigate, and gains very valuable information about the ocean.

1767 Tahiti British naval officer Samuel Wallis arrives in Tahiti. At first, he is attacked by warriors in war canoes, but the Tahitians soon make peace. Tahiti is seen as a paradise by European visitors.

1774 Easter Island collapse Cook reaches Easter Island and finds that the statues have been neglected. He sees only three canoes, all unseaworthy. Easter Island society had collapsed— one theory states that the islanders’ way of life ruined the island’s environment. 1828–1900 Colonization European, Asian, and American powers race to seize control of the Pacific islands. During this time, France colonizes Tahiti, and Fiji, Kiribati, and Tuvalu come under British control. By 1900, the US controls Hawaii, and Germany has claimed Samoa. 1840 Treaty of Waitangi The British Empire signs the Treaty of Waitangi with Maori chiefs, which recognizes Maori ownership of their lands. The treaty brings the country into the British Empire.

1778–1779 Last voyages James Cook makes two visits to Hawaii. He is killed in a quarrel after islanders steal a rowboat. 1835 Massacre A seal-hunting ship arrives in New Zealand with news of the peaceful society of the Chatham Islands, whose people do not know how to fight. Nine hundred Maori warriors then sail to the Chatham Islands, where they kill or enslave the local population.

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1464–1492 The palace craftworkers of Benin in West Africa made bronze and brass busts of rulers, such as this 17th-century warrior queen, Idia.

Benin queen

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Sub-Saharan Africa has seen a series of powerful kingdoms and empires rise and fall. While ordinary Africans were mostly farmers, the wealth of the kingdoms was based on trade, mostly of gold, ivory, salt, and slaves. Trade was conducted across the Sahara by camel caravans, and by boat along the great rivers such as the Niger and the Congo.

African kingdoms

Farming people From their homeland in modern-day Nigeria, Bantu-speaking farming people move south and east through Africa. They grow yams, cassava, millet, and sorghum. By 600 bce, they are also able to make iron tools.

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1493–1538

Zulu Kingdom

King Leopold of Belgium claims personal ownership of the Congo in order to get its mineral wealth. This begins a “scramble for Africa” among the European powers, which ends in the conquest of all the African states, except for Liberia and Ethiopia.

Reign of Askia the Great, whos e conq uests make the Song hai Empi re the large st state in West Africa n histor y. He prom otes learn ing in his kingd om and make s Islam the state religio n.

AFTER

Askia the Great

The Mongol Empire The nomadic tribes known as the Mongols joined together to build the largest land empire in history, stretching across Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. The founder of the empire was the invincible Genghis Khan. He was skilled in military strategy and led his army, which consisted almost entirely of horsemen armed with bows and arrows, to many victories. Tribes united By relying on fearsome fighters instead of family members, Temujin forms a loyal band of warriors. By 1205, he rules his rivals. He holds a meeting with other Mongol leaders from all over the territory to form a nation. He names himself Genghis Khan, which means “universal ruler.”

Early life of Genghis Khan Temujin (later named Genghis Khan) is born somewhere between modern-day Mongolia and Siberia. The nomadic tribes here are always fighting. After his clan leaves his family to fend for themselves or else starve to death, Temujin goes on to gather his own tribe of followers.

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On to China The Mongol army, almost entirely on horses armed with bows and arrows, targets China. They battle the Xi Xia Empire in central China, then attack the Jin Dynasty of the north. In 1214, the Mongols take the Jin capital city, Zhongdu (modern-day Beijing).

Postal system Arrows in warfare

Genghis and his warrior leaders across the huge new empire need to communicate with each other quickly, so they set up a relay messenger and delivery service called Yam, meaning “checkpoint.”

1 2 37

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Mongol warriors fill the skies with deadly arrows. These can hit targets up to 1050 ft (320 m) away, and so the victims never see them coming. Hollow whistle arrows sing like flutes, so commanders can send signals to troops across a noisy battlefield.

120

–12

Horse trouble Genghis’s horsemen lead his rise to power, but in early 1227, he falls off of his horse. He never really recovers, and dies in August. Afterward, his heirs, including Batu, Ogedei, and Kublai, continue to build the empire.

First attack on Russia Genghis’s grandson Batu Khan leads attacks to the west of Mongol territory. Rus’ (in modern-day Russia) becomes part of his empire. It is known as the Golden Horde, perhaps because of the Mongol rulers’ yellow tents.

“Man’s highest joy is in victory.” Genghis Khan founder of the Mongol Empire

Moving west

In their last big show of military power, Kublai’s forces attack southern China. They capture most of the territory and Kublai brings nearly all of China together.

Defeat in the east

Batu Khan seeks to expand the Golden Horde into Western Europe. One by one, new territories fall, but when he hears about his uncle Ogedei’s death, he gives up his quest.

1241

Conquest of the Song Dynasty

The Mamluks of Egypt under their general, Baybars, work out a clever strategy to outsmart the Mongols. The underdogs win at the Battle of Ain Jalut, which ends the Mongol expansion to the east.

1 2 57

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1264

1274

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1368

Kublai Khan Invasion of Vietnam Under Kublai Khan, the Mongols hope to smash their way into power in Dai Viet (part of modern-day Vietnam). Three invasions fail, but the Tran Dynasty rulers decide to surrender anyway, in order to put an end to the fighting.

One grandson of Genghis, Kublai Khan, argues with his brothers about who will rule. Kublai names himself the new Great Khan. In China, he founds the Yuan Dynasty and is the country’s first non-Chinese ruler.

Invasion of Japan Kublai invades Japan with a fleet of ships. On the ground, his army throws grenades—metal jars filled with gunpowder. In a second invasion, typhoon winds wreck most of Khan’s fleet. The Japanese call the storm kamikaze, meaning “divine winds.”

End of rule in China The Mongols are harsh rulers, and a series of natural disasters make things even worse for the Chinese. Rebel Zhu Yuanzhang attacks the Mongols and drives them out of the country to start the Ming Dynasty.

The Silk Road and the Pax Mongolica An ancient network of routes, known as the Silk Road, connected travelers and traders from East Asia to the West. When the Mongols took control of this route at the beginning of the 13th century, they made sure people could travel safely. This peaceful and stable time was known as the Pax Mongolica. Some less welcome visitors made the journey, too: fleas. These pests carried the Plague from the East to Europe, wiping out about 25 percent of the population.

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EXTENT OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE, 1279, SHOWING THE SILK ROUTE

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The earliest maps did not portray the world as it was, but instead reflected the beliefs of those who made them. As people learned more about the world around them, maps became more realistic. By the Age of Exploration in Europe, mapmaking, or cartography, was used extensively by ocean explorers to chart unfamiliar shores. Today, advances in modern technology ensure that no part of Earth’s surface remains unmapped.

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1950s– 1

Representing the globe Cartographers (people who draw maps) use a map projection to display Earth’s sphere on a flat piece of paper—like flattening the rounded peel of an orange. It is impossible to do this without some distortion. In 1569, Gerardus Mercator devised a projection that still dominates the way we see the shape of the world. His projection exaggerates the size of countries near the poles at the expense of those at the Equator.

MERCATOR’S PROJECTION

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Plagues and epidemics

Mexican epidemic When the New World is invaded by Spanish and Portuguese explorers, local people are exposed to new diseases. A smallpox epidemic kills many millions of people in what is now Mexico and the Andes over the next 2 years.

Before the importance of cleanliness and hygiene was fully understood, many diseases were uncontrollable killers that could devastate entire populations. Although several infectious illnesses remain problematic, modern medicine has wiped out many threats to human health. Communal living As people begin living in towns and villages, cramped conditions and poor sanitation help diseases to spread. With limited medical knowledge, people blame evil spirits or angry gods.

c.3

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First cases of the bubonic plague A mysterious disease is first reported in China. Symptoms are bleeding sores, high temperature, and vomiting, leading to a rapid and painful death.

Rat fleas were responsible for spreading many historic plagues.

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Antonine Plague This Roman plague takes its name from Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, the ruler at the time. About 5 million die over 15 years, and experts now believe the disease was smallpox.

The Black Death Plague of Justinian

Ancient plague The city of Athens in ancient Greece is hit by a plague that kills more than 30,000 people. The writer Thucydides describes terrible symptoms that lead to death within a week.

124

Disease spreads through the city of Constantinople (now Istanbul), killing 40 percent of the population. It had been carried over by rats coming over from Egypt on grain ships.

The bubonic plague, or Black Death, wipes out half the population of Europe (around 40 million people) in just 4 years. Millions also die across Africa and Asia. The disease resurfaces every few decades in the following years.

Great Plague The Great Plague of London kills 100,000 people. As the city is rebuilt following the Great Fire of London a year later, rules are introduced to improve sanitation and congestion.

Plague doctors wore beaked masks containing herbs and flowers. They believed these would restrict contact with the disease.

Ebola outbreak Ebola is a fast-spreading virus causing fever and bleeding. An outbreak starts in Guinea, and soon becomes a 3-year epidemic throughout West Africa.

Life-saving discovery Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming accidentally discovers penicillin, which becomes the first ever antibiotic. This discovery saves millions of people from bacterial infections that would once have been fatal.

Final outbreak The bubonic plague hits Europe again, this time in the busy port of Marseille in France. This final outbreak in Europe is over by 1722.

1

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1 9 80

1981–

2013–2016

2015

Eradication of smallpox Following the last known natural case of smallpox in Somalia in 1977, the disease is officially declared eradicated by the World Health Assembly after an effective immunization program.

Cholera pandemic People become ill after drinking water polluted with sewage and cholera bacteria. The outbreak begins in India, arrives in Europe on merchant ships, and later reaches the Americas.

HIV/AIDS An unknown disease that destroys the immune system starts to spread. It becomes known as AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome), and is later discovered to be caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). More than 20 million people die from AIDS, but drugs are later developed to control it.

Spanish flu More deadly than the Black Death, Spanish flu is a strain of influenza that kills at least 50 million people, or about 3 percent of the global population.

Mosquito malaria Malaria is a killer disease spread by mosquitoes. It is eliminated in the developed world in the 1980s but still has a devastating impact in Africa and Asia, killing 2 million people every year.

Spread of the Black Death

EUROPE

AFRICA

ASIA

The Black Death quickly made its mark across Europe, Africa, and Asia. Bacteria contracted from flea bites was the reason for its rapid spread. Rats carried fleas along streets and aboard ships, passing the fatal disease to populations far and wide around the world. Recent studies also suggest that human fleas and body lice helped to spread the epidemic.

125

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Mamluk heavy cavalry During the Middle Ages, heavily armored knights, such as this Arabian Mamluk, rode into battle on armored horses.

Warhorses The earliest warhorses were used in Europe and Asia about 5,000 years ago. Using horses in battle became easier when saddles, stirrups, and the horse collar emerged. Later on, the Mongol Empire’s military power rested on the success of its light cavalry and riders, who could fire arrows with great accuracy from horseback. As developments in distance weapons continued, the use of horses in battle declined.

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THE AGE OF EXPLORATION 1450–1750

The Age of Exploration In the late 15th century, ancient texts that had been lost to Europe were rediscovered through contact with the Middle East. This refound knowledge inspired a spirit of curiosity about the world. New inventions and discoveries led to the birth of modern science, and voyages of discovery sailed to uncharted lands. European nations built mighty overseas empires to rival the older empires that continued in the Middle East, China, and India.

1497–1499 Vasco da Gama makes the first sea voyage from Europe to India.

1492 Christopher Columbus lands in the Americas, opening up a “New World” to European explorers.

1517 Martin Luther accuses the Catholic Church of corruption in his 95 “theses” (complaints).

1504 Michelangelo unveils his statue of David, a masterpiece of the Renaissance.

1522 The first voyage around the world (circumnavigation) is completed.

1521 Hernán Cortés destroys the Aztec Empire’s capital city of Tenochtitlán.

1529 Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire fails to take the city of Vienna in a siege.

1526 Babur founds the Mughal Empire in northern India.

The Renaissance

European explorers

The Reformation

The Ottoman Empire

In Europe, the Renaissance (French for “rebirth”) was a period of great artistic achievement in painting, architecture, and literature (see pages 136–137).

Voyages to find new sea routes led to the exploration of lands in the Americas, Africa, and Asia that were previously unknown to Europe (see pages 138–139).

Martin Luther’s protest against corruption in the Catholic Church led to an era of religious upheaval known as the Reformation (see pages 144–145).

The Islamic Ottoman Empire (see pages 150–151) dominated the Middle East for over 600 years. Its power extended into Eastern Europe and North Africa.

130

Backstaff Voyages of discovery throughout this period were made possible by advancements in navigation technology. The backstaff was invented by John Davis around 1594. It allowed sailors to measure the angle of the Sun or the Moon above the horizon to work out their location.

1543 Nicolaus Copernicus argues that Earth travels around the Sun.

1603 Japan is unified and enters a period known as the “Great Peace.”

1618–1648 The Thirty Years’ War marks the end of a period of religious conflict in Europe.

1619 The first shipment of African slaves to America arrives in Jamestown.

1607 Jamestown becomes the first permanent English settlement in North America.

1632 Mughal emperor Shah Jahan orders the construction of the Taj Mahal as a mausoleum (tomb) for his wife.

1644 After more than 200 years of rule, the Ming Dynasty of China collapses. The Qing Dynasty later takes control.

1666 Isaac Newton formulates his ideas on the theory of gravity.

Colonial America

The rise of science

Mughal India

Qing China

European nations such as Spain, France, and Britain quickly took control of the lands of the “New World” in the Americas (see pages 160–161).

A revolution in scientific thought (see pages 162–163) followed the Renaissance. It challenged and changed accepted views about the Universe.

Spread across the Indian subcontinent, the Islamic Mughal Empire (see pages 166–167) produced some of South Asia’s finest monuments.

The Qing people take control of China from the declining Ming Dynasty (see pages 168–169). They will be the last imperial dynasty to rule over China.

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Technology of writing The technology that allows people to write things down is as important as the invention of scripts and alphabets themselves. Thanks to technological advances such as the inventions of paper, ink, and printing, more and more people have become literate. Today, 86 percent of adults worldwide can read and write.

Inks As far back as the 3rd millenium bce, the Chinese and Egyptians made inks using soot, water, and gum. From the 4th century bce, a richer, more durable black ink was made from iron sulphite and tannic acid (taken from growths on parasite-infested trees). Neither kind was suitable for printing. When Gutenberg built his printing press, he invented a new oil-based ink, made from soot, turpentine, and walnut oil.

Printing The Chinese invent printing, with carved woodblocks. It is used first to print pictures on silk, and later for words on paper. The oldest surviving printed book with a clear date is the Chinese Diamond Sutra, shown below, which was printed back in 868 ce.

Clay tablets The Sumerians of Mesopotamia in modern-day southern Iraq begin to write on soft clay tablets, making marks with a piece of reed. The use of clay tablets later spreads across western Asia and the eastern Mediterranean.

c.

33

00

Paper The Chinese invent paper made from plant fibers and rags. Paper production spreads west to the Arabs around 750 ce, reaching Italy in 1270. Modern paper, made from wood pulp, will not be invented until the 1840s.

bc

e

c.3

20

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ce

6th Writing begins

cen

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The earliest evidence of Egyptian writing is of hieroglyphs carved on ivory and bone tablets. Egyptians also write on papyrus, using a reed brush, with ink made from soot, water, and gum from trees.

bce

2nd cen

tury bce

1st century ce

c.200

Books with pages Parchment Writing on parchment made from dried, stretched animal skin becomes common across the eastern Mediterranean. Writers use a reed pen and ink made from iron sulphite and tannic acid.

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The Romans make the first books with separate pages. Each book is called a codex, and is more portable and easier to use than a long scroll.

Ballpoint pens

1868

18

Fountain pens

27

Word processors

Typewriters

Personal printers

95 17

50

Gutenberg’s printing press

4 10

0s

The US company HewlettPackard (HP) produce their first desktop laser printer. It allows individuals with word processor programs to produce high-quality printed documents on demand.

198 4

Moveable type In China, Bi Sheng invents the first printing system to use movable type, where each letter or symbol can be moved and reused to make different words. The letters are made from baked clay. The Koreans improve this technology with metal letters, cast from bronze, in the 1230s.

14

Pencils Nicholas Jaques-Conte, a French army officer and scientist, invents the modern pencil. It is made of powdered graphite mixed with clay, pressed between two half cylinders of wood.

The first successful word processor program, WordStar, is released. People can now type onto a digital screen instead of directly onto paper.

79

US inventor Christopher Latham Sholes patents the first commercially successful typewriter. It has the QWERTY layout that is still used today. E. Remington and Sons, formerly firearms manufacturers, begin producing the new typewriter in 1874.

19

In France, the Romanian inventor Petrache Poenaru patents “a neverending portable pen.” This first fountain pen has a barrel made from a swan’s quill. By the 1880s, fountain pens will be mass-produced.

e 7th c

Laszlo Bíró, a Hungarian newspaper editor, creates the first effective ballpoint pen. It combines quick-drying ink with a ball-and-socket mechanism, 19 which prevents the ink from 38 drying out inside the pen.

In Germany, Johannes Gutenberg invents a printing press with moveable metal type, using oil-based ink. The press rapidly spreads across Europe and, by 1500, 20 million books will have been printed.

nt u r y

Quill pens Western Christian monks begin to use goose feather quill pens, which replace the earlier calamus (reed pens). Using a quill allows swifter, smaller writing. Our word “pen” comes from the Latin word pinna, which means “feather.”

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Ships The oceans were first navigated by ancient people on wooden rafts. Travelers from Asia arrived in Australia on rafts around 50,000 years ago. Many centuries of design and development have improved our waterways and made our ships more safe and stable. Today, ships continue to be important for travel and trade.

Setting sail The first boats to replace rafts are built by the ancient Egyptians for transporting cargo along the Nile. Sails are also invented to harness the power of the wind.

c.3100 bce Steaming ahead

Fast clippers

The first steamboat to offer a public passenger service is the Clermont, which travels from New York City to Albany, NY. Steam powers the engines, and giant paddle wheels propel the boats through the water.

The biggest sails at sea belong to clippers. These fast-moving ships have multiple sails and narrow hulls to cruise the waters faster. Clippers transport cargo from Asia to Europe and North America.

1807

1800s

Cruise liners The world’s first cruise liner, called Prinzessin Victoria Luise launches. As the century continues, cruise liners become increasingly luxurious, providing expensive accommodation, entertainment, and swimming pools.

1900

Battleships At the turn of the 20th century, naval conflict advances with the development of battleships. They are protected by armor plating and equipped with gun turrets to blast shells long distances.

Aircraft carriers American flight pioneer Eugene Ely is the first pilot to take off from the deck of a ship—the US armored Birmingham. As aircraft become important military weapons, huge military ships with runways are designed.

c.1900 134

1910

Greek galleys

Viking longboats

Junk boats

The ancient Greeks craft huge shallow boats called galleys, equipped with multiple sails and oars. These warships feature a heavy beam, called a battering ram, to attack enemy vessels.

The Vikings launch raids from Scandinavia in longboats. These feature overlapping planks for superior strength, sturdy bases called keels, and carvings of scary creatures to ward off attackers.

Chinese sailors brave storms in the South China Sea. The Chinese junk—Malayan for “boat”—has a strong hull, multiple masts, and concertina sails. Merchant junks carry trade goods far and wide.

c.750–700 bce

c.800 ce

c.1000

Fighting ships

Fast galleons

European conflict leads to advances in the design of sailing ships. Vessels are now heavily armed and ready to destroy the enemy. Some have spikes to make holes, while others use cannons.

The basic galleon is developed by English navigator and slave-trader John Hawkins. These sailing ships sit deeper in the water and move very fast. They are first used as warships and later for trade.

1650

1600

First lifeboat The first lifeboat is constructed in England. The Original has its maiden voyage on the River Tyne before being used for rescue missions later in the year.

1790

Container ships

Catamarans

Luxury yachts

The American SeaLand line is the first to use containerized shipping between the US and Europe. Steel boxes of the same size are stacked up, so a huge quantity of goods can be transported together.

The high-speed, long-distance watercraft called a catamaran is a great engine-powered vessel that moves through turbulent water effectively. Its two parallel hulls of equal size keep it steady.

The ultimate yachts feature the latest technology, onboard entertainment systems, sleek and stylish designs, and luxurious decor. These floating mansions are built for comfort.

1950s

1970s

21st century 135

c.1305

1308 Literary masterpiece

New style of painting Giotto di Bondone (known as “Giotto”) begins painting in a more realistic style. His masterpiece is a fresco in the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua, Italy.

Writer Dante Alighieri begins The Divine Comedy, a long poem that describes a journey through the afterlife. It is still considered one of the major works in world literature.

1453

1455

Classical revival

The power of print

When Constantinople (modernday Istanbul), capital of the Byzantine Empire, is captured by the Ottomans, many scholars flee to Italy. They bring along ancient Greek and Roman texts, which have long been lost in the West.

Johannes Gutenberg, a German goldsmith, introduces printing to Europe with his invention of moveable type (metal letters that can be used again). Printed books help spread new knowledge throughout Europe.

c.1485

1504

Flying machine

Statue of David

Leonardo da Vinci, the great artist, scientist, and inventor, is ahead of his time with a design for a flying machine with mechanical wings, even if it could never work in practice.

Michelangelo’s life-like statue of the Biblical figure of David is put on display in Florence’s main square. It is carved from a single block of marble and is more than 17 ft (5 m) high.

1511

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1513

Philosophy lessons

Devious politics

The artist Raphael paints The School of Athens, a fresco for the Pope’s rooms in the Vatican in Rome. It shows a gathering of Greek philosophers, and is one of four representing the different branches of knowledge.

Niccolò Machiavelli, a diplomat from Florence, writes The Prince. The book is intended as a guide for rulers. The term “Machiavellian,” from the author’s name, comes to be associated with gaining political power by clever but dishonest methods.

1418

1435

Architectural feat

Perspective in painting

Filippo Brunelleschi’s impressive dome for the cathedral in Florence is the first of its size to be built since Roman times. It is still the largest brick dome in the world.

Artists work out how to show three-dimensional objects on a flat (two-dimensional) surface. This is described in Leon Battista Alberti’s book, On Painting.

1469 Patron of the arts Lorenzo de’ Medici, known as the Magnificent, becomes the most powerful man in Florence. He uses his vast wealth to sponsor great artists such as Sandro Botticelli and Michelangelo.

1509 Humanism The Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus publishes his bestknown work, In Praise of Folly. Renaissance humanists looked to ancient texts rather than religion, creating a philosophy that championed the human individual.

1532 Northern Renaissance The Renaissance spreads from Italy to influence art and literature across Europe. The Ambassadors by German artist Hans Holbein, then working in England, is one of the greatest works of the Northern Renaissance.

Renaissance In 14th-century northern Italy, a number of artists, architects, and scholars became interested in the styles and ideas of Ancient Greece and Rome. This revival of classical knowledge became known as the “Renaissance” (French for “rebirth”). Painting moved away from the stiff forms of medieval Christian art to a more realistic style. Renaissance ideas spread throughout Europe, starting a revolution in thought. 1543 New science Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus argues that Earth travels around the Sun, rather than the other way around. His ideas begin a revolution in science.

Fresco painting A fresco is a wall painting made on fresh wet plaster. The colors sink in, allowing the pictures to stay very bright for hundreds of years.

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Portuguese navigator Diogo Cão is the first European to discover the mouth of the Congo River. He reaches modern-day Namibia, erecting stone crosses to mark his route, and now realizes that Africa is far bigger than was originally thought.

1434

Amazing Africa

In the 15th and 16th centuries, many explorers set sail from Europe in the hope of finding new lands, great riches, and exotic goods. The arrival of Europeans in the Americas, Asia, and Africa, helped by new navigational techniques and ship design, opened up trade between the continents for the first time. This exciting era was considered to be the golden age of exploration.

Exploring the world 1419 1480s 1488 1492–1504

Italian seafarer Christopher Columbus sails west across the Atlantic Ocean, heading for India. He accidentally encounters America instead. He is given the title “Admiral of the Ocean Sea” and makes three more voyages, sailing along the coastlines of Central and South America.

Arrival in the Americas

The southernmost tip of Africa is finally passed by Portuguese nobleman Bartolomeu Dias and his crew. King John II of Portugal calls this the “Cape of Good Hope.” Europeans now have an ocean route by which to trade directly with India.

Cape of Good Hope

Prior to this time, Prince Henry’s crews will not sail beyond Cape Bojador (in modern-day Western Sahara) because they think it marks the end of the world. After Captain Gil Eannes urges them to face their fears, the exploration of Africa truly begins.

Scared sailors

Prince Henry of Portugal, known as “the Navigator,” becomes governor of the southernmost part of Portugal, an ideal departure point for the exploration of new lands. He orders ships to venture into the Atlantic Ocean to follow the African coastline.

Henry the Navigator

Caravel ships

1570 Belgian mapmaker Abraham Ortelius publishes the first modern atlas, Theatre of the World, which includes 70 maps.

c.1594 The backstaff is invented by English navigator John Davis to measure the height of the Sun and Moon above the horizon.

1470s Spanish astronomer Abraham Zacuto develops a device to help sailors discover how far north or south they are.

c.1418 Prince Henry of Portugal founds the first school for oceanic navigation.

1501

Early 1400s Caravel ships have triangular sails instead of square ones, allowing them to use the wind on either side to sail the oceans.

1500

As the Age of Exploration got underway, sailors soon realized that they needed to plan a course without being able to see land. New instruments were invented to aid navigation—the art of piloting a ship along a route—enabling explorers to cross vast oceans.

1497

The technology of exploration

King Manuel I of Portugal arranges an expedition to India, captained by nobleman Vasco da Gama. The winds of the Atlantic Ocean help da Gama cross the Indian Ocean. The Portuguese trade their honey, hats, and beads, returning with spices stacked up on their ships.

Indian adventure

Exploration would not have been possible without the caravel. These new ships were lightweight and topped by two or three masts, with plenty of sails to catch the ocean winds. These features enabled navigators to sail long distances.

1497 1519 1521

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Magellan dies in the Philippines in a battle with locals. The fleet continues its around-the-world journey. King Charles V of Spain gives new captain Juan Sebastián de Elcano a coat of arms: a globe with the motto “You went around me first.”

First circumnavigation

Portuguese sailor Ferdinand Magellan sets sail from Spain, determined to reach the Spice Islands (in Southeast Asia) by heading west instead of east. He rounds the southern tip of South America (known as Cape Horn) as the first European to cross the Pacific Ocean.

Crossing the Pacific

Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci discovers that North and South America are separate continents. In 1507, German mapmaker Martin Waldseemüller supposedly names the lands “America” after him.

North and South America

Portuguese sailor Pedro Álvares Cabral plans to sail to India, but the Atlantic Ocean winds blow him to modern-day Brazil. He claims the territory for Portugal and returns home loaded up with spices and gems.

Blown to Brazil

Italian John Cabot sails across the Atlantic Ocean on a mission for King Henry VII of England. He arrives in Newfoundland in modern-day Canada, but mistakenly believes it is Asia.

Newfoundland

A ROUTE TO INDIA Da Gama sails east In the late 15th century, King Manuel I of Portugal wanted to discover a maritime route to India, longing to secure the trade of valuable Asian spices and textiles. The expedition was led by explorer Vasco da Gama, who would have to overcome the treacherous task of being the first captain to sail around Africa and beyond, into unchartered and hostile waters. The fleet sets sail

On July 8, 1497, a fleet of four ships carrying around 170 sailors sets sail from the port of Lisbon in Portugal. Led by Vasco da Gama, with the help of his brother Paulo, the expedition heads south down the west coast of Africa. Da Gama follows a similar route that was plotted by the great Portuguese sailor Bartolomeu Dias, but instead of closely following the west coast, da Gama heads out into the open Atlantic Ocean. After four months at sea and using the Atlantic’s strong prevailing winds and currents, da Gama passes the Cape of Good Hope, rounds the tip of southern Africa, and sails into the unknown waters of the Indian Ocean beyond.

African enemies

In December 1497, da Gama’s fleet heads north along the east coast of Africa, and makes landfall in Mozambique. Da Gama and his men are met with hostility from the local Muslim sultan. After fleeing to his ship and bombarding the port, da Gama then heads north along the coast to Mombasa. Da Gama loots several unarmed Arab trading vessels and angers the local Mombasa people. After torturing several Muslim sailors, da Gama learns of a plot to avenge his actions in Mozambique, so he flees north to continue his search for India.

Unchartered waters

In April 1498, da Gama keeps heading north and finally makes an ally at the port of Malindi on April 14. Malindi is at war with

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Mombasa, and its leader offers to help da Gama with his expedition. Da Gama and Malindi sign a trade treaty and, as a sign of friendship, the east Africans give da Gama a local navigator to help the Portuguese fleet through the unchartered and treacherous waters of the Indian Ocean.

Indian shores

On May 20, after several weeks crossing the Indian Ocean and more than 10 months at sea, Vasco da Gama and his fleet sail into the port of Calicut (modern-day Kallicote) on the southwest coast of India. Da Gama meets the Zamorin (ruler) of Calicut and offers a selection of gifts. The Zamorin is unimpressed with the presents and, as tensions rise between the local Muslim traders and the Christian explorers, the Hindu ruler becomes less receptive to da Gama’s trade offerings. After three months, in August 1498, da Gama and his men leave without a trade agreement, but carrying cargo worth nearly 60 times the cost of the expedition.

Homeward bound The journey home is ill-fated as monsoons, scurvy, and exhaustion take their toll on da Gama’s crew. Paulo da Gama and 117 of the 170-man crew die on the journey. In September 1499, two years and 24,000 miles (38,500 km) after he first left home, Vasco da Gama sails into the port of Lisbon. To celebrate his historic achievement, the king of Portugal honors Vasco da Gama with the title “Admiral of the Indian Seas.”

A return to India After Vasco da Gama’s first expedition, Pedro Alvares Cabral, a Portuguese navigator and explorer, is immediately sent to establish a trading post in India. However, an uprising by local Muslim traders destroys the encampment and Cabral is forced to leave. In 1502, da Gama sets sail for India for a second time to re-establish Portugal’s trading post in the region. This time da Gama uses excessive force to persuade the Zamorin of Calicut to sign a trade treaty. Da Gama is seen as a villain in the Indian Ocean, but when he returns home once again with more precious cargo, he is celebrated as a hero. Twenty-two years later, in 1524, Vasco da Gama makes his final journey to India, which also happens to be his last-ever voyage. During the journey, da Gama contracts malaria and gets sick. He arrives at Cochin in India, but eventually dies on December 24, 1524.

The story of painting

Enter

People have been painting pictures for tens of thousands of years. In the past, they painted them directly onto the walls of their caves, temples, or houses. Artists have since experimented with different styles of painting. They developed vibrant paints and created engaging images on paper and canvas. Painters continue to be inspired and influenced by artists from the past. 1601

c.1503

c.1430 The Arnolfini Portrait by Jan van Eyck, 1434

Baroque painting

Renaissance masterpiece

Painting with oils

Dramatic use of light and shade (chiaroscuro) and depth perspective are typical of the Baroque style of art. The Supper at Emmaus by Caravaggio shows Jesus after he has risen from the dead.

Italian Renaissance painter Leonardo da Vinci paints the Mona Lisa, a hauntingly lifelike portrait of a young Italian woman. Da Vinci is one of the most influential artists of all time.

Oil paints, made by mixing pigments with flaxseed or walnut oil, are introduced in Europe, possibly from Asia. One of the first Europeans to paint with oils is Flemish painter Jan van Eyck.

1642

c.1610–1620s Squirrels in a Plane Tree by Abu’l Hasan, c.1610

Mughal miniatures

Dutch Golden Age

As the Mughal Empire flourishes in India, miniature paintings full of color and detail become popular. They are made as book illustrations, personal portraits, or for keeping in art albums.

Rembrandt van Rijn is the most famous painter of the Dutch Golden Age, a time of prosperity in the Netherlands. His painting The Night Watch is characteristic of art at the time, full of color and realistic detail.

2002

1928

c.1910 Composition by Piet Mondrian, 1921

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Contemporary art

American Modernism

Abstract art

British artist Lucien Freud is one of the leading painters of the late 20th century. He enjoys painting friends and family, and exploring how to paint skin tones, such as in this portrait, Woman with Eyes Closed.

Georgia O’Keeffe is a significant American Modernist artist, best known for her studies of flowers and cityscapes such as East River from the 30th Story of the Shelton Hotel.

Artists begin to move away from depicting reality, finding a new kind of art that reflects the changes that are occurring in science and technology. They use simple shapes, colors, and lines to create effects.

c.3,000–300 bce

c.30,000 bce Sennefer’s burial chamber Nobleman Sennefer is depicted with his wife.

c.100 bce –100 ce

Portrait of Venus This wall painting was buried during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 ce.

Animal cave art

Egyptian tomb painting

Roman wall paintings

Stone Age hunters paint the walls of caves with images of animals such as lions, bulls, and rhinos, possibly as part of hunting rituals. These horse images are from Chauvet Cave in France.

In Ancient Egypt, paintings cover the walls and ceilings of the tombs of pharaohs and nobles. Deceased people are portrayed performing everyday tasks or making offerings to the gods.

The Romans brighten the rooms of their houses with wall paintings, known as murals. These are sometimes painted to give the illusion of looking through a window at a scene beyond.

c.1100

c.1305 Our Lady of Vladimir, artist unknown, c.1100

The Last Supper by Giotto, c.1305

960–1279 ce Snowy Landscape by Fan Kuan, c.960–1030

Italian fresco

Medieval icons

Chinese landscapes

Italian artist Giotto paints a series of religious frescoes (wall paintings made on fresh plaster before it dries) in a softer, more realistic style than the stiff, flat images found in earlier medieval art.

Icons are painted images of holy Christian figures such as Jesus. They are common in the Eastern Orthodox Christian Church, a Catholic religion practiced in Eastern Europe and Asia.

During the Song Dynasty in China, artists paint beautiful landscapes, often of mountains or water, expressing love of the natural world.

1700s

c.1780–1850

c.1860–1890s

The Death of General Wolfe by Benjamin West, 1770

History painting Great scenes from history or from Greek and Roman legends, painted in a neoclassical style that looks back to the past, are popular topics in 18th-century Europe and the US.

The Japanese Footbridge by Claude Monet, 1899

Romanticism

Impressionism

Artists of the Romantic era are inspired by nature and how it makes them feel. British painter Turner is admired for his depictions of the shimmering effects of sunlight, as in his 1839 painting The Fighting Temeraire.

Artists in Paris paint scenes of everyday life outdoors. They do so spontaneously, rather than in a studio from sketches. They come to be known as Impressionists, and include Monet, Renoir, and Degas.

c.1886–1905

c.1907–1908 Juan Gris, Juan Legua, 1911

Sunflowers by Vincent van Gogh, 1888

Cubism

Post-Impressionism

Spanish artist Pablo Picasso creates a way of showing objects from different angles all at once, known as Cubism. This style is a forerunner of Abstract art.

Artists like Van Gogh, Cézanne, and Gauguin add their own ideas to those of the Impressionists. They experiment with using bold blocks of color, often applying paint very thickly.

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God’s Word is law Zwingli teaches that the Bible is God’s law, and that the state and Church are both under His rule .

In Zur ich, Sw itze rlan d, prie st Ulri ch Zw ing li leads a Bib le-base d refo rm movem ent of the Cat hol ic Chu rch . Zw ing li and his followe rs tran slate the Old and New Testam ents of the Bib le into Ge rma n for the first tim e.

1519 Swiss reformers

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Peasants’ War

1524

After hundreds of years, the Catholic Church was very powerful, both within the community and in political life. In 15th-century Europe, this power led to corrupt practices, such as the sale of “indulgences” (forgiveness for sins) to increase the Church’s wealth. German priest and professor Martin Luther, angry at this greed, started a movement to change the Church. The Reformation spread across Europe, but brought with it war and religious persecution.

The Reformation

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1545

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1618–1648

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Martin Luther, 1483–1546 professor, composer, priest, and monk

“Whatever your heart clings to and confides in, that is really your God.”

The Cat hol ic Chu rch , ala rme d by the spread of the Reform atio n, me ets in Tre nt in nor the rn Ital y. They cre ate the Rom an Inq uisi tion , a cou rt of law to convict and pun ish non bel ieve rs. The Pop e put s the Jes uits in cha rge of the Co unt er-Refo rmation .

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145

Spanish America

BEFORE Explorer Christopher Columbus reached America in 1492 and returned to Spain with tempting tales of great riches. Many more Spanish explorers were lured overseas by the promise of gold in what they called the “New World.”

Following the exploration of the Americas in the 15th century, Spanish conquistadors (meaning “conquerors”) began to arrive to seek their fortune. Conflicts resulted as these settlers and American Indians battled over land, leadership, and local resources. Almost two million Spaniards moved to the Americas in the 300 years that followed, and Spanish influences are still present in North, Central, and South America today.

American Indian rights Spanish priest Bartolomé de las Casas sends a report to Charles V, outlining the harsh treatment of American Indians. The King orders the conquests to stop, and the government creates new laws in 1550 to protect the natives, but few conquistadors obey.

Silver source The conquistadors find the world’s largest silver supply in Potosí in modern-day Bolivia. Silver is shipped back to Spain to pay for its wars in Europe.

Weapons mismatch American Indian weapons are no match for the swords of the Spanish conquistadors.

Continuing conquests The Spanish gain the northern Yucatán Peninsula in 1546 and, over time, modern-day Guatemala. They also win a number of wars throughout the region of modern-day Mexico. Rich mountain The mountain in Potosí is sometimes called “Cerro Rico” (“rich mountain”), because it is thought to be made of silver.

Spanish colonization Large numbers of Spanish settlers come to South America. By the 17th century, the Spanish empire spreads across the continent, the Caribbean islands, Central America, Mexico, and North America. NORTH AMERICA M

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THE SPANISH EMPIRE

146

BRAZIL SOUTH AMERICA

Beans as currency Cocoa beans are used like money by both the Maya and the Aztec peoples of Central America.

Cocoa beans Beans from the cacao tree are shipped to Spain from the forests of South America. These are used to make a sweet chocolate drink, which becomes very popular throughout Europe.

Trade triangle Slaves from Africa are sold in the Americas for items such as sugar and tobacco. These are sent to Europe and exchanged for guns and nails, which are then sold in Africa for slaves. See also page 164.

Columbian Exchange An exchange of goods is established between the New and Old Worlds. New foods, flowers, and animals arrive from the Americas. Europeans introduce livestock. Sadly, they also bring with them diseases such as measles, smallpox, and influenza.

“We Spaniards know a sickness of the heart only gold can cure.” Hernán Cortés, 1485–1547 Spanish conquistador

Portuguese progress

Encomienda The Spanish introduce a system called “encomienda,” in which settlers receive gold, labor, and (in practice) land, as long as they protect the American Indians and convert them to the Christian religion.

New foods Pineapples, chiles, potatoes, and turkeys are seen in Europe for the first time.

In 1500, Portuguese navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral set sail for India. Instead of traveling east, Cabral was blown westward across the Atlantic, ending up on the coastline of modern-day Brazil. He claimed the land for Portugal, beginning a widespread colonization of the country by the Portuguese.

The slave trade begins Spain’s King Charles V gives permission for 4,000 Africans to be forcibly brought to the New World to work as slaves in the booming mining and sugar industries. This marks the start of the large-scale African slave trade.

Disease and hardship By now, the American Indian population is drastically reduced, as they cannot fight the new illnesses brought by the Spanish. Those who survive are treated like slaves, working long hours in poor conditions for little or no pay.

Aztec defeat When Spanish nobleman Hernán Cortés and his army reach Mexico, they are welcomed by Aztec ruler Montezuma II. However, Cortés takes him prisoner and rules through him. In 1521, Cortés destroys the Aztec capital Tenochtitlán.

Gold treasures Many items in Aztec culture are made from gold, such as this ceremonial mask.

Inca entrapment At Cajamarca in modern-day Peru, Francisco Pizarro and his army invite the Inca emperor Atahualpa and 5,000 of his unarmed men to a feast, where they kill all but Atahualpa himself. The following year, Pizarro kills him, too, and seizes control of the Inca Empire.

Catholic missions Father Eusebio Francisco Kino is one of many religious figures to introduce Christianity to the colonies. By the time of his death, he has founded more than 20 missions (centers for religious and humanitarian work).

AFTER The four principal territories in the Americas—New Spain, New Granada, Peru, and River Plate— continued to be ruled by Spain. By the early 1800s, they started to declare their independence. Today, Spanish is still widely spoken in the region.

147

The fall of Tenochtitlán The 79-day siege of Tenochtitlán, the capital city of the Aztec Empire, is illustrated in this 17th-century painting. The Aztecs surrendered on August 13, 1521, when an army of Spanish and Tlaxaclan warriors, led by the Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés, captured the Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlán, Cuauhtémoc. The destruction of Tenochtitlán was an important event in the Spanish conquest of Mexico and a critical stage in Spanish colonization of the Americas.

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Selim the Grim Ruthless Selim has all his male relatives killed to make sure he becomes sultan. After conquering Iraq, Syria, and Egypt, Selim is acknowledged as caliph (leader of Islam) in 1517.

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End of the Ottomans

Th e O tto m a n su a b o lis h e d a lta n ate is n su lta n , M e h d th e last m Th e Re p ub lic e d V I, fle e s. of Tur key is p ro cl a im e d on 192 3 , w ith M O cto b e r 2 9, ustafa Ke m al (Atatü rk ) as p re si d e nt .

How to read a tughra A tughra is read from right to left because it is in the Arabic language. The words of the sultan’s title, shown here by different colors, have been combined with the shapes that make a tughra, each of which reflects a feature of the Ottoman Empire.

Beyze (“Egg”) Some think these symbolize the two seas controlled by the Ottomans (the Black Sea and the Mediterranean). Key Mahmud Khan son of Abdülhamid victorious forever decorative feature

Zülfe (“Fringe”) Three S shapes indicate the Ottoman winds, which blow from east to west. Hançer (“Arms”) These lines are a sign of power and strength.

Sere (“Stand”) The base represents the Ottoman throne.

The Ottoman Empire

Tughra This decorative design is called a tughra. It was used by the sultan as a seal or signature on important documents. This one belonged to Sultan Mahmud II.

Tugh (“Flagpole”) Each vertical line signifies independence.

The Ottoman Empire began in the late 13th century when Osman, a Muslim warrior, founded a small state in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey). The powerful empire that later emerged lasted for 600 years. At its height, it stretched from Eastern Europe and the Black Sea to Arabia and North Africa. The rulers of the Ottoman Empire were known as sultans.

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145

3

Origins of the empire

Forced service The Ottomans begin a system in which Christian boys from conquered territories are forced to convert to the Islamic religion and to work for the sultan as clerks, soldiers, or bodyguards.

1402

Battle of Ankara

Th e Otto ma n Em pir e alm ost co lla ps es wh en th e Ce ntral As ian ru ler Tim ur de feats Su lta n Bayezid I at th e Battle of An ka ra an d takes pr iso ne r. Le ge nd ha him s it Tim ur ke pt th e su lta th at n in a go lde n cage.

c.1400

Os ma n I is the rul er of a sm all Mu slim state in no rth we st An ato lia. He reg ula rly attac ks the ne igh bo rin g Byza nti ne Em pire, the easte rn rem ain s of the Ro ma n Em pire.

1389

1299–1326

Battle of Kosovo Osman’s grandson, Sultan Murad I, leads an army against Prince Lazar of Serbia at the “Field of the Blackbirds” (in modern-day Kosovo). Both leaders are killed, but the Ottomans win the battle, giving them control of southeastern Europe.

151

c.1420 Islamic astronomy

Astronomy

1543 Sun at the center

Central Asian ruler and astronomer Ulugh Beg builds an observatory in Samarkand. It is the largest and best of its kind in the Islamic world, and several famous astronomers visit it.

People have always looked up at the night sky and wondered about the nature of the Universe. Early astronomers found patterns in the stars and tried to follow and predict their movements. Nowadays, very powerful telescopes allow scientists to study the Sun, Moon, planets, and other galaxies, helping us to know more about our own planet and leading to theories about the beginning of the Universe.

Nicolaus Copernicus, a Polish astronomer, disputes previous theories by suggesting that the Sun, rather than Earth, is the center of the Universe. He is not entirely correct, but his work provides ideas for future scientists to build on.

c.150 ce Center of the Universe

240 bce Broom stars

Claudius Ptolemy of Greece writes in the Almagest that Earth sits at the center of the Universe. People believe this to be true for the next 1,400 years.

Chinese astronomers record the comets they see. They refer to them as “broom stars” or “long-tailed pheasant stars” because of their appearance.

c.330 bce Curved Earth Ancient Greek philosophers start to think that Earth may be a sphere instead of flat. This is because the stars seen in southern lands are different from those seen in the north.

c.400 bce Mayan calendar Constellations A constellation is a group of stars that form a pattern or outline of a recognizable shape. This one is Eridanus, known as the “Celestial River.” It is the sixthlargest of the 88 constellations.

The Mayans are skilled astronomers who can measure vast periods of time. They create a calender that marks the beginning of time as 3114 bce, according to their calculations.

700 bce Early patterns

1600 bce Star disk The Bronze Age Nebra Sky Disk, found in Germany, is the oldest-known representation of the Universe, showing the Sun, Moon, and several stars.

The Babylonians use mathematics to predict and record the times and patterns of the eclipses of the Sun and Moon and the positions of planets.

c.2500 bce Stonehenge A circle of giant standing stones is built in England. Many think it was used to mark the rising and setting points of the Sun at the summer and winter solstices.

Hawaii observatory The observatory on top of the Mauna Kea volcano in Hawaii is the largest in the world.

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1608 Distant stars Hans Lippershey of the Netherlands is the first to try to register a telescope design. This invention reveals that stars are much farther away from Earth than the planets in the Solar System.

“Astronomy compels the soul to look upward and leads us from this world to another.” Plato, The Republic, c.380 bce

2006 Properties of a planet The International Astronomical Union agrees to a new definition of a planet. This downgrades Pluto from a planet to a dwarf planet.

1610 Jupiter’s moons Italian Galileo Galilei discovers moons orbiting Jupiter, which proves part of Copernicus’s earlier theory that not all objects in the sky orbit Earth. This offends the Catholic Church, because it goes against some statements in the Bible.

1992 Exoplanets The first exoplanets (planets outside the Solar System) are discovered. Today, more than 3,700 have been documented. Six have the right temperature for water to exist, which means that they could support life.

1687 Gravity Isaac Newton, an English scientist, uses his understanding of the laws of motion and gravity to claim that the Moon is kept in orbit around Earth by gravity.

1990 Hubble telescope

1774 Messier Catalog A French scientist, Charles Messier, catalogs deepsky objects, including comets, nebulae, and star clusters. They are known as “Messier objects,” and today the Messier Catalog contains 110 of them.

The Hubble Space Telescope is launched, the first time a telescope has been sent into space. It looks deep into space to take stunning photographs of the objects within our galaxy and the Universe.

1929 Expanding Universe 1912 Variable stars

American Henrietta Leavitt notices that certain stars, known as “Cepheid variables,” change in brightness in a predictable way. Her discovery enables astronomers to calculate the distances between Earth and faraway galaxies.

Life of a star Stars can live for millions of years, with smaller stars living the longest. The largest ones use up their fuel more quickly and die sooner by exploding, when they are called “supernovas.” These explosions spread material around the Universe that can form new stars.

Protostar Huge clouds of dust and gas bond to make a new star.

American Edwin Hubble, using the Hooker Telescope, finds that the Milky Way is not the only galaxy in the Universe. He shows that all galaxies are moving apart, which means that the Universe is expanding.

Red giant The high temperature causes the star to expand.

Supernova A very large red giant explodes. Its iron core becomes a black hole or a neutron star. White dwarf The outer gas layers are shed, leaving a dense core.

Main sequence star A dense core is formed. Its temperature rises to 180° million Fahrenheit (100° million Celsius).

Planetary nebula A red giant from a smaller star creates a glowing shell of gas.

Black dwarf A white dwarf has no source of energy, so it cools and fades away.

Big battles Even before the earliest civilizations began, families and tribes went to war with each other. As cities and states appeared, rose, and fell over many thousands of years, decisive battles fought on land, at sea, and in the air changed the course of history again and again.

Salamis Invading Greece, the Persian navy is defeated by the Athenians, led by Themistocles, in a naval battle off Salamis. The following year, an alliance of Greek cities defeats the Persian army at Plataea.

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After invading the Persian Empire, Macedonian Alexander the Great wins a decisive victory over Darius III of Persia. The Persian army greatly outnumbers the Macedonians, but Alexander’s men are better trained and led. Alexander goes on to conquer the whole Persian Empire.

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This great chariot battle is fought between the Egyptian army of Pharaoh Rameses II and the Hittites, led by Mutawalli II. Rameses claims victory in inscriptions on Egyptian temples, which provide the earliest detailed account of a battle. The real outcome of the battle is unknown.

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The Roman politician Octavian defeats his enemies, Cleopatra of Egypt and Mark Antony, in a naval battle off Greece. The victory allows Octavian, now renamed Augustus, to take sole control of the Roman Empire and become emperor of Rome.

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Changping The Chinese state of Qin defeats the state of Zhao at Changping. After 450,000 Zhao soldiers surrender, Bai Qi, the Qin general, massacres all but 240 of them, whose lives are spared so they can pass on the news. The Qin state goes on to unify China.

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Cannae Pyrrhic victories King Pyrrhus of Epirus invades Italy and wins two victories over the Romans, at Heraclea and Asculum. Pyrrhus loses so many men that his victory is as bad as a defeat. People use the phrase “Pyrrhic victory” to mean a hollow triumph.

154

The Carthaginian general Hannibal invades Italy by crossing the Alps with an army, including his war elephants. At Cannae, he uses envelopment to destroy an army of 80,000 Roman soldiers.

Hastings Duke William of Normandy defeats and kills Harold, the Anglo-Saxon king, at Hastings. Mounted Norman knights fight the charging Anglo-Saxons, who fight on foot, standing in a shield wall. French-speaking Normans take control of England.

Battle diagrams

“I’ve seen thousands of men lying on the ground, their dead faces looking up at the skies. I tell you, war is hell!”

Waterloo The troops of British Duke of Wellington and Prussian Marshal Blucher defeat Napoleon Bonaparte in a major battle that brings the Napoleonic Wars to an end. Wellington fights a defensive battle, holding off repeated French attacks until Blucher arrives with reinforcements.

Battle diagrams have been used throughout history to help plan battles. These diagrams show a tactic called envelopment, which involves attacking the enemy from behind, the sides, or both.

US General William Tecumsah Sherman, speech at the Michigan Military Academy, June 19, 1879

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June 1 8 1 81 5 ,

Lepanto The Holy League, an alliance of Catholic Mediterranean states, wins a great victory over the Ottoman navy (see pages 150– 151), in the waters off Greece. This is the last major naval battle to be fought entirely with rowing vessels (galleys).

July 1–3 , 1 86 3

The Somme During World War I, the British and French launch a major attack, but fail to break through the German lines at the Somme. More than three million men take part, and one million are killed.

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Gettysburg This three-day battle, the largest ever fought in America, sees the Union army of George Meade, 94,000 strong, defeat the Confederate army of Robert E. Lee, numbering 72,000 men.

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July 1 – November 18, 1916 Midway The US defeats Japan in a great World War II ocean battle in the Pacific, fought mostly by planes launched from aircraft carriers. Japan loses all four of its carriers, while the Americans lose just one. The Japanese navy never recovers.

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Stalingrad The German army fights a major battle to seize the Russian city of Stalingrad. In November, when the Germans have almost captured the city, the Russians mount a counteroffensive. The trapped Germans surrender.

19 1 7, y 2, 1 ly r Ju rua b Fe The Tet Offensive Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces launch a massive offensive against the cities of South Vietnam. US and South Vietnamese troops win a decisive victory. But in the US, the scale of the attack shakes public support for the war.

155

The Battle of Lepanto This painting shows the Battle of Lepanto, between the Ottoman Turks and the Holy League of Spain, Venice, Genoa, and the Pope. The battle took place on October 7, 1571, and was the last battle to be fought entirely from rowing vessels called galleys. The Holy League damaged or captured about 200 of the Ottoman ships, losing only 12-17 of their own.

Edo Japan After a long period of war (see pages 110–111), in 1603, Japan was finally unified under the leadership of Tokugawa Ieyasu. A golden age of peace, prosperity, and production followed, known as the Edo period, which saw new forms of Japanese art flourish. During this time, Japan cut contact with the rest of the world, and it would remain isolated from the West for most of the next three centuries.

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Sh o ca l e a o g u n ( pit a I e ya d e r ) T m i l i t a l o f ro m s u m o k u g a r y w s e a t h e e v e s aw a Kyo t of i m p e ay Ka c n r t h i s o. H e e f l u e n c o r ’s b .1 e hea s d a Th uk 60 Ed o d q u t a b l i s i n n a n c e e J i th 3 h a To k ( m o d e r te rs e s a r ap e k i y a b r t fo O k u a n e a t i t t h o) , m r n - d a n u d eb n r s e p ow a s e a k i n g y c o ra m k i . I t m k i c re e r n of r er i m a a u e d , d c o m ow ate n Ja eal d pan y an b n s . ka i e n c to e c e, i n e a s wo b u k e s . nte a n d s m i t In rt th en p hea ear ain e r l a te l y ole y a r, s. ll

ns c lo s a pa n ste r n n at io J e s -e W e h ll t a 0 to f ro m 162ukiyonts of y a p a r t d s , w h o a re n i la r a d e. r of k p r y d N et h e owe d to t ra p le o ll e a Artodblocom eveecome al l st il se p a pa n e a ll owe d to Wo e s f r l i fe b g l o c n J e h T n in e a o n ot . Th is sce anes epict d urb n a re a ls h e c o u nt r y fe c t p D a n y . a 4 a r t e f J ula 1 b s , th s le ave m a in s in e pes e 16 ous n ba n r . pop ds c a ainers wn a f n 3 ba 85 , i u nt il 1 l a n n t e r t e k n o u re s o . ig hogutianityapan ns ) e om t l ” c i d l r p ReThe s hris out J ristia the b e c o - e ( “ g wo y at i n i C gh h ee cly k u flo u y C t fl bli n ro the t h d a n o n o re p u e b a e an o d r y a . Th lac wh unt ted in p 7. co xecu ains l 186 e e m nt i r u

158

The Great Peace The Edo period marked an era of stability in Japan that became known as the Great Peace. The major cities of Edo, Kyoto, and Osaka catered for the wealthy, who could spend their money on new entertainments and luxury goods. City streets during the Edo period became bustling shopping lanes.

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8 1 86 i j i n e io

M ra t a w a st o k u g w e r Ree last Taonds poperor, Th un h e em name g h s h o c k to t e s t h e i n g . ty ba tak e a n l e” ) u o 54 a o n iji (m ned r iji wh e M te n 18 e treban ther ly Me ligh h the , Japa o l e “e n a d t h i t h f i n a wa W i t ra t i o n n s i t s e e Tr en t w is uga the to th h c p s W nta tries Tok nd eir Re u l l y o , a n d n d s . f s co un e e a th h de h der t t bor perio c o e d , t u n a e to , w i r ts o e y Ed l i ft h o g a g r e at e p o to . S S t tr es up de U s a fir pan ning n tr Ja e a op eric Am

ing ofe s 183 w re st li s io n a l s u m o ng beg in s in t h To m io k Tok3–183 e a Hach T im a n aid 4 he S h r in Fi p rofe s s e. Th e fi rst Tō k St at i o ft y-Th o io n a l w re n a re st le rs a re oft p r i n i d ō i s s of t h e a e wa r r io r e n s a m u ra i t s Hir s o s h by U t e r i e s n ew s o s w h o n e e d a a of i h g ur g is e P r G 18 d u r in g c e of in c o m e To k t r i p a fo l l owawa of the pea e 5 a l f o p i o i n d n c efu l re i g o r e r e s s is 0 g th g Ed o p e h o f i n o o r io d . a i n t e t ra v d . W e e l a g e r m n a l as rna el b e ith i a s b r n an s fe o h lj w Tr d st rate as, w , c a male bec ithin ourne ned, a co ine riki co ea lled o m J a pa ys n ep a n nve d i n g m st u m r opu n po d m rs a th ak e l a r. e e s t p of u l a u s i c i o n , a r t s - u p th r e , th da o . e E nt e n c f d o e r ta y a e, p e i n e re rio rs d.

159

BEFORE In 1492, Italian explorer Christopher Columbus reached the Americas, a land mass unknown to Europeans at the time. After his return, many more people made the journey to this “New World,” eventually establishing permanent settlements there.

1 4 97 claims land in

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Colonial America As soon as Europeans became aware of the existence of the Americas, many were eager to visit what they called the “New World.” Lots of people imagined a land of untold riches, others saw an opportunity for a new life away from religious persecution. The lands were already home to communities of native peoples who suffered displacement and destruction at the hands of European colonists.

Wo r l d

1619

II of in g H e n ry V n s o rs o sp d n la Eng n x p lo re r J o h th e Ita lia n e a n ew s e a nd C a b ot to fi . C a b ot a si A to te ro u is c h e s w h at in ste ad re a n d la n d in u n ow N ew fo la im s it ec C a n ad a . H m a k in g it II, fo r H e n ry V t c la im to rs fi ’s d E n g la n . N ew Wo rl d e th in d n la

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1607 J A M E ST OW N StruggleS on deSpite

1587 T he m is si ng tow ns fo lk of r oa n o K e : a m ys te ry un so lv ed .

1513 SpaniSh territory claimed across the Atlantic

1534 Fr en C h

S

panish explorer Juan Ponce de León reaches land and claims it for Spain. He names it La Florida, Spanish for “the place with many flowers.” This later becomes the Spanish colony of Florida.

160

r jo in Su rg e Fo io n it iS qu aC la nd

st ex pl ores ac qu es Ca rti er fir wh at is of ge ed n er th e east on to cla im ing go , da na Ca now ce. In 16 04 , th e lan d fo r Fran ex pl orers, two m ore Fren ch d Sa m ue l de an ts on Pi er re de M a settl em ent Ch am pl ain , bu ild ce Ri ve r, in en wr on th e St . La be c Ci ty. pres ent-d ay Q ué entu all y ev ica er Fren ch Am Hu ds on e st retc he s fro m th ex ico. M of ulf G Bay to th e

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ore th an 10 0 m en , wom en , an d ch ild re n fro m En gl an d se ttl Roan oke, Vi rg in e in ia . Vi rg in ia Da re is bo rn , th e first En gl ish ba by to be bo rn in th e Am er ic as . In 1590, th ei r settl em en t le ad er Jo hn W hi te retu rn s fro m a th re e-ye ar tri p back to En gl an d to fin d ever yo ne go ne. Th ei r di sa pp re m ai ns a myste ea ra nc e ry.

HARDSHIP AND D I F F I C U LT Y

T

his Virginia town is the first permanent English settlement in North America. The colony faces frequent food shortages, especially during the winter of 1609–1610. Known as “The Starving Time,” this famine nearly wipes out the colony.

Virginia plants the seed for a

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he Virginia colonists plant cotton seeds for the first time. Cotton, tobacco, rice, and indigo (a plant used to make blue dye) become the major crops in the southern English colonies.

av e S a F r iCa n S l so ld to sh c o lo n is ts li g n E bo ut 20 Afr ic an t to gh sl aves are brou sl aves st fir e th n, w Ja m esto co lo ni es . in th e En gl is h wor k to t pu Th ey are o an d ric e cc ba to e th on e ec on om ie s pl antatio ns . Th En gl is h of th e so ut he rn re lia nt es m co states be w hi ch on sl ave la bo r, trade e av sl fu el s th e 4–16 5) . 16 s ge pa ee (s

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1732

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bout a h u fro m E n n d re d s ett le rs s g a il la n d a b o M ay fl ow a rd e n ow M a r. Th ey la n d in w th e s th e P ly m s ac h u s etts a n d h at is e o u th c o lo ny th e sta b li s h re.

Ye t an ot he r new

1675 KING PHILIP’S WA R rag es on

me rica n Ind ian s wag e a 14- mo nth -lon g battle ay aga inst col oni sts in mo der n-d nd, Massachu setts, Rho de Isla es and Co nne ctic ut. Severa l trib der join tog eth er, led by tribal lea g Metac om , also known as Kin Phi lip. They are eve ntu ally defeated, and this is the last ma jor Am eric an Ind ian upr isin g aga inst col oni sts in New Eng lan d.

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colony in th e new world

he Br itis h esta bli sh a new co lony in No rth Am er ica an d na m e it Ge orgia afte r Ki ng Ge orge. Th ere are now 13 Br itis h co lon ies : Vi rg ini a, Ge M as sach us etts , Ne orgia , w Yo rk , M ar yla nd , Rh od e Isl an d, Co nn ec tic ut , De law are, New Ha m ps hire, No rth Ca ro lin a, So ut h Ca ro lin a, New Je rs ey, an d Pe nn sy lva nia .

1754 f ren cH and s pan isH los ses rep ort ed wo Euro pea n natio ns, Fran ce and Brita in, batt le over claim s to land in the Ame rica n colo nies . Thro ugh the conflict, Brita in gain s control of Can ada from the Fren ch, and Flor ida from the Spa nish .

T

17 73 No taxation wi th ou t

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re pr es en ta tio n!

ed up wit h be ing taxed by the Bri tish wit ho ut hav ing a say in how tho se taxes are spe nt, co lon ists board Bri tish shi ps an d du mp 34 2 ch ests of tea leaves (wh ich we re he avi ly taxed ) into Bo sto n ha rbo r. Th e act trig ge rs the Am eri ca n Revol utio n (se e page s 190 –19 1).

The Mayflower Setting off from Plymouth, England in 1620, the Mayflower carried passengers over to the New World. Upon arrival, they established a settlement and named it Plymouth after the English town that they had sailed from.

161

The Scientific Revolution During the 16th and 17th centuries, Europe was the scene of rapid and revolutionary scientific progress. Established ideas were rejected and religious thinking was challenged. Pioneering thinkers introduced new methods of experimentation and observation, and made major scientific breakthroughs, many of which have stood the test of time. ping

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154 154

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1 59

ov u n cien s h s w r i te s Ni a r u m , i i l g En con at e nt Ba um Sci gues th her t r n a a a O rg i c h h e h o u l d g nt i n g h s e w t i st s m . n peri s c i e a b y ex s e r v i n g d at a n d o b

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162

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a , r e Afte a t re e at h e m t h at t h y, m M s it o n a v i r i f a a p l r i p g c s m ac P r i n h h e ex e l d by t ke e p s of ysicist Islaaws of h a c i w h s i t h a . w e r s e o rc e L i s h p h e s h i s h ow ther f l g U n i v v i s i b l e n g to g e E n g n d ef i n s c r i b i n nt i s i to d me de a n i n eve r y t h N ew i o n by m ove e e d a n the e r t ’s e p t r e o s m objec y its futu U n do s c o p o b e r t a n n c e d b s h e l p st a n d r R , w r t s e . la e mic s c i e nt i s s i n s e c t a i n f l u s s . H i s n s u n d w o r ks e e nder o a h i s v t s r r i m l a e e r iv e E n g ke o b s c o r k u l i s h e s gen the Un . b w Hoo ts, and and pu graphia o h p l a n s c o p e M i c ro i m p l e ro g s i n o s t s c i m ndin ell.” i he m h i s f c a l l s t l i fe a “c H e n i t of u

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“If I have seen further than others, it is by standing upon the shoulders of giants.” Isaac Newton, 1643–1727

163

BEFORE From around 1510, the Spanish and Portuguese began shipping African slaves to the Americas. Santo Domingo (in modern-day Dominican Republic) became the first slave port in the New World. By the 1560s, Britain and Holland had joined the slave trade.

Cheap labor

Slave ships

Twenty African prisoners arrive in Jamestown in Virginia. Slaves are a cheaper source of labor than contracted servants, who can eventually earn their freedom.

The city of Boston plays a major part in the slave trade. The first American slave-carrier ship, Desire, is built here. In 1638, the first slaves are brought to Boston from the West Indies, along with cotton and tobacco.

1619

1636 Underground Railroad

Freedom in Canada

A Quaker family helps start the Underground Railroad, a network of safe houses and people who assist runaway slaves. Its “Grand Central Station” is established in Indiana. As many as 2,000 slaves cross to freedom there.

The Canadian Attorney General (chief lawyer) says that all former slaves living in Canada are free and will be protected by law. Settlers are also not allowed to bring slaves into the country. CANADA

US

1804 1819 Sojourner Truth End of trade The US passes a law that takes the country out of the slave trade. It sends ships to Africa to help rescue slaves from traders and return them to their homelands. Slave ownership is still legal in most of the southern US states.

1819

Born into slavery, Sojourner Truth becomes a leading Abolitionist and spokesperson for women’s rights. She gives a famous speech in Ohio that highlights the need for rights for black women as well as men.

Uncle Tom’s Cabin and the Abolitionist movement The novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe sells many thousands of copies and changes people’s opinion of slavery. Her book helps the Abolitionists’ cause, but tensions between the north and south escalate.

1850 1852

Slavery in the US Slavery was a part of life in the United States from its colonial beginnings, and slave owners used forced labor to build the young nation and its booming economy. By the 19th century, Abolitionists were campaigning to free all slaves, in the face of opposition from many American states. This resulted in civil war, with the north fighting to end slavery against the south, who wished to retain it. 164

“Whenever I hear anyone arguing for slavery, I feel a strong impulse to see it tried on him personally. ” Abraham Lincoln, 16th president of the United States, 1861–1865

Plantations of rice

A life of slavery

Rice is introduced in South Carolina. It takes a lot of work to grow, so European settlers need slave labor to tend the crops and help them make it profitable. By around 1710, there are more enslaved Africans in the state than Europeans.

In Virginia, the General Assembly passes a law stating that any child born to an enslaved mother will also become a slave for life. Most slave-holding colonies or states go on to enact similar laws that discriminate by race.

Quaker protest In Pennsylvania, Quakers protest against slavery. The Quakers are Christians, who believe in treating others fairly. Later, the Quaker Church prevents members from profiting from the slave trade and from owning slaves.

1688

1662

1694

The life of a slave

Freedom Florida

The first slave narrative, a story written by an ex-slave about the experience of slavery, is written in New York. Many more slave narratives follow, one of the most famous of which is written by Frederick Douglass in 1845.

Runaway slaves get their freedom in the Spanish territory of Florida. They must give their loyalty to Spain and join the Catholic Church. Many settle in St. Augustine, the oldest European city in the US.

1731

1772 Civil War

Emancipation Proclamation

The debate over whether or not new states should use slaves splits the country in two. Northern victory in this 4-year conflict ends slavery, but more than 600,000 people lose their lives (see page 222).

All slaves in the south are declared free on January 1 in President Abraham Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation. This marks a turning point for the war, as Lincoln knows that ending slavery is the only way to keep the union of US states together.

1861

Slavery abolished The Emancipation Proclamation frees slaves but does not end slavery itself. The 13th Amendment to the US Constitution brings a permanent end to slavery in all of the United States, including new territories.

1863

1 86 5

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About 6 million Africans were taken to the Americas in a triangle of trade. Ships from Britain carried manufactured goods such as cloth, ironware, and guns to West Africa. These were exchanged for men, women, and children. The sea crossing to the West Indies was brutal, and many slaves did not survive. Those who did were sold at auctions, and the profits were used to buy sugar, cotton, rum, and tobacco to take back to Britain.

SOUTH AMERICA

En sla ved Afr ica

ns

AFTER AFRICA

Four million slaves were freed, but the challenges for African Americans remained. Lincoln had announced plans to help the South rebuild, but his assassination meant that his plans were never realized. Southern states went on to introduce laws to limit the civil rights of African Americans.

165

The Mughal Empire

1

The Mughals were rulers of an Islamic empire in what is now modern-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. The empire lasted for more than 300 years and saw the construction of some of South Asia’s finest monuments. The Mughals were originally from Central Asia and claimed to be descended from the Mongol leaders Genghis Khan and Timur the Great. 53

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166

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Mughal architecture

160

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The Mughals build many beautiful palaces, mosques, tombs, and forts. These delicate red sandstone cusped arches provide cool shade and calming symmetry around doorways and along open-sided pavilions.

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1 62

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THE MUGHAL EMPIRE AT ITS GREATEST EXTENT, 1707

16

Jah M pa i n a n g i r h ugha as a ting l ar t ,a lo skill e d a n d t h i s ve of a fa m r e d r t i s t s a t t ra c t , e s p l i fe l i fo r t h e t o h i s c t s m a n e c i a l l y ke s o t u d i i r c a re f u u r t . T h y h i g h l y es o l l y o ey a r f b e a and f l ow n i m a l s , s e r ve d , ers. b i rd s,

bia

y of Ba gal n e B

167

Ming founder Following the collapse of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang, a peasant turned warlord, seizes power. He declares himself Hongwu Emperor of the new Ming (Shining) Dynasty. His capital is Nanjing. He executes thousands of officials who are accused of plotting against him.

“Why are the Western nations small and yet strong? Why are we large and yet weak?… We must search for the means to become their equal.”

Yongle Emperor The Ming Dynasty is at the height of its power under the Yongle Emperor. He repairs China’s Grand Canal and restores the system of Civil Service exams, which the Mongols had discontinued.

Feng Guifen, Chinese reformer, 1861

The Forbidden City The Yongle Emperor moves the capital from Nanjing to Beijing in the north, where he oversees the building of the Purple Forbidden City. The Beijing dialect of Mandarin is adopted as the official state language at this time.

Yongle Encyclopedia

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1513

14

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Ming and Qing China

2– 14

20

140

Following the fall of Mongol rule (see pages 120– 121) in the 1360s, a new Chinese dynasty, the Ming, took over. Under the Ming (1368–1644), China became a superpower, and there was a global demand for Chinese porcelain and tea. During the Qing Dynasty that followed (1644–1912), the population increased from 160 to 450 million, but China was still technologically undeveloped and couldn’t compete with Western powers. 168

–1 4

1368

The emperor commissions the Yongle Encyclopedia. Compiled by 2,169 scholars, it consists of 22,937 manuscript rolls, covering agriculture, art, astronomy, geology, history, literature, medicine, religion, science, and many other subjects.

14

08

1405–1433

06

Portuguese explorer Jorge Alvares, the Portuguese explorer, reaches Guangzhou, becoming the first European to sail to China. A new era of trade with the West begins. Christian missionaries begin to arrive in the 1550s.

Zheng He’s voyages Admiral Zheng He leads seven voyages of exploration to the Indian Ocean, East Africa, and the Red Sea. Their aim is to display the power of the Ming Dynasty. He returns with many exotic gifts, including an African giraffe.

Last emperor

Ming tombs

Military revolts lead to the proclamation of a Republic of China under President Sun Yat-sen. On February 12, 1912, the last Qing emperor, a six-year-old named Puyi, abdicates, ending more than 2,000 years of Chinese imperial history.

The Wanli Emperor is buried in a great tomb outside Beijing, which holds thousands of items of silk, porcelain, and jewelry. The tomb will be excavated in 1956—the only one of thirteen Ming royal tombs to be excavated to this day.

Dowager Empress Cixi

First Opium War The Daoguang Emperor’s ban on the British opium trade leads to war with Britain. China suffers a humiliating defeat and is forced to sign a treaty giving Hong Kong to Britain. After losing a Second Opium War, in 1856– 1860, China will have to legalize opium.

Dowager Empress Cixi controls the Chinese government. She is traditional and resists attempts to modernize China with Western-style industrial production of ships, railroads, and firearms.

c.1861

–1 9

08

Imperial conquests China conquers the Dzungar Khanate, the last remaining state from the former Mongol Empire. With the seizure of Tibet, Mongolia, and present-day Xinjiang (Turkestan), the Qing Empire is at its height.

5 18

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16 164 4

Fall of the Ming An army of peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng, a former Ming official, captures Beijing and overthrows the last Ming emperor. Li Zicheng declares himself emperor of the Shun Dynasty.

45 1755–175 7

1–1912

Boxer Rebellion In northern China, peasant rebels, called Boxers, rise up against foreigners and Christians. When the empress sides with the rebels, eight foreign nations intervene. After another humiliating defeat, China gives further concessions to foreign powers.

1839–1842

1 62

1899 –1901

191

The Ming Great Wall

Taiping Rebellion

The Great Wall of China that people see today was mostly built between 1570 and 1583. The rebuilding was overseen by the Ming general Qi Jiguang, who wanted to keep out the Mongols.

In southern China, Hong Xiuqang, a Christian convert, leads a rebellion against Qing rule. He declares himself king of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. It takes 14 years to crush the rebellion, and 20 to 30 million people die during the fighting.

Ming ceramics Qing Dynasty Claiming to avenge the dead emperor, Manchu invaders from the north overthrow Li Zicheng and establish a new dynasty, the Qing. The new Shunzhi Emperor orders Chinese men to adopt the Manchu hairstyle, shaving their heads and wearing a pigtail. In China, the Manchus are resented as foreigners.

The Ming Dynasty is famous for milky blue and white porcelain, which they produced on an industrial scale. The imperial kilns at Jingdezhen made enough porcelain to supply not just the whole country, but the rest of the world. In the West, porcelain became so identified with the country that we still call it china.

169

45

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Four elements Greek philosopher Empedocles (495–430 bce) claims everything is made up of differing amounts of four elements: earth, water, air, and fire. This theory is believed right up until the 17th century.

bc

e

Chemistry Chemistry is the study of the matter that makes up our world. The foundations for this branch of science were laid in ancient Greece, as philosophers began to explore the properties and reactions of different substances. Following the discovery of atoms, today’s chemists are able to study substances in incredible detail. 78 17

Gas and fizz ce

17 72

400 b

Amazing atoms Greek philosopher Democritus (460– 370 bce) states that everything is made up of tiny moving particles known as atoms, meaning “indivisible” in Greek. This marks the start of the atomic theory of the Universe.

English chemist Joseph Priestley (1733–1804) presents his discovery of oxygen, carbon monoxide, and nitrous oxide. He invents the first carbonated fizzy water after seeing a reaction between gases at a local brewery.

Clay pieces Democritus thought that a piece of clay split into smaller and smaller pieces would eventually become so tiny it couldn’t be divided.

900

Peter Atkins, English chemist, 1940–

4

“Chemistry begins in the stars. The stars are the source of the chemical elements, which are the building blocks of matter and the core of our subject.”

175

Atom

Fixed air Scottish chemist Joseph Black (1728–1799) shows that a gas called “fixed air” is exhaled by people. Made of one part carbon and two parts oxygen, it becomes known as carbon dioxide.

Boyle’s Law Irish chemist Sir Robert Boyle (1627– 1691) studies the behavior of gases under pressure. At constant temperatures, he discovers that increasing the pressure on a gas squeezes it and decreases its volume.

Early alchemy Arab scientist Al-Razi (854– 925) completes experiments on and carefully observes metals, classifying them into groups. He studies alchemy, an early form of chemistry that explores what substances are made of and how they can be altered.

1662

Low pressure

170

High pressure

Elements list Known as “the father of modern chemistry,” French chemist Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794) studies and names oxygen. He compiles the first list of chemical elements (pure substances that cannot be broken down into anything else), in what becomes the first true chemistry textbook.

The periodic table receives an update with the inclusion of four new elements, officially completing the seventh row. Nihonium, Moscovium, Tennessine, and Oganesson are among the heaviest elements ever found.

Atomic bond American scientist Linus Pauling (1901–1994) explains how the number of electrons in an atom’s outer shell affects the way it bonds with other atoms.

84

Nh

Nih

1 80 3

Teamwork Marie-Anne Lavoisier was also a chemist. She contributed to her husband’s work.

New elements

2 01 6

1954

New designs Lavoisier made his own equipment to study chemicals in closed environments.

117

18

69

As scientists continue to experiment with gases, English chemist John Dalton (1766– 1844) advances atomic theory by proposing that each element, or pure substance, has a different type of atom.

Carbon atom

Carbon dioxide A compound is a mixture of at least two different elements. Carbon dioxide is formed by carbon and oxygen.

ine

118

Og

Crystal structures British chemist Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin (1910–1994) uses X-ray beams to study the arrangement of atoms inside different solids. She works out the structure of medications and proteins, helping to improve healthcare.

5

09

ess

ovium

Atomic model An atom has a nucleus full of protons at its center, which is orbited by electrons.

Mendeleev’s table Each element is positioned according to the size of its atoms.

pH scale The pH scale ranges from 0, very acidic (red), to 14, very alkaline (purple).

The pH scale to measure acidity is invented by Danish chemist S.P.L. Sørensen (1868– 1939). pH stands for “power of hydrogen” because acidic or alkaline levels depend on hydrogen ions—particles produced by atoms that are electrically charged.

17

Splitting the atom 19

Acid test 19

Mc

Oganesson

194

First periodic table

115

Mosc

Po

n Ten

Atomic theory

Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev (1834–1907) creates the first version of the periodic table of elements. It is so accurate that he leaves gaps in the right places for elements still to be discovered.

onium

New Zealander Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937) works out the structure of the atom and splits it apart. Inside the atom’s nucleus, he proves the existence of protons—subatomic particles with a positive charge.

171

Indian dance According to Hindu myth, dance is a gift from Lord Brahma, the creator god. He inspires scholar Bharat Muni to write the Natyashastra. This ancient book describes the elements of Indian classical dance.

c.200 bce

The story of dance The urge to dance is as old as human life. People danced to honor their gods, to celebrate important moments, or simply for the sheer joy of it. Many styles of dance have emerged over the centuries, evolving from, and combining, traditional dance steps. Some forms of dance, such as ballet, take many years of training.

Secret dance Forbidden from following their own customs and traditions, African slaves living in Brazil develop a dance they call the capoeira. Combining martial arts with music and dance allows them to secretly practice combat moves.

The galliard Popular at royal courts throughout Europe is a lively dance with kicks, leaps, and hops, called the galliard. Queen Elizabeth I of England is said to dance six galliards every morning in order to keep fit.

c.1600

Classical ballet The tango Ballroom dancers around the world are thrilled by the tango, a close-contact dance originally from Argentina and Uruguay. Like many dance styles, it blends African and European influences.

Swan Lake is first performed at the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow, Russia. It is choreographed by Marius Petipa and features typical elements of classical ballet, such as turnout of the leg from the hip, high leg lifts, and dancing en pointe.

1500s ce Modern dance American Isadora Duncan, a pioneer of modern dance, creates a sensation by performing barefoot and wearing a simple tunic. Her free, flowing dance movements are supposedly based on classical Greek dance.

1913

1900 Ballet outrage A new ballet, The Rite of Spring, causes a near riot at its first performance in Paris. It stars Russian dancer Vaslav Nijinsky and has music by Igor Stravinsky. The audience is outraged by the daring choreography and shocking sounds.

1895 African highlife A popular new style of dance and music, known as “highlife,” emerges in the dance halls of West Africa. Influenced by American jazz music, it combines Western dance steps with local rhythms.

1923 1913

The Charleston

c.1920 172

After featuring in the musical theater show Runnin’ Wild, the Charleston—a quick, energetic dance with swinging arm and leg movements—becomes an instant success with the fun-seekers of the 1920s.

Social dances In European high society, men and women dance side by side at balls, seldom touching. They perform dances such as the minuet, which has intricate steps. Such dances are often based on traditional country dances.

Court ballet King Louis XIV of France, who is himself a ballet dancer, establishes the Royal Academy of Dance in Paris to train dancers. At this time, male dancers are the leads in ballet performances.

1700s 1661

c.1775 Flamenco

Ballerina Marie Taglioni dances the ballet La Sylphide “en pointe” (on the tip of the toes), and shortens the length of her skirt to show off her footwork. Over time, this skirt style becomes even shorter, and is known as a tutu.

The waltz The craze for the waltz, originally from Vienna, Austria, spreads rapidly through the ballrooms of Europe. It causes great scandal because couples dance face to face, with the man’s arm around the woman’s waist.

The first written accounts of flamenco, the traditional dance of Andalusia in southern Spain, date from this time. These routines involve handclapping, singing, and guitar music, too. The origins of flamenco may be much earlier.

Salsa c.1840 Tap dance In the US, metal is attached to the toe and heel of the shoes to create a tapping sound. Tap dance fuses two traditions: an AfricanAmerican dance called juba, and the Irish jig.

c.1800

1832 Do the twist The twist becomes the first worldwide teenage dance craze after singer Chubby Checker’s rock and roll song The Twist reaches the top of the charts. Dancers swivel their hips as if drying their backs with a towel.

Originating in the Caribbean and brought to New York City by immigrants from Puerto Rico and Cuba, salsa evolves as a modern freestyle dance that mixes African, French, and Spanish dance steps and music.

1970s

1960 1933 Dance in film American dancer Fred Astaire partners with Ginger Rogers in Flying Down to Rio, the first of 10 musical films they make together. They bring Hollywood glamour to the world of dance.

Bollywood Lively dance routines on a large scale feature in Bollywood films from Mumbai, India. They combine the classical dance traditions of India with the disco dance styles of the West.

c.1972

Breakdance c.2000

On the streets of New York City, young African Americans and Latin Americans create a style called breakdancing. They improvise complex routines to hip-hop music. Fancy footwork is combined with daring leaps and headspins.

173

The Golden Age of Piracy

“If you had fought like a man, you needn’t have died like a dog.” Anne Bonny, last words to “Calico” Jack according to A General History of the Pyrates, 1724

During the 16th century, the ports and the seas between Europe, Africa, and the Americas teemed with ships, many of them loaded up with valuable treasures. The rise in seafaring trade led to an increase in piracy. Ships and towns were raided for bountiful booty, and cutthroats, swashbucklers, and criminals sailed the seas in a Golden Age of Piracy.

The Pirate Round

End of privateering BEFORE

Safe haven

Piracy wasn’t always a crime. In 1557, England’s Queen Mary gave sailors known as privateers permission to attack and raid enemy ships. They shared their proceeds with the crown. Explorers often pilfered treasures to bring home. By the early 15th century, the vast amount of valuables carried across the oceans attracted seafaring criminals.

Pirates are invited to make Port Royal in Jamaica their home base, giving their protection to the town. Soon it is packed with pirates, and described as the richest and wickedest city in the world.

c . 1 62

Some greedy privateers get out of hand, breaking the rules set down by their governments. The Dutch officially suspend any privateering in 1673, and the English in 1680. The French follow in 1697.

0 16 57

1 67

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Bucc a

The Indian Ocean is relatively pirate-free until Thomas Tew decides to sail around the Cape of Good Hope in Africa to plunder in a route that became known as the Pirate Round. His success leads many other pirates to follow in his path.

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Jolly Roger The black flag with a grinning skull is hoisted over a French pirate ship while it is being chased by an English navy vessel. Raising the Jolly Roger becomes the terrifying signal that a pirate attack is underway.

13

1718

1 69

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T h re E n i s t at y a n g l re o a to d t h a n d t y b f U s q e D , F et t Rackham’s p u i n t u a u t ra n w e r e b c c e h t t b h e fearless females o f i n e A l e b , P n S c ht a n wo g c m s o r i n o r p a Scourge of the seas “Calico,” ew r k , o u n e r i c ve g s t u g i n , Jack Rackham’s crew, c r i t a t l e as r te r a n e a l , im lso ss . B rit n includes Anne Bonny and e w g sa ut or d D e at h o Mary Read, female pirates av i v e s i l o r b y y f Blac e o ri s o Infa m o kbear who eventually lead the bad u f p se ut s d bunch in one battle. Rackham p irate Te ac h Ed i ra t o ,k cy t h a n ks n ow n as B la wa rd is captured and hanged in . w h is ke to h is lo n g c k b e a rd , b ra id 1720. The women are rs , le ad e d s n a st y imprisoned, their final c rew. A a n oto r io u s fo rc e s ly B r it is h fate unknown to this day. e g ive s h nt to d e a l w n ava l it im h h f im ive m u wo u n d s ket b sa swo rd n d 2 0 s las h e a ll b e fo re s h e d ie by s.

17

17

Where there is treasure, there are pirates. Ruthless raiders also brought terror to the seas of China, plundering ships and attacking coastal towns. One of the most legendary pirates was Ching Shih (1775–1844). The widow of a pirate king, she commanded a vast pirate army, laying down a brutal code of conduct worthy of any pirate commander. She even took on China’s own navy.

175

A General History of the Pyrates

Welsh pirate “Black Bart” Roberts dies in a battle at sea. Legend says he was the most successful of any pirate, capturing more than 470 vessels in his lifetime. Historians call him the last of the great pirates of the Golden Age.

Bartholomew Roberts

This fascinating history book packed with daring deeds and a colorful cast of flamboyant pirates creates a sensation on its publication. One of the authors, Daniel Defoe, went on to write Robinson Crusoe.

1722

1724

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION 1750–1914

The Age of Revolution Between 1750 and 1850, the world was transformed. The US War of Independence was the first in a series of political revolutions in which old governments were overthrown and new nations formed. During the Industrial Revolution, people left the countryside and flooded into towns and cities to work in factories. The steam engine and electricity transformed people’s everyday lives, and offered new modes of transportation such as trains and cars.

1756–1763 The Seven Years’ War between Britain and France in Europe spreads to colonies in North America.

1755 A devastating earthquake destroys almost two-thirds of the city of Lisbon, capital of Portugal.

178

1775–1783 Thirteen colonies in North America break away from British rule in the US War of Independence.

1769 James Watt’s invention of a more efficient steam engine paves the way for the Industrial Revolution.

1788 A fleet of ships carrying convicts and their guards lands in Australia to start a British colony.

1789 Peasants march on the Bastille prison in Paris, kickstarting the French Revolution.

1804 Napoleon Bonaparte declares himself Emperor of France, leading to the Napoleonic Wars.

1803 The US doubles its territory when it acquires land from France in the Louisiana Purchase.

The United States

Factory work

Australia

The French Revolution

Thirteen colonies in North America rebelled against British rule, leading to a revolutionary war and the founding of the US (see pages 190–191).

With the development of factories and new technology that powered the Industrial Revolution (see pages 194–195), working lives were transformed.

Britain sends convicted criminals to Australia (see pages 196–197) to establish colonies there. The first colonists land near the site of modern-day Sydney.

The French people rose up against their monarchy. The French Revolution (see pages 200–201) led to a period known as the “Reign of Terror.”

Stephenson’s Rocket George Stephenson’s steam locomotive Rocket won the Rainhill Trials, a competition held in 1829 by the Liverpool and Manchester Railway company in England to find the best locomotive design.

1815 Napoleon is defeated at the Battle of Waterloo.

1831 Many American Indians die in a forced march to new territories known as the Trail of Tears.

1811 A revolution in Venezuela is the first of a series of uprisings that will see the end of Spanish rule in South America.

1861–1865 The issue of slavery causes a civil war in the US between the northern and southern states.

1858 Britain takes direct control over its territories in India.

1884–1885 A meeting between Europe’s most powerful nations marks the start of major colonization in Africa.

1867 Three provinces in North America unite to form the Dominion of Canada within the British Empire.

1893 New Zealand becomes the first country in the world to give women the right to vote.

1903 The Wright Brothers’ historic manned flight begins the history of aviation.

1912 The RMS Titanic sinks with great loss of life on its first and only voyage.

Latin America

US expansion

The US Civil War

Colonial Africa

The people of Central and South America fought for independence from Spain (see pages 206–207) in a series of conflicts that saw the end of Spanish colonial rule.

As the US gained more territory, pioneering settlers moved into the new lands. This led to conflict with American Indian peoples (see pages 214–215).

Southern states attempted to break away from the US over the issue of slavery. A devastating civil war followed (see pages 222–223), ending in victory for the North.

Competing for access to the continent’s resources, a number of European nations took control of most of Africa (see pages 224–225).

179

The Enlightenment In the 17th and 18th centuries, European thinkers began to question traditional religious and political teachings, believing that individuals should draw their own conclusions about society and nature. They conducted scientific experiments and wrote many books and essays, and their ideas directly inspired the American and French Revolutions.

Basic rights

Science of plants

French philosopher René Descartes publishes Discourse on the Method, in which he argues that reason (conscious thought) is the source of all knowledge. His starting point is to doubt everything, even his own existence.

English mathematician Isaac Newton’s Principia Mathematica describes his ideas on the laws of motion and gravity. Newton’s work transforms people’s understanding of the physical universe.

In Two Treatises of Government, English philosopher John Locke argues that people possess certain basic rights such as the right to life, the right to own property, and the right to rebel against an unjust government.

Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus devises a system of plant classification that is still in use today. It means that scientists in different countries can be certain that they are describing the same plants.

1637

1687

1690

1735

Man of letters

Will of the people

Founding father

Wealth of Nations

French writer and philosopher Voltaire (whose real name was François-Marie Arouet) completes his best-known work, Candide—a story that criticizes some of the philosophical and political ideas of his day.

In The Social Contract, French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau challenges traditional views of society by arguing that laws are strong only when they are supported by the will of the people who must live under them.

Thomas Jefferson drafts the Declaration of Independence. His ideas concerning liberty, government, and the rights of individuals are deeply influenced by Locke, Montesquieu, and other Enlightenment thinkers.

Adam Smith publishes The Wealth of Nations, the first modern book on money matters. Smith is a leading figure of the Scottish Enlightenment in Edinburgh at a time when the city is a center of scientific and philosophical debate.

1759

1762

1776

1776

Age of Reason

180

Laws of physics

“Dare to use your own intelligence! This is the battle cry of the Enlightenment.” Immanuel Kant, An Answer to the Question: “What is Enlightenment?,” 1784

Human nature

Useful knowledge

According to Scottish philosopher David Hume in A Treatise of Human Nature, all knowledge comes from the experiences of our senses, instincts, and feelings, not from reason.

Future president Benjamin Franklin founds the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia with the aim of “promoting useful knowledge” and spreading Enlightenment ideas in North America.

1739

1743

Separation of powers

Encyclopedia

In his Spirit of the Laws, Charles de Montesquieu of France argues that the duties of government should be split into different branches to keep a small group of people from gaining too much power.

In France, Denis Diderot compiles the Encyclopedia, a mammoth work attempting to catalog all knowledge. It is 17 books in total and contains thousands of articles by the leading French thinkers of the day.

1748

1751–1765

Idealism

Chemistry

The female citizen

In The Critique of Pure Reason, German thinker Immanuel Kant asks challenging questions about how we think and how we know things. He believes that nobody can say for certain what reality is.

French nobleman and scientist Antoine Lavoisier’s Elements of Chemistry lays the foundations for the modern study of the subject. However, in 1794 he is executed by guillotine during the French Revolution.

Playwright and feminist activist Olympe de Gouges publishes a pamphlet during the French Revolution declaring that women are equal to men and have the same rights of citizenship. She is executed two years later.

In A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, English feminist writer Mary Wollstonecraft calls for educational reform, arguing that if girls were allowed the same education as boys, it would benefit all of society.

1789

1791

1792

1781

The Rights of Woman

181

THE GREAT LISBON EARTHQUAKE The disaster that shakes Europe On the morning of November 1, 1755, the people of Lisbon gathered in the city’s many churches, chapels, and cathedrals to celebrate All Saints’ Day. Meanwhile, deep below the waves of the Atlantic Ocean, an earth-shattering force was about to unleash a series of events that would leave the city devastated.

Unsuspecting citizens

“First we heard a rumble, like the noise of a carriage, it became louder… until it was as loud as the loudest noise of a gun, immediately after that we felt the first tremble.”

The world shakes

Christian Staqueler, in an account of the Great Lisbon Earthquake of 1755

On November 1, 1755, the Roman Catholic population flock to the churches and cathedrals of Lisbon. They are in a celebratory mood as they mark All Saints’ Day in the capital of the kingdom of Portugal. After midnight mass, King Joseph I of Portugal leaves Lisbon with his family to celebrate outside the city. At 9:30 a.m., the morning mass is underway and thousands of people gather in the religious area of Lisbon. Across the city, solemn offerings are presented and ceremonial candles are lit to honor the saints of the Roman Catholic Church. At 9:40 a.m., the first of three earthquakes shakes the city. Buildings crumble as thousands of churchgoers panic in the mayhem. Over the course of the morning, two more earthquakes hit the city. The second, more powerful shock lasts for three and a half minutes, followed less than 10 minutes later by a third. Shaking is felt as far away as North Africa, more than 400 miles (600 km) from Lisbon. The center is built on soft soil, so the quake

instantly destroys the foundations of the city. Large cracks up to 13 ft (4 m) wide tear across the streets and the religious heart of Lisbon collapses, killing thousands of celebrating churchgoers. People flee through the shuddering streets, heading toward the seemingly safe harbor to seek refuge on departing boats.

Waves of destruction The people of Lisbon gather at the harbor and witness a curious marine event. The sea withdraws away from the city, revealing sunken shipwrecks scattered across the exposed seabed. Intrigued, more people gather to watch the strange phenomenon. At around 10:30 a.m., a 16–32 ft (5–10 m) ocean wave called a tsunami suddenly rushes toward the crumbling city. A series of devastating waves arrive with tremendous impact, flooding the harbor and city streets, and drowning the crowd. Overcrowded boats traveling out to sea and up the Tagus River capsize as the ocean surge swells the river, killing even more people.

Fires rage As Lisbon crumbles and floods, the religious candles in churches and homes tumble with the falling debris. Fires start to break out across the city. Broken buildings block the network of narrow streets and prevent the survivors from putting out the growing flames. Soon the fires spread and build into a searing inferno that rages out of control for five days (from November 2–6). More than two-thirds of the city of Lisbon is destroyed.

Stillness returns

On November 6, a stillness falls over the city, the fires burn out, and the survivors of the disaster return to count their dead. Around 60,000 citizens of Lisbon are estimated to have lost their lives in the catastrophe. The earthquake was so strong, it was felt throughout Europe and North Africa. The quake was also destructive in Morocco, where approximately 10,000 people were killed. The church proclaims the disaster “an act of

God” to punish the sinful. However, as Lisbon starts to rebuild, people struggle to understand why so many churchgoing people had suffered, and they can’t explain what their citizens had done to deserve such dramatic punishment. Some scholars across Europe start to question the cause of the devastation and discuss earthquakes as “natural disasters,” which leads to the beginnings of the scientific study of earthquakes, known as seismology.

Toba supervolcano The Toba supervolcano erupts in Sumatra, blasting 672 cubic miles (2,800 cubic km) of rock into the sky and cooling Earth’s climate for up to 10 years. It is the largest explosive volcanic eruption in the last 25 million years.

The Great Dying The worst mass extinction in Earth’s history—the Great Dying— occurs just before the Age of Dinosaurs. Around 95 percent of the planet’s species vanishes over a period of about 80,000 years. The cause is a mystery.

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Mount Vesuvius in Italy erupts, burying the town of Pompeii in ash and killing thousands. Centuries later, the site is rediscovered. Hollows in the ash are filled with plaster, revealing the dead.

A catastrophic earthquake hits the city of Lisbon in Portugal, triggering tsunamis and fires that cause further devastation. The city is almost completely demolished and 60,000 people are killed.

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Dinosaur extinction An asteroid at least 6 miles (10 km) wide hits the Yucatán Peninsula in Central America, blasting rock into the sky and blocking sunlight for years. Nearly all large animals are wiped out, including all types of dinosaur except birds.

Record earthquake

Greek tragedy Much of the Greek island of Thera (modern-day Santorini) is destroyed by a massive volcanic eruption. The city of Akrotiri is buried under ash, and the eruption triggers tsunamis and earthquakes that devastate surrounding islands.

The deadliest earthquake on record hits northern China, killing about 850,000 people. The death toll is very high because the traditional dwellings in the area are artificial caves excavated from loose, dusty soil.

“It takes an earthquake to remind us that we walk on the crust of an unfinished planet.” American journalist Charles Kuralt

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Mount Tambora in Indonesia erupts, expelling vast dust clouds that lower global temperatures by 5.4°F (3°C). Crops fail to grow, causing mass starvation. The following year, Europe and North America experience a “year without summer”, with heavy snow in June, July, and August.

Natural disasters The forces of nature that shape our planet can be spectacular in their destructive power. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, and hurricanes have occurred throughout history, and their unpredictable fury reminds us that we are small and vulnerable. But history also shows that these natural phenomena only rarely clash with human populations on a disastrous scale. Storm surge A massive hurricane hits the village of Coringa on the coast of India. It causes a disastrous storm surge, raising sea levels by 40 ft (12 m) and submerging the land with seawater. Around 300,000 people are killed.

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Loudest eruption Two-thirds of the island of Krakatoa in Indonesia is obliterated by a volcanic eruption that can be heard more than 3,000 miles (4,800 km) away, making it the loudest eruption in recorded history. More than 35,000 people die.

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China floods Heavy rain causes three major rivers to flood 70,000 square miles (182,000 square km) of land in China—an area about the size of Florida. Between 1 million and 4 million people die.

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Famine in China A prolonged drought in northern China leads to three years of failed crops and widespread famine. At least 10 million people die of starvation— about 10 percent of the local population.

San Francisco earthquake More than 80 percent of the city of San Francisco is destroyed by an earthquake that kills 3,000 people and renders most of the city’s population homeless.

1931 1 92 5

1960

Chile earthquake The most powerful earthquake on record hits Chile. It lasts 10 minutes, kills several thousand people, and leaves 2 million homeless. Tsunamis caused by the quake hit Hawaii, Japan, and the Philippines.

2004

Asian tsunami An earthquake on the seabed off the coast of Sumatra sends a series of tsunamis across the Indian Ocean, causing devastation in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, and India. More than 280,000 people are killed.

Tristate tornado The deadliest tornado in US history carves a 151-mile (243-km) path of destruction through the states of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana, killing 695 people and destroying 15,000 homes.

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The story of music Music around the world is as varied as the people who populate it. European music developed during the Middle Ages, but other traditions can be traced to much earlier dates. All forms of music are used to express emotion, to mark religious ceremonies or important events, and, above all, as a source of pleasure.

Japanese court music Officials from Japan travel to China to learn about its culture. The Japanese blend Chinese court music with Korean and other Asian styles to create their own classical orchestral music, gagaku.

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Religious music

Gamelan An Indonesian gamelan orchestra consists of metallophones (tuned metal bars) hit with mallets, hand-played drums, gongs, and xylophones. Gamelan music is played in traditional ceremonies and on formal occasions.

Indian ragas The Indian classical music form, the raga, is first referred to in the Upanishads (ancient texts of Hinduism). Ragas are particular patterns of notes, associated with certain moods and times of day.

1894

Modern music Frenchman Claude Debussy composes Prélude à l’après-midi d’un faune, which is considered to be the start of modern Western music. His works use new kinds of harmony, and create moods and atmospheres, like the art movement known as Impressionism (see page 142).

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1920s – 1930s

Jazz Age America’s new music, jazz, becomes more popular. It is a blend of African and European styles, and features improvisation, where performers each play the music in their own unscripted way.

The rise of Christianity spreads music throughout Europe. Plainsong (a single unaccompanied melody with free rhythm) is sung in church services. Music is learned by ear and is largely performed from memory.

1950s 1934

Umm Kulthum

Rock and Roll

Egyptian Umm Kulthum sings in the first broadcast on Radio Cairo. Her expressive vocal style makes her one of the most popular artists of the Arab world.

Guitar-based popular music, known as “Rock and Roll,” emerges in the US. It makes big stars of performers such as Bill Haley & His Comets, Elvis Presley, and Chuck Berry.

Johann Sebastian Bach German composer Bach is considered one of the greatest of the Baroque era. Music of this period is dramatic and powerful. Bach is the master of “counterpoint,” where different melodies are weaved together.

Chinese opera

Ludwig van Beethoven German composer Beethoven writes his Ninth Symphony, which revolutionizes this type of orchestral piece by including the human voice. Despite being totally deaf, he conducts its first performance. He has to be turned around to see the enthusiastic applause from the audience.

Emperor Xuanzong founds the first opera school in China, called the Pear Garden. Today, opera performers (which include singers, musicians, dancers, and acrobats) are still known as “Children of the Pear Garden.”

Clara Schumann Influential German Clara Schumann is one of the most respected pianists of the Romantic era. She has a 60year career at a time when women rarely perform in public. Works of this period are longer, richer in sound, and full of emotion.

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1685– 1750

The Renaissance

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

Music in the West becomes more complex, with two or more melodies sung or played at the same time (“polyphony”). Developments in instrument-making, and the availability of printed music, allow more people to play music.

Gifted Austrian pianist Mozart begins a concert tour of Europe at the age of six. He becomes one of the leading composers of the Classical period, in which music has a new simplicity. His many works include the operas Don Giovanni, The Marriage of Figaro, and The Magic Flute.

1819– 1896

The stave The stave is a set of five horizontal lines that Western composers use to write their music. Notes are placed either on the lines or in the spaces in between. The position determines how high or low the note is (“pitch”).

2016 2018 1963

“Beatlemania”

Beyoncé

British pop group The Beatles attract huge crowds wherever they go, and 73 million people watch them on The Ed Sullivan Show. Fans often scream and faint at their concerts.

Pop singer Beyoncé’s popularity makes her the highest-paid black musician in history. Her album Lemonade encompasses a range of musical styles, such as reggae, hip hop, and funk. She and the album win many awards.

Multitalented musician British composer Kerry Andrew specializes in works for the voice, experimenting with the different sounds that it can make. She also sings in a folk group and plays in a jazz-influenced band.

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The Imperial Crown From Catherine the Great (1762) until Nicholas II (1896), every czar wore the Imperial Crown, decorated with 4,936 diamonds, at their coronation.

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Birth of the US The American Revolution (1775–1783) came from growing tensions between the residents of the 13 colonies (see pages 160–161) and their British rulers. The colonists were unhappy about British taxes and felt that the government didn’t respect their rights.

Crossing the Delaware On Christmas night, George Washington leads boats across the icy Delaware River to launch a surprise attack on German troops fighting for Britain. Their victory gives the Continental Army new hope.

September 1776

December 1776

Saratoga

Molly Pitcher

A turning point in the Revolutionary War, the second of two Battles of Saratoga sees British forces surrender. France enters the war, and will recognize US independence with an alliance in 1778.

There is a legend that a woman called Molly Pitcher brings water to the American wounded on the battlefield at Monmouth, New Jersey. Mary Ludwig Hays may be the real woman behind this legend.

June 1777

October 1777

April 1778

June 1778

Submarine attack!

Stars and Stripes

Dollar sign

In the one-person submarine Turtle, Sergeant Ezra Lee tries to attach a bomb to the hull of British admiral Richard Howe’s ship in New York Harbor. Lee can’t drill through the ship’s thick hull, and the bomb explodes harmlessly.

The Second Continental Congress adopts the Stars and Stripes flag. Its 13 stripes and 13 stars represent the 13 colonies.

The dollar sign $ begins to appear, possibly as an abbreviation for pesos used in trade with Spain. In 1792, the US will start producing the first dollar coins.

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Founding Fathers

General Washington

Independence

Representatives of the colonies, including George Washington, John and Samuel Adams, and Patrick Henry, meet as the First Continental Congress to set out their complaints about British rule.

The Second Continental Congress names George Washington as Commander of the Continental Army, which will become the foundation of the US army. The first major battle of the war takes place at Bunker Hill.

On July 4, the Second Continental Congress votes to adopt the Declaration of Independence, which announces that the 13 American colonies now see themselves as independent from Britain.

March 1770

September 1774

April 1775

January 1776

June 1775

July 1776

Boston Massacre

Lexington and Concord

“Common Sense”

In Boston, a mob of unruly American colonists attacks British soldiers, who then shoot and kill several people. This inflames anti-British feeling, giving the patriots (who oppose British rule) a boost of support.

The first conflicts of the Revolutionary War take place in the towns of Lexington and Concord. British troops try to capture and destroy the colonists’ supply of weapons, but the colonists have been warned of the attack.

Patriot Thomas Paine writes this anonymously published essay in Philadelphia, arguing in favor of American independence. Every rebel against British rule gets a copy.

Yorktown

American Constitution

New capital

After a stalemate in the north, the battlefront moves south. British forces surrender at Yorktown in Virginia, trapped by French warships off the coast and overpowered by the Continental Army.

Representatives of the 13 American states meet to approve an official Constitution. Called “the supreme law of the land,” the Constitution establishes the government of the United States.

Washington commissions French architect L’Enfant to design a grand city to become the capital of the new nation. The city is named Washington in the president’s honor.

July 1781 James Armistead Lafayette Born a slave, African-American Armistead works as a spy for the Continental Army. He will help them to secure a victory at Yorktown.

October 1781

September 1783

May 1787

January 1789

July 1790

Treaty of Paris

First US president

This treaty formally ends the Revolutionary War and sets the boundaries of the United States. Britain agrees to recognize US independence, and British troops leave for home.

US representatives vote unanimously to elect George Washington as the first US president. In April 1789, he will take his oath in New York City, the capital at the time.

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Crossing the Delaware River On December 25, 1776, George Washington led his troops across the icy Delaware River to deliver a surprise attack on Trenton, New Jersey, captured in this iconic painting. Washington hoped that a quick victory would boost morale within his army following a series of defeats during the Revolutionary War. Despite the dangerous conditions, they crossed successfully and marched into Trenton the following morning, achieving an important victory over the troops fighting for Britain.

Seed sower Jethro Tull’s mechanical seed drill permits large-scale planting in neat rows. This innovation is part of the wider Agricultural Revolution, in which new farming methods and technology are used to increase crop productivity across Europe.

Steam engine Spinning jenny James Hargreaves, a British carpenter and weaver, invents the spinning jenny. The machine spins more than one ball of yarn or thread at a time, making it easier and faster to make cloth.

1701

Scottish engineer James Watt patents a steam engine that is more efficient than existing machines. As well as draining water from mines, Watt’s engine can be used in iron, cotton, and paper mills.

1769

1764

Child labor Britain’s first Factory Act improves conditions for children working in factories. Now, children cannot work until they are nine, and the number of hours older children can work is limited. Children who are 9 to 13 go to school for 2 hours each day.

Trains

Mining

British engineer George Stephenson wins the speed contest on the new Liverpool to Manchester railroad with his steam engine Rocket. In this year, the first 51 miles (82 km) of railroad track in the world is laid down in Britain.

A series of innovations allows coal to be mined on a bigger scale than ever before, providing more fuel for industrial machines and transportation.

1829

1815

1833

The Industrial Revolution One of the most important periods of change in human history was the Industrial Revolution. This was an exciting time of machines and manufacturing that transformed the way people lived and worked. It brought developments in technology that revolutionized farming, factories, and travel. These changes began in Britain in the 1760s and rapidly swept across the globe. Town life 1846

The results of the British census show that, for the first time, more people are living and working in towns than in the countryside.

Sewing machines American inventor Elias Howe patents the modern sewing machine. Now, clothes can be made in large factories, meaning that people no longer have to make clothes by hand.

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1851

Factory towns British industrialist Richard Arkwright builds a village to house workers for his cotton spinning mill in Cromford, England. It eventually includes a school, market, and church.

Canal mania Originally built to transport coal from mines to Manchester, England, the Bridgewater Canal is extended to connect to Liverpool. The success of this long-distance canal kicks off a period of construction known as “canal mania.”

1776 Power loom British inventor Edmund Cartwright builds the first power loom, a weaving machine that is driven by water instead of workers. It is later powered by the new steam engines.

1771

Worker riots Textile laborers attack factories and destroy the machines they fear will replace them.

1811–1816 Safety lamp 1815: The Geordie lamp and the Davy lamp are created. A piece of gauze covers the lamp’s flame, preventing explosions.

1785

Mines Act 1842: Britain’s Mines Act bans women and young children from working underground. Dynamite 1867: Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel invents dynamite, which provides a safer way to blast holes in mountains or the ground rather than simply lighting black powder. Dynamite is important in clearing paths to build things such as roads and railroad tracks.

1875 Worker health Britain’s Public Health Act requires the government to ensure that housing and sewer systems are clean and safe.

Night shift

Power stations

American inventor Thomas Edison creates a light bulb that lasts longer than other designs. Edison’s light bulbs allow factories to continue operating after dark.

The first central electrical power station is completed in Deptford, England, due to increasing demand for power in industrialized central London.

1879

1889

Aboriginal Australia Australian Aboriginal people have one of the oldest continuous cultures on Earth. They were relatively undisturbed by outsiders until Europeans landed in the 17th century.

c.63,000 bce First humans The first inhabitants of Australia arrive by boat across the sea from Southeast Asia. They take advantage of the sea levels being much lower at this time.

45,000 bce Megafauna More than 85 percent of Australian megafauna (huge mammals) have been wiped out in Australia by this time. It is likely that humans prey on them, but a change in climate about 70,000 years ago may also have contributed. These creatures included tortoises as big as a small car and carnivorous kangaroos.

41,000 bce Mungo Man The oldest human remains ever discovered in Australia were of an ancient hunter from the southeast coast who is given the name “Mungo Man.” Mungo Man’s body was carefully laid out, the earliest example of Aboriginal burial traditions.

8000 bce Uluru Aboriginal people start to live around Uluru, a great rock in the Australian desert. The rock dates back 600 million years, and it is revered as a sacred site by Aboriginal people.

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50,000 bce Dreamtime The new settlers are huntergatherers that live in groups with shared culture, beliefs, and art. Their core belief is that the land dates back to creation in an ancient period called the “Dreamtime.”

45,000 bce Rock engraving Aboriginal engravings are found on rocks in Murujuga, featuring ancient pictures and symbols of animals, figures, and ceremonies.

38,000 bce Didgeridoo The didgeridoo is invented in the Northern Territory of Australia. It is believed to be the world’s oldest musical instrument. It is played by blowing into one end of a long tube to produce deep, resonant sounds.

Aboriginal rock art Aboriginal artists have painted images from their lives and mythology on rock for tens of thousands of years. Red pigments are made from iron-rich clays, and are brushed or blown from the mouth to color the rock surface.

Settling in Australia Life for both jailers (on the left) and convicts (on the right) was tough in Australia, especially in the early years of the colony. At the end of a convict’s sentence (which was usually seven years long), they were given a Certificate of Freedom. This meant they were allowed to leave to return to Britain, or stay on the colony and start life anew. Many decided to stay, and as the colony grew, it offered them a better standard of living than they could have hoped for back in Britain.

The colonization of Australia The first Europeans turned Australia into a jail— a place for British convicts to serve time. In the process, Aboriginal inhabitants of the land were mistreated, a legacy that is still felt today.

1606 First Europeans Dutch explorer Willem Janszoon becomes the first European to set foot on Australia. Another Dutchman, Abel Tasman, sails around it in 1642, but mistakes it for another place. Tasman calls the continent “New Holland.” 1768 Cook’s orders On the orders of the British government, James Cook sets sail on his ship Endeavour to explore the area.

1770 Records and maps While the Endeavour is anchored in Botany Bay, Australia, botanist Joseph Banks records new species of plant and animal life. Cook maps eastern Australia for the first time, and claims the land for Britain. 1787 First Fleet Britain decides to send its convicts to Australia, and the First Fleet of 11 ships sets off for the new continent. It lands a year later, near modern-day Sydney. 1789 Deadly diseases European diseases decimate Aboriginal people, who have no immunity to them. Within the first century of settlers arriving, 90 percent of the Aboriginal population will be wiped out by disease and conflict. 1851 Gold rush Life is looking up for the colonists when coal miners discover gold. The population grows and becomes more prosperous. 1976 Land rights The government introduces laws that recognize the Aboriginal system of land ownership, meaning some land is handed back to them.

1788 First contact Conflict erupts between Europeans and Aboriginal people almost from the start. The Aboriginal people will be forced into hard labor in 1810. From 1822 onward, renewed violence will end in hundreds of Aboriginal casualties. 1824 Australia The name New Holland is officially replaced with “Australia.” The country achieves independence from Britain on January 1, 1901.

1905–1968 Stolen children Children of Aboriginal descent are forcibly removed from their families by the government and Church and given to white families. The policy causes untold suffering to Aboriginal people. The government will issue an apology in 2008.

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THE STORMING OF THE BASTILLE A revolution begins During a summer of unrest in 1789, thousands of angry French people crowded around a fortified prison called the Bastille in eastern Paris. The Bastille’s governor held firm in his towering stronghold, but the tense standoff turned into a violent battle that would kick-start the French Revolution and end the King’s reign. A symbol of terror

In 1370, during the bloody conflict known as the Hundred Years’ War, the French king Charles V reinforces Paris’s walled defenses and builds the imposing Bastille to guard the capital’s eastern approach. Over the next 400 years, the towering fortress becomes a prison for high-ranking captives and develops a reputation for torture and terror.

Summer of rebellion

In the summer of 1789, France is in turmoil as taxes rise and food is in short supply. French commoners—people who are not members of the aristocracy— demand political change. In angry opposition to the nearly bankrupt King Louis XVI, they form a revolutionary organization that they call the National Assembly and demand changes to the French constitution.

The search for gunpowder

On July 11, 1789, Louis XVI dismisses the finance minister Jacques Necker, who is seen as sympathetic to the revolutionaries. French troops move into strategic positions around Paris as the monarchy tries to reinforce its grip on power. On July 12, the Bastille receives delivery of 250 barrels of gunpowder. Meanwhile, around Paris, rioters raid armories and weapon stores.

In the early morning of July 14, a mob of commoners loots the Hôtel des Invalides, searching for weapons. Unchallenged, the mob leaves with thousands of rifles but very little gunpowder, rendering the weapons useless. A soldier tells the mob about the 250 barrels of gunpowder delivered to the Bastille, so the mob marches 2.5 miles (4 km) east to the prison.

A firm standoff

In the late morning, the mob surrounds the Bastille and demands gunpowder and weapons. The prison’s governor, the Marquis de Launay, stands firm inside the heavily defended stronghold. The 120 elderly soldiers of the Bastille’s garrison position themselves around the ramparts and prepare to man the 18 cannons. Delegates from the swelling crowd of commoners surrounding the Bastille are turned away by the marquis as the angry governor refuses to listen to the mob’s demands. By early afternoon, with frustration and impatience spreading through the crowd, a small group of raiders gain entry into the prison’s courtyard.

The governor surrenders Fearful of losing his grip on the fortress, the marquis orders his men to fire on the invading force. The gunfire angers the crowd, and more people join the assault,

including defecting French troops. A battle begins as the mob storms the building, bolstered by several cannons. The Marquis de Launay, sensing defeat, threatens to light his stock of gunpowder and blow up the Bastille and most of Paris, but the revolutionaries call his bluff. At 5:00 p.m., as the Bastille’s garrison switches sides, the fortress is lost and the governor surrenders. The Bastille—for years a symbol of tyranny and terror—is liberated by the victorious masses. The few prisoners that were imprisoned are released as the mob loots the armory and gunpowder stores.

Not a rebellion… a revolution The Marquis de Launay is transported to the Hôtel de Ville to stand trial, but en route he is captured by the furious crowd and is beaten and killed. King Louis XVI doesn’t hear of the uprising until later in the day. In August 1789, the National Assembly abolishes feudalism— a social system that gives the aristocracy control over commoners. On September 3, 1791, King Louis XVI is forced to agree to a constitutional monarchy, limiting his powers, but this lasts only a year. In September 1792, France is proclaimed a republic, its power held by the people instead of the monarchy. The transition to a republic does not go smoothly, and France descends into a dark period of further uprisings and violence known as the Reign of Terror.

200

The National Assembly abolishes the ruling classes. Under cover of darkness, King Louis XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette try to escape, but they are seized and imprisoned.

August 26, 1789

King’s capture

High grain prices cause small-scale bread riots in France. About 7,000 armed female protesters march on the Palace of Versailles, calling for bread to feed their hungry families. King Louis XVI gives in to their demands.

June 17, 1789

Bread riots

A mob of angry French rioters attacks the Bastille prison, a medieval fortress in Paris. They release the prisoners and take the prison’s ammunition. This event marks the start of the French Revolution.

Storming of the Bastille

France experienced troubled times during the 18th century, as the divide between the rich rulers and poor peasants grew wider and wider. King Louis XVI was the target of national anger, with riots and marches on the streets. This eventually led to a bloody revolution that saw the country move from more than 1,000 years of royal rule to the formation of a new republic.

The French Revolution

July 14, 1789 October 5, 1789 June 20, 1791

October 1789

The most radical leaders of the French Revolution form the Jacobin Club, led by Maximilien Robespierre. Inspired by the US Declaration of Independence in 1776, this ambitious politician is determined to topple the king and create a new republic.

New radicals

The Declaration of the Rights of Man is written, which states that all men are equal under law. This landmark document becomes an important legacy of the French Revolution.

Equal rights

After King Louis XVI refuses to give the common people power, a group establishes itself as the National Assembly. Its members are angry with the wealthy ruling classes for letting the rest of the population struggle and starve. They start holding regular meetings to plot the king’s downfall.

National Assembly

Slogan of the French Revolution

“Liberty, equality, fraternity!”

Introduced in 1792, the guillotine was used to behead about 17,000 people during the French Revolution. This death machine was named after Doctor Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, who wanted executions to be as quick and painless as possible. Public executions by guillotine became a gruesome form of popular entertainment, drawing huge crowds of spectators.

The guillotine

Military leader Napoleon Bonaparte takes charge of France and becomes First Consul. The French Revolution is over. In 1804, Napoleon crowns himself emperor of France and starts to wage war across Europe.

September 22, 1792

Emperor Napoleon

The Jacobins take over the government, as the former king is executed at the guillotine. Marie Antoinette will be executed nine months later. Many thousands of enemies of the Revolution are also killed.

Reign of Terror

January 21, 1793 November 10, 1799

July 28, 1794

201

As the public become sick of Robespierre’s brutality, his rivals arrest him. He tries to shoot himself but only manages to shatter his lower jaw, and is later executed at the guillotine. His death weakens the power of the Revolution.

Date with death

The government abolishes the monarchy and charges the former king with treason. History is made as France becomes a republic, with a new republican calendar and standard system of measurements.

Republic replacement

Medicine

“First, do no harm.”

Medicine began almost 10,000 years ago, when our prehistoric ancestors practiced crude forms of surgery. Later, the ancient Egyptians used honey in the belief that it could heal wounds, and created artificial body parts from pieces of wood. Today, technological developments and our advanced understanding of the body have redefined medicine and could save the lives of millions of people.

Hippocrates, c.400 bce

Lady with the lamp Florence Nightingale was known as the “lady with the lamp.”

Bloodletting Avicenna Persian scholar Ibn Sina, better known as Avicenna, publishes The Canon of Medicine. This textbook is adopted by many medical schools and remains one of the most important works in the history of medicine.

Hearing heartbeats The first stethoscope is a basic wooden tube created by French doctor René Laënnec to listen to heartbeats and breathing. Two earpieces are later added to the original design.

1025

At this time, it is wrongly thought that having too much blood causes illnesses, so doctors use bloodsucking leeches to remove blood from patients. Hospitals in London use 7 million leeches a year.

1833

Nursing pioneer British nurse Florence Nightingale sees soldiers dying from disease rather than injuries in the military hospitals of the Crimean War. She reforms hospital care, improving survival rates. Nursing becomes a new profession.

1816

1796

1854 1818

1849

400 bce

1859 First vaccination

Father of medicine Hippocrates is the most celebrated physician of ancient Greece. He is the first to suggest that diseases aren’t caused by the supernatural, and stresses the importance of a healthy diet and regular exercise.

202

English doctor Edward Jenner intentionally infects a young boy with the mild disease cowpox to make him immune to the killer disease smallpox. This is the world’s first vaccination, bringing an end to smallpox in 1979.

Blood transfusion When British doctor James Blundell transfers blood from a donor to a patient using a syringe, it is the first successful blood transfusion. Unfortunately, many of the earliest transfusions caused the death of patients.

First female doctor Many medical schools turn Elizabeth Blackwell (1821–1910) down on the basis of her gender, but she eventually graduates from Geneva Medical College as the first woman with a medical degree.

Germ theory Instead of bad air being the cause of infections, French microbiologist Louis Pasteur shows that bacteria and other microscopic germs cause disease. He soon develops vaccinations against the deadly diseases anthrax and rabies.

1860s First antiseptic Surgeon Joseph Lister cleans wounds with carbolic acid, stopping infections.

Surgery A series of groundbreaking moments in the history of surgery has resulted in operations becoming much safer and more comfortable for patients.

1890s Sterilization Infection rates drop when surgeons start boiling their instruments to remove bacteria from them.

1846 Ether Dentist William Morton finds the chemical ether can make a patient lose consciousness.

2014 3D-printed skull Dutch doctors replace half of a patient’s skull with a 3D-printed plastic version.

1967 First heart transplant Surgeon Christiaan Barnard puts the heart of a traffic accident casualty into another patient.

Body scanner

Penicillin Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming is studying bacteria in petri dishes when he spots mold growing there. This mold had killed the surrounding bacteria, and this first antibiotic, known as penicillin, is mass produced by the late 1940s.

The first full body scanner is designed by American professor Raymond Damadian. The magnetic resonance imager (MRI) scanner creates a picture of the body’s internal workings using the principles of magnetism, allowing it to help identify diseases and trouble spots.

1928

1895

Medical X-rays German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen discovers energy waves he calls X-rays that pass through skin but not bone. X-rays are still used to locate broken bones and spot problem areas inside the body.

1977

1965

Battery-powered defibrillators In the 19th century, scientists found that an electric shock can start a stopped heart, leading to the invention of the defibrillator—a device that passes an electric current through the heart. In 1965, British doctor Frank Pantridge designs a defibrillator small enough to fit inside ambulances.

First IVF baby The first baby is born following in vitro fertilization (IVF). England’s Louise Brown is the world’s first “testtube baby,” born from an embryo created in a laboratory dish.

Stem cell advances Scientific research reveals that stem cells can be altered to become different types of cells. This breakthrough provides the potential to transplant stem cells to treat a range of blood and bone diseases.

1978

Cell division Stem cells have the potential to grow into any type of cell.

1999

1981

2015

Nanoscale technology

Growing kidneys

The Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) is invented by German scientists Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer. This invention allows scientists to work at the nanoscale, moving even the tiniest atoms.

Scientists grow a functioning kidney in a laboratory and transplant it into a living organism. Tests show the replacement kidney works successfully in rats and pigs, but further research is needed for humans to receive artificial kidney transplants.

203

The Napoleonic Wars Having become Commander of the French army in 1796, ambitious officer Napoleon Bonaparte led his nation into the French Revolutionary Wars and sought to take control of Europe. Britain and France signed the Peace of Amiens treaty to end the conflict. When France failed to keep the agreement, Britain declared war in 1803, marking the start of the bloody Napoleonic Wars. Emperor of France As the French Republic comes to an end (see page 201), Napoleon announces himself the new emperor at the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris. This historic moment sees Napoleon become the first Frenchman to take the title of emperor for 900 years.

Battle of Austerlitz

Feeding armies

One of Napoleon’s greatest victories occurs on December 2nd at Austerlitz (in the modern-day Czech Republic), where 68,000 French troops beat the combined forces of nearly 90,000 Austrian and Russian troops.

In 1795, Napoleon offers a financial reward for budding inventors to find a way to preserve food for his army. A French confectioner claims the prize in 1809 for his design for sealed bottles. A year later, British merchant Peter Durand patents the tin can.

Battle of Trafalgar At this naval battle off the southwest coast of Spain on October 21st, the French and Spanish navies are beaten by the British navy, led by Admiral Horatio Nelson, who dies while fighting. With the French navy greatly weakened, France can’t invade Britain.

1 81 1 80 1 80

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5

European Empire

1 80 1 80

Much of Europe is now controlled by Napoleon and the French army. After 1,000 years, the Holy Roman Empire (see page 98) finally ends as France conquers Italy and parts of Germany.

5

4

War horses Huge numbers of horses were used in the Napoleonic Wars.

204

0

End of Peninsular War

Napoleon’s life

1814 sees the end of a six-year war, in which the French fought the Spanish, Portuguese, and British for control of the Iberian Peninsula. French defeat at the Battle of Vitoria in 1813 eventually leads to the end of the war.

1 81 1 81

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5 1796 Rising through the ranks, he soon becomes Commander of the French army.

5

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2 1 81

1804 Declaring himself emperor of France, he introduces the Napoleonic Code to give new rights to the poor.

Hundred Days The Hundred Days sees Napoleon and a small army head for Paris to overthrow King Louis XVIII, who had been restored to the throne in 1814.

Bitter end Battle of Waterloo

Invasion of Russia Napoleon launches a disastrous invasion of Russia, so other countries declare war on the now weakened France. Napoleon will be sent into exile in 1814, only to escape and return to France seeking control of Europe again.

Like the wars he waged, Napoleon’s personal life was turbulent and testing. He divorced his first wife and spent two long periods in exile. His ambitions drove him to military success, but ultimately ended in failure.

The Napoleonic Wars finally end at the Battle of Waterloo, near Brussels. Napoleon’s army is beaten by the British and Prussian armies. King Louis XVIII returns to the French throne.

Failed invasions and battles result in Napoleon being sent into exile for a second time. He spends six years imprisoned on the remote island of St. Helena before his death.

1810 After ending his marriage to Joséphine, he marries MarieLouise, daughter of the Austrian emperor. 1815 At the Battle of Waterloo near Brussels, Napoleon is defeated in the last military battle of the Napoleonic Wars.

1769 Napoleon Bonaparte is born on August 15th in Ajaccio, on the island of Corsica off France. 1796 Napoleon marries socialite Joséphine de Beauharnais.

1805 Napoleon is defeated at the Battle of Trafalgar, but achieves one of his greatest victories at Austerlitz. 1811 Napoleon’s son is born on March 20th and named Napoleon II. 1821 Following six years in exile, Napoleon dies on May 5th.

“Death is nothing, but to live defeated and inglorious is to die daily.” Napoleon Bonaparte, letter to General Lauriston, 1804

French cavalry French soldiers, in blue and white uniforms, charge against the British troops.

Battle square British soldiers stand in a tight square formation for defense.

205

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Trains

Early locomotive

Trains have come a long way since early horse-drawn wagons. The first railroads were short links between neighboring towns. Over time, they extended their reach across nations and continents. Whether going deep underground or overhead on monorails, rail is now one of the world’s top modes of transportation.

English inventor Richard Trevithick develops the first steam locomotive. It carries 70 people and nine tons of coal along a railroad track at 5 mph (8 kph).

Wagonways Basic railroads called wagonways are used for the first time in European mines to transport heavy rock and coal. Carts are pulled along wooden rails by horses.

c.1550

1804

Steam demon The speediest steam train ever, the Mallard, reaches a record-breaking 126 mph (203 kph) in England. It will travel nearly 1.5 million miles (2.4 million km) before retiring in 1963.

1938

Bullet train Japan’s Shinkansen train service, nicknamed the bullet train, opens to provide a high-speed link between Tokyo and Osaka. The 332 mile (535 km) trip takes less than four hours thanks to a top speed of 124 mph (200 kph).

1964 208

Epic railroad

The Orient Express

Completed in 1904, Russia’s Trans-Siberian Railway becomes the world’s longest rail system. The route from Moscow to Vladivostok stretches 5,772 miles (9,289 km).

The most famous passenger train in history makes its first direct journey from Paris in France to Istanbul in Turkey. It becomes a byword for luxury travel.

1904

1889

Fastest on wheels At a time when most trains are powered by diesel engines, France’s Train à Grande Vitesse (TGV) service uses electric motors to reach the world’s highest speeds for wheeled trains. Regularly topping 200 mph (320 kph), the TGV is both speedy and silent.

1981

Stephenson’s Rocket

First passenger trains

English engineer Robert Stephenson designs the Rocket, the most advanced steam engine of its day. Able to reach 30 mph (48 kph), it is the first vehicle faster than a horse.

The world’s first public railroad opens in England. The Stockton and Darlington Railway carries passengers in horse-drawn carriages at first, but these are replaced with steam locomotives in 1833.

Intercity link The first intercity railroad opens, connecting Liverpool and Manchester in England. English politician William Huskisson becomes the first person to be killed by a passenger train when he is run over by Stephenson’s Rocket at the opening event.

1825

1830

1829

Fast track

Transcontinental The First Transcontinental Railroad opens in the US, linking the east and west coasts via a 1,777-mile (2,860km) track. A ceremonial 18-karat gold spike is hammered into the track to mark its completion.

The renowned English engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel masterminds the first highspeed railroad—the Great Western—linking London with the west of England and Wales. Trains reach speeds of 60 mph (96 kph) on the network, slashing journey times.

Going underground The world’s first underground rail system opens in London, with wooden carriages pulled by steam engines. It will eventually grow into a 253-mile (408-km) network under the city.

1869

1863

1835–1838

The Channel Tunnel

Sky high

Magnetic magic

The Channel Tunnel opens, connecting the UK and France via three underwater tunnels bored out of chalk under the English Channel. Two tunnels are for trains, while the third is for maintenance and emergencies.

The world’s highest railroad opens. The Qinghai– Tibet Railway runs from Tibet to China and reaches a height of 16,640 ft (5,072 m). Passengers are provided with an oxygen supply to help them breathe in the thin mountain air.

Maglev (magnetic levitation) trains in Japan achieve a record speed of 375 mph (603 kph) during testing. Instead of rolling on wheels, maglev trains float in the air, held off the tracks by powerful electromagnets.

1994

2006

2015 209

1830s

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g the news S am ue l M o rs e inve nts th e te le g ra p h w h ic h tran sm , its lo n g d ista n ce e le ct ri c si g n al s ove r s. H e w ill late r cre ate M o rs e co d e (s us e s patte rn e e pag e 2 2 6 ), w h ic h s of d ots an d re p re se nt le tte rs an d se d as h e s to al o n g te le g ra n d m e ss ag e s p h w ire s.

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54 18

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Newspapers experience a boom in the US, as copies sell in the thousands. The most popular are the so-called penny papers, which are affordable daily newspapers aimed at the general public.

“Extra! Extra! Read all about it!”

News radio

A radio station in Detroit, Michiga n broadcasts what is conside red to be the first radio news show. This triggers more radio stations around the world as another global platform for sharing news develop s.

1920

Newspaper seller’s slogan

Ticker tape From 1870, machines printed financial news on long, narrow strips of paper called ticker tape, named after the distinctive ticking sound made by the print. These machines fell out of use when televisions and computers were invented.

39

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in e s an bus e fi rst A m e r ic r la u n c h e s t h r k v ia o e w n t r e u T The US launches Project he is io n n le te lev r ye a rs late r, b a c SCORE, the first u o w F e s e. s ate ll it s h e s C a b le N is t h e communications satellite. By the li h b ic a e st N ) , w h lev is io n 1960s, communications satellites rk (CN N e t w o r s t 24 - h o u r t e will be able to transmit TV fi k. wo r ld ’s n ews n et wo r broadcasts from major events, such as John F. Kennedy’s funeral, around the world.

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Th e Fi rst Am en dm ent to th e US C on st itu tio n (s ee page 19 1) gu arante es th e fre ed om of th e pres s. Th is is th e rig ht to re po rt news or sh are op in io ns w ith ou t be in g ce ns ored by th e gove rn m en t.

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The first news broadcasts are from town criers. These people ring bells and call out “Hear ye” to share the news. This role becomes essential, because most people at the time can’t read.

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o re Fre n c h inve n d eve lo p s th to r C la u d e C h a p p e e fo r m ili ta ry se m a p h o re syste m c o m m u n ic a ti o n s. Th is is a lin e of h ill h in g e d a rm to p towe rs w it h s th into d iffe re n at c a n b e m ove d t p o si ti o n s to “s p e ll” wo rd s a n d lette rs .

ting Ge G u te r m a n i n p re n b t y p e e rg d v e n t o r J s s ev i s o prin es t hanne tin pr p a m i n t i n g c h g p re s s . h e m o v s able phle This eap t e t h e n s c a n b e r, a n d m m a ke s e ews u at a s e d to a n s ra p i d s p re ra t e a d .

Pigeon s, which were first domesticated by the ancient Egypt ians, are used to carry messages home from Baghd ad in moder n-day Iraq. This helps speed up long-d istanc e comm unicat ions.

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As empires expanded and civilizations spread, people tried all kinds of methods of spreading news, from messengers on horseback to town criers. The invention of the printing press made printing much cheaper and gave people national news in daily newspapers before both television and radio brought the news directly into their homes. Thanks to today’s technology, such as communications satellites, cable TV, and the internet, global news is now accessible 24 hours a day, seven days a week.

211

Engineering

Chand Baori

Building large and complex structures such as bridges, tunnels, and skyscrapers would be impossible without engineers. An engineer uses scientific knowledge and mathematical calculations to ensure that buildings can support their own immense weight, keeping them stable and safe. As history demonstrates, well-engineered buildings can stay standing for centuries.

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London Underground The world’s first underground subway system opens in London. Wooden carriages hauled by steam engines carry 38,000 passengers on the first day of operation and 9.5 million passengers in the first year.

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The US frontier Huge numbers of Americans and Europeans pushed westward in North America looking for opportunity, adventure, and land. They were explorers, trappers, traders, and ordinary people. The frontier ideas of individualism and self-reliance are still influential today.

1739 Rocky Mountains Two French fur traders, Pierre and Paul Mallet, make an epic journey into the American interior. They are the first Europeans to see the Rocky Mountains. 1769 Spanish settlements Junipero Serra, a Spanish priest and monk, establishes a string of settlements along the Californian coast, starting at San Diego. 1803 Louisiana Purchase President Jefferson buys the Louisiana Territory for 15 million dollars from France, doubling the size of the US.

1803 Lewis and Clark Meriwether Lewis and William Clark lead an expedition across America’s rivers and waterways. Their task is to map the Louisiana Territory. They will later be joined by Sacagawea, an American Indian woman who will act as an interpreter and guide.

1830s Oregon Trail The very first wagon trains of settlers make their way along what will be known as the Oregon Trail, an overland route across the Rocky Mountains to the west.

1845 Manifest destiny “Manifest destiny,” an influential concept that claims that Americans are the “chosen ones” and it is their right to take over the entire continent, is first used.

1848 Gold Rush After the discovery of gold in a stream behind a lumber mill, fortune seekers from across the globe head to California. Some 80,000 will make the trek in the first year of the Gold Rush.

1858 Transportation The first nonstop stagecoach from St. Louis arrives in Los Angeles. The journey takes 20 days. In 1860, the Pony Express mail service completes its first delivery from St. Louis to Sacramento in 11 days. 1866 Outlaws Jesse and Frank James start their criminal career with a bank robbery. The history of the “Wild West” will be full of deadly outlaws and their run-ins with the law.

214

Frontier towns 1869 Transcontinental railroad The first cross-country railroad is completed at Promontory Summit, Utah. It joins Sacramento, California to Council Bluffs, Iowa (itself connected to the east-coast train lines).

As more and more people moved westward, frontier towns such as Tonopah, Nevada (above) spring up all over the west. Land is cheap, but settlers have to work hard, often with very little help from the government. Criminal gangs and American Indians loot trains, farms, and towns, and getting basic supplies is always difficult.

The Battle of Little Bighorn Sitting Bull has a vision of soldiers falling into the native camps “like grasshoppers from the sky,” which inspires Lakota Sioux, Arapaho, and Cheyenne warriors. In 1876, they inflict a major defeat on the US army, led by Colonel George Custer, by the Little Bighorn River, Montana.

Frontier wars Almost from the start, relations between European settlers in the US and American Indian tribes were difficult. Both cultural differences and the settlers’ insatiable demand for food and land caused conflict. The settlers eventually seized the land, but only after a series of bloody wars and massacres.

1622 Powhatan Confederacy The Powhatan American Indians, frustrated by English demands for food and land, launch a surprise attack, killing almost 350 settlers. Warfare will continue for a decade. 1610 Pocahontas Pocahontas, a Powhatan tribeswoman, helps bring peace between her people and the English settlers. She marries an Englishman in 1614 and travels to London, England in 1616.

1636 Pequot War Settlers kill 500 members of the Pequot tribe in Connecticut, in retaliation for Pequot attacks. The tribe is practically wiped out.

1680 Pueblo Revolt Spanish authorities in New Mexico try to stamp out the Pueblo people’s religion. The Pueblos rebel, and successfully plunder the Spanish settlements. 1831 Trail of Tears American Indians suffer from exposure, starvation, and disease as they are forced into their new territories. Their long walk will be known as the “Trail of Tears.” 1862 Sioux Uprising Broken treaties, hunger, and stress cause the Sioux people to rebel against settlers. They will be defeated, and 38 of them hanged.

1869 Sitting Bull The bravery of Sitting Bull leads him to become the leader of the Lakota Sioux people. Other native peoples, such as the Arapaho and Cheyenne, soon follow him.

1830 Removal Act President Andrew Jackson orders native tribes to move to unsettled land west of the Mississippi River. A few tribes go peacefully to the specially designated “Indian territory” across the Mississippi, but many resist. 1864 Sand Creek Massacre Tensions between settlers and American Indians in Colorado’s plains rise as people pour into the area in search of gold. The situation explodes when the US army and settlers massacre hundreds of tribespeople in Sand Creek, Colorado.

1890 Wounded Knee The massacre of Sioux people in South Dakota marks the end of the long war between tribes and settlers. More than 150 Sioux men, women, and children are killed, with many more injured.

215

The 1848 Revolutions

BEFORE After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, the Congress of Vienna creates the German Confederation and brings harsh rule back to Europe. The conservative monarchies of Austria, Russia, and Prussia form the Holy Alliance, making more liberal rule less likely.

Ja nu ar y 18 48 Januar y 12

Uprising in Sicily Independent state

ily, wh ich has bee n united with Fol low ing an upr isin g in Sic e 181 5, Sic ilian nob les set up sinc les the Kin gdo m of Nap te will end in May 1849, an ind epe nde nt state. Thi s sta and Nap les ord ers his ily Sic of wh en Kin g Ferdin and nin g him the nick nam e “Re ship s to bom b the isla nd, ear Bom b”). ing (“K ba” Bom

In 1848, a wave of revolutions spread across the cities of Europe. Demands varied. In France, protestors called for economic reform and the right to vote. In Prussia and Germany, they wanted a democratic constitution (set of laws) and German unification. In parts of the Austrian Habsburg Empire, they demanded independence. Their governments promised reforms, but very little changed. April 1848 April 10

Fe bru ary 184 8

Ma rch 184 8

Po lit ic al up ro ar

GE RM AN AN D AU ST RI AN RI OT S

February 21 Communist Manifesto

The Com mun ist Man ifesto is publ ished in Lond on. Written in Germ an by Karl Marx and Fried rich Enge ls, it calls for a revo lutio n of the work ing class . As copi es spre ad throu gh Euro pe, it enco urag es angr y peop le to prote st agai nst their gove rnme nts.

February 22–23 REVOLUTION IN PARIS

Ange r over the bann ing of polit ical prote st bring s the peop le of Paris out on the streets. Sold iers fire shots into the crowd, killin g 52. The riote rs over throw King Loui s Philip pe and decl are the Seco nd Fren ch Repu blic.

March 13–22 Prince Metternich resigns

Riots in Vienn a force Princ e Mette rnich , Chan cellor of Austr ia and a hated symb ol of repre ssion , to resign . Hung ary dema nds indep ende nce and is granted its own parlia ment . Street fightin g breaks out in Milan , capital of Austr ian-ru led Italy.

RALLY IN LONDON Votes for all men Britain’s working-class Chartist movement organizes a mass meeting in London to demand that all men (but not women) should be given the right to vote. Fearing revolution, the government calls in the army, but the protest is peaceful.

May 18 4

8

May 18 March 18–19 CALLS FOR GERMAN UNITY

Protestors in the German Confederat ion (an organization of separate German states) call for German national unity. After two days of street fighting in Berlin, the king of Prussia agrees to create a national assembly and promises a new constitution, but protests continue.

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Revolution in Europe ATLANTIC The 1848 Revolutions broke out OCEAN across a wide area of Europe, from Berlin in northern Germany to Palermo in Sicily. This map shows the location of the revolutions that are mentioned on this timeline.

BE LG IU M

December 1848

PRUSSIA

Berlin

POLAND

Paris

FRANCE

A NEW ERA BEGINS

Vienna Budapest

AUSTRIAN EMPIRE

Milan

December 2 Emperor resigns

PAPAL STATES

SPAIN

OTTOMAN EMPIRE

Rome

Although never a target of the protestors, the weak Austrian emperor Ferdinand I is persuaded to resign in favor of his 18-year-old nephew Franz Joseph I, who will reign for the next 68 years.

KEY

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Mediterranea

n Sea

KINGDOM OF THE TWO SICILIES Palermo

GREECE

June 1848

N o ve m b e r 18 4 8

June 23–26

November 15

MORE TRO UBLE I N PA R I S J u n e D ay s

upris

ing In Fra n ce, th e n ew g ove rn th e S e co n d m e nt of Re N at io n a l Wo p ub lic cl o se s th e rksh o p s th at set up in M a we re rc fo r th e un e m h to p rovi d e wo rk p loye d . Th o of wo rke rs ta us a n d s ke p rote st n ow to th e st re ets in a kn Days up ri si n ow n as th e Ju n e g . Th e a rmy p uts a b ru ta l sto p to th e up ri si n g .

Oc tob er 184 8 October 6–31

OC TO BE R RE VO LU TI ON Street battles in Vienna Ange r at the Austr ian gove rnme nt’s attem pts to crush reform s in Hung ary leads to street battle s in Vienn a, forcin g the empe ror to flee the city. After the army has retaken control, the leade rs of the upris ing are execu ted.

R O M E U P R IS IN G Minister assassinat

ed

Th e Po pe fle es Ro me after a mi nister of the Pa pa l State s (th e pa rts of Ita ly rul ed by the Po pe ) is as sass inated . Prote ste rs fill the streets de ma nd ing so cia l reform an d a de mo cratic for m of gove rnm ent. Th is wi ll lea sh or t-li ve d Ro ma n Re d to the pu bli c of Fe bru ary 18 49.

December 10 FRENCH PRESIDENT In the first national election ever held in France, Prince Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon I, is elected president of the Republic. He promises to restore order and prosperity to the country.

AFTER In April 1849, the Frankfurt parliament offers Frederick William I of Prussia the imperial crown of Germany. He refuses, saying he would not accept “a crown from the gutter.” His decision dashes all hope of liberal reform in Germany.

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Biology

c.3

Our interest in the natural world began more than 40,000 years ago, when prehistoric people first depicted animals on cave walls. Over time, zoology, the study of animals, and botany, the study of plants, combined to form a new science known as biology. More recently, the focus of biology has shifted to studying ourselves, with geneticists looking inside the human body to uncover the secrets of life.

Cave paintings Evidence of prehistoric humans’ interest in animals is seen in paintings on the walls at the Cave of El Castillo (Cave of the Castle) in Spain. These artworks are the first sophisticated representation of wildlife found anywhere in the world.

Covered meat

Uncovered meat

16 74 Magnifying microscope

Circle of life Italian biologist Francesco Redi (1626–1697) disproves the idea of “spontaneous generation”—that living things, such as flies and fleas, appear from dust or rotting meat. He realizes that flies lay their eggs on uncovered meat, which later hatch into maggots.

Dutch textile merchant Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) makes a breakthrough in microbiology when he further develops the microscope by improving its magnification. This allows him to see tiny organisms in water.

1668

c.33

0 bc

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Work of art This bison is among the Cave of El Castillo’s many animal paintings, alongside ibex, mammoths, and goats.

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Classifying nature First microscope

15 43

95

Dutch eyewear-maker Zacharias Janssen (1580–1638) invents the first compound microscope. The invention helps scientists across all areas of biology study their subjects in much greater detail.

15

The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 bce) travels across Greece and Turkey to study wildlife. He organizes plants and animals into categories and names different species. This classification of nature is the start of zoology and botany.

Human dissection Flemish scientist Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) dissects (cuts up) human bodies and creates detailed drawings of the blood and nervous systems. The publication of his De Humani Corporis Fabrica revolutionizes the field of anatomy, the study of the human body.

218

Pumping blood By studying the human heart, Vesalius learned how blood flows around the body.

Latin names Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) devises taxonomy, a way of grouping together related plant and animal species. In his book Systema Naturae, he uses Latin names for genus (subfamily) and species.

Two names Canis lupus (gray wolf) and Canis familiaris (domestic dog) are examples of the two-name Latin system still used today.

1838

Mobile genetics

3

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19

American scientist Barbara McClintock (1902–1992) studies corn and discovers jumping genes (transposons)—genes that can change position in the DNA of cells. By studying these jumping genes, she finds that genes can be switched on or off, changing the characteristics of the corn.

“One general law leading to the advancement of all organic beings—namely, multiply, vary, let the strongest live and the weakest die.”

DNA discovery Using pus-covered bandages from a nearby surgical clinic, Swiss chemist Friedrich Miescher (1844–1895) is the first to identify what he calls “nuclein” inside human white blood cells. Nuclein carries a person’s genetic information. Today, it is better known as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

Charles Darwin On the Origin of Species, 1859

69

Double helix DNA is made up of two twisted strands.

Genetics

96

Austrian monk Gregor Mendel (1822– 1884) grows pea plants in his monastery garden and discovers that the plants pass on characteristics like color and size in a simple pattern to their young. This leads to the discovery of genes.

19

18

The secret of life The work of scientists Franklin, Crick, and Watson combines to create the first DNA model. Called “the secret of life,” their model reveals the chemical information existing inside all living creatures.

6

Sharing DNA To create Dolly, DNA from one sheep was placed into another sheep’s egg cell.

1 86

Darwin’s finches Finches have evolved different-shaped beaks to suit the food available where they live.

Dolly the Sheep Natural selection English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809– 1882) publishes On the Origin of Species, his theory of “natural selection.” After studying wildlife in South America, he realizes animals with the best characteristics for the environment survive and pass these traits on to their young.

History is made when scientists successfully clone an animal for the first time by duplicating a version of its DNA. The newborn lamb, named Dolly, is an exact copy of another sheep.

20

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59

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Cell theory German botanist Matthias Schleiden (1804–1881) discovers that all plants are made of cells. A year later, German zoologist Theodor Schwann (1810–1882) realizes all animals are also made of cells.

Human Genome Project

Command center The nucleus controls the cell and contains all of its genetic information .

The Human Genome Project is completed, showcasing the sequence of human DNA. A huge team of international scientists had mapped and identified the role of more than 20,000 genes that make up human DNA.

219

Trade beginnings

American colony

Sugar and slaves

A group of London merchants establish the East India Company to profit from the valuable trade in silk and spices with India and the East Indies (modern-day Southeast Asia).

After an earlier settlement in modern-day North Carolina fails to thrive, the British occupy the land of the native Powhatan people to establish Jamestown (in modernday Virginia) as their first permanent colony in North America.

Britain captures the Caribbean island of Jamaica from the Spanish. As exports of sugar from the island increase rapidly, British traders begin forcibly transporting slaves from Africa to work on the sugar plantations there (see page 164).

1600

The British Empire The origins of the British Empire were in trade with the East, but its ambition soon spread to other areas of the world. Over time, its mission expanded beyond commerce to total political control, eventually making it the largest empire in history. But the empire went into decline after World War I, when it became clear that people were no longer willing to accept British rule.

1607

1655

New Zealand Britain takes control of New Zealand with the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi. It guarantees the native Maori people possession of their lands in return for giving up their rights of sovereignty.

1857–1858 Direct rule in India

1840

After suppressing a revolt by sepoys in the armies of the East India Company, Britain rules India directly. Queen Victoria becomes Empress of India in 1870, although she never visits.

South African War The Boers, settlers of Dutch descent, fight a bitter war against Britain for control of lands in Transvaal. Their defeat will lead to the creation of the Union of South Africa in 1910.

The birth of Canada

African expansion

Three British provinces in North America—New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Canada (modern-day Ontario and Quebec)—unite to form a single country, the Dominion of Canada, within the British Empire.

The empire grows as it takes huge expanses of territory in Africa from native peoples, including Egypt and Sudan in the north, Gambia and Ghana in the west, and most of mineralrich southern Africa.

1867

1880–1900

1899–1902

Power in India The East India Company builds Fort William in Calcutta (modern-day Kolkata). From there, it uses its private army of Indian soldiers, called “sepoys,” to take control of much of India.

1702

American independence

War in the colonies The Seven Years’ War in Europe turns global as fighting spreads to overseas colonies. At the end of the war, Britain gains New France (modern-day Canada) and other French territories.

The 13 colonies in North America revolt against British rule. They declare their independence on July 4, leading to the creation of the United States of America.

1756–1763

1776 Colony in Australia Twenty years after Captain Cook claimed Australia for Britain, a fleet arrives at Port Jackson (modern-day Sydney). Prisoner labor is used to establish a colony there. By the mid1800s, there are nearly 400,000 settlers in Australia.

Foothold in Africa

Singapore British colonialist Sir Stamford Raffles founds a trading port on the island of Singapore in Southeast Asia, on the main trade route between India and China. It becomes a British colony in 1824.

The British seize the Cape of Good Hope on the southern tip of Africa, which has been a Dutch colony since 1652. They will lose it again, but win it back in 1806, when it then becomes the first British presence in Africa.

1819

1795

Irish uprising After hundreds of years of British rule in Ireland, nationalists rebel in Dublin on Easter in 1916. The “Easter Rising” is quickly put down, but the fight against British rule continues. The Irish Free State, forerunner of the Republic of Ireland, will be founded in 1922.

1788

Partition of India World War I settlements In the peace treaties concluding World War I, Britain gains control over former German colonies in Africa and in the Middle East following the division of the Ottoman Empire.

India wins independence as two new countries: the mainly Hindu India, and Pakistan, which is mainly Muslim. The Partition of India, as it is known, forces millions of people to migrate, leading to riots and thousands of deaths.

AFTER 1947

1916

Nearly all Britain’s colonies and possessions became independent states between 1957 and 1980. Many joined the Commonwealth of Nations, a voluntary association of states with previous ties to the empire. Others operated as individual republics.

1919–1920 221

The American Civil War

Belle Boyd Confederate spy Belle Boyd—one of several female spies in the Civil War—passes on information that helps Confederate general Stonewall Jackson’s army recapture Front Royal, Virginia.

Years of conflict over slavery and the rights of individual states eventually led to the American Civil War. From 1861 to 1865, the country was torn apart. More than 625,000 American soldiers died in the Civil War. This was more than the combined total of American soldiers that had died in all other wars to date.

Gettysburg This Pennsylvania battle is a turning point, finally ending Confederate hopes of invading the Union states. It is the bloodiest multiday conflict in the history of the Civil War.

First Battle of Bull Run

Confederate states To protect their economy based on slave labor (see pages 164–165), seven southern states leave the United States to create their own Confederate government, with Jefferson Davis as president. The Confederates see themselves as a separate nation. A month later, Abraham Lincoln will become US president.

The Union is defeated in this Virginian battle (also known as the Battle of Manassas). Washington D. C. is fortified for protection. In August 1862, the Confederates will win the Second Battle of Bull Run.

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The war begins Lincoln refuses to hand over all military property in Confederate states to their new government. Confederate forces attack Fort Sumter in South Carolina, and the Civil War begins. Four more states leave the United States (known as the Union during the Civil War).

Napoleon Field Gun Named after the French emperor Napoleon III, this type of cannon was widely used in the Civil War. It could hit a target up to 5,250 ft (1,600 m) away and fire a cannonball at 1,440 ft (439 m) per second.

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Antietam The bloodiest single day of the war sees some 23,000 soldiers dead, wounded, or missing. After a Union victory, Lincoln introduces the Emancipation Proclamation, an order to free every slave in the Confederate states.

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Gettysburg Address

Surrender meeting

President Lincoln delivers his most famous speech at the dedication of the Soldiers’ National Cemetery in Gettysburg. He declares that the Civil War is a struggle for freedom and equality.

Conscription and protests

Escape

There are riots in New York City because the Union started conscription in March, and people feel the system for drafting men into fighting favors the rich. The first AfricanAmerican regiment of soldiers sees combat.

More than 100 captive Union officers escape from a Confederate prison after weeks of digging a tunnel. Around half are recaptured, but the others make their way back north.

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After an attempt to break through Union lines fails, Confederate commander Robert E. Lee meets Union general Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House to sign a document of surrender.

February 1864

November 1864

March to the Sea Union general William Sherman and his troops march from the captured city of Atlanta to the port of Savannah, bringing devastation to Confederate states.

Submarine warfare Confederate submarine CSS Hunley torpedoes and sinks the Union warship USS Housatonic. The Hunley is the first combat submarine to sink an enemy warship, but it doesn’t survive the attack and also sinks.

April 1865

May 1865

Lincoln assassinated At a play in Washington, D. C., President Lincoln is shot by John Wilkes Booth, an actor hoping to avenge the Confederates. Lincoln dies the next morning.

War is over The rest of the Confederate armies give up the fight. Both sides agree on surrender terms as new president Andrew Johnson declares the official end of the Civil War.

Key battles From the first shots to the final surrender, the American Civil War divided the country. No side seemed to have a clear advantage at the outset. The Union had more soldiers and money, but the Confederates had cunning and strategic generals.

March 1862 Monitor vs. Virginia This clash between two ironclad ships has plenty of flying cannonballs, but no victor.

December 1862 Fredericksburg This is a low point for the Union as the Confederate army defeats them.

April 1862 Shiloh The battle blazes for two days in Tennessee before a Union victory.

April – May 1863 Chancellorsville The outnumbered Confederate army achieves a strategic win.

May – July 1863 Vicksburg The Union army is victorious as it surrounds this Mississippi town.

May 1864 Spotsylvania Neither side claims victory in this brutal Virginia fight.

July 1864 Atlanta General Sherman and his troops seize control of this Georgia city.

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This map shows the domination of European powers in Africa by the end of the 19th century. France and Britain colonized the largest areas of land across the continent. Only Liberia and Ethiopia held onto their independence.

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In 1870, although the slave trade (see pages 164–165) had ravaged Africa for centuries, European powers controlled just 10 percent of the continent. The next 30 years saw European nations compete for control of Africa. By 1900, they had seized 90 percent of African land from local communities. It would take more than half a century for these countries to gain their independence.

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Telecommunications Communication has come a long way since ancient times, when messages were sent by smoke signals, beacons, and carrier pigeons. With the invention of the telegraph, telephone, radio, and the internet, people could send messages and converse across countries, and even continents, for the first time. The television transported scenes into the homes of millions, shaping the way people spend their free time today. Electrical messaging

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Tesla’s transmission

The invention of an electrical telegraph by British inventors William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone makes long-distance messages possible. Electric signals are sent along wires attached to needle pointers, which can be made to point to specific letters and numbers on a plate to form a message. The messages sent by telegraphs are known as telegrams.

A new era of cross-continent communication dawns when the very first telegraph cable is laid across the Atlantic Ocean. By 1902, cables have been placed under the Pacific Ocean too, allowing telegrams to be sent all around the globe.

Serbian-American engineer Nikola Tesla is the first person to produce and transmit radio waves. He is also the brains behind many inventions, including the electric motors that power modern machines.

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American inventor Samuel Morse creates a code to interpret the electric signals being sent along telegraph wires. It uses different lengths of signal to create patterns of dots and dashes, which represent different letters and numbers.

German scientist Heinrich Hertz is the first person to discover radio waves. He recognizes the potential of these electromagnetic waves to transfer information.

Marconi’s message

Telephone call Telegraph system French inventor Claude Chappe devises a system of movable wooden arms, the position of which indicates letters or numbers. These arms are placed on tall masts so they can be seen from far away, allowing messages to be passed from town to town. He calls this new system a telegraph, which means “to write at a distance.”

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Scottish inventor Alexander Graham Bell experiments with sending sounds through telegraph wires. These can be heard at the other end, in an early version of a telephone call. The first call is from Bell to his assistant Thomas Watson, when he says: “Mr. Watson— come here—I want to see you.”

Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi sets up his own company to investigate radio waves. He devises a wireless telegraph, which uses radio waves to send Morse code through the air without any wires.

“In the new era, thought itself will be transmitted by radio.” Guglielmo Marconi, New York Times, 1931

Early email

Color vision The first color television is unveiled in 1928, but it is not until the 1950s that color televisions become affordable. People begin to enjoy programs in their own homes.

Voice for radio Canadian-American inventor Reginald Fessenden is the first human voice to be broadcast via radio. This sparks the construction of radio transmitters to create an exciting new form of entertainment that many people can enjoy, gathered around their radios in their own homes.

Electronic messaging across computers, called email, begins when US computer programmer Ray Tomlinson sends the first ever email—a test message to himself. Email will become one of the world’s most popular forms of communication.

World Wide Web British scientist Tim BernersLee creates the World Wide Web—a way of connecting internet resources across the world. This informationsharing system of linked webpages can be accessed from any computer.

First mobile phone The first mobile telephone is launched, but it is too large and expensive for people to use. The first mobile phone call is made on a phone that weighs a massive 2.4 lbs (1.1 kg) and takes 10 hours to charge.

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1925 Space communications The first communications satellite is Telstar 1, sent into orbit by the US. This satellite receives radio signals from Earth and bounces them back to receivers on the ground, resulting in the transmission of television and telephone communications.

Heavyweight phone The DynaTAC becomes the world’s first commercial mobile phone. Nicknamed “The Brick,” this device goes on the market for a jawdropping $4,000 (equivalent to around $9,000 today), which few can afford. The battery lasts only half an hour.

Digital TV Mechanical television British inventor John Logie Baird creates the world’s first mechanical television, which uses rotating discs to generate a video signal. He constructs this from random objects including knitting needles, cookie tins, and a tea chest. It is unveiled in London in 1926.

Analog television technology, which manipulates electrical signals to create sound and color, is replaced by plasma screens and digital technology, which provides high-definition images and a huge choice of channels. The first digital television broadcasts take place in the early 2000s.

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Imagine a world without photos—no selfies, no breaking news shots, and no way of recording the most important events in our lives. When photography began in the early 1800s, it changed the way people saw and understood the world around them. Less than 200 years later, technological advances have seen cameras shrink from large, bulky boxes into tiny digital devices that we carry around in our smartphones.

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6

0

Animetrics New software is able to convert 2D images into a simulated 3D model of a person’s face in seconds. The headshot can be quickly matched against a database of millions of faces.

07 0 2 2017 231

Aircraft and aviation In the 15th century, Italian artist Leonardo da Vinci sketched designs for flying machines, which he based on his studies of birds. For the next four centuries, inventors continued to set their sights on the skies, but it was not until the Wright Brothers’ historic flight at the dawn of the 20th century that true aviation history began.

Up, up, and away! French brothers Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier send a sheep, a chicken, and a duck soaring in a hot air balloon. The Montgolfiers’ balloon will later be used for the first human flight.

1783

Battle of Britain During World War II, members of the British Royal Air Force (RAF), flying in Supermarine Spitfires, fight in the skies with the German Luftwaffe in close-range aerial combats that become known as “dogfights.”

Modern helicopter The first practical helicopter is invented by Russian-American Igor Sikorsky, and takes to the skies. Like modern helicopters, the design features a main rotor on top and a tail rotor for balance.

Jet power The world’s first fully functioning jet-powered aircraft, the Heinkel He 178, takes off for the first time. The design, by German Hans von Ohain, reaches speeds of 400 mph (644 kph).

1940

1939

Commercial jet

Twin-rotor choppers

After three years of testing, the world’s first commercial jet airliner takes off. De Havilland DH106 Comet can carry more people around the world more quickly than any other aircraft.

American aircraft innovator Frank Piasecki invents twin-rotor helicopters, including the famous Chinook design. These are used to carry soldiers into conflict and take part in rescue missions.

1939

Jump Jet The Harrier Jump Jet takes flight, becoming the world’s first vertical takeoff plane. This style of takeoff suits fast exits from battle zones.

1949 232

1960s

1966

Hydrogen airship The world’s first powered airship is built by Frenchman Jules Henri Gifford. The hydrogen-filled, steam-powered design completes a controlled journey of 16.8 miles (27 km).

Crossing the Channel

Wright flight

French inventor Louis Blériot becomes the first person to cross the English Channel by air. It takes him 37 minutes in his Blériot XI.

Orville Wright completes the world’s first powered, heavier-than-air flight. It lasts for 12 seconds and he covers a distance of 120 ft (36.5 m).

1852

1903

1909

Around the world Jet engine British engineer Frank Whittle designs plans for the jet engine. He patents the design and makes this first working version seven years later.

Four Douglas World Cruisers, specially designed aircraft operated by the US Army Air Service, become the first planes to circumnavigate the Earth. The around-the-world trip covers 27,500 miles (44,250 km) in about six months.

Atlantic crossing The first nonstop flight across the Atlantic Ocean is completed by British aviators John Alcock and Arthur Brown, who cross 1,890 miles (3,040 km) in less than 16 hours.

1930

1924

1919

Aboard the Airbus

Pilotless drones

The world’s biggest and heaviest passenger aircraft, the Airbus A380, takes to the skies for the first time. Powered by four Rolls-Royce engines, it has room for up to 853 passengers.

With no pilot on board, flying machines known as drones are controlled by a handheld remote control. Today, there is widespread use of drones for military purposes, surveillance, and recreation.

2005

21st century

Supersonic flight British-French turbojet-powered supersonic passenger jet airliner Concorde takes off for the first time. Traveling at up to twice the speed of sound, it remains in service until 2003.

1969

233

Getting the vote

1789

1 789

The ancient Greeks first held elections 2,500 years ago. In the 17th century, the idea of representative government emerged—that the public should vote for, and be represented by, elected officials. Having the right to vote is known as “suffrage,” but who should be given this right? In many countries, the “electorate” (those with the right to vote) has expanded “All men…” The US Constitution, which sets out over time, as people have fought for their America’s laws, comes into effect. The decision about who can and can’t vote is left voices to be heard. to the states. Most states only give the right to vote to white males who own property.

New democracies When the Soviet Union collapses, a new wave of democracy sweeps across Europe. With more people going to the polls, teams of international observers begin to monitor elections to keep them fair.

1989

The Rights of Man The Declaration of the Rights of Man, written by France’s National Constituent Assembly, states that all men, not just those with money and property, can vote and participate in lawmaking.

1965

Civil rights progress

1994

The hard-earned 1965 Voting Rights Act is a result of the US Civil Rights Movement campaigning for change. It outlaws discrimination against African-American voters, such as turning people away on election day, or making voters pass literacy tests.

2008

Freedom Day South Africa holds its first election with universal suffrage, meaning all people regardless of their race now have the right to vote. Previously, South Africa’s system of racial separation, known as “apartheid,” meant that black people could not vote.

234

Young voters Austria becomes the first country in the European Union to open the vote to 16-year-olds. A handful of countries allow 16-year-olds to vote, but in most states, voters are 18 or over.

1893

1870

1832

Compulsory voting Belgium starts the world’s first compulsory voting system, but only men can vote. Those over the age of 18 must pay a fine if they don’t vote, and if they fail to four times in a row, they lose the right. Women’s votes will become compulsory in 1949.

Great Reform Bill After widespread rioting in Britain about unfair elections, parliament tries to make voting fairer. This Bill expands the number of property-owning men allowed to vote and standardizes voting practices across the country.

The 15th Amendment Although slavery was abolished in the US in 1865, African-Americans in the southern states still can’t vote. The 15th Amendment makes it illegal to deny the vote based on skin color, but AfricanAmerican voters still face discrimination.

1903–1918

1920

The 19th Amendment After decades of struggle and protest, US women get the vote. Campaigners like Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, and Alice Paul have worked for years to improve opportunities for women in education and employment, as well as for the right to vote.

1893

Campaigning for change Emmeline Pankhurst founds the Women’s Social and Political Union in England. Its motto, “Deeds, not words,” is a call to action for suffragettes, who use shock tactics to win support. In 1918, women over 30 get the right to vote; in 1928, women of all ages do.

2015

Female pioneers After a long equal rights campaign, New Zealand becomes the first country to give women the vote. Australia follows in 1902, then women gain the right to vote in Scandinavia, Canada, and parts of Europe.

“Voting is the most precious right of every citizen, and we have a moral obligation to ensure the integrity of our voting process.” Hillary Rodham Clinton

Progress for women More than 200 years after women in New Zealand won the right to vote, women in Saudi Arabia are allowed to vote in local elections for the first time.

235

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e

Physics

Static electricity The ancient Greeks discover static electricity, meaning electricity that does not move. Thales of Miletus (624–546 bce) realizes that rubbing amber (fossilized tree resin) with fur attracts lightweight objects, including hair, straw, and grass.

For more than 2,500 years, scientists have studied the behavior of matter, forces, and energy in an attempt to understand how the Universe functions. As theories were proposed over the centuries, the principles of physics were established. We know more today about the Universe than the ancient physicists did, but there is still much more to discover. Sun The Sun produces rays of light, which travel through space and hit objects on Earth.

15

Earthly rotation

c. 400 bce

Original optics Light Light from the Sun bounces off the flower and is reflected into the eye.

At a time when Earth was thought to be at the center of the Universe, Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) uses mathematical models to show that the Universe is heliocentric, meaning the Sun is at the center and the planets rotate around it.

10

00

E U R E K A!

Arab physicist Alhazen ibn al-Haytham (965–1040) disproves the idea that the human eye can see because it creates its own light. Instead, he realizes that sunlight bounces off an object and is reflected into the eye, allowing us to see it.

14

c.

Tiny particles

16

04

Greek philosopher Democritus (460–370 bce) theorizes that the Universe is made up of tiny moving particles, although he can’t prove this. He calls these particles atoms, but his ideas have little to do with what we know as atoms today.

Galileo’s theory

c.

Galileo (1564–1642) experiments with gravity and motion. He drops cannonballs of different sizes from great heights and shows that they all hit the ground at the same time. He also theorizes about inertia —the idea that objects will keep going or stay still unless a force is acting on them.

25

0

b

ce

236

Eureka! Greek mathematician Archimedes (287– 212 bce) has a “Eureka!” (“I’ve found it!”) moment while in the bathtub. Water spills out as he climbs in, leading him to formulate the principle of buoyancy, which explains why objects float in water.

Falling objects Objects made from the same material are pulled down by gravity at the same rate.

Gravitational waves Electromagnetism

5

61

2 01

18

Scottish scientist James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) realizes that electricity and magnetism are not separate phenomena, but a single force, and that light is a type of electromagnetic radiation. His work leads to the discovery of radio waves, which are used in many types of technology.

First predicted by Einstein, gravitational waves are detected in space. These tiny ripples reveal information about the Universe, including black holes and the Big Bang.

18 95

The “God particle”

The particle that gives all matter its mass is discovered by scientists. The Higgs boson, nicknamed the “God particle,” advances unified field theory, which aims to explain particles and forces.

Electric experiment

X-ray invention German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen (1845–1923) produces the first X-ray after discovering electromagnetic radiation can penetrate solid objects. X-rays revolutionize medical science, allowing doctors to see inside living bodies.

8

New elements Polonium was named after Poland, where Marie Curie was born.

1 89

Schrödinger’s Cat As part of a theoretical experiment, Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961) imagines a cat inside a box with radioactive material. As the cat can’t be seen, it could be alive or dead, or both. Similarly, scientists can’t know what a particle is doing until they observe it.

84

Po Radium (226)

168

7

Famous equation Einstein realized that you can calculate the energy an object produces if you multiply its mass by the speed of light.

05

English physicist Isaac Newton (1643–1727) publishes his landmark work Principia Mathematica, in which he explores motion and explains how the force of gravity holds the Universe together.

19

Newton’s gravity

Latin origins Radium is the Latin word for “ray.”

Space and time German scientist Albert Einstein (1879–1955) proposes that gravity exists because heavy objects bend space and time. Imagine placing Earth onto a sheet of stretchy rubber, making it dip in the middle. When the Moon rolls past, it gets stuck circling Earth and can’t climb out of the dip.

Expanding Universe Belgian physics professor Georges Lemaître (1894–1966) proposes his theory that the Universe is expanding and later suggests that the Universe began with an explosion, the so-called Big Bang.

27

Ra

1935

88

Radioactive elements Pierre and Marie Curie discover the radioactive elements polonium and radium. Radioactive elements are very unstable, as their atoms can split apart all by themselves. When an atom splits, it gives off radioactivity, either as tiny chunks of particle or waves of energy.

19

Polonium (209)

2012

1752

During a thunderstorm, American politician and experimenter Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) flies a kite attached to a metal key. When a lightning strike causes sparks to fly from the key, it proves that lightning is a type of electricity.

237

Cars

Steam machine

Wheels first got vehicles moving in about 3500 bce, allowing horse-drawn carts to carry heavy loads. But it took more than 5,000 years for the first horseless carriages to hit the road. The real breakthrough was the invention of the internal combustion engine, which allowed cars to run on gas. Mass production followed, forever changing the way we travel.

French engineer Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot builds the first automobile, a three-wheeled cart powered by steam from a wood burner at the front. It can reach speeds of 2 mph (3 kph) and has to be refilled with wood every 15 minutes.

1769 Tin Lizzie American businessman Henry Ford starts the Ford Motor Company. He sells 1,700 cars in the first year. Five years later, the Model-T, nicknamed Tin Lizzie, is produced at Ford’s factory in Detroit and becomes the world’s first affordable car.

Traffic lights The first electric traffic lights are installed in Cleveland, Ohio, with red and green indicating stop and go.

Assembly line Ford introduces a moving assembly line to his factories, using a conveyor belt to haul parts past teams of workers. A Model T can now be assembled in 90 minutes. By 1927, 15 million will have been sold.

1914

1913

1903

First diesel car The German car manufacturer Mercedes-Benz brings the first diesel passenger car to the market. The 260-D model is displayed at an automobile show in Berlin and soon has a year-long waiting list of buyers.

Seatbelt safety

1936 238

Robot workers

The modern seatbelt is introduced by Swedish manufacturer Volvo. In the interest of safety, Volvo makes the patent open so that all car manufacturers can use it.

The first industrial robot is used in car construction. Unimate is a robotic arm that welds parts and stacks metal on the production line at US car giant General Motors.

1959

1961

Explosive design English engineer Samuel Brown patents an internal combustion engine fueled by hydrogen. He mounts the engine on a cart and drives it up a hill in Greenwich, London, in front of a watching crowd.

Combustion engine Swiss inventor Francois Isaac de Rivaz devises an engine that uses an explosion of hydrogen inside a cylinder to push a piston out. He uses the engine to drive a carriage a short distance. It is the world’s first automobile driven by an internal combustion engine.

1807

Four-step cycle German engineer Nikolaus Otto invents the four-stroke engine, an internal combustion engine that cycles through four steps: sucking in fuel; compressing it; burning it; and expelling it.

1876

1823 First road trip German engineer Karl Benz masterminds the Motorwagen, the first commercial gas-powered automobile. In 1888, his wife, Bertha, takes it on the world’s first longdistance automobile journey, acting as both driver and mechanic.

Inflatable tires Scottish inventor John Boyd Dunlop invents pneumatic (inflatable) rubber tires for his 10-year-old son’s tricycle. Inflatable tires are later adapted for automobiles and become a huge success.

Speed demon The first speeding ticket is given in England to Walter Arnold for driving at 8 mph (13 kph)—more than four times the speed limit of 2 mph (3 kph).

1896

1888

1885 Driverless cars Nevada becomes the first US state to allow driverless cars to be tested on public roads. Driverless cars use a computer assisted by a GPS unit, laser sensors, cameras, and other devices to find their way without human intervention.

Sporty numbers Italian car manufacturer Lamborghini is established by Ferruccio Lamborghini. Luxury sports cars become popular on both sides of the Atlantic, but only a small number of people can afford them.

Hybrid cars The Toyota Prius—one of the earliest and most successful hybrid cars—goes on sale. It is powered by both a gas engine and an electric motor, improving efficiency and reducing toxic emissions. Within the next decade, more than one million hybrid cars will be sold.

1963

1997

2011 239

Great adventures The 20th century saw a burst of daring feats and great adventures, as pioneering explorers pushed against the limits of human capabilities. Although scientific and technological advances helped to make these endeavors possible, their ultimate success was due to the inspiring courage and resilience of extraordinary men and women.

Lift off

American Orville Wright flies the first powered plane, which he designed with his brother Wilbur Wright. The fabric-covered aircraft looks like a box kite with propellers. It flies for just 12 seconds, 20 ft (6 m) above a beach in North Carolina.

1903 Everest conquered

Pioneering flight

Edmund Hillary from New Zealand and Tenzing Norgay from Nepal successfully climb Mount Everest, the world’s highest mountain, for the first time. It is a dangerous and grueling mission to reach the top of the world.

American Charles Lindbergh flies solo across the Atlantic Ocean nonstop in his plane the Spirit of St. Louis. Traveling for almost 34 hours, from New York to Paris, his achievement makes him famous around the world.

Mysterious disappearance

Amelia Earhart takes off from Oakland Airport, California, on the first leg of her journey to become the first woman to circumnavigate the globe. En route, she goes missing, and the mystery surrounding her disappearance becomes legend.

1953

1937

1927

Deep down

240

Jacques Piccard from Switzerland and Don Walsh from the US, in their submarine Trieste, are the first humans to reach Challenger Deep, the oceans’ deepest-known point. Their 6.8-mile (11km) descent into the Mariana Trench in the western Pacific Ocean takes almost five hours. They spend just 20 minutes on the ocean floor.

American Geraldine “Jerrie” Mock, famous for her pearls and hairstyle, becomes the first woman to fly solo around the world. The flight takes 29 days with 21 stopovers.

1960

1964

The Flying Housewife

Historic swim

At the age of 64, endurance swimmer Diana Nyad becomes the first person to swim the 60 mile (96.5 km) distance from the Bahamas to Florida, encountering crocodiles, jellyfish, and sharks along the way.

1979

Claiming the North Pole American Robert E. Peary and his team claim to be the first people to reach the North Pole. Later, experts argue that Peary missed the pole by about 30 miles (48 km), but it remains an incredible story of courage.

Finding the way

Sailing in a small fishing boat, famous Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen and his crew find a way through the Northwest Passage, the waterway that links the Arctic and Pacific Oceans.

1903–1906

1908–1909

Into the jungle

British geographer Colonel Percy Fawcett disappears in Brazil while looking for a lost city that he calls “Z.” The unsolved mystery of his disappearance makes international headlines.

Endurance

British explorer Ernest Shackleton, in his ship Endurance, aims to cross Antarctica via the South Pole. Disaster strikes when Endurance gets stuck in ice. The crew survives thanks to Shackleton’s extraordinary leadership skills.

1914–1917

1925

Race to the South Pole

Five years after navigating the Northwest Passage, Roald Amundsen sets off on a race against Britain’s Robert F. Scott to reach the South Pole. Amundsen gets there first and Scott dies on the harrowing journey home.

1911

Walking the Amazon

British explorer Ed Stafford walks the length of the Amazon River, 6,000 miles (9,656 km) in total from its source to the ocean. The journey takes him two and a half years.

2010

The highest jump

American Alan Eustace travels to the edge of space in a balloon. He detaches himself from the balloon and plummets to earth, opening his parachute shortly before landing. His descent to Earth is faster than the speed of sound and takes 15 minutes.

2014 241

THE VOYAGE OF R.M.S. TITANIC The “unsinkable” sinks On April 10, 1912, the colossal steamship R.M.S. Titanic set sail on its maiden voyage from Southampton, England. With around 2,200 passengers and crew on board, the world’s biggest ship cut through the waters of the Atlantic Ocean, heading for New York City. The journey was expected to take seven days, but the Titanic, which had been proclaimed “unsinkable,” was unknowingly sailing toward a catastrophic finale.

Harboring bad omens

At the beginning of April 1912, before R.M.S. Titanic’s scheduled departure for its first ever voyage, the crew reports a fire in a coal bunker below deck. Unable to put out the blaze, and after the Titanic is judged seaworthy, the crew is ordered to control the flames until the ship reaches New York. On April 10, as the Titanic leaves Southampton, suction created by the power of the propellers causes the mooring chains of the docked S.S. City of New York to break. It drifts into a collision course with the Titanic. The quick thinking of Captain Smith and the use of several tugboats help prevent a disastrous departure.

Icy warnings The Titanic makes good time across the Atlantic Ocean. On April 12, the crew receives the first ice warning from R.M.S. Empress of Britain. More warnings then come through in the evening from the French ship, S.S. la Touraine. Two days later, on April 14, more iceberg warnings are received. At 11:00 a.m., Captain Smith cancels the first scheduled lifeboat drill. At 2:00 p.m., he tells the managing director of White Star Line, the owner of the Titanic, Joseph Bruce Ismay, who is on board for the celebratory maiden voyage, about the ice warnings.

A moonless night

On the evening of April 14, the temperature drops close to freezing. More warnings come in, but Captain Smith is dining with the passengers, so doesn’t receive the news until later. At 11:00 p.m., a final warning comes in from the S.S. Californian, informing the Titanic crew it has decided to stop sailing for the evening due to the ice. The message is ignored by the operator, who is busy transmitting passenger messages to shore. At 11:40 p.m., on a moonless, calm night, the lookout fails to spot an iceberg until it is only 1,000 yds (900 m) away. First Officer William Murdoch orders the engines into reverse and the

“There is no danger that Titanic will sink. The boat is unsinkable.” Phillip Franklin, White Star Line vice-president

Titanic steers sharply to avoid collision. Traveling at 23 mph (40 kph), the Titanic strikes the iceberg, which tears through the starboard (right) side of its hull, destroying five watertight compartments.

Women and children first

Just before midnight on April 14, Captain Smith and the ship’s designer, Thomas Andrews, investigate the damage. Andrews predicts the unimaginable—the Titanic will sink in a couple of hours. At midnight, Titanic’s first distress call is missed by the S.S. Californian, which is only 5 miles (8 km) away. At 12:20 a.m. on April 15, Captain Smith orders use of the lifeboats. The Titanic is fitted with 20 lifeboats, which altogether only have room for around 1,200 people, so the crew prioritizes evacuating women and children. Five minutes later, R.M.S. Carpathia responds to the distress call, but it is 67 miles (107 km) away. In the chaos of the evacuation, the lifeboats launch with only 705 on board. At 2:20 a.m., the “unsinkable” Titanic sinks below the icy waters, with more than 1,500 passengers and crew following it to a watery grave.

Rescue and relief

At 4:10 a.m., the Carpathia arrives and at around 8:00 a.m., with all 705 survivors on board, it sets sail for New York, arriving three days later on April 18. Survivors disembark amid crowds of eagerly awaiting family, friends, and photographers who followed the story that shook the world.

Lessons learned After several months of news reports, theories, and an official inquiry, the disaster is deemed an accident. The high speed that the colossal steamship was traveling at is judged as “standard practice,” removing blame from Captain Smith and his crew. After the inquiry, it is recommended that on future voyages, the number of places on board lifeboats should match the number of passengers on board.

243

THE MODERN WORLD After 1914

The Modern World In the first half of the 20th century, tensions between international powers exploded into two world wars. European nations were weakened by the cost and destruction of these conflicts, and lost control of their overseas empires. In the late 20th century, new rivalries sparked new conflicts. At the same time, technology leapt forward. Humans ventured into space, while the invention of computers led to a digital age that continues in the 21st century.

1924 Joseph Stalin becomes leader of the ruling Communist Party in the Soviet Union.

1914–1918 War between the powers of Europe spreads to become World War I.

1933 Adolf Hitler comes to power in Germany.

1929 The crash of the US stock market on Wall Street leads to the Great Depression.

1936–1939 Spain descends into civil war between the government and nationalists led by General Franco.

1939 World War II breaks out when Hitler invades Poland.

1945 The US drops atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, ending World War II.

1941 The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor brings the US into World War II.

1948 The United Nations creates the nation of Israel in Palestine as a homeland for the Jews.

1948 The Soviet Union blocks transportation links to West Berlin, starting the Cold War.

1949 Mao Zedong proclaims the communist People’s Republic of China.

World War I

The Soviet Union

World War II

Decolonization

Beginning in Europe, World War I (see pages 248–249) quickly spread to colonies around the world. The war cost the lives of 20 million people.

A communist revolution in Russia transformed the country into the Soviet Union (see pages 254–255). Under Joseph Stalin, its people faced great hardships.

When Adolf Hitler of Germany invaded Poland, World War II (see pages 258–267) engulfed the globe. Fifty million people died as a result of the war.

After World War II, many colonies in Africa and Asia successfully fought for independence from Europe (see pages 268–269).

246

The Difference Engine As early as the 19th century, English mathematician and inventor Charles Babbage had designed a machine to perform complicated mathematical computations. But it wasn’t until the late 20th century that the age of computers really got underway. Babbage was never able to construct a finished machine— the one shown here was made in the 1980s from his original designs for the Difference Engine #2.

1950 North Korea invades South Korea, starting the Korean War.

1955 African-American Rosa Parks refuses to give up her seat on a bus for a white man, igniting the US Civil Rights Movement.

1964 The US formally enters the Vietnam War on the side of the South.

1989 English engineer Tim Berners-Lee creates the World Wide Web.

1962 The Cold War threatens to get hot when the Soviet Union and the US clash over Soviet missiles installed in Cuba.

1994 Nelson Mandela is elected the first black president of South Africa.

1989 The fall of the Berlin Wall marks the start of the collapse of the Soviet Union.

2001 Terrorist attacks on sites in the US lead to the start of the “War on Terror.”

2004 A tsunami (tidal wave) devastates Southeast Asia.

2017 President Robert Mugabe of Zimbabwe is forced to resign.

The Middle East

The Cold War

Civil Rights

The digital age

The interference of the West in the affairs of the Middle East (see pages 272–273) led to decades of conflict in the region. It remains unresolved to this day.

The US and the Soviet Union were on different sides of a “Cold War” (see pages 282–283) that was played out in other nations around the world.

More than a century after the end of slavery in the US, African-Americans sought legal equality through the Civil Rights Movement (see pages 290–291).

The development of computers, the internet, and smartphones (see pages 298–299) has led to a digital age where information is readily available.

247

World War I At the turn of the 20th century in Europe, nations competed for land and power, with each country forming both military alliances and hostile rivalries. The stage was set for war. Between 1914 and 1918, Russia, France, and Britain fought against Austria-Hungary and Germany, with both sides using devastating new weaponry and tactics. World War I became one of the bloodiest conflicts in history. Gallipoli Campaign Western Front War erupts

BEFORE In 1882, Germany, Italy, and AustriaHungary sign a Triple Alliance. Germany’s rising power alarms Britain and Russia. In 1907, Britain joins a Triple Entente with Russia and France.

Austria-Hungary blames Serbia for the Archduke’s assassination and declares war. Russia sends troops to defend Serbia, leading Germany to declare war on Russia. Country after country rushes to defend their allies and declare war on their rivals.

The German advance across western Europe is halted by Allied troops. Both sides dig trenches, which form the Western Front, a line that eventually stretches from the Swiss border to the North Sea, 400 miles (645 km).

September 1914

1 August 1914

June 28, 1914

August 26– 30, 1914

Battle of Tannenberg Assassination The heir to the AustroHungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, is assassinated on a visit to Sarajevo, Bosnia. The killer, Gavrilo Princip, is a nationalist who believes that Bosnia should be part of Serbia, not Austria-Hungary.

248

On the Eastern Front (Central and Eastern Europe), the Russian army invades Germany, but they suffer a crushing defeat. The Russian commander commits suicide and the army never really recovers.

War in the skies World War I is the first major war during which aircraft are used. From early 1915, planes are used for reconnaissance and taking photographs. They are later deployed to drop bombs and fight against one another in the skies.

January 1915

December 25, 1914 The Christmas Truce By the end of 1914, both sides on the Western Front have reached a stalemate. A spontaneous truce is called at Christmas. Soldiers enter "No Man’s Land" between the trenches to play soccer, sing carols, and swap simple gifts.

British, French, Australian, and New Zealand troops mount a huge attack on the Gallipoli Peninsula hoping to capture Turkey, but the plan is a failure. Two hundred thousand Allied troops are killed or wounded.

April 25, 1915– January 9, 1916

April 22, 1915

Poison gas The German army unleashes a new weapon—poisonous chlorine gas. The first attack takes place near the Belgian city of Ypres. Five thousand soldiers die as gas seeps into the trenches, and 10,000 are injured.

Trench warfare Each side dug a line of trenches along the Western Front. The trenches ranged from small dugouts to sophisticated structures, but living conditions were horrendous. The open space between, known as “No Man’s Land,” was criss-crossed in miles of barbed wire. New weapons, such as machine guns, caused huge numbers of casualties.

Peace Passchendaele Battle of Jutland The only naval battle of the war is fought off the Jutland Peninsula in Denmark between the British and German navies. There are heavy losses on both sides. The German navy withdraws for the duration of the war.

U-boats Germany announces it will use U-boats (submarines), to fire torpedoes at unarmed British merchant ships carrying vital supplies of food and ammunition.

July 1– November 18, 1916

April 6, 1917

USA joins the war Battle of Verdun The war in France is at a stalemate. The Germans plan a major offensive in the French city of Verdun. More than 700,000 men lose their lives in the ensuing battle, which is the longest of the war.

Battle of the Somme Tanks are used, and British soldiers climb out of their trenches toward the German line in a “big push.” They are met with unrelenting artillery fire. More than 19,000 British troops die on the opening day.

November 11, 1918

July 31– November 6, 1917

January 31, 1917

May 31–June 1, 1916

February 21– December 16, 1916

After relentless heavy rainfall, this four-month battle campaign near Ypres sees 600,000 casualties. The Allies gain only 5 miles (8 km) of land. The battle is remembered for the horrendous conditions and terrible death toll.

With US troops now helping the Allies, the Germans are overwhelmed. Both sides agree to end the war. The fighting stops officially on the 11th hour of the 11th month. Red poppies go on to be symbols of the tragic waste of World War I.

America has stayed neutral, but the German sinking of the passenger liner Lusitania on May 7, 1915, killing Americans on board, changes public opinion. When America discovers that Germany is urging Mexico to start a war with them, America joins the Allies.

AFTER March 21, 1918

The Spring Offensive After Russia surrenders, Germany focuses on a series of huge attacks against the Allied forces, which now include US soldiers. The Germans hope to achieve a quick victory, but fail in their attempted “knockout blow.”

World War I costs the lives of almost 10 million military personnel and six million civilians. The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, ends the Austro-Hungarian and Turkish Empires. It also leaves Germany humiliated and angry. Despite all leaders promising peace, by 1939 the world is at war again.

249

The 1920s After the horrors of World War I, the Roaring Twenties proved to be a more carefree and hopeful time, especially in the US. An economic boom there meant people had money to enjoy the finer things in life—from cars to culture. Music, writing, and fashion all buzzed with new ideas, and the powerful artistic medium of film began.

1920 Prohibition Alcohol is prohibited in the US. Criminal gangs grow rich by illegally making and selling their own alcohol and running bars called speakeasies. The ban on alcohol will be lifted in 1933.

1922 The Jazz Age Originating with AfricanAmericans in New Orleans, jazz music really takes off, so much so that the 1920s become known as the Jazz Age. Jazz music features strong rhythms and improvisation. 1923 The Charleston The Charleston (see page 172)— named after a song composed in 1923—is the dance of the era. The dance is deemed indecent, which makes young people love it even more! 1926 Birth of television The Scottish inventor John Logie Baird demonstrates the first television images to scientists in London. Television is born. 1927 The Jazz Singer The first film to feature synchronized sound is The Jazz Singer. The film is a hit, and signals the beginning of the end of the silent era of movies.

1929 Academy Awards The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) hand out the first awards (soon to be called “Oscars”) in a small ceremony in Hollywood, California.

250

1925 Boom! Factories that had increased production for World War I switch to making consumer goods. People buy cars and luxury items on credit (paying for the item in installments). The economy experiences a boom as a result.

1927 Ford Model T The last Model T cars roll out of the Ford Motor Company’s factories. 16.5 million units were sold worldwide. Its success is down to mass production and the economic boom. 1929 The Wall Street Crash Billions of dollars are wiped off the value of the American stock market on Wall Street, as the economic boom turned into a bust. The Wall Street Crash will prove to be the biggest economic catastrophe in US history.

Flappers The flapper craze takes Western fashion for women by storm. Flappers wear shorter skirts, bob their hair, and listen to jazz—all things that are seen as rebellious by older generations.

The 1930s The Wall Street Crash spelled the end of the Roaring Twenties. The 1930s were to prove a decade of hardship and conflict like no other before, with dire consequences for almost every part of the world. There were some positive aspects, however. The “New Deal” got the US economy back on track, and comic books entertained people all over the world. 1930 Great Depression The Wall Street Crash causes American businesses to stop investing and importing things from Europe. This loss of business triggers the worldwide Great Depression. Millions lose their jobs, homes, and ability to pay for basic things, such as food. Europe in particular is hit hard.

1933 Hitler and fascism Adolf Hitler comes to power in Germany with promises to fix the country’s economic woes. Hitler and his Nazi party are fascists: an extreme right-wing ideology that emphasizes nationalism and has contempt for democracy and minorities. 1934 Dust Bowl Years of severe drought across the prairies of the US and Canada cause winds to whip up the light, dry soil into dust storms, destroying agriculture and worsening the problems of the Great Depression.

Lining up for food The economic crash leaves millions without homes, jobs, or both, and forces many to rely on charity to survive. Long lines gather at bakeries and soup kitchens in order to receive free food. Many dress professionally to give the impression to neighbors that they are off to work for the day.

1931 Crisis in Europe Germany and Austria’s economies are thrown into chaos. Austria’s largest commercial bank collapses in May, and this triggers a financial panic throughout Europe. In Germany, people burn worthless banknotes for warmth.

1932 Hoovervilles More than two million Americans are homeless, and 25 percent are out of work. Slums—mockingly called “Hoovervilles” after President Herbert Hoover, who fails to help—start popping up. 1933 New Deal Franklin D. Roosevelt becomes US president, and promises a “New Deal” for the American people. This includes jobs and a huge social welfare package to help ease the Great Depression.

1936 Spanish Civil War Spanish nationalists, led by General Francisco Franco, rebel. Pro-government supporters unite against the nationalists, and a civil war breaks out. It will last for three years before the nationalists win. 1939 World War II World War II begins when Hitler invades Poland, forcing Britain and France to declare war on Germany.

1938 Superheroes rise! The “Golden Age of Comic Books” begins when superheroes such as Superman and Wonder Woman appear for the first time.

251

Archaeology

Uncovering Pompeii In Italy, workers begin digging at Pompeii, a town buried under a volcanic eruption in 79 ce. Their aim is to find works of art. Later, Pompeii’s streets, shops, houses, and temples are revealed, as well as the empty spaces left by the decayed corpses of those buried in ash during the eruption.

Archaeology is the study of the past through the objects, buildings, and human remains left by those who have lived before us. Around the world, archaeologists have uncovered entire buried towns, discovered the existence of long forgotten civilizations, and unearthed spectacular treasures. Their findings have revealed fascinating details, not just about the lives of past kings and queens, but of everyday people, too.

1748

1797 Decoding hieroglyphics

Layers of history

Jean-François Champollion uses the Rosetta Stone, discovered in Egypt in 1799, to decipher Egyptian hieroglyphics. The stone has the same inscription in Greek, hieroglyphics, and demotic (an everyday Egyptian script).

Historian John Frere uses stratigraphy for the first time to describe a Stone Age site at Hoxne in Suffolk, UK. Stratigraphy, the study of layers, is based on the idea that the lowest layers are the oldest.

1822 The city of Uruk

Assyrian treasures

Three-age system

In modern-day Iraq, Henry Layard discovers and excavates the Assyrian palaces of Nimrud and Nineveh. He finds statues of gods that have human heads, bird wings, and the bodies of lions or bulls.

Danish historian Christian Thomsen divides prehistory into the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages, based on human tool use. He reasons that the earliest tools used by humans were initially made of stone, then bronze, and later, iron.

1849–1854

The Gokstad ship

Royal tombs

252

1871–1890

Seeking to find the truth behind the Greek legends of the Trojan War, German Heinrich Schliemann excavates Troy, Mycenae, and Tiryns. In the royal tombs of Mycenae, he discovers beautiful gold masks.

1845–1851

Norwegian historian Nicolay Nicolayson excavates the 9th century Gokstad ship burial. The ship is 76 ft (23 m) long and perfectly preserved. It holds the body of a Viking ruler.

1880

1836

William Loftus discovers and excavates the Sumerian city of Uruk in modern-day southern Iraq. Uruk, founded in around 4500 bce, is the world’s oldest city.

AFTER Archaeological discoveries are still being made. In 1991, hikers in the Alps find the 5,300-year-old frozen body of Ötzi the Iceman. In 2016, the oldest handwritten tablets ever found in Britain are discovered. They reveal notes written by the Romans.

The Terracotta Army

Tollund Man

Chinese archaeologists begin excavating pits holding an army of 7,000 life-size terracotta warriors. They were buried in 210 bce to protect the tomb of China’s First Emperor.

Two brothers cutting turf at Tollund in Denmark discover the perfectly preserved body of a man, who died 2,000 years ago. His stomach held his last meal, a gruel of barley and chamomile.

1974

1950 Inscribed bones

The Chinese archaeologist Li Ji excavates Anyang, capital of the Shang Dynasty, which ruled northern China from 1600–1046 bce. He finds many thousands of animal bones, inscribed with the earliest known Chinese writing.

King Pacal’s tomb In Palenque, Mexico, Alberto Ruz Lhuillier digs beneath a Mayan pyramid temple and discovers the tomb of King Pacal (ruled 615–683). Pacal’s skeleton was found wearing a beautiful jade mosaic mask.

1948–1952

1928–1937 The Indus civilization 1927

In India, John Marshall excavates the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. He reveals the existence of the forgotten Indus, or Harappan, civilization, which flourished here from 2500–1800 bce.

Tombs of Ur Leonard Woolley excavates the Sumerian royal tombs at Ur, dating from c.2750– 2400 bce. Among the treasures is a golden and lapis lazuli (a semiprecious blue stone) statue of a goat.

Machu Picchu

1921–1922 1911

1922 Pharaoh’s tomb Howard Carter discovers the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun, the only unrobbed Egyptian royal burial ever found. The king was buried in 1327 bce wearing a solid gold mask, inlaid with blue glass.

Sequence dating In Egypt, Flinders Petrie develops sequence dating. By documenting changing styles of pottery from the cemetery at Naqada, he is able to work out the dates of those graves.

1880–1901

The Minoan Civilization Arthur Evans excavates the Palace of Knossos in Crete, Greece, revealing a previously unknown Bronze Age civilization, at its height from 2000–1500 bce. He calls it Minoan, after Minos, the legendary king of Crete.

1900–1905

In the Andes of Peru, Hiram Bingham finds the lost Inca citadel (fortress) of Machu Picchu. Built on a mountain ridge 7,970 ft (2,430 m) above sea level, Machu Picchu was abandoned in the 16th century.

The Soviet Union In the early 20th century, Russia transformed—its monarchy ended, and there were two revolutions and a civil war. Reborn as the Soviet Union (or the USSR), it became the world’s first communist state, believing that the government should take control of resources such as land and farms and share wealth created by these resources among the people. From the 1940s, the or err y T Soviet Union occupied many countries in Europe, t a an rs, Gre ts rid omf embents e e h forcing them to become communist, too. T a l i n g Pa r t y p e a s a .

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254

March 1917 Further mass protests force the czar to abdicate. 1918 The Bolsheviks execute anyone disloyal to them. They become the Russian Communist Party.

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Start of the Cold War

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1991

255

256 New York in 1971, the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center, symbols of the city’s wealth and power, are completed. In 2001, both collapse after terrorists fly planes into them.

Ada Louise Huxtable, The Tall Building Artistically Reconsidered, 1984

“The skyscraper is the point where art and the city meet.”

American businesses compete to build the tallest company headquarters in New York. Racing against the Bank of Manhattan, car manufacturer Chrysler hoists a stainless-steel spire to the top of its building in 1930, making it 1,046 ft (318 m) high.

Chrysler Building

This high-rise, opened in 1931, is a symbol of hope for New York during a period of economic turmoil, offering employment to those without work. At 102 stories high, for 40 years, it is the world’s tallest building.

Empire State Building

Construction on these twin skyscrapers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, finishes in 1998. They are 1,483 ft (452 m) high and connected by a skybridge. The designers were influenced by Islamic art.

Petronas Towers

From the very first high-rises in the 19th century to the super-tall glass towers Burj Khalifa of today, skyscrapers have become In 2010, the Burj Khalifa opens in Dubai. Standing powerful symbols of modern life. They at 2,717 ft (828 m) tall, it can be seen from 60 miles continue to reach greater heights, made (100 km) away. In response to the attack on the World possible by exciting developments in Trade Center, the Burj Khalifa is designed with building materials and construction refuge areas on each floor, to provide protection in methods. Many of today’s architects case of fire. and engineers are now challenging themselves to design spectacular Twin Towers Engineers learn more about the buildings that are environmentally effect of wind on tall, solid structures, making it possible for buildings they friendly, too. design to reach greater heights. In

The story of skyscrapers Jeddah Tower

Topping out in 2013, this twisting tower in China is 2,073 ft (632 m) tall. Its elevators are the fastest in the world, traveling at speeds of 45.9 mph (74 kph). The building also captures rainwater to be used in its air conditioning and heating systems.

Shanghai Tower

This skyscraper in Saudi Arabia is scheduled to open in 2020. It will be the first building in the world to reach more than 3,200 ft (1 km).

In the United Arab Emirates, construction of the Dynamic Tower starts in 2020. With wind turbines between each pair of floors, the building will be able to produce all of its own energy. Each floor will rotate independently, giving occupants constantly changing views.

Dynamic Tower

257

Tribune Tower

1885

The 10-story Home Insurance Building in Chicago, IL, designed by architect William Le Baron Jenney, opens in 1885. It is the first building to use a steel skeleton to bear its weight.

Home Insurance Building

1925

In 1922, the Chicago Tribune newspaper launches a competition to design a dazzling new office. The winning entry is an elaborate design by John Mead Howells and Raymond Hood. The Tribune Tower is finished 3 years later, in 1925.

1930

1931

1971

1998

2010

2013

2020

From 2020

BEFORE

Blitzkrieg

War erupts

In 1933, Hitler sweeps to power in Germany, due partly to resentment of the Treaty of Versailles, signed after World War I. The treaty forbids German expansion, but Hitler’s troops enter Austria in 1938. At the time, European leaders fail to oppose Hitler, who becomes more aggressive.

After Hitler’s troops invade Poland on September 1, France and Britain declare war on Germany. Hitler occupies Poland with overwhelming force.

Hitler invades the Netherlands, Belgium, France, and Luxemburg using Blitzkrieg (lightning war) tactics with air power and fastmoving tanks. On the same day, Winston Churchill becomes prime minister of Britain.

September 3, 1939

May 10, 1940

The Blitz

Battle of the Atlantic

For almost 40 weeks, Germany targets British towns and cities with nighttime bombing raids, nicknamed the Blitz, to cripple Britain’s war effort. People take cover in underground shelters and children are evacuated to areas less at risk of attack.

Britain relies on oil, food, and raw materials arriving by sea from America, but German U-boats (submarines) attack and sink supply ships. Allied ships start to sail in escorted convoys (groups).

September 1940– May 1941

1940–1941

World War II in Europe Fought between 1939 and 1945, World War II was the most costly and destructive war in history—many millions of people were killed and injured. One by one, countries joined the conflict and the world divided into the Axis powers (led by Germany, Italy, and Japan) and the Allies (made up of Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and, later, the USA).

January 22–December 10, 1941

April 6, 1941

Tobruk siege

Invasion of the Balkans

The Allies take Tobruk in Libya, North Africa, and then resist German attacks in a nine-month siege. This dogged defense prevents any German advance into Egypt.

German, Italian, and Bulgarian troops attack Yugoslavia. After terrible losses, Yugoslavia surrenders. The Battle of Greece ends with the fall of Athens on April 27. Hitler now has direct access to the Mediterranean Sea.

June 22, 1941–February 2, 1943

November 8, 1942

Russia invaded

Operation Torch

Germany attacks Russia with a huge force, but after almost two years of fighting, Germany is defeated at the Battle of Stalingrad on February 2, 1943 after a bitter winter. The Battle of Stalingrad is a crucial turning point in the war.

When President Franklin D. Roosevelt brings America into the war, his soldiers help in the successful invasion of North Africa. After seven months of fighting, German and Italian troops are forced to surrender.

Italy joins the war Benito Mussolini, dictator of Italy, joins the war as a member of the Axis powers. He orders the invasion of Greece, but Hitler has to send in troops to help.

May 27–June 3, 1940 Dunkirk As German troops march into France, thousands of Allied troops are trapped on beaches at Dunkirk, on France’s northern coast. They are rescued by British and French civilian boats that ferry troops to safety across the Channel.

June, 14 1940

Fall of France France, one of Europe’s greatest powers, has fallen after just six weeks of fighting. German troops triumphantly enter Paris. Much of the country is now occupied by German troops. Hitler turns his attention further afield.

June 10, 1940

War in the desert Battle of Britain Hitler launches an air attack on Britain across the English Channel. British planes keep control of the skies and prevent an invasion thanks to the invention of radar, which helps pilots track enemy planes.

July 10–October 31, 1940

Allied and Axis forces push each other back and forth across Egypt and Libya in North Africa. Both sides depend on tanks and aircraft to journey across the hostile desert terrain.

June 1940–May 1943

The fall of Berlin Two and a half million Soviet troops and 6,000 tanks are deployed for the final attack on the German capital. On April 30, Soviet soldiers take control of the Reichstag, Germany’s former parliament building.

Bombing raids The Allies decide that America will bomb German cities by day and that the British will bomb them by night to force Germany into submission. The relentless bombing raids kill around 600,000 civilians and destroy many cities.

June 10, 1943

June 6, 1944 D-Day

After four years of planning, “Operation Overlord” begins: the Allied invasion of France. Around 150,000 troops land on the French coast, and after six weeks of fighting German forces, they start to push across France, liberating towns and cities from Nazi occupation as they go.

April 23, 1945

Germany surrenders Hitler commits suicide on April 30, and Germany surrenders unconditionally to the Allies seven days later, thereby ending war in Europe. May 7 is declared VE (Victory in Europe) Day, sparking joyful victory celebrations in the Allied countries.

May 7, 1945 AFTER At the Potsdam Conference on July 17, 1945, the Allies divide Germany, and Berlin, into controlled zones. The United Nations is created, with the aim of finding peaceful solutions to conflict. Although the war is over, Europe faces an enormous refugee crisis.

259

19 3 9

War at home

B R ITA IN P R E PA R E S June War is coming

she lters are Wit h wa r loo min g, air raid put up, and are s tain cur ut cko bui lt, bla the inju red . at tre to dy hos pita ls get rea LA ), wh ich (W y Arm d Lan n’s me Th e Wo Wo rld ing dur role l played a cru cia provid e to ed ish abl est reis I, r Wa ext ra lab or for far ms .

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g raid s, the Antici pat ing Na zi bom bin alm ost three ves mo nt me Bri tish govern n, to rural ldre mil lion peo ple, mo stly chi par t of as as, rse ove as ll are as as we , the nce Fra In Op eration Pie d Pip er. is g our asb Str of tion ula ent ire pop bs. bom an rm evacuated to avo id Ge

World War II wasn’t just fought between soldiers on the battlefield: it involved millions of ordinary civilians, too. Men, women, and children had to adjust to wartime conditions and their daily lives changed dramatically. Food was rationed, children were evacuated, and cities were bombed.

G a s m a s ks September

the hor ror of Ma ny peo ple rem em ber Wa r I and rld Wo ing dur cks atta gas airc raft by es citi of the bom bin g r (19 36– Wa il Civ sh ani Sp the dur ing are given sks ma gas 193 9). Mil lion s of tion . tec pro for s ilie fam tish Bri to

D O IN G W IT H O U T August Rationing introduced

19 4 0

t all Su ppl y sho rtages me an tha ust st adj mu ple peo rld wo the aro und to “do ing wit hou t.” Ge rm any but Hit ler, introdu ces foo d rati oni ng, rale, mo lic pub in fea ring a dro p imu m. min a to s tion tric res the kee ps ar sug and ter, but In Bri tain , bac on, 0. 194 y uar Jan in d one rati are

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UK UNDER S IE G E June Battle of the Atlantic

mill ion Ge rma n U-b oats sink thre e by ton s of vita l sup plie s car ried g elin trav s ship ant rch me Alli ed . The from Nor th Am eric a to Britain ch cou ntry nor ma lly imp orts mu ggl ing of its foo d, but with ship s stru to ma ke the jou rney across ion the Atla ntic , the Brit ish pop ulat . tion rva sta of ger dan is in

July 3

FREE FRANCE June 18 Launching resistance

Fra nce, Cha rles Afte r the Naz i occ upation of to Lon don and flies l, de Ga ulle, a juni or gen era for Fra nce to io rad the on eal ma kes an app beg inn ing of the is res ist the Naz i invaders. It nt of Fra nce. me ern gov ed exil the “Fre e Fra nce,”

S h e lt e r fr o m th e b o m b s

front line wh en UK civi lian s are thru st into the urban are as. its g bin bom ins beg ny Ge rma bom bin g. In nce erie exp to Cardiff is the first city , known as cks atta Lon don , the first of ma ny air 7. The ber tem Sep on ce the “Bli tz,” takes pla in air raid er cov k see to ple peo e forc raid s station s. she lters and und erg rou nd rail

September 15

P o li sh p il o ts

to fight with Pol ish pilots esc ape to Brit ain the Battle ing Dur F). (RA ce For Air al the Roy oic ally. her t figh ts pilo ish of Britain , the Pol

260

19 4 1

194 2

SOVI ET PR O PAG A N DA

Th e Fin al So lut ion

June

Whe n Ger many ente rs the Sov iet Unio n, the Sov iets use propaga nda to rally the pop ulati on aga inst the Naz i invaders . Sov iet posters urge youn g men to join the military, enc ourage wor kers to prod uce mor e for the front, and insp ire civil ians to carr y out acts of sabotage to halt the invasion .

SK IR TE D SO LD IE RS December 7

Whe n Ame rica ente rs the war afte r the Japane se attack on Pea rl Harb or, Hawaii, US wom en are recr uited into the military. The step is controversia l; many at the time belie ve this type of wor k is only suita ble for men .

January 20

The Nazi party wants to destroy the Jewish population of Europ e. At a conference in Wanns ee, near Berlin, they formal ize a plan to transp ort Jewish people from all over Europ e to death camps in Poland , where they will be killed or forced to carry out hard labor.

rk Da ng ero us woy depen ds

At the height of the war, each countr on keepin g its war machi ne going with ammu nition, tanks, guns, and explos ives. In muniti ons factor ies, wome n take over the roles of men who have left for the front line. They work as mecha nics, welde rs, engine ers, drivers , and machi ne operators.

1943

G e r m a n wa r industr y February

war intro du ce “tota l Hi tle r is fo rc ed to e ec on omy an d th e th m easu re s” . Both e m ob ilized fo r war y ar w ho le of so ci et wor ke rs m any br in gs in er G n. tio uc prod be us ed to es tri pi ed co un fro m Na zi- oc cu as slave la bo r.

Fr e n c h R e s is t a n c e 1943–1

Th e Fren ch m ovem 944 ent to un de rm ine th eir Na zi oc cu pie rs re ac he s its he ight. Ordin ar y Fren ch pe op le joi n re sista nc e grou ps ac ro ss th e co fig hters sp re ad an untry. Re sista nc e ti- Na zi propag an da su pp or t stran de d , Al lie d pil ots, an d us sa bota ge an d gu er rill a wa rfa re tact e ics to fig ht back ag ain st Na zi oc cu patio n.

1945

H ir o s h im a a n d Nagasaki August 6 –9

Th e US drop s th e wo rld ’s first atom ic bo on th e Ja pa ne se cit ies of Hi ro sh im m bs a an d Nagasa ki. 12 0,0 00 pe op le are kil led insta nt ly. Th e un prec ed ente d attacks fo rc e Ja su rre nd er, bu t th e pa n to bo m bin gs have de vastatin g hu m an ita ria n co ns eq ue nc es .

The Blitz During the Blitz (September 1940– May 1941), Germany launches 71 nighttime bombing raids on London. Air raid wardens and civilians search for survivors in the wreckage of destroyed buildings.

261

When Nazi troops invade Poland, Polish Jews are forced to move into ghettos, restricted areas controlled by Nazi troops. Food and water are scarce, and living conditions are very cramped.

Jewish ghettos

In a night of violence, Nazis terrorize Jews across Germany and Austria, attacking stores, homes, and synagogues. Thirty thousand Jews are rounded up and transported to concentration camps.

Kristallnacht

Just months after seizing power, the Nazis open the first concentration camp at Dachau, near Munich. It holds 12,000 prisoners, mostly communists and those considered “enemies of the state.”

Dachau concentration camp

September 21, 1939

December 2, 1938

November 9–10, 1938

September 15, 1935

March 1933

From 1933 to 1945, Germany was ruled by the Nazi Party, an anti-Semitic (anti-Jewish) political organization that blamed Jewish people for the country’s misfortunes. The Nazis built thousands of concentration camps, where they imprisoned and killed 6 million Jews, and 5 million homosexuals, disabled people, Romanies, and political prisoners.

The Holocaust

After Kristallnacht, many Jews try to leave Germany, but some countries refuse to accept them. As part of a rescue effort known as Kindertransport, 10,000 Jewish children escape to Britain, leaving their parents behind.

Kindertransport

At its annual rally in Nuremberg, the Nazi Party passes more anti-Semitic laws, that further restrict the rights of Jewish people. The laws mean that Jews lose their citizenship and can no longer marry non-Jews.

Nuremberg race laws

Railway tracks lead right up to the entrance to Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp. During the Holocaust, more than 1 million people were killed at Auschwitz. Today, the camp is preserved as a memorial.

Auschwitz, Poland

Anne Frank was a young Jewish girl living in the Netherlands when World War II broke out. She later died in BergenBelsen concentration camp. Her diary survived, though, recording her thoughts and experiences while she was hiding from the Nazi regime. Her writing is a reminder of the constant fear and hardship felt by many who lived under Nazi occupation.

Anne Frank

263

After the horrors of the Holocaust, the international community faces pressure to find land for Jewish survivors to establish a homeland. The new state of Israel is created in the Middle East.

A Jewish homeland

As Allied troops march toward Germany, they liberate the concentration camps from Nazi control. The soldiers are appalled by the death and devastation they find. Prisoners are weak, starving, and sick. After liberation, thousands continue to die from illnesses they caught while imprisoned.

Liberation

Six “death camps” are established across Nazioccupied Poland. Jews from all over Europe are rounded up. They are transported by train in appalling conditions to the camps, where they are selected for slave labor or immediate execution.

The death camps

From this date, Jewish people over the age of 6 in Nazi-occupied Europe are gradually made to wear a badge in the shape of the Star of David (a traditional Jewish symbol), so that they can be easily identified.

Star of David

May 14, 1948

1945–1949

July 1944–May 1945

February 15, 1942

1942

January 20, 1942

September 1, 1941

June 14, 1940

Auschwitz opens

After World War II ends in September 1945, the Allies seek to bring those responsible for the Holocaust to justice. The trials are fully televised, and for the first time, the public learns the horrific extent of Nazi war crimes.

The Nuremberg Trials

The Nazis use increasingly systematic methods to commit mass murder. They release poison gas into sealed shower rooms, which are full of prisoners. The bodies are buried in mass graves or cremated.

Gas chambers

High-ranking Nazis meet to discuss the “Final Solution,” their plan to exterminate Europe’s Jews, who they see as Untermenschen (subhumans) and a problem to be solved. They agree to deport all Jews to Poland, where they will be killed in death camps.

The final solution

The first prisoners arrive at Auschwitz concentration camp in Poland. The prisoners, mostly Polish political rebels, are tattooed with numbers in order of their arrival.

The D-Day landings On June 6, 1944—“D-Day”— the Allied forces of Britain, the US, Canada, and France launched the largest naval, land, and air operation in history. Troops landed on the beaches of Normandy, France, including the code-named Omaha Beach, seen here. By the end of D-Day, more than 150,000 troops had landed in Normandy. They moved inland, allowing more troops to land over the next few days. This marked the first step towards freeing Europe from Nazi occupation.

The Pacific War Although World War II began in Europe, by 1941, conflict had erupted worldwide. Much of the fighting took place in Asia and the Pacific between the Allied forces and Japan, supported by the Axis powers Germany and Italy. Hitler’s invasion of France and the Netherlands in 1940 had left European-controlled territories in Southeast Asia vulnerable as Japan attempted to expand its empire in the region.

Battle of the Coral Sea Australia attacked Japanese planes bomb the port of Darwin, on the north Australian coast. Most of the city’s military structures are destroyed.

Japanese victories With astonishing speed, Japanese forces attack Hong Kong, the Philippines, Malaya, Thailand, Guam, and Wake Island, taking vast areas of land.

Military alliance Japan enters into a military alliance with Germany and Italy, signing a document known as the Tripartite Pact. Germany and Italy promise Japan an empire that stretches across Asia.

ber Septem0 194

ber Decem , 7 1941

ber Decem 1941

ry Februa , 5 1 1 9 42

ry Februa 1 9, 1 9 42

Allied forces halt Japanese plans to invade New Guinea. This is the first sea battle in which neither side’s ships catch sight of the other. Instead, the battle is fought between planes sent out from aircraft carriers.

ry 27– Februa h 1, M a rc 1 9 42

Battle of the Java Sea Singapore surrenders Pearl Harbor Japanese forces bomb the US naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. Americans are shocked by the surprise attack. The US and Allies declare war on Japan; Germany declares war on the US.

Japanese forces continue to advance. The fall of Singapore and the loss of 138,000 British Commonwealth troops marks a humiliating defeat for Britain.

After defeating Allied naval forces in the Java Sea, Japan conquers the Dutch East Indies (modern-day Indonesia). It is another devastating victory against the Allied forces, and Japan now dominates the air and sea.

M ay 4 –8, 1 9 42

Fighting in the skies Japanese planes were faster than those of the US. They ruled the skies until 1943, when American air capabilities improved, overtaking Japan’s.

Atomic bombs The cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki are destroyed when the US drops two atomic bombs. Tens of thousands are killed immediately, and tens of thousands more die later from the effects of radiation.

Battle of Iwo Jima US troops land on Iwo Jima, meeting fierce resistance from Japanese troops hiding in tunnels that criss-cross the island. Japanese soldiers refuse to surrender, but the US declares victory.

Island hopping The tide starts to turn as US forces fight back and begin to defeat Japanese troops one island at a time. Many Japanese soldiers refuse to be taken prisoner, choosing to commit suicide instead.

June 4–7, 1 9 42

August 1 9 42 – ry Februa 3 4 19

O c to b e 194 4

r

ry– Februa h M a rc 1945

The Japanese navy’s attempts to take control of Midway Island in the Central Pacific are defeated by Allied forces. Japan suffers the loss of 3,500 troops and four aircraft carriers in its first major setback.

August 15, 1945

Japan surrenders Japan under siege Kamikaze attacks

Battle of Midway

M a rc h 9–10, 1945

August , 6 and 9 1945

Japanese pilots adopt extreme tactics during battle, flying their planes into the decks of US warships. These suicide missions, known as “kamikaze” attacks, destroy dozens of warships.

US forces begin a bombing campaign designed to cut off essential supplies to the mainland. Japanese cities are attacked, too. A raid on Tokyo creates a firestorm that kills 100,000 people.

Despite the devastation caused by the atomic bombs, Japan’s military leaders and parts of the government refuse to surrender. Emperor Hirohito pressures them to admit defeat, and after 4 years of bloodshed, the war finally ends.

War at sea Aircraft carriers became the most important elements in each country’s naval forces, allowing planes to take off and land in the heat of battle.

Burma and India Expecting the Indian population to rise up against its British colonial rulers, Japan tried to invade India from Burma. The British fought back, however, and the jungle conflict became one of the bloodiest of World War II.

267

Migration

Indian independence Britain had controlled India since the 1820s, but by the late 19th century, Indians began demanding the ability to make their own way in the world, free from British rule.

1885 The INC The Indian National Congress (INC) forms to campaign for Indian independence. As the INC is mainly Hindu, Indian Muslims form the Muslim League in 1906 to campaign for them.

1930 Salt March Gandhi walks 242 miles (390 km) to protest at the British taxes on basics such as salt. Many are arrested, but the march draws more attention to the independence movement. 1939 World War II begins The British Empire declares India’s entry into World War II without consulting India’s leaders. Although 2.5 million Indian soldiers fight, the decision only increases Indian resentment. 1945 End of World War II For Britain, the cost of victory in World War II is high. It simply did not have the ability or the desire to attempt to hold on to India, and so it sets about negotiating an end to its control.

1947 Independence Pakistan gains independence, with Jinnah as its first governorgeneral. A day later, India finally achieves its freedom. Nehru becomes its first prime minister.

268

1909 British concessions The British pass laws in 1909, 1919, and 1935 that give Indians more control over their country. Both the INC and Muslim League feel that these concessions don’t go far enough, and the independence campaign rolls on.

1915 Gandhi The Indian nationalist and activist Mohandas Gandhi begins organizing opposition to British rule in the country through nonviolent means, such as disobeying British laws. 1942 Quit India Movement Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru (the INC leader) call for the British to leave in the Quit India Movement. Gandhi is arrested and the movement is banned, but this only increases its support. 1946 Riots Muhammad Ali Jinnah, leader of the Muslim League, demands a separate Muslim state, which the INC rejects. Riots break out in Calcutta, leading to the deaths of 4,000 people. It is later agreed that the largely Muslim populations in the northeast and northwest will become Pakistan.

1948 Early struggles Gandhi is assassinated by a Hindu extremist who believes the leader is responsible for partition. Later on, India and Pakistan go to war over the disputed Kashmir region.

The partition of the colony in 1947 turns millions of Muslims in India, and Hindus and Sikhs in Pakistan, into religious minorities. What follows is the largest mass-migration of people in history. More than 14.5 million people leave their homes and most of their possessions to make it across the new borders. Violence on the way claims about one million of these refugees. These Sikhs are leaving Pakistan to make it to East Punjab, in northern India.

Ghana’s first president Kwame Nkrumah becomes the first president of an independent Ghana in 1957. He immediately sets about improving conditions in the country by opening schools and establishing a social welfare system. Perhaps one of his most enduring ideas is his promotion of Pan-Africanism—an intellectual movement dedicated to studying, understanding, and communicating African culture.

African independence After World War II, the European colonial powers found it increasingly difficult to hold on to their colonies. Some African countries fought for freedom, but others were granted it democratically. 1952 Egypt Although officially independent since 1922, Egypt was still occupied by Britain. The British Empire’s grip on the country is finally loosened by a revolution led by Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser, who becomes the country’s first president. 1952 Kenyan uprising A group of Kenyan protesters, called the Mau Mau, rebel against British control. About 13,000 of them are killed, but Kenya will finally gain independence in 1963. 1957 Ghanaian freedom Ghana demands freedom from British rule, and it is immediately granted. Kwame Nkrumah becomes the first president of the new nation.

1962 Algerian agreement Years of war between the Algerian people and the ruling French army end when French president Charles de Gaulle grants Algeria its independence. Rwanda also gains freedom from Belgium, and Uganda its independence from Britain this year.

1964–1968 Leaving the British Empire In four years, six countries leave the British Empire. In 1964, Malawi and Zambia go, followed by Botswana and Lesotho two years later. Mauritius and Swaziland gain independence in 1968, along with Equatorial Guinea, which cedes from Spain.

1956 Morocco and Tunisia Two former French colonies in North Africa break free from French power within weeks of each other. Morocco achieves independence after a short period of unrest, but Tunisia’s transition comes in a largely peaceful fashion. 1960 African independence Seventeen sub-Saharan African countries, including 14 former French colonies, achieve independence from European control. It will become known as the “Year of Africa.”

1963 African unity The Organization of African Unity is established by 32 African states. It aims to improve the lives of ordinary Africans through cooperation and discussion between member states. 1974–1975 Portuguese colonies The dictatorship that had led Portugal since 1933 is overthrown in 1974. Angola, São Tomé, and Príncipe, Mozambique, and Cape Verde, all seize their opportunity and gain independence from Portugal.

269

The Art of War

Ancient spies

In his book The Art of War, the ancient Chinese general Sun Tzu advises that spying is necessary in warfare. Using spies allows you to learn as much as you can about your enemy and their battle plans.

Some of the earliest spies operate during the war between the ancient Egyptians and the Hittite Empire. The Hittites send people in disguise to feed the Egyptians false information, hoping to lead them into an ambush.

1274 bce

5th century bce

Invisible ink

The Cabinet Noir

Organized by an American major, the spy network known as the Culper Ring uses invisible ink to write hidden messages. The ink helps Americans communicate in secret during the Revolutionary War.

Cardinal Richelieu, chief minister to King Louis XIII of France, sets up the Cabinet Noir (“black room”). This French intelligence service intercepts the letters sent between French nobles, so that threats to the king can be thwarted.

1778

1628 New technology The invention of photography and telegrams allows for new methods of surveillance during the Civil War. Spies can now photograph military defenses and camps and intercept telegrams.

1860

Enigma machine The cracking of the German Enigma code helped to lead the Allies to victory in World War II.

Codebreaking During World War I and World War II, communication technology becomes increasingly complex, as new codemaking machines are created. As a result, improving codebreaking techniques becomes crucial for deciphering secret messages.

The story of spying For thousands of years, spies have worked to uncover secret information. Most spies work for governments, finding out the secrets of enemies or potential enemies. The most important part of spying, or espionage, is to keep the activity secret, and over the centuries, spies have devised ingenious ways to conceal their work. 270

1914–1945

Today The age of digital spies A USB flash drive is able to store vast amounts of data on a tiny stick, making it easier than ever to obtain secret information and keep it hidden.

Early codes

1467 ce–1603 ce

In order to avoid their communications being read by the enemy during the Peloponnesian War, the Spartans develop the scytale. This was one of the earliest systems for coding and decoding secret messages.

Masters of infiltration Using great stealth and speed, the shinobi (later known as ninja) are trained secret agents employed by powerful Japanese warlords. They use espionage, sabotage, and assassination to attain their goals.

431–404 bce Hiding in plain sight The writing of the Florentine Codex is finished, and reveals that Aztec merchants, called Pochteca, often acted as spies. Their extensive travels make them perfect for this task, because they can learn much about the Aztec Empire.

Shuriken Also known as throwing blades, shuriken could be thrown at a shinobi’s enemy or used by hand to slash.

The first spy network Frances Walsingham becomes the principal secretary and spymaster of Queen Elizabeth I of England. Walsingham builds up a network of spies whose aim is to uncover plots to overthrow the queen.

1573

The Spymaster Walsingham had conspirators tortured in order to get them to confess to their plots.

The French Resistance

1585

Angry about German occupation, groups emerge within France to sabotage enemy activity. The Resistance sets up escape routes for airmen and escaped prisoners of war, and attacks German transportation and communications.

Pencil fuses Used during World War II, these timedelayed pencil fuses allowed the person setting the bomb to escape before the attached explosives detonated.

1940 Public surveillance

First modern spy agencies

East Germany’s State Security Ministry, known as the Stasi, is formed. Secret agents use impressive technology, such as tiny cameras concealed in everyday items, to observe people of interest.

World War II sees the creation of new intelligence services to help win the war, including Britain’s Special Operations Executive (SOE) and the US Office of Strategic Services (OSS).

Formation of the CIA In order to improve its intelligence gathering after World War II and with the Cold War beginning, the US creates the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), a foreign intelligence service.

1940–1942 Formation of the KGB Video surveillance CCTV cameras can be used to monitor traffic and crime, but are also an important tool for spies and intelligence agencies, who use them to track the movements of people of interest.

1974

The Soviet Union creates an intelligence agency called the Committee for State Security, or the KGB. It becomes one of the world’s most effective intelligence organizations.

1947

1950

Camera Stasi spies would use this secret camera to gather intelligence.

1954 271

BEFORE From the 1890s, a political campaign known as Zionism called for a Jewish homeland in Palestine. In the Balfour Declaration of 1917, Britain pledged to help create this nation of Jews. However, Muslim Arabs had lived in Palestine for centuries. After the horrors inflicted on the Jewish people during the Holocaust (see pages 262–263) the United Nations (UN) decided that Arabs and Jews would share Palestine, fueling Arab anger.

Middle East conflicts Although the Middle East is home to many identities, Muslim Arabs make up the majority of its people. After World War I, European empires that had power in the region collapsed, and the Arabs regained control. But soon after World War II, Jews were granted the state of Israel in Palestine. Age-old tensions, Arab–Israeli conflict, and intervention by the West, have combined to make the Middle East a volatile region.

19 40 s–19 60 s May 14, 1948 Israel is created

betwe en Jews Th e UN div ide s Pa lestine w Jew ish ne a g atin cre an d Ara bs by ed iate ly imm r state ca lled Israel. A wa d its Ara b an el Isra en twe be bre aks ou t tely leads ma ulti ct ne igh bo rs. Th e co nfli d. lan re mo g inin to Israel ga

196 0s–1970s June 5–10, 1967 Six-Day War

Arab force s from Egypt, Jorda n, and Syria attac k Israel , but Israel emerges victor ious, captu ring swath es of Arab territo ry. The Palestinian areas of the West Bank and Gaza Strip beco me know n as the “occu pied territo ries.”

January 1978– February 1979 Iranian Revolution

1948–1960s ent Palestinian displacem

cre atio n of Israel, In the yea r foll ow ing the tini an s flee or mo re tha n 750,00 0 Pa les me s, be co min g ho ir are exp elle d fro m the me each oth er. ref ug ee s. Both sid es bla ish imm igrants Jew , de Over the next de ca an d 25 0,0 00 fro m Mu slim co unt rie s tle in Israel. set Ho loc au st sur vivors

272

The mona rch of Iran, Moha mmad Reza Shah , is overt hrow n and force d to leave the country in the Irania n Revo lution , also know n as the Islam ic Revo lution . The nonre ligiou s way of life he prom oted is replaced by a new regim e base d on strict Islam ic law, head ed by Musli m leade r Ayato llah Khom eini.

October 6–26, 1973 Yom Kippur War

Attac ks on Israel by its Arab neigh bors Egypt and Syria on Yom Kippu r, a Jewis h holy day, take Israel by surpr ise. However, Israel strike s back and its troop s enter Syria . The confl ict ends when the UN calls for a ceasefire.

March 26, 1979 Israel and Egypt peace deal

Hoste d in the US by Presi dent Carte r, the leade rs of Israel and Egypt atten d peac e talks. They sign a deal in which Israel return s Egyptian land it captu red in the Six-Day War of 1967.

19 80 s

2000s

September 22, 1980– August 20, 1988

8, 2000 – September 28, 2005 February Intifada ro n, The Second afte r A rie l S ha

Iran–Iraq War

Fea ring an upr isin g in his own cou ntry followin g the Iran ian Revolut ion, Sad dam Hus sein , pre side nt of Iraq , inva des Iran . A bru tal eight-ye ar war beg ins, and tens ions increas e acro ss the reg ion.

ol en ce er upts kn ow n to A pe rio d of vi n, vi si ts a si te ia ic as lit po i el ra an Is , an d to Jews aram al -S ha rif Is la m ic ho ly M us lim s as H an . The vi si t to Te m pl e M ou nt an in su lt by Pa le st in ia ns . as en pl ac e is se

June 6, 1982

ber 11, 2001 m te p e S m ro F error begins out The War on T rr ie s

Israel invades Lebanon

In an atte mpt to attack Pale stin ian reb el forc es in Lebano n, Israel invades the cou ntry. The Pale stin ians , led by Yas ser Arafat and the Pale stin e Libe ratio n Org aniz atio n (PLO), flee to Tun isia .

19 9 0 s – August 2, 199091 19 , 8 2 y Februar War in the Gulf pies Kuwait, a

oc cu Si x Iraq invad es an d bl e oi l re so urce s. lua va natio n ric h in le d by n, io at er op y ar ilit m onth s later, a m m or te d by fo rc es fro th e US an d su pp q. Ira l pe ex to d he nc 35 natio ns , is lau its fro m th e US an d Afte r great effo rt . ed at fe de is ein ss all ies , Sadd am Hu

Understanding the Middle East There are many different groups involved in conflicts across the Middle East. Some of the key players are listed here, with the year they were founded.

ust 14, 2006

ez bo lla h, a ba no n afte r H p, ca pt ures Le in ts up er War grou ne se m ili ta ry power fu l Le ba d Is rael fig hts back . M ore an 5 Is rael i so ld ie rs ne se pe op le an d arou nd 16 g. ba in Le ht 0 days of fig th an 1,0 0 are ki lle d in 34 Is rael i pe op le

The Pale stin ians livin g in the Wes t Ban k and Gaza laun ch an intifada (po pula r upr isin g) aga inst Israeli occ upation . Isra eli sold iers sent to stop the reb ellio n kill mor e than 300 civi lian s with in its first yea r.

The PLO issu es a dec laration of inde pen den ce for a Pale stin ian state. Wit hin day s, more than 25 cou ntrie s aro und the wor ld offe r thei r sup por t to the unoffici al Pale stin ian govern ment. The PLO says it wan ts peace.

K , Austral ia ld s wea po ns The U S, th e U be lieve Iraq ho th re at to ey th e us ca d be a Iraq be ct io n th at co ul ic of m as s de st ru rn inte rventio n in th e Is la m t. te es es W W . e ld th th e wor ag ai nst ease s an ge r cr in ly on ld or w

July War

The First Intifada

Independence for Palestine

ay 1, 2003 March 20–M ction mass destru attack f o s n o p a e W , an d Po la nd

July 12–Aug

December 9, 1987– September 13, 1993

November 15, 1988

da ca grou p al -Qae e The te rror ist e ta rg ets in th fil ro -p gh hi t ns ld ai or ag W s e th ck ta of at n th e de st ru ct io e U S, le ad in g to N ew Yo rk . B el ievi ng th at th g in tin r te or en pp C su e is ad p, Tr rror ist grou te r he an ot st ni an , in Afg ha Ta liban U S inte rven es al -Qae da , th e e Ta liban re gi m e. th to br in g dow n

1993 s The Oslo Accordgh, Israel

kt hrou In a histo ric brea fro m so m e of th e aw dr th wi to ag re es e PLO has oc cu pi ed if th Arab te rri to rie s it an rd Jo l. ae Isr st ag ain re jec ts vio le nc e l. ae Isr e de al wi th als o sig ns a pe ac

1897 Zionism This movement aims to create a permanent Jewish national state in Palestine.

1987 Hamas This Islamic military group is dedicated to destroying Israel and creating an Islamic state in Palestine.

1964 PLO The Palestine Liberation Organization aims to liberate Palestine and destroy the state of Israel.

AFTER Palestinians continue to call for independence for the occupied territories, and conflict still rages across the region. In 2010, a period of uprisings across the Middle East known as the Arab Spring challenged leadership and called for democracy. The worst violence was in Syria, which descended into brutal civil war.

1988 Al-Qaeda Formed by Osama Bin Laden, al-Qaeda wants to rid Islamic countries of Western influence.

2013 ISIL Also known as ISIS, this terrorist organization seeks an Islamic state across Iraq, Syria, and beyond.

1994 Taliban An extreme Islamic political and religious movement, the Taliban is founded in Afghanistan.

274 The Athena 2000, made by American company Singer, is the world’s first electronic sewing machine and an immediate success. A computer controls the motor’s speed and needle position.

Steam iron 1970s

Electronic sewing machine

Teasmade

1975

1983

Invented by James Dyson in the UK, the bright pink G-Force cleaner does not require a bag to collect dust as it vacuums, improving its suction.

Bagless vacuum cleaner

Smart fridge 2006

“Smart” household appliances, which are operated remotely via the internet, are made possible with the introduction of Wi-Fi into homes. These range from entertainment systems to fridges and cooking utensils.

1985 This kettle, by Italian company Alessi, has a bird figure on its spout that whistles when the kettle boils. It is a huge global hit, revolutionizing how household products look.

Bird kettle

Robotic vacuum cleaner 1996

Wi-Fi

The heat can now be turned up without anyone having to be home, using a smartphone. Over time, the smart thermostat learns its user’s preferences and adjusts the temperature accordingly.

1999

Smart thermostat

2010

First mass-produced in 1933, this iconic British invention combines an alarm clock with a kettle that brews tea ready for when its user wakes up. By the 1970s, 2 million households have one.

1970–1979

Voice-activated gadgets can now control home appliances. Machines obey commands to do anything, from playing music to ordering groceries, without their users having to lift a finger.

Voice command technology

2014

275

People have been pressing creases out of clothes for centuries, but Henry Seely of New York is the first to power an iron using electricity.

Electric iron

1882

American inventor J. Ross Moore, tired of hanging his clothing outside, especially during winter, invents a clothes dryer that can run on gas and electricity.

Clothes dryer

1938

American inventor James Spangler invents the portable vacuum cleaner, which has a rotating brush and a bag to collect dust.

1907 Vacuum cleaner

Stovetop coffee maker 1933

Introduced by the Hurley Machine Company of Chicago, IL, the Thor is the first electric washing machine.

In the early 20th century, electricity revolutionized everyday life. A whirlwind of labor-saving devices transformed the home, relieving people of domestic drudgery. Appliances such as vacuum cleaners and washing machines freed women from spending so much time doing housework, as society expected of them, allowing them to work or pursue hobbies. In the 21st century, new devices have evolved to save time and effort for women, men, and children.

After World War II, advertising promoted labor-saving devices that promised to cut the time spent doing household chores. Most of this was aimed at women, but as society has begun to develop a more equal attitude toward women and men, advertising has made some progress in representing men in household roles, too.

Advertising

American engineer Fred W. Wolf creates the first electric refrigerator suitable for the population at large. It’s known as the Domelre.

Electric kettle 1922

Originally invented in the 1880s by American Josephine Cochrane, German company Miele improves the dishwasher by creating an electric version.

1929 Dishwasher

1913 Electric fridge

American company Frigidaire creates one of the first air conditioning units small enough for use in regular homes. It is shaped like a radio cabinet.

1929 Air conditioning

1908 Washing machine

The introduction of presliced bread in 1928 advances the use of electric toasters.

Electric toaster

1929

Household appliances

In the 1800s, plumbing is a sign of wealth, so pipes are shown off. The Bundy Loop, a cast-iron, steam-heated radiator, becomes fashionable.

1872 Modern radiator

Despite being invented in the 1940s, it isn’t until 1967 that a microwave oven small and cheap enough to be used easily in homes is developed.

1967 Microwave

The Korean War In 1950, conflict between North and South Korea threatened to explode into a much wider war. It became an international concern when the US supported the South Koreans, and the communist countries of China and the Soviet Union championed the North Koreans.

1948 After World War II The Korean peninsula was under Japanese rule before World War II. After Japan’s defeat in the war, the Soviet Union occupies the north of the country, while the US controls the south.

1950 North Korea invades Communist North Korea strikes first and invades the South. The North makes great gains, and captures the South Korean capital, Seoul.

1947 Truman Doctrine US president Harry Truman announces that the US will seek to stop the spread of communism in places it had not spread to yet—a policy known as the “Truman Doctrine.” 1948 Partition Korea is partitioned into two countries, but both communist North Korea and democratic South Korea hope to overthrow the other, and reunite the country.

1950 US and China join Through the United Nations (UN), the US sends troops to help South Korea in July, turning the tide in the South’s favor. By October, they have driven the North back and have even taken the North’s capital city, Pyongyang. China enters the war to help the North. 1951 Stalemate China’s intervention drives the South Korean and UN troops south. A stalemate emerges, with each side’s territory reverting back to the prewar borders. Peace talks begin, but don’t achieve anything.

1953 Truce The two sides agree to a truce, which ends the fighting. The border between the two countries stays where it was before the war, and a demilitarized zone is set up between them.

276

1954 The Geneva talks The US and China meet to talk about uniting the two Koreas, but they can’t reach an agreement. The Korean peninsula remains divided to this day—with a communist North and a democratic South.

Refugees The back-and-forth nature of the war creates a huge refugee crisis as people flee to find safety. By 1951, about 500,000 refugees crowded into the South Korean city of Busan, with the overall number of refugees created by the war believed to be between four and six million.

A difficult war The US found fighting in Vietnam to be incredibly difficult. The Vietnamese communists were guerilla fighters, which meant their attacks were sporadic and unpredictable. They used the terrain much better than the Americans, and slowly demoralized them by dragging them into a complex and seemingly endless struggle.

The Vietnam War One of the major conflicts of the late 20th century, the Vietnam War raged for almost 20 years. It destroyed large swathes of the country and led to the deaths of millions of soldiers and civilians. As the conflict dragged on, an international antiwar movement protested what seemed to be a senseless, bloody war.

1945 Ho Chi Minh The defeat of the Japanese in World War II leaves a power vacuum in Vietnam. Communist leader Ho Chi Minh declares North Vietnam independent, and his Viet Minh guerrilla fighters take on France, Vietnam’s old colonial masters.

1959 Ho Chi Minh Trail North Vietnam builds a supply route called the Ho Chi Minh Trail to South Vietnam. They use this to support pro-communist rebels in the South, known as the National Liberation Front.

1962 Agent Orange The US sprays Agent Orange, a deadly herbicide, to kill the foliage sheltering communist fighters and to destroy their food supplies. This causes long-lasting health issues for civilians and troops on both sides, and ruins large swathes of Vietnamese soil.

1968 Tet Offensive The communists launch the Tet Offensive—a coordinated series of attacks across South Vietnam. Initially surprised by the assault, the South Vietnamese and US forces regroup and retaliate. 1975 Fall of Saigon A ceasefire is announced in 1973, and US troops are withdrawn. North Vietnam launches another attack and the South’s capital, Saigon, falls. Vietnam is united as a communist state soon after.

1950 US support The US steps up its military and financial help to France, and President Truman authorizes $15 million in aid. The People’s Republic of China (formed in 1949) and the Soviet Union support North Vietnam. 1954 Withdraw and partition The French completely withdraw after a huge defeat at the battle of Dien Bien Phu. Vietnam is divided in half, with Ho Chi Minh taking control of the North, and anticommunist, US-supported Ngo Dinh Diem ruling in the South. 1964–1965 Gulf of Tonkin North Vietnam attacks two US warships. In response, the US issues the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, committing the country to defending itself and South Vietnam. The USSR increases support of North Vietnam.

1965 First protests The first antiwar marches happen in the US, with mounting casualties and the massive cost of fighting angering many. More than 100,000 people march on Washington DC in 1967. 1971 Pentagon Papers The Washington Post publishes the Pentagon Papers. These show the government felt the war to be unwinnable, but had lied about it. The US had begun to pull out troops in 1969, and secret peace talks began in 1970.

277

Bay of Pigs invasion

Cuban missile crisis

The CIA attempts to remove Cuba’s communist leader Fidel Castro from power. The CIA-backed rebel invaders are defeated by Castro’s army in what became known as the Bay of Pigs invasion.

The Soviet Union installs nuclear missiles in Cuba, and the US demands their removal. The world fears full-scale nuclear war, but, after 13 days, the Soviet Union offers to remove the weapons in return for a US promise not to invade Cuba.

Nuclear disarmament

196

19

61

In London, thousands protest against nuclear weapons, especially the testing of hydrogen bombs by the US and Soviet Union. The protest is led by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) organization.

John F. Kennedy becomes the youngest-ever US president in the tightest election since 1884. He promises to fight for world freedom.

1960

President John F. Kennedy

Anti-segregation sit-ins African American students launch a series of “sit-in” protests against segregation (separating of blacks and whites) by refusing to leave “whites only” counters at diners.

19 69

Woodstock A 3-day music festival is held in the Catskill Mountains in New York. It is attended by more than 400,000 people, causing massive traffic jams and road closures. Musicians such as Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin, and Ravi Shankar perform.

278

196

3

The 1960s

The 1960s saw great change take place. The Cold War (see pages 282–283) took hold, with continuing conflict in Vietnam, and nuclear war was a constant threat. But there was also a fresh optimism. New attitudes about freedom of expression and equality were reflected in music, fashion, and politics, and anything and everything seemed possible. 196

8

Revolution Protests across the world break out when people demand political change and better rights. In Paris, France, more than 10 million students and workers go on strike.

Stonewall Riots A police raid of the Stonewall Inn, a gay club in New York City, turns violent. This inspires the formation of several gay, lesbian, and bisexual civil rights organizations to protect against social and political discrimination.

2

Dr King assassinated Dr Martin Luther King, Jr. is shot in Memphis, TN. A few days later, his wife, Coretta, and their children lead a huge crowd on a silent remembrance march through Memphis.

196

7

“I have a dream” The campaign for civil rights in the US is led by Dr Martin Luther King, Jr. He calls for equality in his passionate “I have a dream” speech to demonstrators in Washington, DC.

The Feminine Mystique Betty Friedan launches the modern feminist movement with a book that discusses the role of women in society and promotes equality. It sells millions of copies.

Kennedy assassination President John F. Kennedy is shot and killed in Dallas, TX. His death devastates the country. Lyndon B. Johnson is quickly sworn in as the new president.

British invasion British bands such as The Beatles, The Who, and The Rolling Stones storm the US charts, achieving fame and changing music forever.

Vietnam War

196

The US becomes involved in a long war in Vietnam to prevent it from falling under communist rule. The loss of life on both sides leads to mass protests around the world.

4

1965

Pop art Taking inspiration from comic books and advertising, the pop art movement flourishes. Artist Andy Warhol is the most distinctive pop artist, using bold images and bright colors to depict everyday objects.

19

66

Fashion revolution Underground press New publications develop for young people who don’t agree with the traditional views of their parents. These include Oz , International Times , and Ink , and are dedicated to poetry, music, and promoting political change.

Teenagers begin to have their own money to buy clothes, and they feel less pressure to dress like their parents. This causes a revolution in the fashion world, with designs aimed at these new customers.

Hippies

Summer of Love Young people reject the violence seen in news broadcasts and call for peace, love, and understanding across the world. They are influenced by music and Eastern religions such as Buddhism and Hinduism.

A movement of young people known as “hippies” emerges in San Francisco. They are recognizable by their long hair and colorful clothing, and they promote ideas of nonviolence and love.

279

Postcolonial Africa

Rwandan Genocide More than a million people of the Tutsi ethnicity in Rwanda are killed by members of the neighboring ethnic group, the Hutus. The international community fails to stop this.

In the 1950s and 1960s, African nations gained independence from colonial rule with varying degrees of success. Although there was freedom in many places, there was also corruption, military coups, civil war, and division among different ethnic groups. However, in the 21st century, optimism is growing, with greater wealth and improving political stability.

Ghanaian independence Kwame Nkrumah becomes the country’s first independent prime minister after years of British colonial rule. In an emotional speech, he tells tens of thousands of Ghanaians: “your beloved country is free forever.”

1957

1960–1965

1963

Congo Crisis The Congo (modern-day Democratic Republic of Congo) dissolves into crisis after becoming independent from Belgium in June 1960. A breakaway state of Katanga exists until the United Nations (UN) intervenes in 1963. The army seizes power in 1965.

“In the end, the ballot must decide, not bullets.” Jonas Savimbi, Angolan politician, in a speech in 1975

1971–1979

President Nelson Mandela After decades of apartheid (racial segregation) in his country, and 27 years of imprisonment for protesting against this, Nelson Mandela is elected the first black president of South Africa. This ends 300 years of white rule.

1975– 1984– 2002 1985

1994

1994

Idi Amin Ugandan president Amin expels Asian minorities from Uganda and launches attacks on his Tanzanian enemies. He abuses human rights and uses violence against other ethnic groups. He is overthrown in 1979.

Ethiopian famine Decades of war and extreme drought cause starvation in Ethiopia, where more than 400,000 people die and millions more are left hungry and poor. Many are forced to leave their homes and resettle elsewhere.

African Unity Following the independence of many African nations from European rule, the Organization of African Unity is established by 32 African states to encourage and protect Africa’s interests.

Angolan Civil War The Republic of Angola, rich in diamonds and oil, becomes independent from Portugal in 1975, but becomes impoverished by a civil war. This will be one of Africa’s longest-running conflicts.

Economic boom Africa is predicted to have the largest economic growth of any continent over the next decade, thanks to younger populations, access to water, and less poverty and disease.

Kofi Annan

Polite politics

Kofi Annan from Ghana becomes the SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations. He expands the UN’s work into protecting the environment, fighting against HIV/AIDS in Africa, and improving human rights.

Nigeria votes out President Goodluck Jonathan in favor of Muhammadu Buhari. Jonathan’s politeness in defeat allows a peaceful transfer of power, which is inspirational across Africa.

Independence for South Sudan

Civil war in Sudan Civil war begins in the Darfur region of Sudan between rebel groups and the government. Several hundred thousand people are killed and millions flee their homes in a conflict that remains unresolved today.

1997

2003

2004

HIV/AIDS vaccine trial launched

South Sudan votes to break away from Sudan after a bloody civil war between the mainly Christian south and the Arab Muslim north. Much of the world recognizes the new nation, but it remains one of the poorest areas in the world.

2010

2010

2011

5,400 South African men and women sign up for a trial of a new HIV/AIDS vaccine, hoping for a breakthrough against the disease. Seven million South Africans are living with the virus.

2011

Prize for Kenya

2015

2014– 2016

2016

2017

Ebola

Wangari Mathai, a Kenyan feminist and environmentalist, receives the Nobel Peace Prize. Her Green Belt Movement teaches women to grow trees in order to improve their living conditions.

West Africa experiences the biggest outbreak of the Ebola virus ever known. Thousands die and the economies of many countries are damaged, some of which are still recovering from civil war.

World Cup The World Cup comes to South Africa, the first time an African nation has held such a prestigious worldwide event. Many people’s perceptions of the country and continent are changed for the better.

Rwandan reform Rwanda manages to rebuild its economy after its devastating civil war. Life expectancy, the number of children attending school, and the amount of money spent on health care have all improved.

Robert Mugabe steps down Robert Mugabe, president of Zimbabwe since 1980, loses his grip on power and resigns after the military take control. He is blamed for economic chaos, preventing political freedom, and the abuse of human rights.

281

1949 1949

The USSR flexes its muscles by preventing road and rail access to West Berlin, threatening West Germany. Britain and the US drop millions of tons of supplies into West Berlin from planes until the Soviets lift the blockade.

194 8

Berlin blockade

NATO The East-West divide becomes official when the US and Western European countries establish the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), promising that in times of conflict, these countries will help one another.

George Orwell’s 1984 British author George Orwell writes 1984, a novel that imagines the nightmare of living under a brutal government similar to a communist dictatorship. It inspires many books, movies, and music.

1949 First Soviet nuclear bomb In response to the US nuclear bombs that ended World War II, the Soviets become a nuclear power by testing their own weapons. The US and USSR compete to have more powerful weapons than each other. Neither of them ever actually uses these because they fear mass destruction.

After World War II, the USSR takes control of areas of Eastern Europe, including East Germany, forming a communist “Eastern Bloc.” The US helps to rebuild western European countries. Eastern Europe becomes cut off from the West.

1945

A divided Europe

The Cold War

an d co m m un ist US st ali pit ca e th II, ar W ld or W Af te r th e m os t po we rfu l So vie t Un ion (th e US SR ) we re of great te ns ion co un tri es in th e wo rld . A pe rio d en t th e ot he r fro m ev pr to ed tri e sid ch ea as n, be ga en tio n of nu cle ar ga ini ng to o m uc h po we r. Th e inv at . Th is is kn ow n re th al ion dit ad an d te ea cr s we ap on lic t wa s fo ug ht th ro ug h nf co e us ca be , ar W ld Co e th as y fo rc e. po liti ca l ide as rath er th an m ilit ar

282

1 97 2

World Chess Championship In the “match of the century,” American Bobby Fischer beats chess champion Boris Spassky of the USSR. This ends 24 years of Soviet domination of the World Chess Championship.

1983

“Star Wars” US president Ronald Reagan calls the USSR an “evil empire.” He reveals a plan, called “Star Wars,” to put weapons in space. These would defend against a nuclear attack, and show off US wealth and technology. However, they are never built.

The hot wars Although the Cold War never resulted in actual warfare between the USSR and US, it led to many smaller wars in other countries as the two sides tried to spread their influence. These were known as proxy wars, or hot wars.

1951

1959 Cuban Revolution

Cuban Missile Crisis The USSR builds nuclear missile launch sites in communist Cuba, close to the US coast. The US demands that the sites be removed. Nuclear war seems inevitable. However, the Soviets withdraw at the last minute.

1985–1991

Glasnost and Perestroika Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev begins to make changes in the USSR. Perestroika (“restructuring”) improves the economy, while glasnost (“openness”) allows freedom of the press and political expression.

1975 Angolan Civil War

1968 Czechoslovakian Uprising

1979–1990 Nicaraguan Revolution

1979–1989 Afghan War

1950–1954

Cambridge spies After being recruited as Soviet spies while at Cambridge University in the UK, four British men are discovered to have been passing secret information to the USSR. Three of them are forced to move to the Soviet Union, and one shares Soviet secrets in exchange for his freedom.

13 August 1962

1962

1973 Chilean coup

55

A scandal erupts when some US government officials are caught giving American secrets to the USSR. Senator Joseph McCarthy mounts a campaign to hunt down rebel US communists, but innocent people are prosecuted in the process.

1955–1968 Vietnam War

1956 Hungarian Revolution

19

McCarthyism

1950–1953 Korean War

The Berlin Wall German communists erect a wall dividing East Berlin from West. It becomes an ugly symbol of division between the two Cold War political ideals. The wall separates many people from their families, homes, and jobs.

10 November 1989

Fall of the Berlin Wall As the USSR weakens, East Germans are astonished to finally be allowed to travel freely to West Germany. The wall is knocked down, and Germany is reunited. This marks the end of communist rule in Eastern Europe.

Warsaw Pact The USSR unites the Eastern Bloc through the Warsaw Pact which, like NATO in the West, creates an agreement that the countries will support one another. It strengthens Soviet power over the Eastern Bloc, too.

1960s

1 9 69 1957–

The internet

Space Race

During the 1960s, the US government funds a project by DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) to develop a way to share information between military computers quickly, and so the internet is born.

The US and USSR compete to advance their space exploration. Their progress represents the scientific and economic power of each country. It ends when American spacecraft Apollo 11 lands on the Moon.

1991 The Soviet Union collapses For the first time in its history, Russia elects a president. The Communist Party is defeated and ordered to end its rule. The world looks on in amazement as the USSR disintegrates into 15 separate countries.

283

Au gu s

First Soviet spacecraft on the Moon

9 95 t1

Soviet astronaut selection process The Soviet air force’s research institute, NIIVVS, starts recruiting astronauts for future missions.

Luna 2 is launched to the Moon. It is the first spacecraft to Se land on the Moon and p the first man-made object to land on a body in space.

April 9, 1

The first US astronauts are selected by NASA, before human spaceflight operations begin.

er 12, 1959 mb te

First US astronauts selected

95 9

February 2 0,

47 19

NASA formed

First animals in space The US sends the first animals into space. They are fruit flies, launched on board a German-designed V-2 rocket from World War II.

r1

58 , 19

The US founds the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), a federal agency dedicated to space exploration.

Oct ob e

October 4, 19 57 Novemb er 3,

57 19

First animal in orbit Laika, a stray dog from the streets of Moscow, is the first animal to orbit Earth, on Russia’s Sputnik 2. She is sent to test the effects of spaceflight on a living creature.

Race to the Moon During the Cold War (see pages 282–283), the US and the USSR began to develop technology in order to explore space. The public in both countries took great pride in these space programs, and as more achievements were made, national excitement increased. A long, thrilling race began to be the first country to put a satellite in space and, ultimately, an astronaut on the Moon.

284

First satellite orbit of earth The USSR’s Sputnik 1, the world’s first artificial satellite, orbits Earth. The US is shocked and surprised at this success, and increases efforts on its own space program.

First human in space

Alan Shepard becomes the first American in space, in the spacecraft Freedom 7. It flies 116 miles (187 km) high and returns safely to Earth.

1 96 ,1

Ap ri l

First American in space

1

2,

Yuri Gagarin, an astronaut from the USSR, is the first human to journey into outer space. His spacecraft, Vostok 1, is launched and orbits the Earth.

Ma y5

61 19 Ma y2

5, 61 19

Kennedy announces the space race President Kennedy makes a speech announcing his intention to race the Soviets to put a human on the Moon.

The second test of the USSR’s N1 rocket, which is planned to take the first human to the Moon, ends in disaster when it is destroyed in one of the largest non-nuclear explosions in human history.

Ju l

69 , 19

Neil Armstrong, first man on the Moon, July 20, 1969

USSR tests rockets for manned mission

y3

“That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.”

Ju ly

, 1969 20 First human on the Moon The US sends humans to the Moon in Apollo 11. Neil Armstrong is the first human to walk on the Moon, and his co-pilot Buzz Aldrin is the second.

285

Apollo launches Apollo 11 was the first crewed mission to land on the Moon. The astronauts’ journey would not have been possible without the extremely powerful Saturn V rocket. On the morning of July 16, 1969, the huge three-stage rocket, towering 361 ft (110 m) above its launch pad in Florida, lifted Apollo 11 away from Earth and into low Earth orbit. Its upper stage then blasted the craft on its epic 950,000-mile (1.5 million-km) journey to the Moon.

THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS A world on the brink of war In the fall of 1962, the global superpowers of the United States and the Soviet Union were in a diplomatic deadlock. This began when the Soviets installed nuclear missiles on the Caribbean island of Cuba, close to the US. As letters, official statements, and threats passed between the two rival nations, the rest of the world looked on for 13 tense days as fragile global peace teetered on the brink of nuclear war.

Old comrades, new rivals

During the 1950s, former World War II allies the United States and the Soviet Union become rival superpowers, and they each slowly build up a stock of nuclear weapons. As this “Cold War” develops, in 1952, the US secretly backs a military coup in Cuba, around 100 miles (160 km) off the coast of Florida. This allows military dictator Fulgencio Batista to regain power. Seven years later, in 1959, a revolution led by Cuban nationalist Fidel Castro overthrows Batista, and Cuba becomes the first communist state in the West.

An invasion fails

In 1960, US president Dwight D. Eisenhower halts trade and aid to Cuba. Cuba’s isolation encourages Castro to seek new allies and, by December 1960, Castro has accepted military and diplomatic support from the Soviet Union. In 1961, John F. Kennedy becomes the new president of the US, and he approves a plan to overthrow Castro’s government. This is put in motion on April 17, 1961, when a force of exiled Cubans living in the US invades western Cuba at the Bay of Pigs. The US-backed rebellion fails, and Castro’s military forces are triumphant, killing 100 and capturing about 1,200 of the invading exiles.

Missiles in place

Tensions rise

Relations between the US and the Soviet Union continue to decline with disagreements over Allied-occupied Berlin in Germany. Then, in April 1962, the US finalizes a deal to make ready their nuclear weapons in Turkey, close to the Soviet border. In July, in retaliation for this threat to his country, the Soviet Union’s premier Nikita Khrushchev strikes a deal with Castro to build Soviet missile bases on the island. On August 31, US senator Kenneth Keating warns his government of the Soviet military presence in Cuba. On September 21, Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs Andrei Gromyko urges the US to back away from Cuba or else face the possibility of war.

The world holds its breath

The crisis begins

On October 14, 1962, after ordering a U-2 spy plane to fly over Cuba, evidence is presented to President Kennedy and the Executive Committee, known as ExComm. Eight days of discussions and analysis lead to President Kennedy addressing the nation at 7:00 p.m. on October 22, stating that he has evidence of Soviet nuclear missiles on Cuba. The US sends its navy to surround the Caribbean island and block any other ships from approaching. The military is ordered to increase their readiness for war.

On October 23, 1962, Premier Khruschev replies to President Kennedy, claiming that all weapons on Cuba are defensive. On October 24, tensions rise as Soviet ships approach the US naval blockade, with Soviet submarines close behind. The US reacts by making ready its airbases in Florida, and by placing US Strategic Air Command on high alert for the first time in its history. Over the next two days, communications flow between Kennedy and Khrushchev through the United Nations. A deal to end the standoff is close until a US spy plane is shot down over Cuba on October 27. Nations around the world watch as nuclear war looms. Then, on October 28, a deal is struck to end the crisis. The US promises not to invade Cuba, and to withdraw its missiles from Turkey in exchange for the removal of all missiles from Cuba. The US naval blockade finally ends on November 20, as the last Soviet ship leaves the Caribbean. A month later, on December 24, the US sends food and medical supplies to Cuba in exchange for those captured in the Bay of Pigs invasion. A year later, on August 30, 1963, the US and the Soviet Union establish a “hotline” between their leaders to allow for immediate diplomatic discussions in the future.

“We were eyeball to eyeball and the other fellow just blinked.” US Secretary of State Dean Rusk on hearing that the Soviet ships had turned back, October 1962

289

The Civil Rights Movement

February– July 19

D IN E R S P R OT E

The Civil War brought an end to slavery, but the African American struggle for equal rights was only just beginning. In many parts of the country, racism and unequal treatment for black people were supported by law. During the 1950s and 1960s, people joined together as the Civil Rights Movement to fight for equality.

Brown vs. cation Board of Edu

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in

Co lle ge stu de nts in Gree ns bo ro, No rth Ca ro lin a, ta ke th eir se ats at a wh ite -o nly W oo lwor th’s lun ch co unte r. So on , pe ac ef protests like th is on ul “si t-i n” e ta ke place all over th e so ut h.

December 1, 1955

ROSA PARKS ARRESTED Bus boycott

Polic e arre st Ros a Parks in Montgom ery, Alabama , afte r she refu ses to give up her bus seat to a white man . A youn g Dr. Mar tin Luth er King , Jr. lead s blac k tow nspe ople in a year-lon g bus boycott befo re the Sup rem e Cou rt rule s seg regation on buse s is illeg al.

L aw change September 3 Little Rock Nine

e th e new ru les . So me state s ign or -A me ric an hig h W he n nin e Af ric an ro ll in an all -w hite en sc ho ol stu de nts , Ar ka ns as , th e sc ho ol in Little Ro ck tio na l Gu ard to Na e th gove rn or ca lls e US gove rn me nt sto p th em . Late r, th rt th e Little Ro ck co es to se nd s tro op s Ni ne to sc ho ol.

May–Decem

ber 1961

FREEDOM RIDERS Campaigners

attacked

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September 9 1957 Civil Rights Act of

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290

Greensboro sit-

ST

1957

May 17, 1954

D IN T E G R AT E SCHOOLS

60

M a rc h

1963

Selma

RIOT S May 11 Birmingham riots

A protest foll ow ing a nig ht of bom bin gs targeted at civ il rights leaders tur ns into 8 days of riots in Bir min gha m, Ala bam a. Loc al pol ice res pon d vio len tly, stu nni ng the cou ntr y. Me dia coverage of the riots spa rks a nat ion al debate.

7–25, 1 9

M a rc h

1964 BALLOT OR BULL ET?

Equal rights

April 3 Malcolm X gives speech

July 2 Civil Rights Act of 1964

Activist and religious leader Malcolm X gives a fiery speech in which he promote s change by any means necessa ry, whethe r it’s the ballot box or the bullet. Rivals assassi nate him in 1965.

August 28

65

to

Alabam W it h M a a r ti n Lu th th o u s a n d s of m e r K in g , J r. , 5 0 m il e a rc h e rs s to th e s (80 k m ) fro m wa lk ta S M o ntg o te c a p ita l of e lm a m to th e p e r y. Th e m a rc a R ig hts s s in g of th e V h le ad s Ac t in A o u g u st 1 ti n g 965.

After a summe r of protests , the US governm ent propose s legislati on to end segregation in public places and give everyon e equal access to jobs regardle ss of a person’s race, color, or religion. The act is signed into law by Preside nt Lyndon B. Johnso n.

“I have a dream”

1968

VIOLENCE April 4 Luther King, Jr. shot

At the end of a ma rch atte nde d by 250,00 0 peo ple in Washi ngton DC, civ il rights leader Ma rtin Lut her Kin g, Jr. del ive rs his fam ous spe ech fro m the ste ps of the Lin col n Me mo rial . Kin g’s powerf ul wo rds con vin ce ma ny Am eric ans that now is the tim e for cha nge.

A snip er ass ass inates Ma rtin Lut her Kin g, Jr. in Me mp his, Ten nes see. Sho ck spread s qui ckly, and riots bre ak out in severa l US citie s. Pre side nt Joh nso n asks Am eric ans to reje ct viol enc e and puts pre ssu re on Co ngress to pas s new leg islation qui ckly.

FREEDOM SUMMER June Register to vote

EQ UA L AC CE SS

In Mississ ippi, thousan ds of voluntee rs work togethe r to register as many African America n voters as possible. The voluntee rs face harassm ent and intimidation.

April 11 Civil Rights Act of 1968

Co ngress sign s this act to give eve ryo ne fair and equ al acc ess to hou sing . The imp act of civi l rights leg islation like this is hug e, but the ma rch for equ ality continu es.

Selma The march in Alabama from Selma to Montgomery was organized to draw attention to the difficulties African Americans faced when registering to vote. Although African Americans had the right to vote, state officials tried to stop them from registering. Registration offices were rarely open, and officials made people complete unnecessary literacy tests, fill in long forms, and pay fees.

291

3150 bce–30

ce

c.750–323 bce

Ancient Egyptians The Egyptians live in a hot climate, so they make nearly all their clothes from lightweight linen woven from flax plants grown beside the Nile River. Both men and women wear makeup and wigs.

509 bce–476 ce

Ancient Greeks A simple chiton (a long sleeveless shirt tied with a belt) is worn by men, women, and children. It can be short or long, printed or plain, gathered or loose, and topped with a cloak for extra warmth.

1400s

The Romans Most people wear simple tunics and togas made from wool and linen. The colors of these clothes mark the wearer’s rank in society. Purple, for example, is worn by the ruling classes.

Fashion

c.1450–1600

Middle Ages The most common item of medieval clothing is the tunic. Rich people wear fancy versions of this. Hose (thin, fitted trousers with feet, much like tights) begin to become popular for men. These are an early version of pants.

People have always been interested in what they wear, from the ancient Egyptians and their carefully crafted wigs, to today’s shoppers, who can buy the latest fashions online. Fashion has changed as many times as you’ve changed your socks. Its history is as long and colorful as some of its most sensational creations.

2000s Fast fashion Fashion becomes accessible, with high-end stores cheaply recreating catwalk trends. However, concerns grow about working conditions in factories, and the environmental impact of cheap, disposable clothes.

292

1980s Designer decade In the 1980s, fashion designers became superstars, and models became celebrities. The internet makes fashion truly global. If a celebrity appears in a dress, it can sell out in moments on the other side of the world.

1970s Flares and heels Trousers are more popular with women than ever before, and flares get wider for men and women. Platform shoes step into fashion, influenced by performers such as David Bowie and Elton John.

Renaissance Clothing moves from being loose to fitted. Men and women start to wear different items of clothing. As wealthy people begin to travel the world, fashions from different countries influence each other. Many copy the style of Queen Elizabeth I of England, known for her full-skirted dresses and large ruffs.

1960s Youthquake Teenagers, now with their own money to spend, break free from the fashions of their parents. Young designers lead the way, such as Mary Quant, who shocks older generations when she designs the miniskirt in 1964.

1950s Leisure time After World War II ends, travel and leisure, once just for the wealthy, become more affordable. Swimwear, sandals, and sunglasses become popular. The bikini is invented in 1946, and rises in popularity in the 1950s.

c.1500–1700

Ottoman finery The Ottoman Empire, stretching from southern Europe to Asia, inspires European fashion. This includes turbans and long, flowing robes, crafted from beautiful, expensive fabrics.

1600s

European fashions France (and to a lesser extent, England) leads the way in fashion, with the rest of Europe following. More than ever, clothes demonstrate wealth and position in society. The rich splurge on the latest fashions in hand-decorated silk and velvet.

1603

1700s

Kimono The Edo period in Japan (see pages 158–159) sees a rise in the kimono, a robe with flowing sleeves and a wide belt. Wealthy people compete for the richest fabrics, expressing their status and style.

Rococo An artistic movement known as rococo inspires lighter, more flowing clothes. Fitted dresses are replaced by full-skirted gowns known as mantuas, and later by open robes and petticoats. Men wear coats and breeches (short pants) in a move away from tight-fitting hose.

1800s

Sportswear The introduction of vacation in the 1800s gives people more leisure time to do sports. Rich people adopt outfits for sports such as hunting, riding, and archery. Sporty fashion is for both women and men.

T-shirts The US Navy introduces this iconic item of clothing, meant to be worn as an extra layer under a shirt. It is stretchy and holds its shape, as well as being easy to clean and inexpensive.

1940s Wartime fashion During World War II, money and material is in short supply, meaning few can afford new suits or dresses. Many men and women are inspired to join the armed forces by the smart uniforms.

1930s Film star fashion A financial crash puts an end to the fun of the jazz age. Unable to buy into fashion, normal people instead admire the clothes of glamorous film stars such as Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers. The women wear long, fitted dresses, and men’s suits have narrow waists and wide shoulders.

1920s Jazz age Following World War I, practical, comfortable clothes become popular. Skirts become shorter, and many young women, known as flappers, cut their hair short, smoke, and dance to jazz to rebel against oldfashioned society.

1913

1871 Blue jeans

The first jeans are invented by Jacob W. Davis and Levi Strauss in the US. The jeans have metal fastenings at the seams, making them tough and long-lasting. They become popular with laborers across the US, and by the mid-20th century will become a key feature of wardrobes across the world.

1846 African prints A new printing technique is developed, which prints fabric with wax to create colorful patterns. This printed fabric is a huge hit in Ghana, and soon is being used to make clothes across much of West and Central Africa. The patterns are used to create pictures that tell stories and ideas.

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Space exploration The desire to explore space has led to many incredible developments. In 1969, humans first landed on the Moon. Twenty years later, all the planets in the solar system had been explored by spacecraft. Now, the next era of space exploration is beginning, with ambitious plans to expand space tourism and send humans to Mars.

First satellite

Sputnik 1 This simple satellite is about the size of a basketball.

“History will remember the 20th century for two technological developments: atomic energy and space flight.” Neil Armstrong, in introduction to Moon Shot: The Inside Story of America’s Apollo Moon Landings, 1994

Viking 1 One of two Viking spacecraft sent to Mars by NASA, Viking 1 takes pictures and gathers scientific data.

The Soviet Union triggers the Space Age with the launch of Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite, into space. Sputnik 1 takes about 98 minutes to travel around Earth. Its success shocks the US, causing the country to speed up its own space program.

Mission to Mars

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NASA’s Viking 1 lands on the surface of Mars after a 10-month journey. It is the first spacecraft to not only land on another planet, but also take photos and collect data that can be sent back to Earth.

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Space telescope Images of Mars The first close-up photos of the planet Mars are beamed back to Earth. Taken by US spacecraft Mariner 4, they aren’t quite what the world is expecting. Rather than showing aliens on Mars as people hoped, the grainy pictures show barren, gray craters.

Mariner 4 This spacecraft records images as it flies past Mars. It is the first craft to photograph a planet other than Earth.

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Hubble space telescope This historic telescope circles Earth every 96 minutes.

NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope is launched, and becomes the most famous space observatory ever flown. It can observe objects more than 13.4 billion light-years from Earth.

Humans in space For as long as humans have looked up at the stars, we have dreamed of exploring the universe. In 1961, the first person entered space in his spacecraft, marking the beginning of an extraordinary journey for humans venturing into space.

1965 Soviet Alexey Leonov walks in space.

1969 American Neil Armstrong walks on the Moon.

2001 Businessman Dennis Tito is the first space tourist.

1961 Soviet Yuri Gagarin is the first person in space.

1998 The International Space Station (ISS) is built.

2003 The first piloted Chinese space mission is launched.

Juno Space probe Juno is roughly the size of a basketball court.

Interstellar space exploration NASA’s Voyager 1 probe is the first artificial object to travel to the edge of the solar system and head off into interstellar space (the space between stars). No spacecraft has gone there before.

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Jupiter mission

Golden record Voyager 1 carries a record of sounds and images of life on Earth, in case of encounters with aliens.

Juno travels more than 1.7 billion miles (2.7 billion km) from Earth to Jupiter, a giant planet with a diameter around 11 times the size of that of Earth. Juno investigates how Jupiter formed 4.6 billion years ago.

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Comet landing The Philae is the first spacecraft ever to land on the surface of a speeding comet. As it hurtles toward the comet, it sends back information about the solar system and life on Earth.

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Mission to Saturn ends Philae This giant robot is packed with cameras and sensors to probe the secrets of space.

Launched in 1997, Cassini ends its 20-year mission exploring Saturn and its moons. The craft breaks up as it plows into Saturn’s cloud tops in a dramatic end to one of NASA’s most successful missions.

Cassini The probe slips between Saturn and its rings to send stunning images back to Earth.

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Booming nations After World War II, many East and Southeast Asian countries progressed from poverty to extreme wealth. This development began in the 1960s, as Asian countries, starting with Japan, began to produce high-tech items such as cameras and computers. As these goods were exported to other continents, the economies of these countries grew until they were some of the largest in the world.

1964

1965

Bullet train

Singapore develops

Ten projects

Changing China

The world’s first high-speed train, nicknamed a “bullet” train, is built in Japan. It reaches speeds of around 186 mph (300 kph) and runs between Japanese cities Tokyo and Osaka, cutting the travel time between them from seven hours to four.

After becoming independent from neighboring Malaysia, Singapore sees massive economic growth. Factories and companies are encouraged to develop, attracting huge investments from abroad. Many international companies build offices here.

On the island of Taiwan, a series of improvements gets underway known as the Ten Major Construction Projects. Some projects are industrial, but six of them focus on improving transportation by building new roads, railroads, ports, and airports.

Deng Xiaoping becomes leader of China after Mao’s death and makes huge changes to the economy. Foreign firms are invited to invest in China for the first time in many years. Almost every organization undergoes extensive change, transforming China beyond recognition.

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2003

1990

1993

Japanese crash

High aspirations

Japan has risen from the ruins of World War II to become the world’s second-largest economy. However, in 1990, the economy crashes, leading to what is known as the “lost decade,” in which the country struggles to make money.

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The Petronas Towers are built in Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia. These twin skyscrapers, inspired by Islamic art, will be the world’s tallest buildings until 2004, standing at 1,482 ft (452 m) tall. They symbolize Malaysia’s economic success.

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1978

Hong Kong

Three Gorges Dam

The control of Hong Kong is transferred from Britain to China after more than 150 years of British rule. Skilled workers use the business skills they have acquired during British rule to help the Hong Kong economy grow.

China builds a giant dam across the Yangzte River, 1.4 miles (2.3 km) long and 607 ft (185 m) tall. It is an incredible feat of engineering, but China is criticized for forcing more than a million people to leave their homes to make room for it.

“Economic growth depends on … the courage to sail without hesitation onto the rough seas of global competition.” Japanese prime minister Shinzo Abe, in a speech to the Japanese government, 2013

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The Walkman

High poverty

Gaming revolution

Korean cars

Japanese company Sony releases a portable cassette tape player, called the Walkman. It enables people to listen to music while on the move. It sells out in Japanese stores and soon becomes a worldwide phenomenon.

Although business and technology is rapidly improving in Asia, most people’s living conditions are not. East Asia has the highest poverty rate in the world, with 77 per cent living on less than $1.25 a day, according to the World Bank.

Japanese company Nintendo launches what will become the best-selling game console of all time, known as the Famicom. It revolutionizes how people spend their free time and makes Nintendo a leader in the new gaming industry.

After a decade of growth in its automobile industry, South Korea exports half a million cars to the rest of the world in a single year. By the early 21st century, South Korea is one of the world’s largest car manufacturers.

2004

2008

2011

2015

Tsunami

Beijing Olympics

Nuclear disaster

Chinese boom

An earthquake (the third-largest ever recorded) under the Indian Ocean near Indonesia sets off a devastating tsunami, producing waves of nearly 100 ft (30 m). Across 14 different countries, 230,000 people die, and millions lose their homes.

China hosts the Summer Olympic Games in Beijing across 37 venues. It is a chance for China to impress the rest of the world—more than 4.7 billion people watch the events on televisions around the world.

An earthquake and tsunami on the coast of Japan kills thousands, but the crisis worsens when sea water damages the Fukushima nuclear plant. The plant melts, explodes, and leaks lethal radiation, meaning over 100,000 people have to be evacuated.

The World Bank, an international bank, ranks China as the world’s largest economy, overtaking the United States. Its decision is based on the comparison of the size of incomes in countries across the world.

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Computing Before 1935, the word “computer” referred to a person whose job it was to do mathematical calculations. Today, a computer is a machine that takes input, stores and processes data, and gives output. Computers were initially built from mechanical components such as levers and gears until electronic parts were used in the 20th century. Early computers were so huge they filled entire rooms. Now, the computing power of the smartphone in your pocket is just as powerful.

1946

ENIAC 1936

Turing machine 1890

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1822

Babbage’s Difference Engine British inventor Charles Babbage draws up plans for his Difference Engine—a mechanical device that can do complicated calculations. He imagines that this machine will store data in the future, anticipating the computer technology that is to come. Construction begins on the engine but is never completed.

Ada Lovelace invents programming Babbage shows math whiz Ada Lovelace his idea for a mechanical computer. She works out how the computer can manipulate letters and symbols as well as numbers. Her idea was decades ahead of its time. Historians consider her the first computer programmer.

Punch card American inventor Herman Hollerith designs a machine to calculate the size of the population in the 1890 US census. It uses electricity to read a pattern of holes punched in a card. His invention saves both time and millions of dollars.

“A computer… is the most remarkable tool we have ever come up with. It’s the equivalent of a bicycle for our minds.” Steve Jobs, in a 1990 documentary

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British computer scientist Alan Turing has an idea for a machine that can solve any problem that is solvable, leading to the development of the modern computer. During World War II, he devises a range of codebreaking tools to break Nazi codes.

John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckers, scientists at the University of Pennsylvania, build one of the first general-purpose computers, called ENIAC. This massive 30-ton computer glowing with 18,000 tubes is intended to make more calculations than all of humanity has up to this point.

Artificial intelligence As early as 1950, Alan Turing wanted to know if machines could ever think as intelligently as humans. He put together a test to decide when this AI (artificial intelligence) was achieved. Nowadays, computer scientists and inventors with access to even faster and more powerful machines are coming closer to achieving Turing’s goals of creating a machine with the intelligence of a human.

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1976

First computer game

Computer language

Floppy disk

Cray supercomputer

Hundreds of people line up to play in New York, when physicist William Higinbotham serves up what is said to be the first ever computer game. Two players use buttons and dials to bat a blob of light across a virtual court.

While working for the US Navy, math expert Grace Hopper develops the first computer language, which becomes known as COBOL. This language is still in use today.

Engineers at tech company IBM invent the floppy disk, a small plastic envelope housing a bendy mylar (plastic) disk that lets users share data quickly. Billions of disks a year are sold.

The world’s fastest computer is built. Its “C” shape reduces the time signals take to travel through the machine. It takes a year to assemble and costs about $9 million.

1994

1984

1982

1976

First smartphone

Mac attack

Rise of the PC

IBM’s Simon Personal Communicator is the world’s first smartphone, created years before there is a name for the device. A touchscreen allows users to make calls, email, and manage schedules.

Apple I and Apple II

Apple launches its Macintosh, the first successful computer controlled with a mouse. A drop-down menu makes it simple to use. Microsoft releases a mouse-friendly Windows operating system the next year.

The Commodore 64 makes personal computers popular. Thousands of software programs, such as word processors, spreadsheets, and games, are released for the machine, which is one of the highest-selling computers ever.

Steve Wozniak, Ron Wayne, and Steve Jobs create and sell one of the first desktop computers, Apple I, as a kit for computer enthusiasts. Apple II is created a year later, and appeals to a wider audience with its keyboard, game controllers, and the video game Breakout.

2012 2010

First tablet Microsoft releases the first tablet computer. The device features a touchscreen, and can access games, music, email, and the internet, putting the power of a much larger machine in the user’s hands.

Raspberry Pi This tiny and inexpensive computer introduces a generation of kids to computer programming through fun and easy projects that young coders upload and share with each other online.

2016

AR/VR goes mainstream Smartphone users can add digital elements to a view on their camera with augmented reality (AR) technology, and can immerse themselves in artificial digital environments with virtual reality (VR).

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International Women’s Day Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz This Mexican nun is known as the first feminist writer of the Americas. Her work La Respuesta (The Answer) is a letter written in response to a priest who has attempted to silence her and other women, and deny them education.

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1691

Mary Wollstonecraft

US campaign for suffrage

A Vindication of the Rights of Woman by British writer and philosopher Mary Wollstonecraft is published. It sets out the reasons why women and men are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities. Its arguments are still relevant today.

1792

1848

The National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) is created to campaign for women’s suffrage in the US (see pages 234–235). Two million people will join, and it will play a key role in passing the 19th Amendment, which will guarantee women’s right to vote in the US in 1920.

1860

A day is created to promote women’s rights and support suffrage. It is initially only marked in a few European countries, but will soon spread across the world.

UK suffragists The National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) forms in the UK, under the leadership of Millicent Fawcett. The NUWSS supports a peaceful campaign for women to get the vote. It believes that a nonviolent approach will show that women are respectable and responsible enough to participate in politics.

1869

1897 1905

1911

Seneca Falls Christine de Pisan French poet and author de Pisan supports her family through her writing. She writes some of the first feminist works of literature, which argue for equal rights and treatment, and celebrate female heroines from history.

The first-ever women’s rights convention in the US meets at Seneca Falls in New York. More than 200 women, led by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, meet to discuss rights for women.

Feminism

Anna Filosofova Russian women’s rights leader and social campaigner Anna Filosofova leads a movement to provide women with work, education, and low-cost housing. Her work is revolutionary for its time.

Feminism is the belief that women and men are equal, and should have equal rights and opportunities. However, historically, men have been given more powerful roles than women. Many feminists protest and campaign to achieve equal rights and power. Early feminists focused on getting women the right to vote, but over time the movement has come to address the role of women in many more areas, from politics and home life to music and sports. 300

UK suffragettes Emmeline Pankhurst rallies British women, known as suffragettes, around the slogan “Deeds not Words,” which describes their tactic of demanding, not asking, for the right to vote. They march, stage hunger strikes, break windows, and chain themselves to railings outside important buildings.

Women’s March Dora Shafik Indian women’s movement India becomes independent from British rule, and the government writes a new set of laws, with the involvement of women. These support freedom and nondiscrimination for all, helping to inspire a women’s movement in India.

“We cannot all succeed when half of us are held back.”

The feminist movement in Egypt finds its voice in Dora Shafik, a writer and editor. In 1951, she storms the Egyptian parliament with a group of women, demanding the right to vote. A week later, a bill is passed allowing women to vote and become members of parliament.

Malala Yousafzai, in a speech to the UN, 2013

In response to sexist language and abuse of power, people take to the streets in Washington D.C., and many places across the world. It is a show of support for women’s rights, and equality more generally, across gender, race, religion, and more. It is estimated that seven million people take part worldwide.

International rights The UN agrees on a list of rights that women should have across the world, in a treaty called CEDAW. By 2017, 189 countries will sign the treaty, making it one of the most important agreements on human rights in history.

1947

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1990s

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2017

The Feminine Mystique American writer Betty Friedan discovers that many women in the US are unhappy being housewives (married women who work in the home, looking after their children and the household). She writes The Feminine Mystique, a book that insists women deserve to go to college and have successful careers, just as much as men.

Simone de Beauvoir French philosopher Simone de Beauvoir writes The Second Sex, a book that discusses the treatment of women throughout history. It attempts to define what it means to be female, inspiring generations to follow.

Billie Jean King Tennis star Billie Jean King founds the Women’s Tennis Association, which campaigns to give female tennis players equal pay to male players. It is a start in breaking a trend in sports where female athletes are paid less than men. However, this inequality still exists in many sports today.

Riot Grrrls This feminist musical movement begins in the state of Washington. Frustrated with being surrounded by all-male bands, women begin to form their own bands. They make music, create magazines, and hold meetings to express and discuss their thoughts on feminism and politics.

Malala Yousafzai Malala Yousafzai, a Pakistani activist for girls’ education, wins the Nobel Peace Prize. She is known for writing about the Taliban (see pages 272–273) banning girls from attending school, and surviving an attempt by the Taliban to kill her when she was 15 years old.

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The internet The internet began in the US more than 50 years ago, when the government tried to think up a foolproof way for computers to talk to each other. In its early years, the internet was a tool for scientists and the military to share information. Who knew that it would evolve to be used by almost anyone for nearly everything? Now, about half the world’s population has internet access, and an estimated 4 billion people use the internet.

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Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger launch Wikipedia, an online encyclopedia. More than 20,000 entries fill its pages in the first year, and it becomes the largest reference site on the internet.

1996

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Music on the go

Apple launches its iTunes music store, sparking a trend for downloading music. People can now play their favorite music on their computer or portable music player. More than a million songs are sold in the first week.

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Modem

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PhD students Larry Page and Sergey Brin build the hugely successful Google search engine. Google makes access to information on the web faster and easier.

Online encyclopedia

First email

62

Rise of the search engine

01

Viral video A 3D animation of a baby dancing goes “viral” via forwarded email chain messages. This is probably the first ever viral video, and a precursor to the meme.

04

Rise of social media A student at Harvard University, Mark Zuckerberg, launches facebook.com. It will go on to become the world’s biggest social networking site.

71

Ray Tomlinson invents the email program, which sends messages from one computer to another. He introduces the use of the @ symbol in email addresses.

Researchers at Bell Labs produce the first commercial modem. This is a device that converts digital signals to electrical ones and back again, so that computers can communicate via telephone lines.

ARPANET

Computer scientist Leonard Kleinrock figures out a way of enabling computers to talk to each other by breaking information into small blocks. This is known as ARPANET, and is a predecessor of the internet.

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Video-sharing YouTube is created, and becomes one of the fastest-growing sites on the internet. The first video on the site is a 19-second clip about elephants.

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Hello, internet

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Domain names

Computer networking becomes international, as University College London and the Royal Radar Establishment in Norway connect to ARPANET. The term “internet” isn’t used until 1974.

The system for naming websites with phrases such as .com, .edu, or .org is created. This makes it much easier for people to know which website they are visiting.

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World Wide Web

“The internet is the first thing that humanity built that humanity doesn’t understand.”

The World Wide Web begins as a project at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN). It is led by British scientist Tim Berners-Lee. The first web browser and the world’s first website go live at CERN in 1990. The World Wide Web opens to the public 3 years later.

Eric Schmidt, former head of Google, in a speech at the Internet World Trade Show, 1999

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1991 Fresh coffee

Online shopping

Researchers rig up a live shot of a coffee machine so they can see on their computer screens when a fresh pot has been brewed. This is thought of as the first webcam.

1995 sees the rise of what will become some of the world’s largest online shops. Amazon.com, a huge internet bookstore, launches. The online shopping site eBay, originally called Auction Web, lists its first item for sale (a broken laser pointer).

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07

Online voting Estonia is the world’s first country to use internet voting in a governmental election. This makes it easier for many people to vote, encouraging more people to participate in the election.

The Internet of Things There are more devices connected to the internet than there are people in the world. Around 8.4 million devices are in use. The “Internet of Things” describes all the physical objects in the world connected to the internet.

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Internet politics 20

2 01 7

Social media sites such as Twitter and Facebook enable communication during a period of revolutionary protests and demonstrations across the Middle East known as the Arab Spring. Protesters can quickly organize demonstrations and spread information on the sites.

2 01 7 Face pay Facial recognition technology allows users to pay for goods with their faces in China. A scanner analyzes users’ faces and matches them to a database of photos.

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199

ku u l ra j u l o r f Ha ow of cohes thejuku i n b p l a s H a ra d A ra h i n g s kyo’s nts l e a g n t c l o s of To st u d e re s s i nt et ex p o y a Art s t re t r i c t . g e b y f l a m b b y d i s h a r s i n i re d c e p t h e m s e l v s , i n s t u re , t o s e n cul ane the hio f a s r t o o n ze J a p . c a o n i st y l e i t o l u t re e t re v s

0s 305

Reproducing robot

AIBO and ASIMO Japanese company Sony launches AIBO, a robotic dog that plays and learns by interacting with people, its environment, and other AIBOs. The following year, another Japanese company, Honda, will introduce ASIMO, a humanoid robot able to walk, climb stairs, and change direction.

Scientists in the US develop a robot that can make copies of itself. This technology could be used to create robots that repair themselves while working in difficult or dangerous environments, such as outer space.

Robot car

Opportunity and Spirit rovers These robot geologists, launched by NASA, land on Mars. They trek for miles across the planet, searching for information about its surface, and clues to conditions that could have once supported extraterrestrial life.

199

19

19

9–

20

00

66

20

04

61

20 19

Stanley, a self-driving modified Volkswagen car, beats 22 other robot cars in a 132-mile (212-km) race in the US. The goal of the race is to kickstart research into the development of a future fleet of even better robot cars.

39

05 20

Unimate 1900

05

The first mass-produced robotic arm for use in factories, Unimate 1900, gets a job. US car company General Motors installs Unimate on its assembly line to do tasks such as stacking hot pieces of metal and welding car bodies.

Elektro and Sparko A US company builds a metal person, Elektro, for the New York World’s Fair. Standing 7 ft (2.1 m) tall, it rolls on wheels, moves its fingers and arms, and has a 700-word vocabulary (prerecorded on vinyl records). Its robot dog, Sparko, begs, barks, and wags its tail.

306

Shakey Basic artificial intelligence allows this mobile robot to see and move around in its environment. A 1970 magazine article calls it, perhaps overambitiously, “the first electronic person,” but the robot named for his wobbly walk becomes iconic.

“I visualize a time when we will be to robots what dogs are to humans.” Claude Shannon, mathematician, in an article in Omni Magazine, 1987

The story of robotics For centuries, people have been fascinated by the idea of mechanical devices that can be programmed to perform in a particular way: robots. In the 20th century, advances in technology launched a robot revolution. Inventors, many of them inspired by works of science fiction, created incredible, complex robots to help people at work and play. JIBO

Robot backflip Despite the difficulty of developing a humanoid robot capable of walking on two legs, US robotics company Boston Dynamics releases a video of its Atlas robot doing a backflip, signaling a new age of robot movement. They hope that Atlas’s strength and agility can be put to use in search and rescue operations in the future.

JIBO, pitched as the world’s first social robot, goes on sale. Face and voice recognition technology allows JIBO to recognize up to 16 people. The blue ring around its waist lights up when it hears someone talk to it.

20

2

17 20

01 6

Citizen Sophia

2 2 01

17

20

17

Saudi Arabia grants citizenship to Sophia, a humanoid robot. She can hold simple conversations and has more than 60 different facial expressions.

Drone delivery Baxter This industrial robot can be programmed by a human moving its arms to perform a task. Baxter memorizes these motions so it is able to repeat the task independently. It can be programmed by anyone.

The online store Amazon makes its first delivery (a TV streaming device and a bag of popcorn) by drone to a customer in the UK. The package is delivered a mere 13 minutes after the order is placed.

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US presidents Since the office was created in 1789, there have been 44 presidents of the United States. To be eligible, a person has to be at least 35 years old and born either in the US, or overseas to US citizen parents.

John Tyler

James K. Polk

Vice-president who took the Greatly expanded the territory presidency on the death of of the US, adding three new William Henry Harrison, making states, and taking over land in him the first president to serve the west that would become without being elected to office. New Mexico and California.

George Washington

John Adams

Thomas Jefferson

Led an army against the British in the War of Independence, then became the first president. He was unanimously elected.

Helped draft the Declaration of Independence. Established the naval department, so he is remembered as the “Father of the Navy.”

The main author of the Declaration of Independence, which stated that the colonies would no longer accept British rule.

1789–1797

1797–1801

1801–1809

Zachary Taylor

Millard Fillmore

Franklin Pierce

James Buchanan

Successful military general who commanded US forces in the war against Mexico (1846–1848). Died of cholera a year after taking office.

Tried to make a compromise between the anti-slavery states and the slave-owning states, but the peace was short-lived.

Allowed new states to decide for themselves whether to allow slavery, which angered many and edged the US ever closer to civil war.

Like previous presidents, he tried to make peace between states on the slavery issue, but by the end of his term, civil war was looming.

1845–1849

1849–1850

1850–1853

Grover Cleveland

Benjamin Harrison

William McKinley

Theodore Roosevelt

William H. Taft

Woodrow Wilson

The only president ever to serve two non-consecutive terms—he lost an election, then was voted back in again four years later.

Grandson of President William Henry Harrison, during his term the country expanded and six new states were admitted to the Union.

Oversaw expansion of US territories, including Hawaii and Puerto Rico. Six months into his second term, he was assassinated.

The youngest person to become president, at 42. Won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906 for negotiating peace between Russia and Japan.

A lawyer by profession, he set up the postal savings bank and passed a law allowing states to collect income tax.

Took the US into World War I in 1917. After the war, he proposed the formation of the League of Nations to try to prevent future conflict.

1885–1889, 1893–1897

1889–1893

1897–1901

1901–1909

1853–1857

1857–1861

1841–1845

1909–1913

1913–1921

John F. Kennedy

Lyndon B. Johnson

Richard Nixon

Gerald Ford

Jimmy Carter

Ronald Reagan

His work to reform civil rights and promote racial equality was cut short when he was shot dead in Texas.

Brought in the Civil Rights Act, but faced opposition for sending more troops into the war in Vietnam.

Ended the Vietnam War and improved relations with the Soviet Union. His term ended in disgrace after political corruption was uncovered.

Unexpectedly became vicepresident, then president, during an era of scandals. His honesty helped restore the image of the presidency.

President during a difficult period for the US, both at home and abroad. After his term in office, he became a respected statesman.

A former movie star, he helped end the Cold War. He was shot by a would-be assassin but recovered.

1961–1963

1963–1969

1969–1974

1974–1977

1977–1981

1981–1989

308

James Madison

James Monroe

Helped draw up the US Constitution, which explained government powers and guaranteed certain rights for citizens.

Remembered for the Monroe Doctrine, which declared that the US would resist attempts by other countries to establish colonies in the Americas.

1809–1817

John Quincy Adams

William Henry Harrison

Andrew Jackson

Martin Van Buren

Son of president John Adams. After his presidency, he became a campaigner against slavery.

Before he took office, he became a national hero for leading the army that defeated the British at the Battle of New Orleans.

After financial panic and stock market crash led to economic depression, Van Buren became unpopular and was not reelected.

The first president to die in office. He died of pneumonia only a month after he became president.

1817–1825

1825–1829

1829–1837

1837–1841

1841

Abraham Lincoln

Andrew Johnson

Ulysses S. Grant

Opposed to slavery, he led the country during four years of civil war. Days after the war ended, he was shot dead by John Wilkes Booth.

Put on trial by the Senate for violating the Tenure of Office Act, he escaped being removed from office by a single vote.

A hero of the Civil War, he was an inexperienced politician whose presidency was overshadowed by scandal and corruption.

After winning one of the closest presidential elections ever, he fought to end corruption in politics and public life.

Shot dead after only 200 days in office, before he could carry out his promise to reform the civil service and other public bodies.

Brought in a law that meant that civil servants were hired purely for their ability rather than because of their political connections.

1861–1865

1865–1869

1869–1877

1877–1881

1881

1881–1885

Dwight D. Eisenhower

Rutherford B. Hayes James A. Garfield

Chester A. Arthur

Warren G. Harding

Calvin Coolidge

Herbert Hoover

Franklin D. Roosevelt

Harry S. Truman

An unpopular president who was dogged by rumors of financial wrongdoing. He died suddenly, before an investigation could begin.

Honest, hard-working, and modest, he was fondly nicknamed “Silent Cal.” Under his presidency, the US economy boomed.

Shortly after his election, the US entered an era of serious economic depression. Hoover was blamed and did not win a second term.

Led the US through the Great Depression and World War II. He funded a plan to revive the US economy and help people out of poverty.

Authorized the dropping of two nuclear bombs on Japan, which ended World War II. He took the US to war with Korea.

Led the Allied armed forces in World War II. During his two terms of office, the US economy thrived.

1921–1923

1923–1929

1929–1933

1933–1945

1945–1953

1953–1961

George H. W. Bush

Bill Clinton

George W. Bush

Barack Obama

Donald Trump

An oil tycoon and former head of the CIA, he took the US and its allies into the first Gulf War with Iraq (1990–1991).

Presided over a time of peace and prosperity, but his reputation was damaged by a scandal over a relationship with a White House intern.

After the terrorist attacks of 9/11, he ordered the invasion of Afghanistan and declared the War on Terror.

The first African-American president. His healthcare reforms were disliked by opponents, and led to stalemate in government.

Before entering politics, Trump was a wealthy businessman, and a famous television personality.

1989–1993

1993–2001

2001–2009

2009–2017

2017– 309

British rulers

757–1066 Anglo-saxons

Offa 757–796 The king of Mercia (central England) expanded his kingdom north and south and protected it by building a huge dyke along the Welsh border.

After the Romans left Britain in the 5th century ce, the land was attacked by invaders and split into warring kingdoms. The leader of one, Egbert, became the first king of England. Throughout the Saxon period, powerful kings fended off Viking raids, but England was ruled by Viking monarchs for more than 25 years.

The history of England, and later Britain, is tied together by a string of kings and queens. Long ago, royals could start wars, break from the Church, and punish the country’s leaders. Today, the Queen has little power but upholds long and popular traditions.

757–796 802–839 839–856 856–860 860–866 866–871 871–899 899–924 925–940 940–946 946–955 955–959

959–975 975–978 979–1013 1014–1016 1013–1014 1016 1016–1035 1035–1040 1040–1042 1042–1066 1066

Offa Egbert AEthelwulf AEthelbald AEthelbert AEthelred I Alfred “The Great” Edward “The Elder” Athelstan Edmund I EAdred EAdwig

Edgar Edward II “The Martyr” AEthelred II “The Unready” AEthelred II “The Unready” Svein Edmund II “Ironside” Canute Harold I “Harefoot” Hardicanute Edward III “The confessor” Harold II

1485–1603 Elizabeth I 1558–1603 Strong-willed Elizabeth was a clever politician with loyal followers. Under her reign trade, exploration, and prosperity increased.

Mary I 1553–1558 Nicknamed Bloody Mary, Henry VIII’s eldest daughter burned Protestants after she seized the throne, and restored the Roman Catholic Church.

Henry VIII 1509–1547 Famous for his six wives (he divorced two and beheaded two), Henry VIII made himself head of the Church in England and bankrupted his country.

1603–1649

Egbert 802–839 Originally King of Wessex, Egbert increased the power and influence of his kingdom. His authority was recognized throughout most of England after he defeated Mercia and Northumbria.

1461–1485

Tudors

Yorkists

The Tudors ruled with an iron fist and were not always popular, but they fostered national pride and parliament grew in strength under them. The manufacturing and merchant classes rose in status, and architecture, literature, and theater blossomed. Playwright William Shakespeare was a leading light.

This branch of the House of Plantagenets had a strong claim to the throne. After Richard of York was killed in the Battle of Wakefield (1460), his son Edward became the first Yorkist king.

1485–1509 1509–1547 1547–1553 1553 1553–1558 1558–1603

Henry Vii Tudor Henry ViiI Edward VI Lady Jane Grey Mary I Elizabeth I

1461–1470 1471–1483 1483 1483–1485

1399–1413 1413–1422 1422–1461 1470–1471

Henry IV Henry V Henry VI Henry VI

Edward IV Edward IV Edward V Richard III

Richard III 1483–1485 The last English king to die on a battlefield, Richard III may have had a role in the death of his two nephews, the princes, in the Tower of London.

Henry VI 1422–1461 and 1470–1471 After losing his father’s gains in France, a failing mind cost Henry VI the throne for a time.

1649–1659

1660–1714

Stuarts

Commonwealth

Stuarts

Hanoverians

This dynasty was dominated by political battles between king and parliament, which ended with a civil war and a beheading. Although the Stuarts believed they had a god-given right to rule, they were tolerant of Catholics, and made peace with Spain. They were patrons of the arts and left a legacy of beautiful art and architecture.

For the first and only time in its history, England was a Commonwealth (or republic) without a king or queen. Ruled by puritan Oliver Cromwell and his parliament, the country took Jamaica from the Spanish and defeated the Dutch at sea.

After Charles II was restored to the throne London suffered two disasters. A plague killed more than 100,000 people and a great fire destroyed most of the city. James II tried to restore the Catholic faith but fled when William of Orange was invited to restore rights in the Glorious Revolution.

The Hanoverian dynasty saw many changes. Robert Walpole became the first prime minister to German-speaking George I, and Britain developed into an industrial society. By the end of Queen Victoria’s reign, Britain’s economic power was challenged by Germany and the US.

1649–1653 Republic 1653–1658 Oliver Cromwell (Lord Protector) 1658–1659 Richard Cromwell (Lord Protector)

James I 1603–1625 Scotland and England were united when this Scottish king took the throne.

310

Charles I 1625–1649 This stubborn king believed in his divine right to rule. Defeated by Oliver Cromwell in the Civil War, he was tried and executed by his parliament.

Oliver Cromwell (Lord Protector) 1653–1658 After Charles I was executed, this leading general established his own council of 15 and a parliament of 400. He was followed by his son Richard.

1660–1685 Charles II 1685–1688 James II 1689–1694 William III of Orange and Mary II (jointly) 1694–1702 William III 1702–1714 Anne

Charles II 1660–1685 This “merry monarch” had many interests and many mistresses. He took a keen interest in architecture and science, and introduced yachting to England.

1714–1901

1714–1727 1727–1760 1760–1820 1820–1830 1830–1837 1837–1901

George I George II George III George IV William IV Victoria

George I 1714–1727 This German-born king faced rebellion in Scotland then scandal when a South Sea trading company went bust and ruined thousands of investors.

1066–1154 Normans Originally Vikings who had settled in northwest France, the Normans were hungry for new land. William the Conqueror claimed the throne after he defeated Harold II at the Battle of Hastings. The Normans built castles and brought with them a feudal system of lords, who held land, and peasants, who worked it. 1066–1087 1087–1100 1100–1135 1135–1154

Alfred “The Great” 871– 899 The only English king to be known as “The Great,” Alfred was almost overthrown by Viking raiders but fought back, captured London, and expanded his original Wessex kingdom.

Canute 1016–1035 This Viking king treated Danes and Saxons fairly and the country prospered. There is an old story that he proved he was an ordinary man by trying and failing to make the tide go back.

Harold II 1066 Harold II was appointed by his brother-in-law Edward the Confessor but his reign was short-lived. He died after being shot in the eye in the Battle of Hastings, and William I took the throne.

William “the Conqueror” William II Henry I Stephen

William “the Conqueror” 1066–1087 Called “the Conqueror” because he conquered England, William was crowned king on Christmas Day 1066. He built the Tower of London and ordered a survey of land and people called the Domesday Book.

1399–1461 Lancastrians These three kings reigned through almost continual warfare. French territory was recaptured and then lost, and in the War of the Roses, the royal houses of Lancaster and York fought over the throne for 30 years.

Henry V 1413–1422 Henry V reclaimed lost territories in France when he defeated the French at the Battle of Agincourt.

Henry IV 1399–1413 Returning from exile in France, Henry IV reclaimed the throne from Richard II. His reign was marked by many rebellions.

1154 –1399 Henry III 1216–1272 After provoking civil wars with his barons, Henry III was defeated by their leader de Montfort, who formed a parliament of lords, bishops, knights, and freemen.

John I 1199–1216 John lost most of the territories in France and taxed his country heavily. Edward I “Longshanks” The Magna Carta 1272–1307 (great charter) was This warrior king fought many drawn up to settle battles to unite England and the rights of people, Scotland. A model parliament Church, and was formed during his reign. monarchy.

George III 1760–1820 The Americans won independence and England fought France in the Napoleonic Wars during George’s reign.

William IV 1830–1837 Many more people got the vote under William IV, and slavery was abolished throughout the British Empire.

Plantagenets Originating in Anjou in France, this dynasty took its name from a yellow flower (Planta genista) an ancestor wore in his hat. During much of their rule, England was at war with France and Scotland, and Wales and Ireland came under English rule. The Plantagenets laid the foundation for law and government by creating justices of the peace and the first parliament. They put the royal seal on a charter of rights called the Magna Carta.

Victoria 1837–1901 This much-loved queen ruled for 64 years. After her husband Prince Albert died, she went into mourning but was coaxed back to public life.

1154–1189 Henry II 1189–1199 Richard I “The Lionheart” 1199–1216 John I 1216–1272 Henry III 1272–1307 Edward I “Longshanks” 1307–1327 Edward II 1327–1377 Edward III 1377–1399 Richard II

Richard I “The Lionheart” 1189–1199 This crusading king spent most of his reign fighting for Christianity in West Asia. Imprisoned by the Emperor of Germany, he was returned for a huge ransom and was eventually killed in France.

1901–1910

1910–

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha

Windsors

This dynasty of just one king is named after Queen Victoria’s husband Prince Albert, who was the son of the Duke of SaxeCoburg and Gotha. Edward became king at the age of 59 and reigned during the first years of the 20th century, when new inventions like the first automobile were taking Britain into the modern age.

George V changed his surname to Windsor during the World War I because of the strong anti-German feelings of his people. After Edward VIII gave up the throne to marry a divorced woman in 1936, his younger brother George VI was king through World War II. Queen Elizabeth II has reigned for more than 60 years.

Edward VII 1901–1910 Edward was a social king who enjoyed sports, parties, and travel. He helped restore relations between France and England and built a new royal estate at Sandringham in Norfolk.

1910–1936 1936 1936–1952 1952–

George V Edward VIII George VI Elizabeth II

George VI 1936–1952 George VI was a good athlete and soldier, but this shy man with a stammer had not expected to be king. He managed to overcome his speech impediment and became popular during and after the war.

Elizabeth II 1952– The current queen remains head of the Commonwealth (former colonies) and is popular around the world. Prince William and Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge, and their children lead a new generation of royals.

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Glossary Terms defined elsewhere in the glossary are in italics.

abdication Formally handing over power or responsibility to another.

blockade The isolation of an area so as to prevent supplies from entering or leaving.

Bronze Age, the

The act of doing away with something completely.

A period of ancient history when people mostly used bronze for making tools and weapons.

anti-Semitism

caliph

Prejudice and hostility toward Jewish people.

The title of the religious and political leader of Islam (in the Islamic world).

abolition

apartheid In South Africa, a government policy of racial segregation that lasted from 1948 to 1994.

capitalism

aqueduct

An economic system based on the private ownership of property and free competitive conditions for business.

A bridge or other structure built to supply water.

ce

armistice An agreement that is reached to end a conflict.

assassination The murder of a key figure by surprise attack, carried out for political or religious reasons.

asteroid An object in space, made from a mixture of rock and metals, that orbits (see orbit) the Sun.

atmosphere The layer of air that surrounds Earth or another planet.

atom The smallest part of an element that has the same chemical makeup as the element.

bacteria Microscopic, single-celled (see cell) organisms (see organism), some of which are responsible for serious diseases.

barbarian The name given by the Romans to tribes outside the Roman Empire. bce

Before Common Era. The years before 1 ce (start of the Common Era). This abbreviation has largely replaced bc (Before Christ).

312

Common Era. The years from 1 ce to the present day. This abbreviation has largely replaced ad (Anno Domini, which is Latin for “in the year of the Lord”).

cell The basic unit from which all living organisms are made.

censorship Limiting access to ideas or information that is seen as harmful to a country’s national interest, particularly by government officials.

citizen A person who belongs to a city or a bigger community such as a state or country.

city-state A self-governing, independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding area.

civil rights The rights of citizens (see citizen) to be socially and politically equal.

civil war A war between opposing groups of people in the same country.

classical Relating to the ancient Greek or ancient Roman world.

Cold War, the

depression

fossil

The period of hostility between the West and the communist (see communism) countries dominated by the USSR. It lasted from shortly after World War II until 1989.

In history, a period of drastic decline in economic activity, marked by widespread unemployment and hardship.

The remains or impression of a prehistoric plant or animal, often preserved in rock.

colonization The act of sending settlers to establish a colony in another country, sometimes involving taking political control over the people already living there.

colony An area under the political control of another state; or the group of people who have settled there.

communism The political belief in a society in which ownership of property and wealth is shared.

Congress The law-making branch of the US government.

conquistador One of the Spanish conquerors of American Indian civilizations.

constitution A set of laws or rules that determine the political principles of a government.

CounterReformation, the The period of change in the Catholic Church after the Protestant Reformation. This included internal reform and opposition to Protestantism.

dictator A leader who rules a country alone, with no restrictions on the extent of their power.

DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid, the chemical that stores genetic information inside living cells (see cell).

domestication The taming of wild animals to make them useful to humans.

dynasty A royal family ruling a country for successive generations.

element A substance in which all the atoms (see atom) are the same, which can’t be broken down by another substance.

empire A group of lands or peoples brought under the rule of one government or person.

glasnost The Russian word for “openness.” Used by Mikhail Gorbachev to describe his policies in the Soviet Union during the late 1980s.

gravity The natural force that attracts one object to another and prevents things from floating off into space.

guerrilla warfare A type of warfare in which small groups of fighters make surprise attacks against a larger force.

guild An organization in 11th–14thcentury Europe formed by skilled workers or merchants of the same craft or trade to protect its members and control business.

habitat The area where an animal naturally makes its home.

Enlightenment, the

heresy

The period of European history, in the 1700s, when radical thinkers tried to reach a new understanding of society, government, and humanity, and then to reform them.

Beliefs, held by a member or members of a larger religious group, that are considered to be in conflict with that group’s established beliefs.

evolution

hominin

coup

The gradual change of species over generations as they adapt to the changing environment.

The sudden violent or illegal seizure of power by a group.

A member of the biological group that includes humans and their extinct ancestors and relatives.

exile

hurricane

Crusades, the

Forced absence from a person’s home or country.

Eight military expeditions of the 11th to 13th centuries, in which Christian knights tried to seize back the city of Jerusalem from the Muslims (see Muslim).

culture The customs, beliefs, and behavior shared by a society.

daimyo A Japanese lord.

democracy A form of government based on rule by the people, usually through elected representatives.

extinction The disappearance on Earth of the last living representative of a species.

fascism An ideology stressing nationalism, which places the strength of the state above individual citizens’ welfare.

feudalism A political system under which lords granted land to people of lower rank in return for loyalty, military assistance, and services.

A violent tropical storm with winds that can reach more than 74 mph (119 kph).

invertebrate An animal without a backbone, such as an insect, spider, worm, or jellyfish.

Iron Age, the The historical period characterized by the use of iron for making weapons and tools.

jihad Arabic word meaning “holy war” or “the struggle within oneself against sin.”

martyr

Neolithic

pilgrim

segregation

suffragette

A person who is killed for refusing to renounce his or her religious beliefs.

The later Stone Age, during which improved stone tools and weapons were made and the first farming began.

A religious follower who makes a journey to a holy place.

Separation, particularly of one race from another within a racist social system.

In the early 20th century, a person who fought for women to have the right to vote.

shogun

sultan

mass The amount of matter in an object.

medieval period Also known as the Middle Ages, the period in European history that lasted from about the 5th to the late 15th century ce.

nomad A person who moves from one place to another to find fresh pastures and water for livestock.

prehistory The time before the development of civilizations, before the invention of writing.

propaganda

The path taken by an object— for example, a planet—that is circling around another.

Information spread publicly to put forward political views; propaganda is sometimes used to cause deliberate harm to a person or group.

Mesoamerica

organism

Protestantism

“Middle America,” the name for the region stretching from central Mexico in the north, to Guatemala in the south.

Any living thing, including an animal, a plant, or a microscopic life-form such as a bacterium (see bacteria).

A form of Christianity, resulting from the Reformation, in which allegiance is no longer offered to the Pope.

Mesopotamia

paganism

recession

The region of modern-day Iraq lying between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, where many of the earliest civilizations began.

A term used for the religious beliefs of the ancient Greeks and Romans and other early European peoples before the coming of Christianity.

A decline in a country’s economic activity, but less serious than a depression.

missionary

pandemic

A religious person who seeks to persuade others, often living in foreign lands, to adopt his or her religion.

A sudden and widespread outbreak of disease.

orbit

patent

Reformation, the

peasant

A type of government in which a king or queen is recognized as head of state, even though he or she may have no real power.

A worker on the land, usually an agricultural laborer.

republic

Beliefs based on the principles of what is right and wrong.

Muslim A follower of Islam.

nation An independent country, or one or more countries whose people share historical, linguistic, or cultural (see culture) ties.

nationalism The belief that the interests of one’s nation are more important than the interests of other countries.

Neanderthal An extinct species of early human closely related to our own species.

persecute To oppress or harass a person or group because of their origins or beliefs.

pharaoh The title of the ruler of ancient Egypt, who was traditionally seen as both a king and a god.

philosophy A set of ideas or beliefs.

photosynthesis The use of sunlight energy by living organisms (see organism) to create organic molecules (see molecule) from carbon dioxide and water.

A person who is held as the property of another.

socialism The belief that the government should have some control over the economy and be able to spread wealth more evenly among the people.

Solar System, the The Sun, together with its orbiting (see orbit) planets, including Earth, and smaller bodies such as asteroids.

A ruler or head of state exerting supreme power.

monarchy

morality

slave

Renaissance, the A period of European history, beginning in the 14th century, when far-reaching changes occurred in the arts and intellectual life.

Russian word meaning “reconstruction.” Used by Mikhail Gorbachev to describe his plans for improving the economy of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s.

To surround and blockade a city or fortress with the intention of capturing it.

sovereign

A group of atoms (see atom) linked by chemical bonds.

perestroika

siege

The reform movement of the 16th century, in which many churches broke from the Catholic Church headed by the Pope in Rome.

The exclusive rights held by an inventor or company to make use of a specific process or invention.

molecule

One of the military leaders who ruled Japan in the name of the emperor.

A country without a hereditary monarch (see monarchy) or emperor. Modern republics are usually led by presidents.

revolt An organized uprising intended to overthrow whoever is in authority.

revolution

species A type of organism, such as a horse or leopard. The members of a species can breed with each other, but usually not with other species.

stalemate A situation where further action by either side in a conflict appears impossible.

stockade A line of stout posts or logs set in the ground to form a defense against attack.

A sudden and fundamental change in society brought about by an organized group of protestors.

stock exchange

samurai

Stone Age, the

A Japanese warrior who owes allegiance to a daimyo and follows a strict code of honor.

script The written characters that make up a writing system, such as an alphabet.

secular Nonreligious.

An organization that allows trading in shares of companies and other financial assets.

The period of prehistory when humans and their ancestors made tools out of stone.

sub-Saharan Africa The part of Africa to the south of the Sahara desert.

suffrage The right to vote.

In some Islamic countries, the traditional title given to the ruler.

superpower A powerful and influential country considered stronger than its allies.

treason The crime of betraying one’s country, especially by trying to overthrow its government.

treaty An official, written agreement between warring parties to bring hostilities to an end.

tribute Money or goods paid by one king to another, or by one state to another, as recognition of the other’s superior status.

tsar The title of the male rulers of Russia from the 15th century until 1917; a female ruler or the wife of a tsar was titled tsarina.

tsunami A powerful, fast-moving wave caused by an earthquake or volcanic eruption under the sea. Tsunamis cause widespread destruction when they hit land.

Universe All of space and everything it contains.

vaccination Precautionary medical treatment, usually given by injection, that keeps people from contracting a disease.

virus A tiny life-form that can invade body cells (see cell), where they multiply, causing illness.

West, the Europe and North America or their ideals when seen in contrast to other civilizations.

Zionism The movement to create and maintain a homeland for the Jewish people in Israel.

313

Index Page numbers in bold indicate main entries. 3-D printing 203 9/11 273 1920s 250, 293 1930s 251, 293 1960s 278–9, 292

A

Abbasid Dynasty 88, 92, 93 Abolitionist movement 164 Aboriginal people 196, 197 abstract art 142 Abu Simbel (Egypt) 42 Academy (Athens) 53 Academy Awards 250 Achaemenid Empire 60–1 Acre 104, 105 Actium, Battle of 154 Adams, John 191, 308 Adams, Samuel 191 Adena culture 115 adventurers, modern 240–1 advertising 275 Adwa, Battle of 225 Afghan War 283 Afghanistan 273 Africa colonialism 179, 220, 221, 224–5 independence 269 kingdoms 89, 118–19 postcolonial 247, 280–1 voyages of discovery 138, 140–1 African Americans 235, 290–1 literature 47 Afrobeat 304 Age of exploration 130–1 Age of revolution 178–9 Agent Orange 277 agriculture 22–3, 160 Ahmose, Pharaoh 41 AIBO 306 Ain Jalut, Battle of 121 Airbus 233 aircraft 232–3, 240 World War I 248 World War II 258–9, 266–7 aircraft carriers 134 Akbar the Great 166 Akkadians 36 al-Idrisi 122 al-Jazari, Ismail 93 al-Khwarizmi 55 al-Qaeda 273 al-Razi 170 Alans 84, 96 Alaska 114 Alberti, Leon Battista 137 alchemy 170 Alcock, John 233 Alexander II, Czar 189 Alexander III, Czar 189 Alexander III the Great of Macedonia 34, 40, 53, 61, 62, 154

314

Algeria 269 Almoravid Empire 93 alphabets 30–1 Althing 102 Alvares, Jorge 168 Amazon River 241 Amazon.com 303 Ambrones 96 American Civil War 155, 165, 179, 222–3, 290 American Indians 146–7, 161, 179, 215 American Revolution 178, 190– 3, 221 Americas Spanish America 146–7 voyages of exploration 138– 9 see also North America; South America Amin, Idi 280 Amundsen, Roald 241 analytical philosophy 64 Anan, Kofi 281 Anawrahta, King 107 ancient monuments 42–3 ancient world 34–5 Andes 206 Andrew, Kerry 187 Angkor Wat (Cambodia) 43, 107, 108–9 Anglo-Saxons 84, 96–7, 99, 310–11 Anglo-Zulu War 224 Angolan Civil War 280, 283 animals 14, 15, 22, 23 Ankara, Battle of 151 Antarctica 241 anti-war marches 277 Antietam, Battle of 155, 222 Anyang 253 apartheid 57, 234, 280 Apollo spacecraft 285, 286–7 apps 211 aquariums 80 aqueducts 74 Aquinas, Thomas 65 Arab Spring 273 Arabic script 30 Arafat, Yasser 273 archaeology 252–3 Archimedes 28, 236 architecture Greek 52 Roman 74, 75 skyscrapers 256–7 Argentina 206 Aristotle 64, 65, 218 armor 89, 126–7 Armstrong, Neil 285, 294, 295 ARPANET 302, 303 art Aboriginal rock art 196 cave paintings 20, 143, 218 Islamic 93 Japanese 158, 159 jewelry 48–9

metalworking 24–5 Mughal 167 painting 142–3 pop art 279 Renaissance 55, 136–7 sculpture 66–7 Art Deco 49 Art Nouveau 49 Artaxerxes I of Persia 60 Artaxerxes II of Persia 61 artificial intelligence 298 Aryabhata 83 Asante people 224 Ashikaga Shogunate 110, 111 Ashoka the Great 82 ASIMO 306 Askia the Great 119 assembly lines 238 Assyria/Assyrians 34, 36, 37, 252 asteroids 184 astrolabes 29 astronauts 294–5, 295 astronomical clocks 70 astronomy 83, 150, 152–3 Atahualpa 147 Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal 150 Athens 27, 52, 53, 60, 61, 154, 258 Atlanta, Battle of 223 Atlantic, Battle of the 258, 260 atomic bombs 127, 246, 267 atomic clocks 71 atomic theory 171 atoms 12, 170, 171, 236, 237 Attila the Hun 85 Augsburg, Peace of 145 Augustus, Emperor 35, 72, 154 Aurangzeb 166, 167 Auschwitz (Poland) 262–3 Austerlitz, Battle of 204 Australia 117, 221, 266 Aboriginal 196 colonization of 178, 197 Australopithecines 20 Austria 216, 217 Austria-Hungary 248, 249 Averroism 64 aviation 232–3 Avicenna 202 Axum 119 Ayachucho, Battle of 207 Ayutthaya 107 Aztecs 48, 50, 70, 89, 95, 123, 148–9

B

Babbage, Charles 247, 298 Babur the Lion 130, 166 Babylon/Babylonians 34, 36, 37, 54, 60, 152 Bach, Johann Sebastian 187 backstaffs 131, 139 Bacon, Francis 162 Baghdad 93 Bahadur Shah II 167 Baha’i 77 Bailong Elevator (China) 213 Baird, John Logie 227 Balkans 258 ball games 50, 95 ballet 172, 173 Baroque style 142

baseball 50 Bastille, storming of the 178, 198–9, 200 Batista, Fulgenico 289 battles 154–5 battleships 134 Batu Khan 120, 121 Bay of Pigs 278, 289 beach volleyball 50 Beat generation 305 The Beatles 187, 279 Beethoven, Ludwig van 187 Beijing 168, 169 Beijing Olympics 297 Belgium 258 Bell, Alexander Graham 226 Benedict, St. 85 Benguela railway 225 Benin Empire 118–19, 225 Benz, Karl 239 Bergen-Belsen 262 Beringia 114 Berlin 259, 289 Berlin blockade 282 Berlin Wall 57, 247, 255, 283 Bernard of Clairvaux 104 Berners-Lee, Tim 227 Bernini, Gian Lorenzo 67 Beyoncé 187 bicycles 28–9, 51 Big Bang 10, 12 Big Freeze 13 Bindusara 82 Bingham, Hiram 253 biology 218–19 birds 14 Birmingham (Alabama) 291 Bismarck, Otto von 224 Black Death 89, 99, 124, 125 Black, Joseph 170 Blackbeard (Edward Teach) 177 Bleriot, Louis 233 the Blitz 258, 261 Blitzkrieg 258 Bloody Sunday 189 board games 38–9 Boer Wars 220, 224 Bolivar, Simón 206–7 Bolivia 207 Bollywood 173 Bolsheviks 204 Bonaparte, Napoleon see Napoleon I Bonny, Anne 176 books 46–7, 75, 132 Booth, John Wilkes 223 Boston Massacre 191 Boston Tea Party 161 Botany Bay 197 Botswana 269 Botticelli, Sandro 137 Bourgeois, Louise 67 bowling 50 boxing 51 Boyd, Belle 222 Boyle, Robert 170 Brahmagupta 55 Brahmi script 30 Brancusi, Constantin 67 Brazil 139, 147, 206, 207, 241 Brezhnev, Leonid 205 Britain colonies 160, 179, 220–1, 268–9 Hundred Years’ War 100

Industrial Revolution 194–5 monarchs 310–11 Romans 59, 84 Vikings 102, 103 World War I 248, 249 World War II 258, 259, 260, 261 Britain, Battle of 232, 259, 260 British Empire 220–1, 268–9 Bronze Age 24, 37, 252 Brown, Arthur 233 Brown, Linda 290 Brunel, Isambard Kingdom 209 Brunelleschi, Fillipo 55, 137 bubonic plague 124–5 buccaneers 176 Buddhism 42, 65, 76, 83, 90, 106–7 Buhari, Muhammadu 281 bullet train 208, 296 Burj Khalifa (Dubai) 256 Burke, Edmund 64 Burma 107, 267 bushido 111 Byzantine Empire 26, 35, 73, 84–5, 105, 136, 151

C

cable TV networks 210 Cabot, John 139, 160 Cabral, Pedro Álvares 139, 140, 147 Caesar, Julius 59, 72 Cahokia 115 Calcutta 221 Calder, Alexander 67 calendars 70 Calicut 140, 141 Calvin, John/Calvinism 144 Cambodia 43, 106, 108 Cambrian explosion 15 Cambridge spies 283 Cambyses II of Persia 60 cameras 228–9 Canaanite 31 Canada 139, 160, 179, 220 canals 91, 195, 212 candle clocks 70 Cannae, Battle of 154 Canova, Antonio 67 Cao Dai 77 Cão, Diego 138 Cape of Good Hope 138, 140, 176, 221 capitalism 282 capoeira 172 Caravaggio 142 caravel ships 139 carbon dioxide 170, 171 Caribbean 146, 207 Carnival 81 Carroll, Lewis 47 cars 238–9, 306 Carter, Howard 253 Carter, Jimmy 272 Carthaginians 73, 154 cartography 122–3 Cassini spacecraft 295 castles 112–13 Castro, Fidel 289 catamarans 135 Catherine the Great of Russia 188

Catholic Church 98, 99 cave art 20, 143, 218 cells 15, 219 Celts 34, 48, 58–9 chain mail 89, Challenger Deep 240 Champa kingdom 106 Champollion, Jean-François 31, 252 Chancellorsville, Battle of 223 Chand Baori (India) 212 Chandragupta Maurya 34, 82 Chang’an 68, 90 Channel Tunnel 209, 213 Chappe, Claude 211 Charlemagne, Emperor 88, 97, 98 Charles IV of France 100 Charles V, Emperor 139 Charles V of France 198 the Charleston 172, 250 Chatham Islands 117 Chavín de Huántar 94 chemical warfare 277 chemistry 170–1, 181 chess 38, 282 Chicago 27, 257 Chile 185, 206, 283 China ancient 25, 31, 35, 48, 66, 132, 177, 185 early imperial 68–9 economic boom 296, 297 Golden Ages 88, 90–1 late imperial 131, 168–9 Mongols 120, 121 postwar 296, 297 weapons and armor 126 Chinese opera 187 Ching Shih 177 cholera 125 Cholula (Mexico) 42 Christianity 77, 98, 102 the Crusades 104–5 Christmas Truce (1914) 248 Chrysler Building (New York) 256 Church of England 145 CIA 271 Cimbri 96 cinemas 80 circumnavigation 130, 139 circus 80 cities see towns and cities city-states 53 Civil Rights Movement 57, 234, 247, 278, 279, 290–1 Cixi, Dowager Empress 169 Clark, William 214 classification, botanical 180 Claudius, Emperor 72 clay tablets 132 Cleopatra, Queen 40 climate change 18, 20 Clinton, Hillary Rodham 235 clippers 134 clocks 29, 70–1, 91 clones 219 clothes 292–3 Clovis culture 114 Cluedo 39 CNN 210, 211 Cochin 141 cocoa 146 codes 270–1

coins Celtic 59 Viking 102 Cold War 246, 247, 254, 278, 282–3, 284, 288–9 Colombia 206–7 colonialism in Africa 224–5 in Australia 197 British Empire 220–1 in the Pacific 117 Colosseum (Rome) 74–5, 81 Columbian exchange 147 Columbus, Christopher 99, 130, 138, 146, 160 combine harvesters 23 comets 295 comic books 251 Commonwealth of Nations 221 communism 204, 216, 276, 277, 282–3 compasses 91 computing 247, 298–9 concentration camps 262–3 Concord, Battle of 191 Concorde 233 concrete 74, 75 Confederate states 222–3 Confucius/Confucianism 65, 68, 76 Congo Free State 225 Constantine the Great, Emperor 73 Constantinople 73, 84, 103, 105, 136, 151 constellations 152 container ships 135 convicts 197 Cook, Captain James 117, 197 Cook Islands 116 Copernicus, Nicolaus 130, 137, 152, 153, 162 copper 25 Coral Sea, Battle of the 266 Cornelius, Robert 229 Cortés, Hernán 95, 147, 148 Cosplay 305 cotton 23, 160 Counter-Reformation 145 Crécy, Battle of 89, 100–1 Cretaceous Period 17 cricket 51 crime detection 230–1 Crimean War 150, 188, 210 Cro-Magnons 21 crops 22, 23 crossbows 126 Crowfoot, Dorothy 171 cruise liners 134 Crusades 88, 89, 98, 104–5 Cruz, Sor Juana Inés de la 300 CSI 231 Cuba 207 Cuban missile crisis 247, 278, 283, 288–9 Cuban Revolution 283 Cubism 143 Cugnot, Nicolas-Joseph 238 Cultural Revolution 296 cuneiform writing 31, 37 Curie, Marie 237 Custer, Colonel George 215 cycling 50, 51 Cyrus II the Great of Persia 34, 37, 60, 211

Cyrus the Younger 61 Czechoslovakian uprising 283

D

D-Day landings 259, 264–5 da Gama, Vasco 130, 139, 140– 1 da Vinci, Leonardo 29, 51, 136, 142 Dachau 262 Daguerre, Louis 229 Dai Viet 107 daimyo 113 Dalton, John 171 dance 172–3 Danegeld 102 Dante Alighieri 136 Danube River 96 Daoism 65, 77, 90 Darfur 281 Darius I the Great of Persia 60, 61 Darius II of Persia 61 Darius III of Persia 61, 62 Darwin, Charles 219 Davis, John 131, 139 de Beauvoir, Simone 301 de Gaulle, Charles 260, 269 Debussy, Claude 186 Declaration of Independence 191, 200 Declaration of the Rights of Man 200, 234 decolonization 221, 246, 260–1 Defenestration of Prague 145 Delaware River 190, 192–3 Delhi 167 democracy 52, 56–7, 234–5 Democratic Republic of Congo 280 Democritus 170, 236 Deng Ziaoping 296 Descartes, René 64, 163, 180 Devonian Period 14 diamonds 49, 225 Dias, Bartolomeu 138, 140 dice 38 Diderot, Denis 181 didgeridoos 196 Dien Bien Phu, Battle of 277 diesel cars 238 Difference Engine 247, 298 digital age 247 digital cameras 229 dinosaurs 10, 14, 16–17, 18–19, 184 Diocletian, Emperor 73 disease 124–5, 147, 197 Djoser, Pharaoh 41, 43 DNA 219, 231 dogs 22 dolmens 42 Domesday Book 99 Dominoes 38–9 Dong Son culture 106 Douglass, Frederick 165 drama 46, 47 Dreamtime 196 driverless cars 239, 306 drones 127, 233, 307 drought 251 Dubai 213 Duncan, Isadora 172

Dunkirk 259 Dust Bowl 251 Dutch Golden Age 142 Dynamic Tower 256

E

Earhart, Amelia 240 Earth life on 14–15 rotation of 236 earthquakes 182–3, 184, 185 East India Company 220, 221 Easter Island 43, 66, 116, 117 Eastern Bloc 282, 283 Eastern Orthodox Church 99 Ebola virus 125, 281 economic booms 1920s 250 Africa 281 postwar 296–7 economic crisis (1930s) 251 Ecuador 206–7 Edessa 104 Edo Period 111, 158–9 Edward III of England 98, 100 Edward, the Black Prince 100 Egypt ancient 11, 28, 30, 34, 35, 40– 1, 42, 43, 44–5, 48–9, 54, 66, 70, 132, 134, 143, 154, 252, 253, 292 independence 269 Middle East conflicts 272 World War II 259 Eiffel Tower (Paris) 212 Einstein, Albert 237 Eisenhower, Dwight D. 289, 309 Elcano, Juan Sebastián de 139 electricity 236, 237, 274–5 electromagnetism 237 electronic voting 57, 303 Elektro 306 elements 170, 171 Elizabeth I of England 49, 145, 310 Elizabeth II of Great Britain 311 email 227, 302 Emancipation Proclamation 165 Empedocles 170 Empire State Building (New York) 256 empiricism 64 Empiricus, Sextus 65 encomienda system 147 Endeavour 197, 241 Engels, Friedrich 216 engineering 212–13 ENIAC 298 Enigma machine 270 Enlightenment 180–1 entertainment 80–1 epics, ancient 47 epidemics 124–5 Equatorial Guinea 269 Erasmus, Desiderius 64, 137 Eretria 61 Eric the Red 102 espionage 222, 270–1, 283 Ethelred II of England 102 Ethiopia 119, 224, 225, 280 Euphrates River 36

Europe fashion 292, 293 medieval 88, 98–9 Eustace, Alan 241 evacuation 260 Evans, Arthur 253 Everest, Mount 240 Every, Henry 177 existentialism 64 extinctions 116, 196 Eyck, Jan van 142

F

factories 26, 178, 194–5, 238, 261 famine 185, 280 Fan Kuan 143 farming 22–3 fascism 251 fashion 279, 292–3, 304–5 Fawcett, Colonel Percy 241 feminism 181, 279, 300–1 Fenton, Roger 228 Ferdinand I, Emperor 217 festivals 80, 81 fiberscopes 228 Fibonacci sequence 55 fieldwork 22 Fiji 117 film 173, 250 Filosofova, Anna 300 Final Solution 261, 263 fingerprints 230, 231 fire, first use of 20 fireworks 80 First Continental Congress 191 First Continental Railroad 209, 214 Fischer, Bobby 282 fish 15 flamenco 173 flappers 250, 305 Fleming, Alexander 125, 203 flight 232–3, 240 floods 185 flywheels 29 folk tales 47 food 22–3 football 50 footprints 231 Forbidden City (Beijing) 168 Ford, Henry 238 Ford Model T 250 forensic science 230–1 fortifications 26, 112–13 fossils 15, 162 four-stroke engines 239 fractions 54 France 97, 145, 269 French Revolution 49, 178, 198–9, 200–1 Hundred Years’ War 100 World War I 248, 249 World War II 258, 259, 260, 261, 271 Franciscan order 98 Frank, Anne 262 Frankfurt parliament 216, 217 Franklin, Benjamin 181, 237 Franks 97 Franz Ferdinand, Archduke 248 Frederick II, Emperor 105

315

Frederick William I of Prussia 217 Fredericksburg, Battle of 223 French and Indian War 161 French Resistance 260, 261, 271 French Revolution 49, 178, 198–9, 200–1 French Wars of Religion 145 Frere, John 252 frescoes 137, 143 Freud, Lucien 142 Fukishima nuclear plant (Japan) 297 Funan 106

G

gagaku 186 Gagarin, Yuri 285, 295 galaxies 12 Galilei, Galileo 162, 236 galleons 135 galleys 135 galliard 172 Gallipoli Campaign 248 gamelan 186 games, tabletop 38–9 Gandhi, Mohandas 268 Gaozong, Emperor 91 Gaozu, Emperor 68, 69 gas masks 260 gases 170 poison gas 248 Gaul/Gauls 58, 59, 72, 97 Gautama, Siddartha 65 Gaza Strip 272, 273 gears 28 genetics 219 Geneva talks 276 Genghis Khan 89, 120, 166 Genkō War 110 genocide 280 German Confederation 216 German Southwest Africa 224 Germanic peoples 35, 73, 84– 5, 96–7 Germany division of 259, 282, 283 reunification of 283 Roman 96 unification of 216 World War I 248–9 World War II 261, 262–3, 265, 266 Gettysburg, Battle of 155, 222 Gettysburg Address 223 Ghana 119, 269 ghettos, Jewish 262 Giant Wild Goose Pagoda (China) 90 Giotto 136, 143 glasnost 205, 283 Globe Theatre (London) 81 Go 38 Göbekli Tepe (Turkey) 42 Gokstad ship 252 gold 24, 48, 49, 102 Australian gold rush 197 Californian gold rush 214 Gold Coast 224 golden ratio 55 Google 302 Google Earth 123

316

googol 55 Gorbachev, Mikhail 205, 283 Gothic horror 47 Goths 305 Gouges, Olympe de 181 Gran Colombia 206–7 Grand Canal (China) 168 Grant, Ulysses S. 223, 309 gravity 153, 163, 236, 237 Great Depression 246, 251 Great Dying 184 Great Pyramid of Giza 34, 40, 43, 54 Great Reform Bill 235 Great Wall of China 169, 212 Great Zimbabwe 89, 118 Greece 59, 258 Greece, Ancient 27, 30, 34, 35, 51, 52–3, 55, 56, 60, 61, 64–5, 66, 72, 122, 135, 152, 179, 218, 234, 236, 252, 292 weapons and armor 126 Greece, Battle of 258 Greek-Persian Wars 53 Green Revolution 23 Greensbro (North Carolina) 290 Gregory VII, Pope 99 Grimm, Brothers 47 groma 75 Gromyko, Andrei 289 Guagamela, Battle of 154 Guatemala 146 guillotine 201 Gulf of Tonkin 277 Gulf Wars 273 gunpowder 91, 126, 198 Gupta Empire 81, 83 Gutenberg, Johannes/ Gutenberg Bible 99, 133, 136, 211

HI

Habsburg Empire 216 Hadrian, Emperor 72 Hallstatt culture 58 Hamas 273 Hammurabi of Babylon 36 Han Dynasty 35, 68–9, 106 hand tennis 51 Hannibal 154 Hanoverians 310–11 Hanseatic League 98 Harajuku 305 Harald Bluetooth of Denmark 102 Harald Hardrada 102 Harappa 253 Harold Godwinson 99 Harrier Jump Jet 232 Harrison, John 71 Harry Potter 47 Harvey, William 162 Hastings, Battle of 88, 99, 154 Hattin, Battle of 104 Hawaiian Islands 116, 117 Hays, Mary Ludwig 190 helicopters 232 Henlein, Peter 71 Henry IV, Emperor 99 Henry VII of England 139 Henry VIII of England 310 Henry, Patrick 191

Henry the Navigator 138, 139 Hepworth, Barbara 67 Heraclius, Emperor 85 Herculaneum 35, 78 Herodotus 53, 61 Hertz, Heinrich 226 Hezbollah 273 Hidalgo, Miguel 206 hieroglyphics 30, 41, 132, 252 Higgs boson 237 Hillary, Edmund 240 Hinduism 35, 76, 83, 106, 166, 221 hip-hop 304 hippies 279, 304 Hippocrates 202 Hiroshima 246, 261, 267 Hitler, Adolf 246, 251, 258, 259 Hittites 36, 154 HIV/AIDS 125, 281 Ho Chi Minh 277 Ho Chi Minh Trail 277 Holbein, Hans 137 Hollywood 250, 293 Holocaust 261, 262–3, 272 Holy League 155, 157 Home Insurance Building (Chicago) 257 Homer 52 hominins 10 Homo erectus 21 Homo floresiensis 21 Homo habilis 21 Homo heidelbergensis 20 Homo sapiens 21 Hong Kong 296 Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macau Bridge 213 Hong Xiuqang 169 Hongwu Emperor 168 Hooke, Robert 163 Hoover Dam 213 Hoovervilles 251 Hopewell culture 115 Hopper, Grace 299 hot air balloons 232 household appliances 274–5 Hubble, Edwin 153 Hubble space telescope 294 human rights 180, 301 human sacrifices 95 humanism 64, 137 humanoid robots 307 humans, early 10, 20–1, 196 Humayun 166 Hume, David 181 Hundred Days 205 Hundred Years’ War 98, 100–1, 198 Hungarian Revolution 283 Hungary 217 Huns 96 hurricanes 185 Hussein, Saddam 273 Hutus 280 Huygens, Christiaan 71 hybrid cars 239 hydrogen airships 233 Hyksos 40 Ibn Battuta 93 Ibn Sina (Avicenna) 92 Ice Age 14, 15 Iceland 102 idealism 64, 181 Impressionism 143

Incas 49, 50, 95, 147, 253 India 30, 267 ancient empires 25, 34, 35, 81, 82–3 British rule 179, 220 hill forts 113 independence 268 Mughal Empire 131, 166–7 Partition 221 Vasco da Gama 139, 140–1 women’s movement 301 Indian Ocean 139, 140, 141, 176 Indus Valley 27, 31, 253 Industrial Revolution 26, 29, 194–5 industrial robots 238 infinity 55 internal combustion engines 239 International Space Station 213, 295 International Women’s Day 300 internet 211, 227, 247, 283, 302–3 intifadas 273 Inuit 88, 115 Iran-Iraq War 273 Iranian Revolution 272 Iraq 273 Ireland Dublin 98, 103, 221 Easter Rising 221 Newgrange 43 iron 24–5 Iron Age 25, 58–9, 252 Iron Bridge (England) 212 irrigation 22 ISIL/ISIS 273 Islam 77, 88, 91, 221 early Islamic empires 92–3 Islamic philosophy 65 Israel 246, 263, 272–3 Issus, Battle of 62–3 Italy 97, 259 see also Romans iTunes 302 Iturbide, Agustín de 207 Iwo Jima, Battle of 267

JK

Jackson, Andrew 215, 309 Jacobins 200, 201 Jahangir 167 Jainism 76 Jamaica 220 James, Jesse and Frank 214 Jamestown, Virginia 131, 160, 220 Janssen, Zacharias 218 Janszoon, Willem 197 Japan 121, 189, 293 armor 127 castles 113 Edo Period 111, 131, 158–9 postwar 296, 297 rise of the samurai 89, 110–11 World War II 261, 266–7, 276 Japanese scripts 31 Java Sea, Battle of the 266 Jayavarman II 88, 106 jazz 172, 186, 250, 293, 304, 305

jeans 293 Jeddah Tower (Saudi Arabia) 256 Jefferson, Thomas 180, 214, 308 Jericho 26 Jerusalem 60, 104, 105 jet aircraft 232 jewelry 48–9, 58–9 Jews 60, 76, 189, 261, 262–3, 272–3 JIBO 307 Jin-China wars 91 Joan of Arc 99 John II of Portugal 138 John VI of Portugal 207 John of Bohemia 100 Johnson, Andrew 223, 309 Johnson, Lyndon B. 291, 308 Jolly Roger 176 Jonathan, Goodluck 281 Jordan 272 journalism 210–11, 229 Judaism 76 July War 273 junks 135 Jupiter 153, 295 Jurassic Period 16–17 Jurchen 91 Justinian the Great 85 Jutes 84, 97 Jutland, Battle of 249 Kadesh, Battle of 154 Kamakura Shogunate 110 kamikaze (divine wind) 110, 267 Kant, Immanuel 64, 181 Kapoor, Anish 67 Kasner, Edward 55 Kassites 36 Katanga 280 keeps 112 Kennedy, John F. 278, 279, 285, 289, 308 Kenya 225, 269, 281 Kevlar 127 KGB 271 Khafre, Pharaoh 43, 44 Khanem-Bornu Empire 118 Khayyam, Omar 93 Khmer Empire 88, 106, 108 Khomeini, Ayatollah 272 Khrushchev, Nikita 289 Khufu, Pharaoh 40, 43 Kidd, William 177 Kierkegaard, Søren 64 Kievan Rus 99 Kindertransport 262 King, Billie Jean 301 King, Martin Luther, Jr. 57, 278, 279, 291 Kiribati 117 knights 112, 113, 127 Knossos (Crete) 253 Kodak 228, 229 Kongo, kingdom of 118 Korea 69, 91 Korean War 276, 283 Kosovo, Battle of 151 Krakatoa 185 Kristallnacht 262 Kristeva, Julia 64 Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia) 256, 296 Kublai Khan 121 Kushan Empire 82, 83 Kuwait 273

L

La Navas de Tolosa, Battle of 98 La Tène culture 34, 58 Lafayette, James Armistead 191 Lagash 34, 37 Laika 284 Lamborghini 239 Lancastrians 311 land bridge 114 Laozi 65 Lapita people 116 Launay, Marquis de 198 Lavoisier, Antoine 171, 181 law codes 36, 91 Lebanon 273 Lee, Robert E. 223 Leeuwenhoek, Antonie van 163, 218 Legalism 68, 69 Leif Ericsson 102, 160 Lemaître, Georges 237 L’Enfant, Pierre 191 Lenin, Vladimir 204 Leo III, Pope 97, 98 Leopold I of Belgium 119 Leopold II of Belgium 225 Lepanto, Battle of 155, 156–7 Lesotho 269 Lewis, Merewether 214 Lexington, Battle of 191 Li Bai 90 Li Zicheng 169 Liberia 56, 119, 224 Libya 258, 259 lie detectors 230 life on Earth 10, 14–15 origins of 10, 13 lifeboats 135 Lincoln, Abraham 164, 222, 223, 309 Lindbergh, Charles 240 Lindisfarne 103 Linnaeus, Carl 180, 218 Lippershay, Hans 153 Lisbon Earthquake, Great 178, 182–3, 184 literature 46–7 Little Bighorn, Battle of 215 Little Rock (Arkansas) 290 Liu Bang 68 livestock 22, 23 Locard, Edmond 231 Locke, John 64, 180 Lombards 97 London 27, 216 Underground 123, 209, 212 longboats 135 longbows 100, 127 longships, Viking 102–3 Louis IX of France 105 Louis XIV of France 81, 173 Louis XVI of France 198, 200 Louisiana Purchase 178, 214 Lovelace, Ada 298 Luther, Martin/Lutheranism 130, 144, 145 Luxembourg 258

M

McCarthyism 283 Macedonia 60 Machiavelli, Niccolò 136 Machu Picchu 89, 253 Madinka Empire 225 Magellan, Ferdinand 139 Maglev 209 Magna Carta 56 mahjong 39 maize 114 Malacca, Sultanate of 107 malaria 125 Malawi 269 Malbork Castle (Poland) 113 Malcolm X 291 Mali Empire 118 Malindi 140 Mallard 208 Mamluks 127 mammals 14 Manchuria/Manchus 169, 189 Mandela, Nelson 57, 247, 280 “Manifest destiny” 214 Manuel I of Portugal 139, 140 Mao Zedong 246, 296 Maoris 89, 116, 117 Mappa Mundi 122 maps 122–3, 139 Maratha Empire 113 Marathon, Battle of 51, 60 March to the Sea 223 Marconi, Guglielmo 226, 227 Mariana Trench 240 Marie Antoinette, Queen of France 49, 200 marine chronometers 71 Mariner spacecraft 294 Mark Antony 154 Mars 294 Marsh Test 230 Marx, Karl 216 Mary I of England 176, 310 mass extinctions 14, 15, 16, 18, 184 Mathai, Wangari 281 mathematics 54–5, 83 matter 12 Mau Mau 225, 269 Mauritius 269 Maurya Empire 82, 83 Maxwell, James Clerk 228, 237 Mayans 30, 81, 95, 152, 253 Mayflower 161 mechanical clocks 29, 70, 91 Medes 37, 60 Medici, Lorenzo de’ 137 medicine 92, 162, 163, 202–3, 228 medieval Europe 88, 98–9, 292 Medieval world 88–9 megafauna 196 Meiji Restoration 159 Melanesia 116 Mendel, Gregor 219 Mendeleev, Dmitri 171 Menkaure, Pharaoh 43 Mentuhotep II, Pharaoh 40 Mercator, Gerardus 123 Mercedes-Benz 238 Meru, Mount 107 Mesopotamia 11, 26, 27, 34, 36–7, 43, 54, 70, 122

Mesozoic Era 16 Messier, Charles 153 metalworking 11, 24–5, 58 Metternich, Klemens von 216 Mexico 146, 148, 206, 207 Michelangelo 136, 137 Micronesia 116 microscopes 163, 218 microwaves 275 Middle East 221 conflicts 247, 272–3 Midway, Battle of 155, 267 migration, human 21, 96, 268 Minamoto clan 89, 110 Ming Dynasty 131, 168, 169 mining 194–5 Minoan civilization 52, 253 Miranda, Francisco de 206 missionaries 147 Mississippian culture 115 Moai 116, 117 moas 116 mobile phones 211, 227, 229 Mock, Geraldine “Jerrie” 240 modems 302 Mods and Rockers 305 Mohammad Reza Shah 272 Mohenjo-Daro 253 Molly Pitcher 190 Mombasa 140 monasticism 85 Mondrian, Piet 142 Monet, Claude 143 money, paper 91 Mongols/Mongolia 89, 93, 120–1, 127, 166, 169 Monk’s Mound (US) 43 Monopoly 39 Montesquieu, Charles de 181 Montezuma II 147 Montgolfier, Joseph and Etienne 232 the Moon 284–7, 294, 295 Moore, Henry 67 Morgan, Henry 176 Morocco 269 Morse, Samuel/Morse Code 210, 226 motors, electric 29 motte-and-bailey castles 112 Mozambique 140 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus 187 Mugabe, Robert 247, 281 Mughal Empire 131, 142, 166–7 Muhammad, the Prophet 65, 88, 92, 93 Mungo Man 196 Murujuga 196 museums 80 music 80, 81, 179, 186–7, 304–5 Mussolini, Benito 259 Mycenae/Mycenaean civilization 52, 252

N

Nadir Shah 167 Nagasaki 246, 261, 267 Nagashino, Battle of 111 Nam-Viet 106 nanoscale technology 203 Napoleon I, Emperor 178, 179, 188, 201, 204–5, 216

Napoleon III, Emperor (Louis Napoleon) 217 Napoleon Field Gun 222 Napoleonic Wars 155, 178, 204–5 Narmer 41 NASA 284 Nasca lines 95 National Assembly 198, 200 NATO 282 natural disasters 182–5 natural selection 219 navigation 117, 139 Nazis 251, 261, 262–3, 265 Neanderthals 20, 21 Nelson, Admiral Horatio 204 Nero, Emperor 72 Netherlands 258 New Amsterdam 161 New Deal 251 New England 161 New Granada 206–7 New Holland 197 New York City 223 New Zealand 116, 117, 179, 220 Newfoundland 102, 139 news 210–11 newspapers 210, 211 Newton, Isaac 131, 153, 163, 180, 237 Ngo Dinh Diem 277 Nicaraguan Revolution 283 Nicholas II, Czar 189, 204 Niépce, Joseph Nicéphor 229 Nigeria 119, 281 Nightingale, Florence 202 Nile River 40 Nimrud 252 Ninevah 252 ninja 111 Nintendo 297 Nkrumah, Kwame 269 Nobunaga, Oda 111 Norgay, Tenzing 240 Normans 99, 154, 311 Norte Chico 94 North Africa 258, 259 North America colonial 131, 160–1 early North America 114–15 Vikings 102 see also Canada; United States North Korea 247, 276 North Pole 241 North Vietnam 277 Northern Renaissance 137 Northwest Passage 241 novels 46, 47 Novgorod 102 nuclear power 297 nuclear weapons 282, 288–9 numbers 54–5 Nuremberg Trials 263 Nyad, Diana 240

O

Obama, Barack 309 oceans mapping 123 mass extinction 14 origin of life 15 Odoacer 73, 85

O’Higgins, Bernardo 206 O’Keefe, Georgia 142 Olmecs 50, 94 Olympic Games 50, 51, 52, 297 opera 80 Operation Overlord 259 Operation Torch 258 Opium Wars 169 Opportunity rover 306 optics 236 Oregon Trail 214 Organization of African Unity 269, 280 Orient Express 208 Ortelius, Abraham 139 Orwell, George 282 Oscars 250 Oslo Accords 273 Osman I, Sultan 151 Ostrogoths 85 Otto, Nicklaus 239 Ottoman Empire 130, 150–1, 155, 157, 188, 221, 249, 293 Ötzi the Iceman 253 outlaws 214 oxygen 170, 171

PQ

Pacal, King 253 pachisi 38 Pacific Ocean, settling and colonization 89, 116–17 Pacific War 266–7 Pagan kingdom 107 Paine, Thomas 191 painting 142–3 Palestine 272–3 Panama 206–7 Panama Canal 212 Pankhurst, Emeline 235, 300 Pantheon (Rome) 75, 212 Papacy 98, 99 paper 69, 132 Paralympics 51 parchment 132 Paris 26, 198, 216, 259 Paris, Treaty of 191 Parks, Rosa 247, 290 parliaments 56, 57, 102 Parthenon (Athens) 53 particles 236, 237 Passchendaele, Battle of 249 Pasteur, Louis 202 Pauling, Linus 171 Pax Mongolica 121 Peacock Throne 167 Pearl Harbor 246, 266 pearls 49 Peary, Robert E. 241 Peasants’ War 144 Pedro I of Brazil 207 Peloponnesian Wars 53 pendulum clocks 71 penicillin 125, 203 Peninsular War 205 Pennsylvania Colony 161 penny papers 210 pens 133 Pentagon Papers 277 Pequot War 215 perestroika 205, 283 periodic table 171 Persepolis 61

317

Persian Empire 34, 35, 60–1, 73, 85, 154 personal computers 299 perspective 137 Peru 25, 43, 147, 207 Peter the Great of Russia 188 Petrie, Flinders 253 Petronas Towers (Kuala Lumpur) 256, 296 pH scale 171 Philae lander 295 Philip VI of France 98, 100 philosophy 64–5, 180–1 Phoenicians 31 photography 228–9 photojournalism 229 physics 180, 236–7 pi 54 Picasso, Pablo 143 Piccard, Jacques 240 pigeon post 211 piracy 176–7 Pisan, Christine de 300 Pizzaro, Francisco 95, 147 plagues 89, 124–5 plainsong 186 planets 10, 153 Plantagenets 311 plants 180 plate armor 127 Plato 53, 65 playing cards 39 plays 46, 47 Pliny the Younger 78, 79 PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization) 273 plows 22, 23 Pluto 153 Pocahontas 215 poetry 46 Poland 258, 260 Polaroid cameras 229 political philosophy 64 political power 181 Polynesians 89, 116, 117 Pompeii 35, 62–3, 78–9, 184, 252 Pont du Gard (France) 212 Pony Express 214 pop music 187, 279 poppies 249 Port Royal (Jamaica) 176 portolans 122 Portugal in Africa 118, 269 in South America 147, 206–7 in Southeast Asia 107 voyages of exploration 138– 41, 168 Post-Impressionism 143 post-structuralism 64 postal services 211 postcolonial writing 47 Potsdam Conference 259 potters’ wheels 28 pottery Greek 35, 52, 53 Ming ceramics 168, 169 poverty 251, 297 power stations 195 Powhatan Confederacy 215 prehistory 10–11 press, freedom of the 211 Pride events 81 Priestley, Joseph 170

318

printing 91, 99, 132, 133, 211 privateers 176 programming languages 299 Prohibition 250 propaganda 261 propellers 29 Proto-Sinaitic 31 Ptolemaic Dynasty 40 Ptolemy, Claudius 122, 152 Pueblo culture 115 Pueblo Revolt 215 Puerto Rico 207 punk 304 Puyi, Emperor 169 pyramids 40–1, 42, 43, 44, 54, 94, 253 Pyrrhus of Epirus 154 Pythagoras 55 Qi Jiguang 169 Qin Dynasty 35, 68–9 Qin Er Shi, Emperor 68 Qin Shi Huangdi, Emperor 35, 68, 69, 259 Qing Dynasty 131, 168, 169 Qinghai-Tibet Railway 209 Quakers 165 quill pens 133 Quit India Movement 268

R

race riots 291 Rackham, “Calico” Jack 177 radio 81, 210 broadcasts 227 radio waves 226 ragas 186 railroads see trains rainforests, prehistoric 14 Ramathibopdi I 107 Ramesses II the Great, Pharaoh 40, 42, 154 Raphael 136 Raspberry Pi 299 rationalism 64 rationing 260 Reagan, Ronald 282, 308 reason 64, 180 Redi, Francesco 218 Reformation 130, 144–5 refrigerators 275 refugees 276 Reign of Terror 198 religion 76–7 Reformation 144–5 Rembrandt van Rijn 142 Removal Act 215 Renaissance 67, 136–7, 142, 187, 292 reptiles, prehistoric 14, 16–17 revolutions of 1848 216–17 Rhine River 84, 96 Rhodes, Cecil John 225 rice 22, 91, 160 Richard I the Lionheart of England 104, 311 roads, Roman 74, 75 Roaring Twenties 250, 251 Roberts, Bartholomew (Black Bart) 177 Roberts, Joseph Jenkins 56 Robespierre, Maximilien 200, 201 robots 238, 306–7

rock art 196 rock concerts 81 rock and roll 186 Rocket 179, 209 Rocky Mountains 214 Rococo 293 Rodin, Auguste 67 Roggeveen, Jacob 117 role-playing games 39 romances, medieval 46 Romans 30, 34, 35, 48, 59, 65, 66, 143, 154, 212, 252, 253, 292 destruction of Pompeii 78–9 forts 112 Roman Empire 72–3 Roman Republic 73 technology 74–5 transformation of Roman Empire 84–5 weapons and armor 126 Romanticism 143 Rome 27, 35, 217 sack of 73, 84, 97 Romulus Augustus, Emperor 73, 85, 97 Romulus and Remus 73 Röntgen, Wilhelm 229, 237 Roosevelt, Franklin D. 251, 258, 309 Rosetta Stone 31, 252 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 180 Royal Game of Ur 38 runes 30 Rushmore, Mount 67 Russia Imperial 188–9 Napoleon invades 205 World War I 248, 249 see also Soviet Union Russian Revolution 189, 204 Rutherford, Ernest 171 Rwanda 280, 281

S

sagas, Scandinavian 46 Saigon 277 sailing ships 134, 135 St. Augustine (Florida) 160 St. Petersburg 188 saints 66 Saladin 104 Salamis, Battle of 154 salsa 173 Salt March 268 Samoa 116, 117 samurai 89, 110–11, 127 San Francisco earthquake 185 San Martín, José de 206, 207 Sanchi Stupa (India) 42 Sand Creek massacre 215 sapeurs 305 Saratoga, Battle of 190 Sargon of Akkad 36 Sassanian Empire 85 Satavahana Dynasty 83 satellites 210, 227, 284, 294 satraps 35, 61 Saturn 295 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha Dynasty 311 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) 230

Schism, East-West 99 Schliemann, Heinrich 252 Schrödinger’s Cat 237 Schumann, Clara 187 science fiction 46 Scientific Revolution 131, 162– 3 Scott, Robert F. 241 Scrabble 39 Scramble for Africa 224, 225 sculpture 66–7, 83 scythes 23 Scythians 48 seat belts 238 Second Continental Congress 190, 191 Sekigahara, Battle of 111 selective breeding 23 selfies 229 Selim the Grim, Sultan 150 Seljuk Empire 93 Selma to Montgomery march 291 semaphore 211 Seneca Falls 300 senet 38 Seoul 276 Serbia 248 serfdom 189 Serra, Junipero 214 settlements 11, 26–7, 41, 116 Seven Years’ War 161, 178, 221 sewer systems 27 sewing machines 194, 274 Shackleton, Ernest 241 Shafik, Dora 301 Shah Jahan 131, 166, 167 Shakespeare, William 46, 81 SHAKEY 306 Shang Dynasty 253 Shanghai Tower (China) 256 Sharon, Ariel 273 Shepard, Alan 285 Sherlock Holmes 46 Sherman, General William 155, 223 Shiloh, Battle of 223 Shinkansen 208, 296 Shinto 77 ships 134–5 Shivaji 113, 166 Shunga Empire 82 Shunzi Emperor 169 Si Inthrathit 107 Sicily 216 siege weapons 126 Sikhism 77 Silk Road 69, 72, 121 silver 102, 146 Sima Qian 69 Sinan 150 Singapore 221, 266, 296 Sioux Uprising 215 Sitting Bull 215 Six-Day War 272 Skepticism 65 skyscrapers 27, 256–7, 296 slavery 72, 131, 146, 147, 160, 224 US 164–5, 179, 290 Slavic scripts 31 smallpox 124, 125 smart technology 274 smartphones 211, 229, 247, 299 Smith, Adam 180 Smith, Captain Edward 243

snakes and ladders 39 soccer 50, 51, 281 social media 302, 303 Socrates 65 Solar System 13, 294 Somme, Battle of the 155, 249 Song Dynasty 88, 90–1, 121, 143 Songhai Empire 118, 119 Sørensen, S.P.L. 171 South Africa 220, 221, 234, 247, 280, 281 South America empires 88, 94–5 independence 179, 206–7 Spanish 146–7 South Korea 276 South Pole 241 South Sudan 281 South Vietnam 277 Southeast Asia, kingdoms of 106–7 Soviet Union 246, 254–5 Cold War 282–3, 288–9 collapse of 283 space race 284–5 World War II 258, 259, 261 see also Russia space communications 227 exploration 294–5, 306 the Moon 294–7 Space Race 283 and time 237 Spain American settlements 214, 215 Arab conquest 92, 98 South American territories 179, 206–7 Spanish Civil War 251 Spanish conquistadors 95, 146–7, 148–9 Spanish flu 125 Sparko 306 Sparta 27, 53 Spartacus 72 Spassky, Boris 282 Sphinx, Great 43, 44–5 spies 222, 270–1, 283 Spirit rover 306 sports 50–1 Spotsylvania, Battle of 223 Spring Offensive (1918) 249 Sputnik 1 284, 294 Srivijaya Empire 106 Stafford, Ed 241 stagecoaches 214 Stalin, Joseph 204–5, 246 Stalingrad, Battle of 155, 258 Stamp Act 161 standing stones 42 star forts 113 “Star Wars” 282 stars 10, 12, 152–3 Stars and Stripes 190 steam engines 75, 178, 208–9, 238 steam power 194–5 steam ships 134 steel 25 stem cells 203 Stephenson, George 179, 194 Stephenson, Robert 209 Stockton and Darlington Railway 209

Stoicism 65 Stolen Children 197 Stone Age 24, 252 Stonehenge (England) 43, 152 Stonewall Riots 278 stories 46–7 Stowe, Harriet Beecher 164 stratigraphy 252 stream of consciousness 47 street lights 26 Stuarts 310 student protests 278 submarines 190, 223, 240, 249, 258 Sucre, Antonio de 207 Sudan 281 Suebi 84, 96 suffrage 216, 234–5, 300 suffragettes 235, 300 Sukhothai 107 Suleiman the Magnificent, Sultan 150 Sumerians 36, 37, 54, 70, 126, 252, 253 Summer of Love 279 sumo wrestling 159 the Sun death of 13 Earth’s orbit 137, 162 worship of 41 Sun Yat-sen 169 sundials 70 supersonic aircraft 233 surfers 305 surgery 203 surveillance 271 Suryavarman II 107 Susa 60 Sutton Hoo 96–7 Sweyn Forkbeard 102 swimming, endurance 240 swords 126 Sydney 197 Syria 272, 273

T

table tennis 50 Tahiti 116, 117 Taiping Rebellion 169 Taizong, Emperor 91 Taizu, Emperor 90 Taj Mahal (India) 131, 167 Taliban 273 tallies 54 Tambora, Mount 184 Tang Dynasty 88, 90–1, 107 tango 172 tanks 29 Tannenberg, Battle of 248 tap dance 173 Tasman, Abel 117, 197 Taylor, Elizabeth 48, 49 telecommunications 226–7 telegrams 226 telegraph 210, 226 telephones 226 telescopes 162, 294 television 210, 227, 250 Tenochtitlán 123, 147, 148–9 Teotihuacan 94 Terracotta Army 66, 69, 253 terrorism 247 Tesla, Nikola 226

Tet Offensive 155, 277 Teutonic Knights 113 Teutons 96 TGV (Train a Grande Vitesse) 208 Thailand 107 Thales of Miletus 65 theater 80, 81 Greek 53 Kabuki 158 Thebes 27 theme parks 81 Themistocles 154 Theodoric the Great 85 Theodosius I the Great 84 Thera 184 Thirty Years’ War 131, 145 Thomas, Lowell 210 Thomsen, Christian 252 Thrace 60 Three Gorges Dam (China) 296 Tiananmen Square (Beijing) 297 Tibet 169 tic-tac-toe 38 ticker tape 210 Tigris River 36 time, measuring 70–1 Timur the Great 166 tires, pneumatic 29, 239 Tiryns 252 R.M.S. Titanic 179, 242–3 Toba supervolcano (Sumatra) 184 tobacco 160 Tobruk siege 258 Tokugawa Ieyasu 111, 158 Tollund Man 253 Tonga 116 tools, Stone Age 20 Topklapı Palace (Istanbul) 151 torcs 48, 58–9 tornados 185 Torricelli, Evangelista 163 Tour de France 50 town criers 211 towns and cities 11, 26–7, 59, 194 tractors 23 trade 26, 27, 140–1, 146 Trafalgar, Battle of 204 traffic lights 238 Trail of Tears 179, 215 trains 71, 179, 194, 208–9 Trans-Siberian Railway 208, 213 transplant surgery 203 transportation 28, 194–5 maps 123 treasure, Viking 102 trench warfare 249 Trent, Council of 145 Trevithick, Richard 208 triangle theory 55 Triassic Period 16 Tribune Tower (Chicago) 257 Triple Alliance 248 Triple Entente 248 Troy 252 Truman, Harry S. 276, 277, 309 Truth, Sojourner 164 tsunami (2004) 185, 247, 297 Tudors 310 tughras 151

Tulip Period 150 Tunisia 269 Ture, Samori 225 Turing, Alan 298 Turne, Ted 210 Tutankhamun, Pharaoh 41, 49, 253 Tutsi 280 Tuvalu 117 Twain, Mark 46 Twin Towers (New York) 256 the twist 173 typewriters 133

Viking spacecraft 294 Vikings 98, 102–3, 127, 135, 160, 252 Vinland 102, 160 Visigoths 84, 97 Vladimir the Great 99 volcanic eruptions 184, 185 volcanic springs 15 Voltaire 180 the vote 234–5 Voyager spacecraft 295 voyages of exploration 117, 130–1, 138–41

UV

W

U-boats 249, 258 Uganda 280 Ulugh Beg 152 Uluru 196 Umayyad Dynasty 92 Umm Kulthum 186 Umma 34, 37 underfloor heating 75 Underground Railroad 164 Union states 222–3 United Nations 259, 272, 276, 281 United States American Civil War 179, 222–3 American frontier 179, 214– 15 American Revolution 178, 190–3, 221 British colonies 220 Civil Rights Movement 290– 1 Cold War 282–3, 288–9 Constitution 56, 234 Korean War 276 presidents 308–9 slavery 164–5, 179 space race 284–7 Vietnam War 276 World War I 249 World War II 258, 259 Universe 10, 12–13, 153, 236, 237 universities 92 Ur 37, 253 Urban II, Pope 89, 104 Urnfield culture 58 Uruk 37, 252 US Constitution 91, 211 Utrecht, Treaty of 177 V-2 rockets 127 vaccinations 202 vacuum cleaners 274, 275 van Gogh, Vincent 143 Vandals 84, 96 Vauban forts 113 Venezuela 179, 206 Verdun, Battle of 249 Versailles, Treaty of 249, 258 vertebrates 14, 15 Vesalius, Andreas 162, 218 Vespasian, Emperor 72 Vespucci, Amerigo 123, 139 Vesuvius, Mount 35, 78, 184 Vicksburg, Battle of 223 Vienna 216, 217 Vietnam 69, 91, 106, 107, 121 Vietnam War 127, 155, 247, 277, 279, 283

Waitangi, Treaty of 117 Waldseemüller, Martin 123 Walkman 297 Wall Street Crash 246, 250, 251 Wallis, John 55 Walsingham, Francis 271 waltzes 173 Wandervogel movement 304 war photography 228 War Poets 46 War on Terror 247, 273 warhorses 127 Warring Kingdoms 69 Warsaw Pact 283 washing machines 275 Washington, D.C. 191 Washington, George 190, 191, 192–3, 308 water clocks 70, 91 water wheels 28 Waterloo, Battle of 155, 179, 205 Watt, James 178 weapons 126–7 Chinese 91 of mass destruction 273 Mongols 120 nuclear 267, 278 samurai 111 World War II 261 weights and measures 68 Wellington, Duke of 155 Wen, Emperor 69 West, Benjamin 143 West Bank 272, 273 Western Front 248, 249 Western Roman Empire 96–7, 98 wheels 11, 28–9 Whittle, Frank 233 Wi-Fi 274 Wikipedia 302 William the Conqueror 88, 99, 154, 311 Windsor, House of 311 Wittgenstein, Ludwig 64 Wollstonecraft, Mary 181, 300 women feminism 300–1 rights of 181 suffrage 235, 300 World War II 261 Women’s March 301 Woodstock 278 word patterns 231 World Chess Championship 282 World Cup 51, 281

World Trade Center (New York) 273 World War I 127, 155, 189, 221, 246, 248–9, 258 World War II 155, 204, 232, 246, 249, 251, 258–67, 268, 293 D-Day landings 264–5 in Europe 258–9 Holocaust 262–3 Pacific War 266–7 war at home 260–1 weapons 127 World Wide Web 227, 303 World’s Fair 80 Wounded Knee 215 Wright Brothers 179, 233, 240 writing 11, 30–1, 41 technology of 132–3 Wu, Emperor 106 Wu, Empress 90 Wudi, Emperor 69 Wuzong, Emperor 90

XYZ

X-rays 203, 229, 237 Xerxes I of Persia 60 Xiang Yu 68 Xuanzong, Emperor 90, 91 yachts 135 Year of Africa 225, 247, 269 Yeltsin, Boris 205 Ying Zheng 68 Yom Kippur War 272 Yongle, Emperor 168 York (England) 102 Yorkists 310 Yorktown, Battle of 191 Young Turks 150 Yousafzai, Malala 301 youth culture 292, 304–5 YouTube 302 Yuan Dynasty 89 Yugoslavia 258 Zacuto, Abraham 139 Zambia 269 Zapotecs 94 Zeno of Citium 65 Zeppelins 127 zero 55 Zhang Qian 69 Zhaozong, Emperor 90 Zheng He 168 Zhu Wen 90 ziggurats 36, 43 Zimbabwe 247, 281 Zionism 272, 273 zoos 80 Zoroastrianism 65, 76 Zulu kingdom 119 Zwingli, Ulrich 144

319

Acknowledgments The publisher would like to thank the following for their assistance in the preparation of this book: Vikas Chauhan, Rachael Grady, Baibhav Parida, Sean Ross, and Heena Sharma for design assistance; Charvi Arora, Suefa Lee, and Rupa Rao for editorial assistance; Ed Merritt for cartography; Mohd Zishan and Baibhav Parida for additional illustrations; Steve Crozier at Butterfly Creative Solutions for picture retouching; Victoria Pyke for proofreading; Helen Peters for the index. Smithsonian Enterprises: Kealy E. Gordon, Product Development Manager Ellen Nanney, Licensing Manager Brigid Ferraro, Vice President, Consumer and Education Products Carol LeBlanc, Senior Vice President, Education and Consumer Products The publisher would like to thank the following for their permission to reproduce their photographs: (Key: a-above; b-below/bottom; c-center; f-far; l-left; r-right; t-top) 2 Alamy Stock Photo: INTERFOTO (tr/Chain mail). Dorling Kindersley: Dave King / The Science Museum, London (ca); Clive Streeter / The Science Museum (bc); Gary Ombler / University of Aberdeen (cr); Gary Ombler / National Railway Museum, York (c). Science & Society Picture Library: Science Museum (t). 9 Alamy Stock Photo: Terese Loeb Kreuzer (c). Dorling Kindersley: Dave King / The Science Museum, London (cl). Getty Images: DEA / A. DAGLI ORTI (tl). Science Photo Library: Mark Garlick (tr). 10 Science Photo Library: Mark Garlick (crb). 11 Alamy Stock Photo: keith morris (clb). Dorling Kindersley: Dave King / The Science Museum, London (t). Getty Images: DEA / A. DAGLI ORTI (br). 16 Dorling Kindersley: Jon Hughes (bl). 17 Dorling Kindersley: Jon Hughes (br). 18-19 Science Photo Library: Mark Garlick. 20-21 123RF.com: prapan Ngawkeaw (background). 22 Alamy Stock Photo: Christopher Scott (br); Ann and Steve Toon (t). Avalon: Bruno Cavignaux (bl). 23 Alamy Stock Photo: Classic Image (bl); Granger Historical Picture Archive (tc); Ian Rutherford (br). 24-25 Getty Images: Charley Gallay (background). 24 Alamy Stock Photo: imageBROKER (br); Terese Loeb Kreuzer (tr). Getty Images: DEA / A. DAGLI ORTI (bc). Science Photo Library: Kaj R. Svensson (bl). 25 Alamy Stock Photo: Ancient Art and Architecture (ca); Hemis (tl); keith morris (tr); Liquid Light (br); Heritage Image Partnership Ltd (bc). Getty Images: Werner Forman / Universal Images Group (bl). 28 akg-images: Erich Lessing (bl). Alamy Stock Photo: Judith Collins (cla). Getty Images: DEA / G. LOVERA (cl). 28-29 Dorling Kindersley: Gary Ombler / Jonathan Sneath (c). 29 Alamy Stock Photo: neil setchfield - uk (tr). Dorling Kindersley: Gary Ombler, Courtesy of Deutsches Fahrradmuseum, Germany (cr); Whipple Museum of History of Science, Cambridge (tl); Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum, Bovington (br). Getty Images: (cra). 30 Alamy Stock Photo: age fotostock (bl); David Poulain (cl); Helga (bc); Robert Preston Photography (cr). Bridgeman Images: Private Collection / © World Religions Photo Library (br). Getty Images: De Agostini Picture Library (c); DEA / A. DAGLI ORTI (tr). 31 123RF.com: F. Javier Espuny / fxegs (br). Alamy Stock Photo: Pieter Greyling (bl); Barry Vincent (bc); Charles Walker Collection (tr). Bridgeman Images: Louvre, Paris, France (cl). Getty Images: DEA / G. NIMATALLAH (tc). 33 akg-images: Erich Lessing (bc). Alamy Stock Photo: David Hilbert (clb); Peter Horree (tl). Bridgeman Images: Pictures from History (bl). Dorling Kindersley: Gary Ombler / University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology (cla). Dreamstime.com: Kmiragaya (br). Getty Images. iStockphoto.com: phant (tr). 34 Alamy Stock Photo: Mark Dunn (br). 35 Alamy Stock Photo: robertharding (clb). Bridgeman Images: Private Collection / © Look and Learn (crb). Dorling Kindersley: Gary Ombler / University of Aberdeen (t). 37 Dreamstime.com: Kmiragaya (br). 38 akg-images: Erich Lessing (tc). Alamy Stock Photo: Granger Historical Picture Archive (br); Brian Overcast (tr). Bridgeman Images: The Israel Museum, Jerusalem, Israel / Bequest of Norbert Schimmel, New York (tl). 39 Alamy Stock Photo: James Dale (crb); urbanbuzz (c); Thrive Images (br). Bridgeman Images: Christie’s Images (t). Dreamstime.com: Baoshengrulai (bl). 40 Alamy Stock Photo: Granger Historical Picture Archive (bl). 41 Getty Images: Werner Forman / Universal Images Group (tr). 44-45 Getty Images: Print Collector. 48 akg-images: (tc). Alamy Stock Photo: The Print Collector (b). Bridgeman Images: Granger (cb). Getty Images: DEA / A. DAGLI ORTI (tr); Werner Forman (cl); Print Collector (cla). 48-49 Getty Images. 49 Alamy Stock Photo: Giulio Ercolani (tl); Granger Historical Collection (tr). Bonhams Auctioneers, London: (crb). Courtesy of Butter Lane Antiques, Manchester: (cra). Getty Images: azndc (br); Print Collector (tc); Leemage (cr); Ron Galella (bl). 50 123RF.com: artforeveryone (tc/Bowling pins); Khoon Lay Gan (tl, cl, tr, cr/Footballer, cr/Table tennis, br); macrovector (tc); vectorstudio (c); tackgalichstudio (cr); Kittisak Taramas (bl); yupiramos (bc). iStockphoto.com: browndogstudios (c/Figure). 51 123RF.com: Khoon Lay Gan (c, tr, tr/Goalkeeper, clb, crb); Kittisak Taramas (cl); Claudia Mora (cr); tackgalichstudio (bl, br); macrovector (bc). iStockphoto.com: browndogstudios (tl, tc). 54-55 Alamy Stock Photo: Dmytro Synelnychenko (background). Dorling Kindersley: Dreamstime.com: Daboost (exercise book). 56-57 123RF.com: Volodimir Kalina (background). 56 Alamy Stock Photo: IanDagnall Computing (bc/left); Mark Rasmussen (bc/right); Paul Fearn (br). Bridgeman Images: Pictures from History (bl). 57 Alamy Stock Photo: Pictorial Press Ltd (bl); Pulsar Imagens (br). Getty Images: Gerard Malie / AFP (bc/left). 58 akg-images: INTERFOTO (tl). Alamy Stock Photo: Mark Dunn (bl). Getty Images: DEA / A. DAGLI ORTI (clb). 58-59 akg-images: Erich Lessing (c). 59 Alamy Stock Photo: Paul Fearn (t). Dreamstime.com: Andrei Nekrassov - [email protected] (cr). Getty Images: VCG Wilson / Corbis (bl). 61 Getty Images: Dario Mitidieri (bc/right). 62-63 Bridgeman Images: Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples. 68 Alamy Stock Photo: Granger Historical Picture Archive (c); Lordprice Collection (tr). Bridgeman Images: Pictures from History / Woodbury & Page (cl); Pictures from History (cr). Dorling Kindersley: Gary Ombler / University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology (tl). 68-69 Getty Images: Cindy Ord (b). 69 akg-images: (cr).

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Alamy Stock Photo: robertharding (br). Bridgeman Images: Pictures from History (tr). 70-71 iStockphoto.com: RapidEye (c). 70 Alamy Stock Photo: neil setchfield - uk (tr). Getty Images: DEA PICTURE LIBRARY (clb, b); Science & Society Picture Library (tl). 71 Alamy Stock Photo: dpa picture alliance (tl). Getty Images: DEA / A. DAGLI ORTI (crb); Science & Society Picture Library (br, cra, tc, tr). 72 Alamy Stock Photo: colaimages (tl). Bridgeman Images: Louvre, Paris, France / Index (cl); Museum of Fine Arts, Springfield, Massachusetts / Pictures from History / Daderot (tr); Private Collection / © Look and Learn (clb). Getty Images: Photo 12 / UIG (bl). 72-73 123RF.com: Sergio Barrios (background). Alamy Stock Photo: MuseoPics - Paul Williams (c). 73 Alamy Stock Photo: The Granger Collection (tr). Bridgeman Images: Musei Capitolini, Rome, Italy (br). Getty Images: Ann Ronan Pictures / Print Collector (bl). 74 123RF.com: Steven Heap (cra); Lefteris Papaulakis (cl). 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DAGLI ORTI (cr); Ullstein bild Dtl. (tr). 87 Alamy Stock Photo: World History Archive (crb). Bridgeman Images: Granger (tr). Dorling Kindersley: Alamy: Image Gap (cl). iStockphoto.com: RapidEye (bc). 88 Alamy Stock Photo: ART Collection (br); Ian Dagnall (bl). Dreamstime.com: Jarnogz (bc/left). 89 Alamy Stock Photo: Peter Horree (bc/right); INTERFOTO (t); Image Gap (bc/left). Bridgeman Images: Pictures from History (bl). 90 Alamy Stock Photo: ART Collection (tl); Granger Historical Picture Archive (bl, tr). Bridgeman Images: Pictures from History (br). Getty Images: Fine Art Images / Heritage Images (bc). 91 Alamy Stock Photo: FLHC 16 (tl); Heritage Image Partnership Ltd (tr); The Picture Art Collection (bl). Bridgeman Images: Pictures from History (br). Dorling Kindersley: James Stevenson / National Maritime Museum, London (cr). 92 akg-images: Universal Images Group (t). Alamy Stock Photo: Ian Dagnall (cl); PRISMA ARCHIVO (clb). 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Getty Images: Werner Forman / Universal Images Group (bc). 118-119 The Trustees of the British Museum: (c). 119 Alamy Stock Photo: Robert Hoetink (b/ring, tl/ring, tr/ring). Bridgeman Images: British Library, London, UK / © British Library Board. All Rights Reserved (tc). Getty Images: Photo taken by Alan (b); Werner Forman / Universal Images Group (tl). 120 Alamy Stock Photo: IanDagnall Computing (tl). 121 Alamy Stock Photo: Granger Historical Collection (c); Science History Images (tc). Getty Images: Werner Forman (tr). 124 Alamy Stock Photo: Chronicle (br); Granger Historical Collection (tr); Science History Images (bl, c). Getty Images: Science Photo Library (tl). 124-125 123RF.com: Irina Brinza. 126 Bridgeman Images: De Agostini Picture Library (br); Prismatic Pictures (tl). Dorling Kindersley: Dave King / Warwick Castle, Warwick (bc). 127 Alamy Stock Photo: Volodymyr Horbovyy (tr). Bridgeman Images: Cleveland Museum of Art, OH, USA / Gift of Mr. and Mrs. John L. Severance (bl); Granger (cr). Dorling Kindersley: Richard Leeney / Maidstone Museum and Bentliff Art Gallery (tl). Getty Images: DEA / A. DAGLI ORTI (bc). 129 Alamy Stock Photo: ART Collection (tc); Niday Picture Library (bc); Heritage Image Partnership Ltd (c);

GL Archive (cr/overlaid). Getty Images: Harald Sund (br). 130 Getty Images: DEA / A. DAGLI ORTI (br); SuperStock (bc/left); Imagno (bc/right). iStockphoto.com: tomograf (bc/right, background). 131 Alamy Stock Photo: ART Collection (br); Science History Images (bc/left); Alexander Helin (bc/right). Bridgeman Images: Library of Congress, Washington D.C. (bl). iStockphoto.com: tomograf (bl/background). Science & Society Picture Library: Science Museum (t). 132-133 iStockphoto. com: Newbird (background). 132 akg-images: (c). Alamy Stock Photo: FLHC 8 (cr). Dreamstime.com: Jacek Kutyba / Jacqu (br). Getty Images: DEA / A. DAGLI ORTI (bl). 133 Alamy Stock Photo: Alfio Scisetti (tl). Bridgeman Images: American Museum of Natural History, New York, USA / Photo © Boltin Picture Library (cl). Getty Images: Science & Society Picture Library (tr). 134 Alamy Stock Photo: Artokoloro Quint Lox Limited (bl); Niday Picture Library (cla); Granger Historical Picture Archive (crb). Dorling Kindersley: James Stevenson / National Maritime Museum, London (tr); James Stevenson / Tina Chambers / National Maritime Museum, London (cr). Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.: (c). 135 123RF.com: Richard Pross / richardpross (bc). Alamy Stock Photo: George Atsametakis (tl); Jeanette Dietl (br). Dorling Kindersley: Gary Ombler / Fleet Air Arm Museum (c). Getty Images: Joe Scarnici / HISTORY (tc); Harald Sund (tr); Science & Society Picture Library (cl). iStockphoto.com: gmalandra (bl). 138-139 Alamy Stock Photo: Panther Media GmbH. 138 Alamy Stock Photo: GL Archive (tl). Bridgeman Images: De Agostini Picture Library (bl). Getty Images: DEA / G. DAGLI ORTI (tc); SuperStock (tr). 139 Alamy Stock Photo: Chronicle (ftl); Science History Images (tl); North Wind Picture Archives (tr); The Granger Collection (ftr); GL Archive (c). 140-141 iStockphoto.com: tomograf (background). Science Photo Library: Christian Jegou Publiphoto Diffusion. 142 akg-images: (bc). Alamy Stock Photo: Ian Dagnall (tr); FineArt (tl). Bridgeman Images: British Library, London, UK / © British Library Board. All Rights Reserved (cl); Private Collection / © The Lucian Freud Archive / Private Collection / © The Lucian Freud Archive / Bridgeman Images (bl, bl). Getty Images: Universal History Archive (tc); VCG Wilson / Corbis (cr). The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Jacques and Natasha Gelman Collection, 1998 (br). 143 Alamy Stock Photo: Art Directors & TRIP (tc); Ian Dagnall (br); FineArt (cb); GL Archive (clb); Heritage Image Partnership Ltd (tl). Getty Images: Asian Art & Archaeology, Inc. / CORBIS (cra); De Agostini Picture Library (cla, tr); Pascal Deloche / GODONG (ca). Courtesy National Gallery of Art, Washington: Gift of Victoria Nebeker Coberly, in memory of her son John W. Mudd, and Walter H. and Leonore Annenberg (crb). The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Jacques and Natasha Gelman Collection, 1998 (bl). 144-145 123RF.com: Grigory Stepanov (Nails). Dreamstime.com: Ovydyborets (background, paper). 144 123RF.com: nathanael005 (t/scroll background). Alamy Stock Photo: Chronicle (c); INTERFOTO (t). Getty Images: Imagno (b). 145 123RF.com: nathanael005 (tl/scroll background ). akg-images: De Agostini Picture Library (tr). Alamy Stock Photo: Chronicle (tl); PRISMA ARCHIVO (cl); Pictorial Press Ltd (br); Historical Images Archive (bl). 146-147 Dreamstime.com: Ovydyborets (background). 147 Bridgeman Images: Tarker (tr). 148-149 Alamy Stock Photo: Lebrecht Music and Arts Photo Library. 150 Alamy Stock Photo: Art Collection 3 (bl). Bridgeman Images: Pictures from History (tr). 151 Alamy Stock Photo: Niday Picture Library (br). Bridgeman Images: Granger (cl). Getty Images: DEA / A. DAGLI ORTI (cr). 152 Alamy Stock Photo: Richard Wainscoat (bl). 154 Alamy Stock Photo: Aurelian Images (br); INTERFOTO (bl). Bridgeman Images: Apsley House, The Wellington Museum, London, UK / © Historic England (tr). Getty Images: Fine Art Images / Heritage Images (tl); Fototeca Gilardi (bc). 154-155 Dreamstime.com: Designprintck (background). 155 Alamy Stock Photo: Everett Collection Historical (c); Lifestyle pictures (tl). Getty Images: Apic (br); Leemage (bl). 156-157 Alamy Stock Photo: ART Collection. 158 Alamy Stock Photo: Granger Historical Picture Archive (tr); V&A Images (tc). Bridgeman Images: Church of the Gesù, Rome, Italy (c); Private Collection (bl); Musee Guimet, Paris, France (cl). 158-159 Alamy Stock Photo: age fotostock (cb). 159 Alamy Stock Photo: Aflo Co., Ltd. (cl); Heritage Image Partnership Ltd (c). Bridgeman Images: Private Collection / Archives Charmet (cr); Private Collection / Pictures from History (br). Getty Images: Asian Art & Archaeology, Inc. / CORBIS (tl); Print Collector (tr). 160 Alamy Stock Photo: Glasshouse Images (fbl). Bridgeman Images: Granger (br); Private Collection / © Look and Learn (tl); Library of Congress, Washington D.C. (bl). Getty Images: Historical (fbr). 160-161 Dreamstime.com: Ovydyborets (background paper). 161 akg-images: (cr). Bridgeman Images: Granger (tl, tc, tr); Private Collection / © Look and Learn (bl). 162 Alamy Stock Photo: Paul Fearn (tl); Science History Images (tr); INTERFOTO (ca). Wellcome Images http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/: (br). 163 Alamy Stock Photo: The Granger Collection (tl); Lebrecht Music and Arts Photo Library (bl); Science History Images (cb). Dorling Kindersley: Whipple Museum of History of Science, Cambridge (tr). Getty Images: Universal History Archive (cr). 164 Bridgeman Images: Pictures from History (br). 165 Bridgeman Images: Pictures from History (bl). 166 Alamy Stock Photo: Dinodia Photos (tl, tc, tr); IndiaPicture (bl). 167 Alamy Stock Photo: Granger Historical Collection (tl); Alexander Helin (tc); V&A Images (cr); Niday Picture Library (br). 168 Bridgeman Images: National Palace Museum, Taipei, Taiwan (tl); Pictures from History (tc, b). Dreamstime.com: Songquan Deng / Rabbit75 (tr). 168-169 Dreamstime.com: Designprintck (background ). 169 Alamy Stock Photo: ART Collection (bl); imageBROKER (tr); Everett Collection Historical (cb). Dorling Kindersley: Andy Crawford / British Museum (br). Getty Images: DEA PICTURE LIBRARY (tl); Universal History Archive (cra). 170-171 123RF.com: Igor Zakharevich (background). 175 akg-images: Science Source (br). 177 Alamy Stock Photo: Granger Historical Picture Archive (tl); Prisma by Dukas Presseagentur GmbH (fcr). Dorling Kindersley: Simon Clay / National Motor Museum, Beaulieu (b). Getty Images: Photo Josse / Leemage (bl). 178 Alamy Stock Photo: Chronicle (bc/right); Niday Picture Library (br). Bridgeman Images: 00596841 (bl). 179 Alamy Stock Photo: Granger Historical Picture Archive (bl). Dorling Kindersley: Gary Ombler / National Railway Museum, York / Science Museum Group (t). Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.: (bc/left, bc/right). 182-183 Bridgeman Images: Granger (b). iStockphoto.com: tomograf (background). 184 Alamy Stock Photo: Enrico Della Pietra (tc). Getty Images: Stephen J Krasemann (bl); Sergio Pigozzi (tr). NASA: (br); GSFC / METI / ERSDAC / JAROS, and U.S. / Japan ASTER Science Team (c). 185 Alamy Stock Photo: Science History Images (bc).

Getty Images: InterNetwork Media (bl); Tom Pfeiffer / VolcanoDiscovery (tc); Topical Press Agency / Hulton Archive (cr); STF / AFP (br). 186 Alamy Stock Photo: AF archive (b); Dinodia Photos (cl). Getty Images: Hiroyuki Ito (tr). 187 123RF.com: mikewaters (tc). Alamy Stock Photo: SPUTNIK (br). Getty Images: De Agostini Picture Library (cr); Michel Porro (tl); DEA / A. DAGLI ORTI (tr). 188-189 Bridgeman Images: Kremlin Museums, Moscow, Russia (c). 188 Alamy Stock Photo: Niday Picture Library (clb); The Print Collector (tr). Getty Images: Photo Josse / Leemage (bl); Jose Fuste Raga (cl). 189 Alamy Stock Photo: Chronicle (tl); Chris Hellier (cra); Pictorial Press Ltd (cr); Hi-Story (br). 190 Alamy Stock Photo: North Wind Picture Archives (c). Bridgeman Images: 00596841 (cr); Private Collection / © Look and Learn / Barbara Loe Collection (bc). Getty Images: Science & Society Picture Library (bl). 191 Alamy Stock Photo: (crb); ART Collection (tl); IanDagnall Computing (tr); Science History Images (cra); Granger Historical Picture Archive (bl); The Granger Collection (br); North Wind Picture Archives (cla). Bridgeman Images: (clb). Getty Images: Hulton Archive (c). 192-193 Bridgeman Images: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, USA. 196 123RF.com: Martijn Mulder (c). Alamy Stock Photo: imageBROKER (bc); Penny Tweedie (r). Getty Images: Danita Delimont (tl); Werner Forman / Universal Images Group (ca). 197 Alamy Stock Photo: Chronicle (l); Marc Tielemans (tc); The Picture Art Collection (cr); Photo 12 (cb). 198-199 iStockphoto.com: tomograf (background). 199 Bridgeman Images: Archives Charmet. 200 Alamy Stock Photo: Chronicle (bc); Dennis Hallinan (br); Masterpics (tr). Bridgeman Images: Musee de la Ville de Paris, Musee Carnavalet, Paris, France (tl, tc). 201 Alamy Stock Photo: Niday Picture Library (bl); PRISMA ARCHIVO (bc). Bridgeman Images: Musee de la Ville de Paris, Musee Carnavalet, Paris, France (tl). 202 Alamy Stock Photo: Granger Historical Picture Archive (br). Getty Images: adocphotos / Corbis (bl); De Agostini Picture Library (tl); Bettmann (tr). 203 Getty Images: Business Wire (bl); David Silverman (tr); Science & Society Picture Library (br, tl). 204 Alamy Stock Photo: ART Collection (tr). 205 Alamy Stock Photo: Paul Fearn (tr); NMUIM (tl); Granger Historical Picture Archive (br). Bridgeman Images: Manchester Art Gallery, UK (bl). 206 Getty Images: De Agostini Picture Library (b); Hulton Archive (t). 207 Alamy Stock Photo: Granger Historical Picture Archive (tr). Getty Images: De Agostini Picture Library (bl); PHAS / UIG (cr). 208 Alamy Stock Photo: Ed Buziak (crb). Dorling Kindersley: Mike Dunning / National Railway Museum, York (cl); Clive Streeter / The Science Museum, London (tr). Getty Images: Central Press / Hulton Archive (cr); Wolfgang Kaehler / LightRocket (ca). Daniel Lu: (bl). 209 Alamy Stock Photo: Top Photo Corporation (bc). Dorling Kindersley: Gary Ombler / National Railway Museum, York / Science Museum Group (tc); Gary Ombler / Didcot Railway Centre (crb). Dreamstime.com: Yinan Zhang / Cyoginan (br). Getty Images: Science & Society Picture Library (tl, tr, c, bl). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library: Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (cl). 210 Alamy Stock Photo: Everett Collection (bl); ZUMA Press, Inc. (br); The Granger Collection (tr). Digital image courtesy of the Getty’s Open Content Program: (tl). 210-211 Alamy Stock Photo: Prisma by Dukas Presseagentur GmbH (c). 211 Bridgeman Images: Bibliotheque des Arts Decoratifs, Paris, France / Archives Charmet (r). 214 Alamy Stock Photo: Lordprice Collection (bl); Science History Images (cl). Getty Images: American Stock Archive (r); Bettmann (tl). 215 Alamy Stock Photo: FineArt (cr); National Geographic Creative (tr). Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.: (l, br). 216 Alamy Stock Photo: Chronicle (tr); Granger Historical Picture Archive (tl, bl); INTERFOTO (br). 217 Alamy Stock Photo: Chronicle (bc/left); Classic Image (bl); Glasshouse Images (br). Bridgeman Images: Private Collection / © Look and Learn (bc/right). 218-219 123RF.com: Igor Zakharevich (background). 222 Bridgeman Images: Chicago History Museum, USA (cl). Dorling Kindersley: Dave King / Gettysburg National Military Park, PA (bl). Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.: (bc, tr, br). 223 Alamy Stock Photo: ClassicStock (tr). Bridgeman Images: Private Collection (tl). Getty Images: Bettmann (c). 224 akg-images: North Wind Picture Archives (tr). Getty Images: Hulton Archive (br); Popperfoto (t). 225 Alamy Stock Photo: Heritage Image Partnership Ltd (cr). Getty Images: Express Newspapers (tl); Paul Popper / Popperfoto (tr). 226 Alamy Stock Photo: Pictorial Press Ltd (crb). Bridgeman Images: Photo © CCI (bc). Getty Images: Stefano Bianchetti / Corbis (tr); Photo 12 / UIG (clb); Araldo de Luca / Corbis (br). 227 123RF.com: beaucroft (bl); klotz (tc). Dreamstime.com: Grzym (crb). Getty Images: Bettmann (tl); Science & Society Picture Library (clb); Bloomberg (br). 228 Alamy Stock Photo: Ton Snoei (t). Bridgeman Images: Private Collection / Avant-Demain (tr). Getty Images: George Rose (br); Science & Society Picture Library (tc, bl). iStockphoto.com: selvanegra (bc). Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.: (tl). 228-229 iStockphoto.com: Rouzes (pegs and photo background). 229 Alamy Stock Photo: Granger Historical Picture Archive (tl); World History Archive (tc, cl). Bridgeman Images: PVDE (cr). Getty Images: Science & Society Picture Library (bl). iStockphoto.com: kosamtu (br). Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.: (tr, c). 230 Alamy Stock Photo: FOR ALAN (tl); Marmaduke St. John (tr); Pictorial Press Ltd (cr). 231 Alamy Stock Photo: By Ian Miles-Flashpoint Pictures (bl). Getty Images: Science & Society Picture Library (tr); Stegerphoto (br). 232 Alamy Stock Photo: David Osborn (br); Science History Images (cr). Dreamstime.com: Steve Mann / The_guitar_mann (bc); Gary Scott (cl). Getty Images: Bettmann (c). 233 Getty Images: Ross Land (tr); Science & Society Picture Library (tl); © Museum of Flight / CORBIS (c). iStockphoto.com: aapsky (br). 236-237 123RF.com: Igor Zakharevich (background). 238 Alamy Stock Photo: Granger Historical Picture Archive (br). Daimler AG: Mercedes-Benz Classic (bl). Dorling Kindersley: Gary Ombler / R. Florio (cr). Getty Images: Rykoff Collection (c). Utah State Historical Society: (cl). Volvo Car Group: (bc). 239 Alamy Stock Photo: Heritage Image Partnership Ltd (cl). Dorling Kindersley: Simon Clay / National Motor Museum, Beaulieu (cr); James Mann / National Motor Museum Beaulieu (c). Getty Images: Kim Kulish / Corbis (br); Science & Society Picture Library (tr). Toyota UK: (cb). 240 Alamy Stock Photo: Everett Collection Historical (bl); Pictorial Press Ltd (ca). TopFoto.co.uk: (cb). 241 Alamy Stock Photo: GL Archive (cl). Getty Images: Library of Congress / Corbis / VCG (tl); NY Daily News Archive (tr). Paragon Space Development Corporation and Volker Kern: (br). 242-243 Getty Images: Bettmann. iStockphoto.com: tomograf (background). 245 Alamy Stock Photo: David Parker (backdrop);

Splash News (c). Getty Images: Agence France Presse (tl); Popperfoto (bl); Yamaguchi Haruyoshi (cr); Ralph Morse / The LIFE Picture Collection (tr). 246 Alamy Stock Photo: Granger Historical Picture Archive (bl). Getty Images: Central Press / Hulton Archive (br); Heritage Images (bc/left). 247 Dorling Kindersley: Clive Streeter / The Science Museum, London (t). Getty Images: Agence France Presse (bc/right); Francoise De Mulder / Roger Viollet (bl). 248 Alamy Stock Photo: Everett Collection Historical (tr). Bridgeman Images: © SZ Photo / Scherl (bl); Private Collection / Photo © Christie’s Images (br). Rex by Shutterstock: Universal History Archive \ UIG (bc). 248-249 123RF.com: Nuwat Chanthachanthuek (c). 249 Alamy Stock Photo: Everett Collection Historical (br); Heritage Image Partnership Ltd (tr); Granger Historical Picture Archive (bc). Bridgeman Images: Private Collection / © Look and Learn / Elgar Collection (tl). Getty Images: Bettmann (bl). iStockphoto.com: Goja1 (cr). 250 123RF.com: andreadonetti (bl). Alamy Stock Photo: Granger Historical Picture Archive (tl); Tom Hanley (tc); Pictorial Press Ltd (r). Dorling Kindersley: Gary Ombler / R. Florio (crb). 251 Alamy Stock Photo: Ewing Galloway (l). Getty Images: Bettmann (tr); Hulton Archive (tc, br). 252 Alamy Stock Photo: Hercules Milas (bl). 253 akg-images: Album / J.Enrique Molina (cr); Erich Lessing (cla). Alamy Stock Photo: World History Archive (cl). Getty Images: De Agostini Picture Library (cb). 254 Getty Images: Bettmann (t); Heritage Images (cl). 255 Alamy Stock Photo: Sueddeutsche Zeitung Photo (cb); World History Archive (ca). Getty Images: Bettmann (tl); Sovfoto / UIG (c); Shepard Sherbell / Corbis (br). 260-261 Dorling Kindersley: Dreamstime.com: Ovydyborets. Getty Images: Hulton-Deutsch Collection (background). 260 Bridgeman Images: Archives de Gaulle, Paris, France (b). Getty Images: Fox Photos (cla); William Vandivert / The LIFE Picture Collection (t); Popperfoto (cr); Keystone (c). 261 Alamy Stock Photo: Prisma by Dukas Presseagentur GmbH (br). Getty Images: Margaret Bourke-White / The LIFE Picture Collection (c); Fox Photos (tl). 262 Bridgeman Images: Pictures from History (b); SZ Photo (tl); SZ Photo / Scherl (tr). 262-263 Getty Images: Hulton Archive. 263 Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial & Museum: (tl). Bridgeman Images: Galerie Bilderwelt (tr); SZ Photo (br). Getty Images: Galerie Bilderwelt (bl). 264-265 Alamy Stock Photo: World History Archive. 266 Bridgeman Images: SZ Photo / Scherl (tr). Getty Images: (bl). 267 Alamy Stock Photo: Military History Collection (br); Pictorial Press Ltd (tl). Bridgeman Images: PVDE (bc). Getty Images: Historical (bl); SuperStock (tr). 268 Alamy Stock Photo: World History Archive (tl). Getty Images: Margaret Bourke-White / The LIFE Picture Collection (r); Central Press / Hulton Archive (tc); Keystone (bl). 269 Alamy Stock Photo: Zoonar GmbH (br). Getty Images: Mark Kauffman / The LIFE Picture Collection (l); Keystone-France / Gamma-Keystone (cb); Popperfoto (tc). 270 Getty Images: Science & Society Picture Library (bl). 271 123RF.com: Burnel1 (tr). Alamy Stock Photo: Artokoloro Quint Lox Limited (cra); MARKA (br). 272 Alamy Stock Photo: Everett Collection Historical (bl); Granger Historical Picture Archive (cl); World History Archive (c). Getty Images: AFP (br); Christine Spengler / Sygma (cr). 273 Alamy Stock Photo: PCN Photography (tr); US Air Force Photo (c). Getty Images: Francoise De Mulder / Roger Viollet (t); David Rubinger / The LIFE Images Collection (cl). 275 Getty Images: Apic / RETIRED (tr). 276 Alamy Stock Photo: Everett Collection Historical (c); Keystone Pictures USA (r). Getty Images: Bettmann (bl); VCG Wilson / Corbis (cl). 277 Alamy Stock Photo: FLHC 47 (ca); INTERFOTO (l). Getty Images: Bettmann (br); Underwood Archives (cb). 278 Alamy Stock Photo: colaimages (c); World History Archive (tr); Susan Pease (bl). Getty Images: Bettmann (clb); Henry Diltz (bl/above); Reg Lancaster (br/above); Robert Abbott Sengstacke (br); Edward Miller (cla). 279 Alamy Stock Photo: Everett Collection (bl); Tracksimages.com (cl); US Army Photo (cr); M&N (clb). Getty Images: B.Friedan (tl); The LIFE Picture Collection (tc); Bettmann (tr); Popperfoto (crb); Photolibrary (br); Francois LOCHON (c). 280 Alamy Stock Photo: Allstar Picture Library (c). Getty Images: AFP (bl); Mark Kauffman / The LIFE Picture Collection (tl); William Campbell / Sygma (br); Patrick Robert / Sygma / CORBIS (tr). 281 Alamy Stock Photo: imageBROKER (tr); David Parker (br). Getty Images: GIANLUIGI GUERCIA / AFP (cl); Santi Visalli (tl); PHILIP OJISUA / AFP (cra). 284 Alamy Stock Photo: ART Collection (br); SPUTNIK (cb, tc); Chronicle (cr). NASA: (tl, cl, tr). 285 Alamy Stock Photo: ITAR-TASS News Agency (tl). John F. Kennedy Library Foundation: Robert Knudsen. White House Photographs. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston (tr). NASA: (tc). Martin Trolle Mikkelsen: (cr). 286 Getty Images: Ralph Morse / The LIFE Picture Collection (l, r). 287 Getty Images: Ralph Morse / The LIFE Picture Collection (r, l). 288-289 Getty Images: Bettmann (cl). 290 Getty Images: Bettmann (cl, cr, tr). 290-291 Getty Images: AFP. 291 Bridgeman Images: Granger (cr); Underwood Archives / UIG (cl). Getty Images: Agence France Presse (cl/far). 292 Alamy Stock Photo: The National Trust Photolibrary (tr/Queen Elizabeth); Trinity Mirror / Mirrorpix (br). Bridgeman Images: Castello della Manta, Saluzzo, Italy (tc/Middle ages); Victoria & Albert Museum, London, UK (tr). Getty Images: DEA / S. VANNINI / De Agostini (tl); Tim Graham (bl/Diana); DEA / A. DAGLI ORTI (tl/Greek); In Pictures Ltd. / Corbis (tc); Mark Kauffman / The LIFE Picture Collection (br/mini dresses); Michael Putland (bc). 293 Alamy Stock Photo: Heritage Image Partnership Ltd (tr); MARKA (bc/left). Bridgeman Images: National Trust Photographic Library / John Hammond (tl/Baroque Europe); Photo © Historic Royal Palaces / Robin Forster (tr/Mantua dress). Getty Images: DEA / A. DAGLI ORTI (tl, cra); Galerie Bilderwelt (bl). iStockphoto.com: BernardAllum (tc/Kimono). 300 Alamy Stock Photo: Paul Fearn (cb); Granger Historical Picture Archive (cl); Lebrecht Music and Arts Photo Library (c/Wollstonecraft); Trinity Mirror / Mirrorpix (br/Pankhurst); Len Collection (br). Carrie Chapman Catt Papers, Bryn Mawr College Library Special Collections: (ca). Getty Images: Topical Press Agency / Hulton Archive (crb). The National Library of Norway: (cr). 301 Alamy Stock Photo: Keystone Pictures USA (ca); World History Archive (cl); Splash News (br). Getty Images: Sam Morris (tr); Popperfoto (cb); RDA (clb). 302-303 Vecteezy.com: (Icons). 306 Getty Images: Ralph Crane / The LIFE Picture Collection (cl); Science & Society Picture Library (l); Yamaguchi Haruyoshi (t). Professor Hod Lipson: Jonathan Blutinger (photographer), Victor Zykov (designer) (crb). 307 Alamy Stock Photo: Anton Gvozdikov (tc). Courtesy of Boston Dynamics: (r). Getty Images: NurPhoto (cr). All other images © Dorling Kindersley For further information see: www.dkimages.com