The Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion: Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, Zen — A Complete Survey of the Teachers, Traditions, and Literature of Asian Wisdom

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ENCYCLOPEDIA_

BUDDHISM• HINDUISM• TAOISM• ZEN With more than four thousand entries and over one hundred illustrations, this encyclopedia offers a complete survey of the four major reli­ gious traditions of Asia. It is designed not only for students and scholars but also to help gen­ eral readers find theirway through the thicket of unfamiliar words and concepts that are often encountered today in various fields such as the health professions, psychotherapy, the sci­ ences, and the media. Among the subjects covered are: • Important terms such as chakra, karma, koan, nirvana, tantra, Tao, and yin-yang • The lives and teachings of mystics, philoso­ phers, and masters of meditation • The variety of spiritual practices in the four traditions • Basic texts and scriptures • Sects and schools of thought • Mythological figures and events in addition, pronunciation tables, a compre­ hensive bibliography, and a Ch'an/Zen Lineage Chart are provided.

The Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion

Editors

Stephan Schuhmacher Gert Woerner Translators

Michael H. Kohn Karen Ready Werner Wiinsche Copy Editors

Susan Kron Michael K. Lane Bibliography

Timothy Lubin Editorial Assistance

David R. O'Neal

The Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion '

Buddhism • Hinduism • Taoism • Zen Buddhism & Taoism Ingrid Fischer-Schreiber

University of Vienna Tibetan Buddhism Franz-Karl Ehrhard

University of Hamburg Hinduism Kurt Friedrichs

President, German Vedanta Society Zen Michael S. Diener

Japanologist, Tokyo

Shambhala Boston 1989

Sauscllito Public library Sausalito, California 94965

Shambhala Publications, Inc. Horticultural Hall 300 Massachusetts Avenue Boston, Massachusetts 02115 ©1986 by Otto-Wilhelm-Barth Verlag, a division of Scherz Verlag, Bern and Munich Translation ©1989 by Shambhala Publications, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 First Edition Printed in the United States of America Distributed in the United States by Random House and in Canada by Random House of Canada Ltd. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Lexikon der ostlichen Weisheitslehren. English. The encyclopedia of Eastern philosophy and religion. Translation of: Lexikon der ostlichen Weisheitslehren. Bibliography: p. 1. Asia-Religion-Dictionaries. 2. Religions­ Dictionaries. 3. Philosophy, Oriental-Dictionaries. I. Fischer-Schreiber, Ingrid. II. Schuhmacher, Stephan. III. Woerner, Gert. IV. Title. BLl 005.L4813 1988 291'.095 88-15837 ISBN 0-87773-433-X

Contents ..

Introduction

Vll

Guide to Using the Encyclopedia

XI

Transcription and Pronunciation

Xlll

The Encyclopedia Ch'an/Zen Lineage Chart Bibliography Buddhism Hinduism Taoism Zen

451

457

463

465

1 445

Introduction This encyclopedia presents the basic terminology and doctrinal systems of the four great wisdom teachings of the East-Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, and Zen-in a clearly understandable form. Like all pioneering endeavors of this kind, it is bound to have shortcomings. These, it is hoped, will be out­ weighed by its benefits. It is evident that the roughly four thousand entries that could be included in this volume do not cover the entire range of concepts presented by the four doctrinal systems. Each of these systems has produced its own tremendous body of literature and terminology. To study the entirety of Buddhist litera­ ture alone would require several human lifetimes. Thus this encyclopedia is not intended for the use of a few academic specialists. It is rather intended to help general readers find their way through a thicket of unfamiliar terms and concepts that are frequently encountered today in widely varied fields of interest-in the sciences, in the media, in the health professions, in psycho­ therapy, in the study of meditation, and in psychophysical training. Difficulties in the preparation of a work such as this arise from several sources. For one, these concepts are expressed in at least five Asian languages (Sanskrit, Pali, Tibetan, Chinese, and Japanese), which are as different from one another as they are from English, so that the translation and translitera­ tion or romanization of the words are complex. Difficulties arise also and perhaps primarily from the subject matter of the wisdom teachings them­ selves. "Wisdom" is meant here primarily in the Buddhist sense of prtljna: that is, not as a mere intellectual achievement but rather as immediately ex­ perienced intuitive wisdom, whose essence is insight into the true nature of the world as well as eschatological matters. We are thus not dealing with an accumulation of factual knowledge in the form of the objective dates and measurements of natural science in the West­ ern sense. This is true even though the research methods of Eastern religion are no less pragmatic than those of Western science (their results have shown incomparably greater coherence and stability over millennia and across all cultures than the few lasting "facts" of the natural sciences); however, the es­ sence of the insights that have been gained through their methods, as all wisdom teachings repeatedly stress, cannot be conveyed in a conceptual, ra­ tional manner. Thus the terms used always point to "generally valid" human experiences; yet their real content can ultimately be grasped only through immediate per­ sonal experience. By analogy, the meaning of the concepts "sweet" and ..

Vil

Introduction

"sour" can never be conveyed by chemical analysis, no matter how detailed; but biting into a pear or a lemon makes sweet and sour immediately experienceable. Only someone who has had this experience is in a position to use these concepts with knowledge of their meaning. The insights that are the subject of this encyclopedia are thus to be gained on the path of immediate experience, not through measurements or philo­ sophical speculations. The method entails looking within, the exploration of consciousness through meditative techniques. Even in Western science, con­ sciousness is today proving itself ever more clearly to be the primary and critical factor in the struggle to know reality. On this path, the spiritual researchers of the East have attained insight into areas and levels of consciousness that for the most part are completely un­ known to the West and for which, therefore, the West has no concepts·. In the absence of knowledge gained from inner experience concerning the meaning of the terms used in the wisdom teachings, up until now they have been fair game for the speculations, interpretations, and projections of Western schol­ ars. For this reason, one is hard put to find two works of different authors in which the ideas treated here have been understood in the same manner. Even in cases where there is a foundation of actual experiential knowledge, linguis­ tic expression has varied considerably. On top of this, for a long time nearly every Western scholar produced his or her own scheme for transcribing the Asian languages. As a result, a great number of different ways of writing indi­ vidual terms is current. This encyclopedia thus ventures into an area where, as far as the presenta­ tion of the material to Western readers is concerned, no fixed standards of form or content have yet been achieved-and indeed, perhaps none can be set. For this reason, there are bound to be criticisms. Such criticisms, it is hoped, will help to improve upon the pioneering attempt made in this vol­ ume to develop a unified terminology. The difficulties described above are evident in the translations of original texts from Indian, Chinese, or Japanese literature. Thus the reader should keep in mind that a translation is an interpretation that reflects the translator's understanding, both in linguistic and substantive terms. Thus, for these often difficult texts, many translations, but not one single correct translation, are possible. For this reason, the Bibliography includes several translations of basic texts as far as this has been possible.

Vlll

Introduction

As concerns the terminology of Zen, the style of certain expressions might at first be puzzling; these have, however, been a matter of careful choice. The notion of "true nature," for example, points to a reality that is not to be dualistically conceived. "True nature" does not refer to a true nature as op­ posed to a false or untrue nature. "Nature" here is also not a substantive whose attributes and properties can be indicated by adjectives. True nature, as it is understood in Zen, is in fact devoid ofproperties; it is "the one mind without a second." It is to this reality that the expression points. Furthermore, philosophico-religious theory has less importance in Zen than in the other teachings treated here. Thus the lives of the individual Zen masters, who represent an unbroken lineage of transmission of the Zen tradi­ tion going back to Buddha Shakyamuni (see the Ch'an/Zen Lineage Chart at the end of the book), play a greater role. What Zen is, is to a great degree ex­ emplified in their lives. A relatively large space has therefore been devoted to their biographies. In the same way, certain developments and ideas that typi­ fy Zen are best clarified through the example of a particular Zen master. The length of a biographical article is thus not always an index of the importance of the person treated in it.

lX

Guide to Using the Encyclopedia The entries for all four subject areas-Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, Zen­ are found together in the same alphabetical listing. The order of the entry titles is according to the letter-by-letter system of alphabetization, irrespec­ tive of word components: for example, Ch 'i-hai . .. Chih-i . .. Chih-kung, and not, as in Chinese dictionaries, Ch 'i-hai . . . Ch 'i-kung . . . Chih-i. The literal meaning of an entry title is given when it is different from the definition of the entry title or when a literal translation of the components of the entry title is an aid to understanding. The inclusion of an entry title in one of the subject areas is indicated by [;J for Buddhism,[;] for Hinduism, ii for Taoism, and� for Zen. If the same con­ cept is used in more than one of the subject areas but with different meanings-primarily Hinduism/Buddhism-then (in this case) both expla­ nations are given one after the other, usually with the older, original meaning in the framework of Hinduism given first. Zen, although frequently considered to be one among many schools of Buddhism, had its own independent development to such an extent that it is here treated as a separate subject area. This also corresponds to its own un­ derstanding of itself as "outside the orthodox teaching." In the area of Buddhism, for the most part the literature makes use of the so-called hybrid Sanskrit form of Indian terms, even when there is an older Pali form. Thus the entry titles are also given in this form. If a Pali form dif­ ferent from the Sanskrit form often appears in the literature, it is added in parentheses. Pali forms appear as entry titles only where there is no Sanskrit form in common use. In cases where both farms are equally current, the read­ er is referred from the Pali to the Sanskrit form. Zen in its essential form arose and flourished for the first time in China. Today, however, it survives only in Japan; thus the present language of Zen is Japanese. For this reason, as in the majority of the literature, Zen terms are given in their Japanese form. In the few cases where Chinese farms are also current, the reader is referred from them to the Japanese form (for example, Kung-an_, Koan). Personal names, however, are given in their original form; the reader is referred from the more common Japanese reading of the name to the original form (for example, Rinzai Gigen _, Lin-chi 1-hsuan). In Chinese and Japanese there are many homonyms with different mean­ ings. Since the transcriptions are based on pronunciation alone, one cannot tell that for each of these different words a different character is used in the

XI

Guide to Using the Encyclopedia

original. Thus there are cases where the same entry title appears twice with a different literal meaning each time. In this case, it is not the same word with a different interpretation; rather these are different words (and characters) that are spelled the same way in the romanized form .

..

Xll

Transcription and Pronunciation Sanskrit: Entry terms are rendered according to a simplified system of trans­ literation commonly used in nonscholarly literature. Where the scholarly transcription (B) diverges from this simple form (A), the former version is supplied in parentheses. The following differences will be noted: A ch (chakra) n, m (Sanskrit; Dipamkara) ri (Rigveda) sh (Shiva; Krishna) t, d, n, h

B c (cakra) rp. (Sarp.skrit; Diparp.kara) f (Rgveda) s, � (Siva; Kf�va) t, 9, 1)., ti

For pronunciation, the following simplified rules can serve as a general reader's guide:

a

a i

u u e 0

.

a1

au

pronounced

like u in but like o in mom, but longer like i in pick like i in pique like u in rule like u in rule, but longer like e in they like o in go like ai in aisle like au in how

V is pronounced with the teeth lightly against the lower lip, so that the sound created is between English v and w. A consonant followed by h (e.g., kh, gh) indicates "aspirated" pronuncia­ tion, a detail that can be ignored in nonscholarly contexts, as can the underdots employed in scholarly transcription to indicate retroflex s, t, d, or n, or to represent final-position aspiration (the visarga /:z).

Xlll

Transcription & Pronunciation

Chinese: Although the Pinyin system of romanization was officially adopted by the People's Republic of China in 1979, the previously standard Wade­ Giles system continues to be widely employed. Thus, in order to conform to the transcription most frequently encountered in scholarly literature, entry forms have been rendered in their familiar (Wade-Giles) form. The following rules give approximate English equivalents for sounds as rendered in Wade-Giles:

ch ch' e .

J

k k' p

p'

t

t' ts ts' hs

pronounced

.

J

ch short u as in fun like English r as in ready g k b p d t dz ts sh

Vowels are pronounced as in Italian or German.

Japanese: The Hepburne system of transliteration employed in this encyclopedia-which is used in Japan itself as well as by the majority of in­ ternational scholars-clearly indicates the Japanese syllables that make up each word. Vowels are pronounced as in Italian or German; the addition of a macron (e.g., koan) indicates a lengthened vowel. The u of tsu is often elided, particularly in final position and preceding k or t. Fu is an aspirated sound (between English f and h). Y is pronounced discretely even in combination with consonants; e. g., Tokyo is pronounced Toh-kyoh (two syllables), not Toh-kee-oh (three syllables). XIV

Transcription & Pronunciation

Tibetan: The extremely complicated scholarly transcription of Tibetan often appears unintelligible and unpronounceable to nonscholarly readers. The simplified system we have elected to use instead is based on principles of pro­ nunciation and is, in fact, the form preferred in most scholarly literature. As in the case of Sanskrit, the scholarly transliteration of entry terms is provided in parentheses following this more familiar form.

xv

The Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion

Abhidharma

A Abhasa-Chaitanya GJ (Abhasa-Caitanya), Skt.,

lit. iibhiisa: "appearance, reflection," chaitanya: "consciousness"; absolute consciousness (­ chit), which is reflected in the human mind. The mortal, ego-bound individual (- fiva) takes this reflection to be his own state of consciousness and thus impedes the discovery of absolute consciousness, which is identical with - brah­ man. If the fiva overcomes this limitation, he becomes aware of his true self (- iitman) and its unity with brahman, and he attains libera­ tion. Abhasa-Vada GI skt.; the idea that the mortal

individual (- fiva), as a manifestation of brah­ man, is merely a thought projection of the in­ ternal organ (- antahkarana).

Abhava GI Skt.; 1. nonexistence, the absence of

manifest objects; 2. release.

m Skt. - mudra 5 Abhaya-Vachana m (Abhaya-Vacana), Skt., lit. Abhaya-mudra

abhaya: "fearlessness," vachana: "words"; words

that can be uttered only when through spiritual knowledge one has overcome fear, the source of which is identification with the body. Abheda-Bodha-Vakya GI Skt., lit. abheda:"iden­

tity," bodha: "waking," viikya: "sentence, utter­ ance"; a formula that invokes the supreme intelligence, the ultimate truth. Abhibhavayatana Abhidhammika

m Skt. ._ eight masteries

m Pali; a Buddhist monk who

specializes in the study of - Abhidharma. This does not mean, however, that he is not familiar with the - Sutra-pitaka and the - Vinaya­ pitaka. The historical Buddha Shakyamuni is considered the first abhidhammika, even though the Abhidharma was compiled long after his death. In early Buddhism the abhidhammikas of the Theravada school enjoyed greater respect than other monks. The Chinese pilgrim ----. Fa-hsien tells of a ----. stupa that was erected to the honor of the Abhidharma and was venerated by abhidhammikas on certain feast days. Abhidharma

m Skt. (Pali, Abhidhamma), lit. "Spe­

cial Teaching"; the third part of the Buddhist canon (- Tripitaka). The Abhidharma repre­ sents the earliest compilation of Buddhist phi­ losophy and psychology. In it the teachings and analyses concerning psychological and spiritual

phenomena contained in the discourses of the Buddha and his principal disciples are present­ ed in a systematic order. It constitutes the dog­ matic basis of the - Hinayana and - Maha­ yana. It took form in the period between the third century B.C.E. and the third century C.E. The final codification took place between 400 and 450 C.E. It is extant in different versions (Abhidharma of the - Theravada and - Sar­ vastivada). The Abhidharma reflects the views of the individual Buddhist schools in that it gives interpretations and explanations of the concepts that appear in the sutras. Its primary use is in the study of the teaching. The Abhidharma of the Theravada school, which received its definitive form from----. Buddhaghosha; is written in Pali and consists of seven books: (I) the Book of the Elements of Existence (Dhamma­ sangani), which contains an enumeration of both mental elements organized in relation to various medi'­ tations and material elements organized into groups; (2) the Book ofClassifications ( Vibhanga), which defines the aggregates (- skandha), fields (- iiyatana), and faculties (- indriya), etc.; (3) the Book of Points of Controversy (Kathiivatthu), which deals with 21 9 points of controversy significant for the history of the devel­ opment of Buddhist thought; (4) the Book ofIndividu­ als (Puggalapannati), which describes the different types of clerics and lay people; (5) the Book of Ele­ ments (Dhiitukathii), which is concerned with the elements (- dhat u); (6) the Book of Pairs ( Yamaka), which derives its name from its treatment of questions in a "doubled"-i.e., positive and nega­ tive-fashion; and (7) the Book of Causality (Patthiina), which describes the relations existing be­ tween individual dharmas. The Abhidharma of the Sarvastivada school, writ­ ten in Sanskrit, is also composed of seven books, some parts of which are considerably different from those of the Theravada school. The definitive version of this goes back to----. Vasubandhu. The seven books of this Abhidharma are ( 1) the Book of the Recitations of the Teaching (Sang"itiparyiiya), which expounds the ele­ ments of the teaching as divided into monads, triads, etc.; (2) the Book of Things (Dharmaskandha), part of which is identical with the above-mentioned Vibhanga and defines aggregates, meditations, etc.; (3) the Book ofDescriptions (Prajnaptishiistra), which gives proofs, in the form of songs, for numerous legendary events; (4) the Book of Understandings ( Vijniinakiiya), which contains a number of chapters on controversial points that recall the Kathiivatthu, as well as other chapters that recall the Patthiina and the Dhiitukathii of the Theravada Abhidharma; (5) the Book of Elements (Dhiitukiiya), which essentially corresponds to the Dhiitukatha of the Theravadins; (6) the Book of Liter­ ary Treatises (Prakarana), which deals with the defini-

I

Abhidharmakosha tion of the various elements of the teaching and their division into categories; and (7) the Book ofthe Start­ ing Point ofKnowledge (Jiiiinaprasthiina), which treats various aspects of the teaching, such as propensities (- anushaya), knowledge (- jiiiina), absorptions (- dhyiina), etc.

Abhidharmakosha

m (Abhidharmakosa) Skt., lit.

"Treasure Chamber of the Abhidharma"; the most important compilation of the - Sarvas­ tivada teaching, composed by - Vasubandhu in Kashmir in the fifth century C.E. It is com­ posed of two parts: a collection of 600 verses (Abhidharmakosha-kiirikii) and a prose com­ mentary on these verses (Abhidharmakosha­ bhiishya). It exists today only in Chinese and Tibetan versions. It is considered the highest authority in dogmatic questions.

The Abhidharmakosha reflects the transition from the Hinayana to the Mahayana view. It is the funda­ mental work of the Buddhist schools of China, where it contributed significantly to the spread of Buddhism. Nine points are treated in it: ----. dhiitu (elements), ----. indriya (faculties), loka (worlds, modes of existence [- triloka], ----. karma, ----. anushaya (propensities), pudgala-miirga (the path of liberation), ----. jiiiina (knowledge), ----. samiidhi ( concentration), pudgala­ vinishaya (theories about the individual). This last part constitutes an independent unit refuting the ----. Vatsiputriya view of the existence of an independent entity.

Abhidharma-pitaka

m (Abhidharma-pi!aka) Skt.

(Pali, Abhidhamma-pitaka), lit. "Basket of the Special Teaching"; the third part of the Bud­ dhist canon (- Tripitaka), usually known by the short name - Abhidharma. Abhijna

m Skt. (Pali, abhinna); supernatural pow­

ers, abilities possessed by a buddha, bodhisatt­ va, or - arhat. Generally, six types of abhzjnii are distinguished. The first five are regarded as mundane and are attained by the realization of the four absorptions (- dhyiina). The sixth is considered supramundane and can be attained only through the highest insight (- vipashya­ nii). These powers are recognized by both the Hinayana and Mahayana. The six abhijniis are ( 1) - riddhi; (2) "divine hearing" (perception of human and divine voices); (3) perception of the thoughts of other beings; (4) recollection of previous existences; (5) the "divine eye" (knowl­ edge of the cycles of birth and death of all beings); (6) knowledge concerning the extinc­ tion of one's own impurities and passions (­ iisrava), which signifies certainty of having at­ tained liberation.

2

Abhimana GJ Skt.; pride, arrogance, self-seek­

ing; the characteristics of an ego that is identified with the body, that has removed itself from the unity of creation and believes itself to be a separate individual. Abhimukti GJ

m Skt. ; deliverance from the cycle

Abhinivesha

m (Abhinivesa), Skt.; 1. tendency,

of birth and death, which continues only as long as desires are present.

attraction; 2. love of life, clinging to life; 3. strong tenacity in pursuing a goal or an object.

m Skt., lit.

"Realm of Joy"; the para­ dise of the buddha - Akshobhya in the east of the universe. In Buddhism, the buddha para­ dises, the various hells, and the other realms of existence are considered not as locations but rather as states of consciousness, even though in folk belief they are often also regarded as places and geographical territories are ascribed to them. The compass directions ascribed to the various buddhas have symbolic and iconographic sig­ nificance. Abhirati

m (abhi�eka) Skt., lit.

"anointing," "consecration"; the process, central for the meth­ ods of the - Vajrayana, in which the disciple is empowered by the master (- guru) to carry out specific meditation practices. Thus in Tibet­ an Buddhism one speaks of the transmission of power (dbang-bskur). In the highest yoga Tantra (- Tantra), there are four different and suc­ cessive stages of initiation: ( 1) vase initiation (kala b h ish eka) ; ( 2) secret initiation (gu­ h y d b h is h e k a ) ; ( 3 ) w i s d o m i n i t i a t i o n (prajnabhisheka) ; and (4) fourth initiation (chaturiibhisheka). The vase initiation contains the initiation into the five aspects of the buddha families (- buddhakula).

Abhisheka

Generally an initiation is accompanied by the read­ ing of the corresponding ----. siidhana, which authorizes the disciple to read and practice the corresponding text, as well as by an oral commentary by the master through which the proper mode of practice is assured.

Abhyasa GJ Skt., lit. "repetition, repeated activ­

ity, practice"; the practice of spiritual disci­ plines.

Achamana GJ (A.camana), Skt. , lit. "mouth

purification"; the practice of sipping and spit­ ting out water, whereby the worshiper symboli­ cally cleanses not only what enters the mouth but also what leaves it, that is, one's speech. Achamana is an aspect of - pujii, the formal practice of worship, by means of which the

-

Adi Granth

Hindu withdraws his thoughts from the world of the senses and directs them toward God. Acharya

m CJ (acarya) Skt. ; teacher, master.

m a spiritual master who not only has mastered

the philosophical systems but also has realized the truths they contain. The term is appended to the names of many great holy men. m (Pali, acariya); one of the two kinds of spiritu­ al leaders known in Buddhism; the second type of teacher is the - upii dhyiiya. Originally iichiirya was understood to mean a master of the dharma, whereas the upiidhyiiya taught disci­ pline and adherence to the rules. Every novice in a Buddhist monastery chose for himself these two kinds of teacher from among the older monks (- shriimanera, - bhikshu, - ordina­ tion). In early Buddhist times the upadhyaya was consid­

ered the more important, reflecting the emphasis placed on the observance of rites and rules in the monastic community at that period. In the course of further development the role of the acharya increased in importance and since the fifth century has been more important than that of the upadhyaya. Achintya-Shakti

m (Acintya-Sakti), Skt.; the un­

thinkable, divine force held in a - mantra; it cannot be comprehended by reason.

m (A.desa),

Skt.; to issue an order or instruction, to direct to something. It is primari­ ly the - guru who gives directions for traversing the spiritual path and for overcoming obstacles along the way. Adesha

m Skt.,

lit. "container"; the form in which consciousness manifests itself, the physical-psychic instrument of the body and mind, which consists of the five sheaths (­ kosha) that envelop absolute consciousness (- iitman). Adhara

Adharma

m Skt.; absence of righteousness and

virtue, the opposite of - dharma; a condition that arises through ignorance. It is characterized by the dominance of indolence (- tamas) and greed (- rajas).

m Skt. - Adhidaiva Adhidaiva m Skt. ; realm of the gods, the divine Adhibuta

element, the supernatural, transcedental. In the Bhagavad-Gztii (7. 30), Krishna speaks of adhi­ daiva and adhibuta. When the Pandava prince Arj una entreats Krishna to explain these terms to him (8. 1), Krishna replies that the ground of all created entities (adhibuta) is mutable nature, whereas the ground of the divine elements (adhidaiva) is the cosmic soul.

Adhidevata

m , or Adhidaivata, Skt. ; term used

generally to refer to a divinity whom one in­ vokes for protection. Adhimatra

m Skt. ; beyond all measure and con­

ceptualization, the supreme; God, the Absolute (- brahman ).

Adhvaryu Cl Skt. - Yajurveda

Adhyaropa Cl Skt. , lit. "false covering"; the su­

perimposition of some false notion of reality. Shankara gives the example of a rope that in the darkness is believed to be a snake. This error, which results from nescience (- avidyii), is unremittingly alluded to in - Advaita-Vedan­ ta. The scholar Sadananda devotes the second chapter of his - Vediintasara to this topic. (See also - vikshepa.)

Adhyasa Cl Skt.; error in perception; not seeing

what really is; approximately identical in sense with - vikshepa. (See also - adhyiiropa.)

-

Adhyatma-Ramayana Cl Skt.; a spiritual inter-

pretation of - Rama's life; a work that ex­ pounds the Ramayana with concepts of non­ dualism and emphasizes the divine nature of Rama. It forms a part of the Brahmanda­ Puriina (- Purana). -

Adhyatma-Yoga Cl Skt., from adhyiitma: "the

supreme atman, the supreme Self'; 1. a yogic discipline that, through knowledge and realiza­ tion of the Self, overcomes identification with the body and mind and produces the knowledge that man as - iitman is absolute consciousness and hence identical with - brahman. The super­ conscious state thus attained, in which the yogi becomes a - fivanmukta, is called iidhyiit,na­ prasiida; 2. a philosophical school in the tradi­ tion of - Shankara. -

Adhyatmika Cl Skt. ; the spiritual path leading

toward knowledge of the Self; also, the inner experience of an individual on the journey from mortality to immortality. -

Adi-buddha -

m Skt. - Samantabhadra

Adi Granth Cl Hindi; holy scripture of the Sikhs

(- Sikhism). Begun by Guru Arjan in 1 604, it was completed in 1 705 by Guru Govind Singh. The latter gave the scripture itself the name of Guru, whereupon it became known as Guru Granth. The compilation, written mostly in Hindi and comprising no less than 3,384 hymns ( 1 5,575 verses), is considered to be a manifestation of the mystic personality of the 3

Aditi

guru and hence to be the voice of the immortal spiritual teacher. Aditi GI Skt.; 1. unlimited space, eternity, infinite consciousness; 2. in the fem. form (Aditi), name of the mother of the - Adityas. Aditya GI Skt.; sun, sun god; in the Vedas, iden­ tical at times with - Savitri or - Surya. As the source of light, warmth, and growth, the sun god is universally revered. To those of deeper vision, he is the symbol of the light of enlightenment, described in the Upanishads as "brighter than a thousand suns." The Adityas, the sun deities, sons of - aditi, are the sons of infinite con­ sciousness. Adityavarna GI (AdityavanJa), Skt.; light of the color of the sun, perceived in a spiritual vision; a fact of spiritual experience. Advaita GI Skt., lit. "nonduality"; a state that can be ascribed to God or the Absolute alone. It is not accessible to reason, for the ego-bound mind in the waking condition cannot step out of the duality of the subject-object relationship. The concept of nonduality has acquired mean­ ing in the West through the latest discoveries of nuclear physics. (See also - Advaita­ Vedanta.) Advaitananda GJ Skt.; the bliss of knowledge of the Absolute. Advaita-Vedanta GI Skt.; one of the three sys­ tems of thought in - Vedanta; its most impor­ tant representative is - Shankara. Advaita­ Vedanta teaches that the manifest creation, the soul, and God are identical. Just as particle physicists have discovered that matter consists of continually moving fields of energy, so the sages (rishis) of Vedanta recognized that reality consists of energy in the form of consciousness (- chit) and that human begins perceive a gross universe by means of gross senses, because of identification with the ego-limited body. That which is real and unchanging is superimposed in the mind (- vikshepa) by the notion of an ever-changing manifest world of names and shapes (- namari1pa). Shankara's best-known example is the piece of rope that in the dark is taken for a snake. Anxiety, repug­ nance, heart palpitations are induced by a snake that was never born and never will die, but that exists only in one's mind. Once the rope is recognized under light as a rope, it cannot turn back into a snake. The initial error involves not only nescience of what is, but also the superimposition (vikshepa) of a notion that has nothing to do with what is. Advaita teaches that we in

4

our ignorance continually superimpose the idea "snake" (the manifest world) on the "rope" (- brahman). In a Skt. verse, Shankara says: "May this one sentence proclaim the essence of a thousand books: Brahman alone is real, the world is appearance, the Self is nothing but brahman. "

Adya-Shakti GI (Adya-Sakti), Skt.; 1. the primal power, the original energy; 2. supreme, divine consciousness or divine omnipotence, which permeates all worlds; 3 . epithet for the Divine Mother (- Shakti).

m

Agama GI Skt., lit. "Source of the Teaching." GI 1. term referring generally to scripture; 2. a Tantra or other work having to do with the mystical worship of - Shiva and his - Shakti; 3. oral or written demonstration. Mahayana name for collections of writings of the Sanskrit canon (- si1tra), which coincides essentially with the Pali term - Nikaya. Four Agamas are distinguished: ( 1) Dzrghagama (Long Collection, comprising thirty sutras); (2) Madhyamagama (Medium Collection, con­ cerned with metaphysical problems); ( 3 ) Samyuktagama (Miscellaneous Collection, deal­ i n g with abstract meditation); ( 4)

m

Ekottarikagama (Numerical Collection).

The contents of the Agamas encompasses the basic teachings of the Hinayana, which the Buddha is sup­ posed to have set forth in his first discourse (- four noble truths, - eightfold path, ----. nidana, - karma, e tc . ) . Alth ough the contents of the H inayana Nikayas coincides essentially with that of the Agamas, a fifth Nikaya is known, the Short Collection (- Khuddaka-nikaya). -

Agami-Karma GI Skt.; future - karma, which arises through one's present actions and desires and must work itself out according to the law of causality. A further distinction is made between - prarabdha-karma (karma already initiated and now playing itself out) and - sanchita­ karma (previously accumulated karma that has yet to be played out). The particular significance of agami-karma lies in the fact that one can influence one's own future through present ac­ tions and desires. Agni GI Skt. ; fire, one of the oldest and holiest objects of veneration in Hinduism. It appears in the heavens as the sun, in the air as lightning, on earth as fire. Agni is personified as one of the Vedic divinities, to whom many hymns are dedicated. Agnihotra GI Skt. ; 1. daily ritual of a morning and evening milk oblation to - Agni; 2. the

Ajatasattu

essence of the ritual, understood beyond the mere enactment of the rite, which in reality serves to prepare and sustain the practice of contemplation. Agni-Vaishvanara GI (Agni-Vaisvanara), Skt.; the universal divine consciousness in which all worlds, people, and gods are held. Agni-Yatavedas GI Skt. ; the fire of the forces of consciousness, described as the "knower of all births." It is the absolute consciousness, which as mental fire gives energy to the intellect and enables it to observe the comings and goings of - maya.

Aham Brahman Asmi GI (Aham Brahmasmi), Skt., lit. '"I am brahman"; one of the mahavakyas, the great precepts of the Vedas. It proclaims the absolute identity of the Self with - brahman. Aham is the true "I" (- atman) of every human being and must be distinguished from ahamkara (I-consciousness).

Ahamkara GI (ahaqika ra), Skt . ; ego, I-con­ sciousness, a part of the - antahkarana, the inner organ, which gives rise to all mental processes. Ahamkara is the motivator of thought that creates the notion that one is a unique entity separate from everything else. This subject-obj ect duality gives rise to the illusory view whereby we see in brahman, the One without a second, the manifest world of multiple forms (- maya). All perceptions, feelings, desires, and acts of will are naturally and automatically related to

ahamkara.

Ahampratyaya GI Skt.; a modification in the mind that results in I-consciousness. It consists in the belief (pratyaya) that one is the body and mind, so that the mind employs the absolute consciousness to create thought projections, all of which are associated with "I" (aham).

Ahimsa GI m (ahirµsa), Skt., lit. "nonharming." GI abstinence from injury of any living creature through thought, word, or deed; one of the five virtues on the first step (yama) of - Raja-Yo­ ga, as stipulated in the Yoga-Sutra of Pataiijali; together these form the "Great Vow" (Mahavrata). m In Buddhism "nonharming" of living beings is considered one of the most important aspects of the Buddhist spiritual attitude. The rule of vegetarianism for monks and nuns in most Buddhist cultures is based on this principle of ahimsa. Aishvara-Yoga GI (Aisvara-Yoga), Skt.; the di­ vine unity of which the Bhagavad-Gfta speaks,

in which the Divine is one with all existence but as - ishvara transcends all existence. Aishvara is the adjectival form of ishvara. Aishvarya GI (Aisvarya), Skt., lit. "sovereignty, majesty, supremacy"; one of the six characteris­ tics of - ishvara, the personal God. Aitareya GI Skt; name of an - Upanishad that belongs to the Rigveda. It propounds self-knowl­ edge and describes the nature of the -

atman.

Ajanta m city in the western part of central India, famous for Buddhist grottoes dating from 200 to 700 C.E. The twenty-nine caves, which extend over a distance of 5. 6 kilometers, hold the best-preserved Buddhist frescoes in the world. They represent the greatest monument to Bud­ dhist painting in India and make it possible to follow its stylistic development over a full mil­ lennium. The frescoes illustrate in part the life of the historical Buddha (- Siddhartha Gautama), as it is known from the sutras (Prince Siddhartha at the four gates, the temptation of Mara, entry into parinirvana, etc.), and in part stories from the previous existences of the Buddha (- Jataka). They give a detailed picture of life in India at the beginning of historical times. Four caves are so-called - chaityas and contain stupas.

Aja pa-Mantra GI Skt. ; the involuntary repeti­ tion of a - mantra, a sacred formula.

According to the view of - Hatha-Yoga, every creature unconsciously utters a prayer along with the sound of its inward and outward breath, in the form, respectively, of SO'HAM, "He am I," and HAMSA, "I am He."

Ajari B J ap . ; translation of the Skt. word acharya, title of a Buddhist master. In Japanese Buddhism ajari is used especially for an out­ standing monk of the Tendai or Shingon schools of Buddhism (- Mikky6 ). In Zen the term charya or sharya is used not to mean "master" but rather as a polite form of address for any monk, much as the term lama is often loosely used today for any Tibetan monk. Ajatasattu m (Skt. Ajatashatru [Ajatasatru]); the king of Magadha mentioned in Pali texts, who reigned during the last eight years of the lifetime of Buddha - Shakyamuni and twenty-four years thereafter (ca. 494-462 B.C.E.). He was the son of Bimbisara, whom he killed. Together with Devadatta, Ajatasattu developed a conspiracy against the Buddha, which was unsuccessful. Later he was converted and fostered Buddhism.

5

Ajna-chakra Ajatasattu's name means something like "Enemy before Birth," which, according to the legend, derives from his mother's wish to drink blood from the knee of her husband. This was interpreted by the astrologers to mean that her child would kill its father. Ajatasattu is described as an ambitious prince, who wanted to become ruler of the kingdom as quickly as possible and could not wait for the death of his father. Together with Devadatta, he contrived a double con­ spiracy: since Devadatta was eager to take over the leadership of the Buddhist order, he was to murder the Buddha, and Ajatasattu to kill his own father. The plot was discovered. Bimbisara pardoned his son and ced­ ed him the throne. Ajatasattu, nevertheless, did not feel secure with his father still alive and had him incarcerated and starved, together with his wife. It is further reported in the texts that Ajatasattu later asked the Buddha for advice, as he was planning to conquer the northern, democratically ruled country of the Vajji Confederation. The Buddha answered that the Vajjis could not be overcome as long as they remained united. This response served the Buddha as occasion for a teaching on the advantages of a demo­ cratic government and the role of the - sangha as supporters of such a government. Through this teach­ ing Ajatasattu was converted to Buddhism. According to tradition, Ajatasattu received a portion of the Bud­ dha's ashes and erected a - stupa for them. Also, he is said to have built an immense hall for the first council.

Ajna-chakra Cl fil Skt. - chakra 6 Ajnana Cl Skt. ; nescience, ignorance. The term

refers neither to a lack of knowledge at the empirical level nor to a lack of facts regarding the manifest world, but to the condition in which one takes oneself to be a mortal body and does not know that one, as the Self, is absolute consciousness (- brahman). The consequences of ajnana are the same as those of - avidya. The opposite of nescience is - jnana.

Akama Cl Skt. ; desirelessness. This state is iden­

tical to that in which there is no "I," for only the ego has desires. -

Akasha Cl m (akasa), Skt.; the all-pervasive, space. Cl ether, the fi n est of the five elements; a sub­

stance that is said to fill and permeate the entire universe and to be the particular vehicle of life and sound. m (Pali, akasa); in Buddhism understood not as in Hinduism as a substantial "ether" but as space. Two kinds of space are distinguished: ( 1) space limited by corporeality and (2) unlimited space. The former belongs to the corporeality aggregate (- skandha); the latter is one of the six elements (- dhatu), possesses no substance whatsoever, yet is the basic condition for any

6

corporeal extension and is the container for all materiality manifesting through the four ele­ ments-earth, water, fi r e, air. It is emptiness, free from admixture with material things; un­ changeable, imperishable, and beyond all de­ scription.

The interpretation of the concept akasha in the last sense varies in the individual Buddhist schools. The Sarvastivada school includes akasha among the un­ conditioned dharmas (- asamskrita); it obstructs noth­ ing, pervades everything without obstruction, and is free from changeability. The Madhyamika school sees space as conditioned (- samskrita); the first of the four stages of formlessness is the endlessness of space; in the series of the ten total fi e lds (- kasina), akasha is the second to last.

Akrodha Cl Skt.; freedom from anger, animosi­

ty, or resentment, a state that is attained by control of one's thoughts and realization of "I" -lessness, for the ego alone produces the former conditions. Akshara

m (Ak�ara), Skt., lit. " unchangeable";

the indestructible; an epithet for - brahman.

Akshara-Purusha Cl (Ak�ara-Puru�a), Skt.; the

motionless soul, the uninvolved Self that de­ taches itself from the movements and modificat­ ions taking place in - prakriti (nature) and merely witnesses its processes.

Akshobhya l!I B (Ak�obhya), Skr., lit. "Immov­

able"; the buddha who reigns over the eastern paradise Abhirati. In Buddhism, paradise is not understood as a location but rather as a state of consciousness; the compass directions ascribed to the buddhas have a symbolic and icono­ graphic meaning (- pure land). Akshobhya as a monk is said to have taken a vow before the buddha who, endlessly long ago, reigned over Abhirati, never to feel disgust or anger towards any being. In carrying out this vow, he showed himself "immovable" and after endlessly long striving became Buddha Akshobhya and thereby the ruler of the Abhir­ ati paradise. Whoever is reborn there can never fall back into lower levels of consciousness; thus all believ-­ ers should seek to fulfill the promise kept by Aksho­ bhya. Akshobhya symbolizes the overcoming of pas­ sions. He is iconographically depicted either with blue­ or gold-colored upper body, sometimes riding on a blue elephant. His hands are in the earth-touching mudra.

Aku-byodo B Jap., lit. "bad sameness"; a tend­

ency to see things as the same in the sense of a misunderstanding of the enlightened experience of the sameness of the nature of all things (­ byodo). In the Zen view, this sameness of nature

Alaya-vijriana

is depicted as a cock, hate as a snake, and delusion as a pig. (Also - avidya, - klesha.) Akushu-ku B Jap., lit. "falsely understood emp­

tiness"; a misunderstanding of the teaching of emptiness (Jap., ku; Skt., - shunyata) which arises from the experience of - enlightenment. In this misunderstanding emptiness is under­ stood as mere nothingness, as a negation of all existence. Emptiness, as it is spoken of in Zen, has nothing to do with this purely philosophical concept of nothingness. It is an emptiness that is not the opposite of the existence of all things and their properties but rather the basis of this existence, that engenders and bears it and, from the standpoint of complete enlightenment, is absolutely identical with it. Thus it says in the Mahaprajiiaparamita-hridaya-sutra (- Heart Sutra; Jap. Maka Hannyaharamita shingyo), which is often cited in Zen, "Form is no other than emptiness, emptiness is no other than form. " Alabha-Bhumikatva Gl Skt.; the inability to prac­

tice in a consistent and steadfast manner; hav­ ing no solid ground under one's feet, the sense that one cannot attain reality. -

Alambana Gl Skt.; support or aid for the prac-

Akshobhya

is a transitional stage on the path to deeper enlightenment. One who remains stuck here and, because of the overwhelming experience of the sameness of nature of all things, overlooks their distinctness and uniqueness, falls into aku­

by8d8.

Akushala

m (akusala), Skt., Pali; karmically un­

wholesome; anything connected with the un­ wholesome root (akushala-mula) and thus with an effect bearing the germ of future suffering. The "unwholesome roots" are greed (lobha), hate (Skt., dvesha; Pali, dosa), and delusion or blindness (moha). Greed is attraction to a grati­ fying object and can be removed through the practice of generosity (- dana). Hate is ill will toward everything that stands in the way of gratification, and it is overcome through the cultivation of kindness (- maitrl). Delusion refers to the inconsistency of an action or thought with reality and is overcome through insight. The three akushala-mulas are the essential fac­ tors that bind a sentient being to the cycle of existences (- samsara). The removal of these factors is necessary for the attainment of en­ lightenment. In symbolic representations, greed

tice of concentration, involving quiet, con­ trolled breathing and the maintenance of a bodily condition that does not interfere with concentration. Alaya-vijiiana

m B Skt., lit. "storehouse conscious­

ness"; central notion of the - Yogachara school of the Mahayana, which sees in it the basic consciousness of everything existing-the es­ sence of the world, out of which everything that is arises. It contains the experiences of individu­ al lives and the seeds of every psychological phenomenon.

The concept of ii.laya-vijnii.na constitutes the basis of the "mind-only" doctrine of the Y ogachara and stands in the center of this school's theory of in­ dividuation, according to which the karmic seeds (vii.sanii.) of a past empirical individuality enter into the ii.laya-vijnii.na, whence they arise again to occasion thought activity. This individuated thinking is ridden with ignorance (- avidyii.) and egotism, which insti­ gate its notion that it constitutes a real person in a real world. In this way ideation arises that causes this thinking that considers itself a person to create karma. These karmic impressions, once ripened (- vipii.ka), call forth a new process of ideation. This cycle is ended through the removal of the concept that there is a world of objects separate from the mind. The ii.laya­ vijnii.na is frequently equated with ultimate reality or

7

Alchemy, Taoist "suchness" (---+ tathatii); in other views it is regarded as the product of previous karma. (Also ---+ Fa-hsiang school.)

Alchemy, Taoist Ii - wai-tan, - nei-tan

Alvitr Cl Tamil (S. Indian); the name means ap­ proximately "He who is master of the world through surrender to God"; the a/vars are saints of the ---4 Vaishnava tradition of South India. Amanaska Cl Skt.; the state in which one is free from thoughts, desires, and cravings. It never occurs in the waking or dreaming condition, but only in deep sleep, unconsciousness, or samadhi, and is spiritually fruitful in samadhi alone. Amarakosha Cl (Amarakosa), Skt., lit. "immor­ tal vocabulary"; the most important dictionary of classical Sanskrit, compiled by Amara­ Simha, a Buddhist who lived sometime between the sixth and eighth centuries C.E. . No particular consideration is given in the work to Buddhist terminology. The Amarakosha, whose entries are arranged by

subj ect matter, was primarily created for the use of poets; however, in general it also represents a rich compendium of cultural information. Numerous com­ m e ntaries exist as well as a supplement, the Trikiinda-Shesha.

Amara-Purusha Cl (Amara-Puru�), Skt.; the im­ mortal Self, the soul. Amaravati l!I south Indian city; in the second and third centuries an important center for Buddhist art in which the beginnings of the Mahayana were reflected. These artworks con­ stituted the transition between early Buddhist art and the - Gandhara style and exercised a great influence on the art of Southeast Asia, above all on that of those areas known today as Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and Thailand.

The most important art monument in Amaravati is a stiipa in the eastern part of the city that, according to tradition, contains relics of the historical Buddha. The discovery of a pillar edict of Emperor ---+ Ashoka (third century B.C. E.) permits the conclusion that the stiipa was erected by Ashoka. Amaravati was the center of the ---+ Mahasanghika school. Pilgrims are said to have come there even from P a taliputra. The renowned Chinese pilgrim ---+ Hsii an-tsang (seventh cent ury) reports that in Amaravati more than twenty fl o urishing monasteries existed.

Amba Cl Skt., lit. "mother"; a name for - Shak­ ti, the Divine Mother. Ambedkar l!I Bhimrao Ramji, 1 89 1 - 1 956; Indi-

8

an jurist and one of the fathers of the Indian constitution; founder of a movement to convert the members of the lowest caste of the Indian social system to Buddhism. Ambedkar, himself originally a Hindu, converted publicly to Bud­ dhism in 1 956 in Nagpur in a huge ceremony along with 500 thousand untouchables. Millions of untouchables have followed him since then, above all in areas where the Republican party, which was led by Ambedkar, is active. This alliance of religion and politics led to criticism of the movement, the critics of which regard it as purely a pragmatic association. Ambedkar's book The Buddha and His Dham­ ma serves as a guide for his followers; in it he emphasizes the social revolutionary aspect of the Buddhist teaching, which is for him a purely rational religion. His work is continued by the Buddhist Society of India, which he founded. Amida l!I B Jap. - Amitabha Amidism l!I B generic term under which are com­ prehended all schools of Chinese and Japanese Buddhism that have made Amitabha the cen­ tral point of their teaching. Included are the Pure Land school, - Jodo-shin-shu, and Jodo-shu. Also ---+ Shinran, - nembutsu, ---+ pure land, ---+ Sukhavati, ---+ tariki, ---+ Hui-yiian. Arnita l!I Skt. - Amitabha Amitabha l!I B (also Arnita), Skt. (Jap., Amida), lit. "Boundless Light"; one of the most impor­ tant and popular buddhas of the Mahayana, unknown in early Buddhism. He is ruler of the western paradise Sukhavati, which is not to be understood as a location but as a state o f consciousness ( - pure l and ) . Amitabha is at the center of the worship of the Pure Land school of Chinese and J apanase Buddhism (- Amidism). He symbolizes mercy and wisdom.

Iconographically, Amitabha is sometimes adorned with a crown of precious j ewels; sometimes he is depicted with shaven head as the monk Dharma­ kara-who he was in a previ ous existence. Most often he is seated in the middle of a lotus blossom, symbol of purity. His hands form the meditation or teaching ---+ mudra. He often appears together with ---+ Avaloki­ teshvara on his left and - Mahasthamaprapta on his right, in which case Amitabha is seated and the two bodhisattvas stand. Another iconographic style shows him together with ---+ Bhaishajya-guru-buddha. Ac­ cording to tradition Amitabha was a king who, having come in contact with the Buddhist teaching, re­ nounced his throne and became a monk with the name

Amitayurdhyana-sutra it a new path to salvation opens that does not lead through an endless number of rebirths. Not by one's own force, as in the original teaching, but rather owing to help from outside through the liberating will of a buddha, the access to liberation becomes possible in a faster, easier way (----+ tariki). Just calling on the name of Amitabha, especially in the hour of death, is enough to be reborn in a lotus blossom in the Sukhavati paradise. The formula of the Amitabha invocation is in Japanese Namu Amida Butsu (----+ nembutsu) and in Chinese, Namo o-mi-to-fo, which roughly means, "Ven­ eration to the Buddha Amitabha."

Amitabha-sutra

,i___

__

Amitabha

-- -

Dharmakara. He resolved to become a buddha and in this way to come into possession of a paradise in which the inhabitants would be assured a life of bliss through his merit until their final entry into nirvana. He took forty-eight vows ob]iging him to sustain beings on the path to enlightenment. The most important of these vows are: the eighteenth-"If, 0 lord, after I have [once] attained enlightenment, beings of other world systems through hearing my name arouse the thought of supreme perfect enlightenment and recall me with a clear mind-if I should not, in the moment of their death having gone to them surrounded by a host of monks, stand before them as the venerated one· in order to guard their minds from fear may I then not reach supreme perfect enlightenment"-and the nine­ teenth-"If, 0 lord, after I have [once] attained en­ lightenment, beings in the immeasurable, numberless buddha-fields through hearing my name should direct their thought to rebirth in [my] buddha-field and should thus bring the root of karmic merit to ripe­ ness-if they should not be reborn in [my] buddha­ field even if they had directed their thought only ten times [toward me and my buddha-paradise], may I then not reach supreme perfect enlightenment" (quot­ ed from Schumann 1 974, p. 1 68.) Through his medita­ tive practice, he fu]filled his vow and became Buddha Amitabha, ruler of Sukhavati. The veneration of Amitabha represents a significant turning point in the development of Buddhism. With

m Skt., lit. "Sutra of the Bud­

dha Amitiibha"; one ofthe three sutras that form the doctrinal basis for the Pure Land school in China and Japan. This sutra, also known as the short Sukahiivat'i-vyuha, describes the simplest form of the practice of this school-recitation of Buddha Amitabha's name. If during a certain time the mind of the practitioner is filled only and alone with the name Amitiibha, this unin­ terrupted concentration has the effect that Amitabha and his retinue will appear to the practitioner in the hour of his death. The practi­ tioner will then not be confused by feelings of fear and will thus be able to be reborn in the pure land of the buddha Amitabha. This sutra is extant only in Chinese transla­ t i o n s ; the m ost fam ous are those of Kumarajiva and - Hsiian-tsang. Amitayurdhyana-sutra

m Skt., lit. "Sutra on the

Contemplation of the Buddha - Amitayus, the Buddha of Boundless Life"; one of the three sutras that form the doctrinal basis of the Pure Land school. It gives a description of the pure land of the buddha Amitabha or Amitayus and of the practice of this school: through leading a pure life, that is, through the observance of moral rules (- shzla) and recitation of Amitabha's name, the potential results of all unwholesome deeds can be wiped away and one can attain rebirth in the pure land.

This siitra gives the traditional view of the coming into being of the pure land, purported to have been already expounded by the historical Buddha: Queen Vaidehi, the mother of - Ajatasattu (who incarcer­ ated her and her husband, King Bimbisara) suppli­ cated the Buddha, who had appeared to her, and questioned him concerning a place where she could lead a peaceful, happy life. The Buddha caused all the buddha-fields to appear before her and let her choose among them. V aidehi decided for the pure land Sukhavati. Thereupon the Buddha instructed her in meditation suitable to bring about rebirth in this paradise. He taught her the following sixteen visualiza­ tions, which can effect realization of one of the nine

9

Amitayus stages of rebirth in the pure land, according to the makeup of the individual: contemplation of the setting sun; of water; of the ground; of wondrous trees; of healing waters; of the blissful world of wondrous trees; of the ground and water; of lotus thrones; of tlie forms of the three sacred ones (Amitabha, - Avalokitesh­ vara, - Mahasthamaprapta); of the corporeal form of the buddha Amitayus; of the bodhisattva Avaloki­ teshvara; of the bodhisattva Mahasthamaprapta; of Amitabha in the blissful realm; of the middle and lower classes of birth. These visualizations permit the practitioner in this lifetime to see Amitabha and his companions Avalokiteshvara and Mahasthama­ prapta. This is interpreted as sure sign of rebirth in the pure land.

Amitayus m Skt., lit. "Boundless Life"; mani­ festation of the buddha - Amitabha. He is iconographically depicted sitting, holding in his hands a vessel containing the nectar of immor­ tality.

Amoghasiddhi m fd Skt., lit. "Who Unerringly Achieves His Goal"; one of the five transcen­ dent buddhas. With him are associated the earthly buddha - Maitreya and the transcen­ dental bodhisattva Vishvapani. Amoghasiddhi is usually depicted making the gesture of fear­ lessness (- mudra); his emblem is the double - va1ra.

Amritattva Cl (Amn:attva), Skt.; immortality, eter­ nal life; attained not on the physical level but only through realization of the Self (­ atman), which as absolute consciousness is iden­ tical with God (- brahman).

Anabodhi B twelfth patriarch in the Indian lin­ eage of - Zen; probably identical with Ashvaghosha.

Anagamin m Skt., Pali, lit. "never-returner"; des­ ignates those followers of the - Hinayana who are on the third stage of the supramundane path (- arya-marga, - arya-pudgala). They are free from the first five fetters (- samyojana) of believing in an ego, doubt, clinging to rites and rules, sensual appetite, and resentment. An anagiimin is never again reborn in this world. Anagarika m Pali, lit. "homeless one"; a man who enters upon a homeless life without, how­ ever, formally entering the Buddhist monastic order. At the time of the Buddha there existed in India numerous groups of anagarikas, each of which possessed its own doctrinal tradition. One of them was the - sangha. In modem Buddhism - Dharmapala was the first to make use of this term.

Anahana B the Japanese form of the Skt. word anapana, which in Indian yoga refers to the regulation of the breath. In Zen the breath is not "controlled" or regulated, and anahana means the natural rhythmic flow of the breath. The practitioner is aware. of the flow of the breath but does not try to infl uence it. Whereas yoga is based on the point that the regula­ tion of the breath has the effect of calming the mind, the Zen approach is that through the concentration of the mind in zazen, the breathing calms itself whereas the instrusive approach of intentionally influencing the breath leads rather to inner tension and distracts from actual Zen practice. Beginners in Zen often receive as their first practice "counting the breath" (- susokukan), which, however, is not cmapana in the yoga sense (- pranayama). Also - anapanasati. Anahata-chakra Cl m Skt. - chakra 4

Amoghasiddhi

Amrita Cl (Amrta), Skt., lit. "immortal"; the drought of immortality, the water of life; a concept frequently employed in the Vedas. The - soma is also often referred to by this term (- Churn­ ing of the Ocean).

10

Anahata-Shabda Cl (Anahata-Sabda), Skt., lit. "unstruck sound"; a mystic sound, often also referred to as the music of the spheres, which can be perceived during the practice of medita­ tion at a certain stage of spiritual development. Occasionally - OM is also referred to as anahata-shabda. (See also - chakra.)

m

Ananda Cl B Skt., lit. "Bliss," "Absolute Joy." Cl The term refers not to the enjoyment of sense

-

Anapanasati

objects, which are transient, but to the bliss of a state that lies beyond all duality, all pairs of opposites. - Vedanta teaches that a state of consciousness that is free from thoughts and hence projects neither illness, old age, and death, nor anxiety, care, and suffering, is pure bliss. To define the abstract concept of - brahman, Vedanta uses the formula "Sat-Chit-Ananda, " wherein "Ananda" is the unaffected absolute bliss that is experienced only in - samadhi and is the equivalent of divine consciousness. In the monastic orders of the - Shankara tradition, every - sannyasin is given a name ending in ananda, e.g. , Vivekananda. m D name of one of the most important disci­ ples of the historical Buddha. He was a cousin of the Buddha and entered the Buddhist order two years after its founding. He became impor­ tant for the history of Buddhism when in the twentieth year of the Buddha's teaching activity Ananda became the Buddha's personal attend­ ant. Ananda was famous for his extraordinary memory, in virtue of which he was able to retain the Buddha's discourses. His exposition of the discourses formed the basis for the codifi c ation of the - Siitra-pitaka at the first council. Ananda is one of the - ten great disciples of the Buddha. In Zen Ananda is considered the sec­ ond Indian patriarch. Ananda is often extolled in the canonical writings for his humility and devotion toward the Buddha. He first took on the function of a personal attendant after the Buddha had assured him he would acquire no advantages as a result of his position. It was also Ananda who foiled - Devadatta's assassination plot against the Buddha. Ananda was more than any other an advocate for the cause of women. He gave dharma discourses in the presence of women, and it was at his intercession that Buddha consented to the founding of an order of nuns. Ananda was reproached with this at the first council. He is said to have attained arhatship only after the death of the Buddha, immediately before the fi r st council.

Anandagiri Cl , an important disciple of - Shan­

kara. He lived in the ninth or tenth century C.E. and composed one of the best available hagi­ ographies of his master, the Shankaravijaya ("Shankara's Victory"), in which he describes Shankara's life as well as his disputes and de­ bates with opponents. Anandagiri is also the author of the Nyayanirnaya, a work of - Advai­ ta-Vedanta that refutes the views of - Nyaya.

Anandamaya-Kosha Cl (A n andamaya-Kosa),

Skt.; the final sheath that envelops the Self, also called the sheath of bliss, or causal sheath (­ kosha).

Anandamayi Ma CJ , 1 896- 1 982, born Nirma­

la Sundari Devi, in Kheora (East Bengal, now Bangladesh) to brahman parents. She was mar­ ried at the age of twelve but from early child­ hood showed interest in spiritual life only. Within six years she had traversed all yogic practices leading to enlightenment, calling this process her "Illa of - sadhana." Following realization she received the name Anandamayi Ma ("the mother filled with bliss"). A group of disciples and admirers soon assembled around her, and in 1 929 they built a first ashram in Dacca. In 1 932 she traveled to - Dehradun, at the foot of the Himalayas, where a second ashram was built in 1 936. Over the next decades she traveled throughout India to bring comfort and aid to spiritual seekers of all classes. Numerous ash­ rams were erected in her name; the most promi­ nent are in Calcutta, Benares, and Kankhal/ Hardvar. She died on August 2 7, 1 982, in her ashram in Dehradun. A selection of her sayings may be found in Anandamayi 1 982b.

Anandamayi Ma attained realization without a guru and without studying the scriptures. True realization always yields insights into nonduality (- advaita), and this experience is consistently expressed in her state­ ments. She spoke of herself as "this body" or "this l ittle sister. " Her devotees called her in Hindi "Mataji" ("Revered Mother") and in Bengali "Ma" ("Mother"). Her significance for the spiritual renewal of Hinduism is a powerful one. She never gave formal talks, but only answered questions; her answers were not based on reason but spontaneously arose from a higher state of consciousness whereby she was able to fi n d the right words for the seeker of truth, whether believer, atheist, artist, or scholar, educated person or illiterate, beginner or advanced seeker. She often said that she did not speak to an "other." Her statements linked all faiths, philosophies, and yogic paths, but she herself stood above and beyond it all. She said, "This body is like a musical instrument; what you hear depends on how you play it."

Ananda-Purusha Cl (A.nanda-Puru�), Skt.; term

from the - Upanishads stating that one's true Self is nothing other than bliss.

Anandatirtha Cl - Madhva Ananta Cl Skt., lit. "infinite"; epithet for - Vish­

nu; description of the snake on whose body Vishnu slept.

Anapanasati

m Pali; wakefulness during inhal­

ing and exhaling, meditation on the breath. One of the most important preliminary exercises for a t t a i n m e n t o f t h e fo u r a b s o rptio n s (­ dhyana). A napanasati consists of counting the inhalations and exhalations, which has the effect 11

Anathapindika of calming the mind. This exercise is the basic preliminary practice of meditation in the vari­ ous schools of Buddhism. In iiniipiinasati the breathing exercises so prized in yoga became exercises for wakefulness or - mindfulness (sati). The individual movements of the breath are consciously executed and attentively fol­ lowed; however, the breathing is not "regu­ lated." Then the attention is directed simultaneously onto other mental and physical processes.

In the Sattipatth[ma-sutta this exercise is described as follows: Breathing in a long breath, he knows, "I am breath­ ing in a long breath"; breathing out a long breath, he knows, "I am breathing out a long breath. " Breathing in a short breath, he knows, "I am breathing in a short breath"; breathing out a short breath, he knows, "I am breathing out a short breath." "Experiencing the whole body, I shall breathe in"-thus he trains himself·' ,_. "Experiencing the whole body, I shall breathe out"thus he trains himself. "Calming the activity of the body, I shall breathe in"-thus he trains himself; "Calming the activity of the body, I shall breathe out"-thus he trains himself. "Feeling a pleasant feeling, . . . feeling well-being, . . . experiencing the mind, . . . cheering up the mind, . . . collecting the mind, . . . freeing the mind, . . . contemplating the transitory, . . . contemplating release, . . . contemplat­ ing extinction, . . . contemplating renunciation, I shall breathe in"-thus he trains himself; "Feeling a pleas­ ant feeling, etc., I shall breathe out"-thus he trains himself.

Anathapindika m w e a l t h y merchant f r o m

Shravasti, who lived at the time of the Buddha - Shakyamuni and was one of his most re­ nowned lay followers. He acquired at great expense the - Jetavana Grove, where he had a monastery built for the Buddha and his stu­ dents. This became the preferred sojourning place of the Buddha, where he would spend the greater part of the rainy season. In the sutras Anathapindika is described as the greatest con­ tributor of alms; a series of discourses in the Anguttara-nikiiya is addressed to him.

Anatman Cl Skt. (Pali, anatta); nonself, nones­

sentiality; one of the three marks of everything existing (- trilakshana). The aniitman doctrine is one of the central teachings of Buddhism; it says that no self exists in the sense of a perma­ nent, eternal, integral, and independent sub­ stance within an individual existent. Thus the ego in Buddhism is no more than a transitory and changeable-and therefore a suffering-prone­ empirical personality put together from the five aggregates (- skandha). In Hinayana, this analysis is limited to the

12

personality; in Mahayana, it is applied to all conditionally arising - dharmas (- pratltya­ samutapiida). This freedom from self-nature (- svabhiiva) is called in the Mahayana shunyatii (emptiness).

According to the usual Hinduistic notion, the soul is the higher I or self (- atman) and is essentially characterized by permanence and freedom from suffer­ ing. In Buddhism, the personality, which according to its view arises out of the five skandhas-themselves impermanent-is not regarded as an eternal self but rather as the conventional ego of everyday experience. Buddha himself, in answer to the question whether a self exists or not, never put forward a defi n ite position so as not to cause new concepts to arise that would be irrelevant and obstructive for spiritual prac­ tice. Thus the teaching of no self is to be understood more as a fruitful pedagogical device than as a philo­ sophical doctrine. Nevertheless in the course of the development of the Buddhist system of thought, this came more and more to be an unequivocal denial of the existence of a self. Only the - Vatsiputriya school affirmed the concept of a self. This view was consid­ ered false by the other schools. In Buddhism the methods for the attainment of liberation concentrate on doing away with the belief in an ego as the essential obstacle to the realization of nirvana. Clinging to the concept of an ego is the primary cause of all passions and must be completely overcome. If one does not apprehend the impersonali­ ty of existence, does not recognize existence as a flux of arising and passing away of physical and mental phenomena in which there is no constant self' then one is unable to grasp the - four noble truths in their real significance and is unable to attain the insight that is essential for release.

Anatma-Vritti-Nirodha GJ (Anatma-V :rtti-Niro­

dha), Skt.; the curbing of gross impulses; control over one's thoughts when they are in the form of anger, fear, greed, etc.

Anavasthi-Tattva m Skt.; lack of steadfastness

in spiritual practice, brought about by the no­ tion that one has already reached the highest level of - samiidhi.

Andaja GJ m Skt. - chatur-yoni

Anga m (A:r:i-ga), Skt., lit. "limb, portion"; 1. the

eight "limbs," or steps, of - Raja-Yoga; 2. one of the sacred texts of - Jainism. The Angas belong to the canonical writings that were laid down in their final form in the fifth century C.E. and are written in - Prakrit. Sanskrit tenninol­ ogy was later developed to defend Jainism against the orthodox schools of Hinduism.

Angkor Wat m m temple complex in central Cam­

bodia, considered the high point of classical

Anitya

Khmer art and architecture. Built under King Suryavarman II ( 1 1 1 3-50), Angkor Wat was initially a holy site consecrated to -+ Vishnu. Following the conversion of the succeeding Khmer kings to Buddhism, Angkor Wat served as a Buddhist holy place. After the destruction of Angkor by the Thais and the flight of the Khmer kings to Phnom Penh in the fifteenth century, Angkor Wat fell into oblivion and was covered by j ungle. It was not rediscovered until the nineteenth century. Ango fa Jap., lit. "dwelling in peace"; a three­

month period of intensive spiritual training in a Zen monastery during the rainy season in summer (hence also ge-ango, "summer ango"; or u-ango, " rain ango"). Anguttara-nikaya

m Pali (Skt., Ekottariigama,

a l s o Ekottarikagama), l i t . " Gra d u at e d Collection"; fourth collection of the Siitra-pita­ ka. It is made up of texts organized numerically according to whether subjects treated appear singly or in groups. There are eleven sections. The siitras included here, which are generally shorter than those in the other collections, are rich in enumerations and strongly recall the Abhidharma. Angya B Jap., lit. "wandering on foot"; the

pilgrimage of a young Zen monk (- unsui) who has completed the first phase of his training in a provincial temple to a Zen monastery, where he hopes to be accepted and receive training under a Zen master (- roshi).

Pilgrimage to a distant monastery, often through trackless terrain, was in ancient times not without peril. It was regarded as an opportunity for the unsui to put his physical strength and strength of character to the test, to develop presence of mind by overcoming unforeseen dangers, and, by meeting many different kinds of people in joyful as well as adverse circum­ stances, to ripen inwardly. In the prescribed equipage of an unsui is a round straw hat with a very low brim (lap. , kasa). This directs the gaze of the pilgrim onto the path before him; it prevents him from looking around, which would not be conducive to the mental concentration he is supposed to maintain during the entire pilgrimage. A black cloak, white woolen socks, and straw sandals are also part of his outfit. On his chest, the monk carries a bundle with his summer and winter robes, his eating and begging bowls (- jiha­ tsu), a razor for shaving his head, and some sutra texts. On his back he carries a rolled-up straw raincloak (lap. , mino). When the monk has come through all the difficulties of the pilgrimage and arrived at the monastery, he is often refused entrance in order to test the earnestness of his desire for spiritual training (- kokorozashi).

If-after days of persistance outside the monastery (- niwa-zume), not rarely in rain and snow, or in the entrance hall of the monastery (- genkan)-he is finally let in, then he must provide a further proof of his seriousness through a week of sitting (zazen) in a solitary cell under the most austere conditions (­ tanga-zume) before he is finally accepted into the monastic community.

m Skt. ,

Pali; formlessness or absence of characteristics of all - dharmas; the mark of absolute truth, which is devoid of distinctions.

Animitta

Aniruddha CJ

m Skt.

Cl , son of - Pradyumna and grandson of Krishna.

A Daitya princess named -+ Usha fell in love with Aniruddha, and with the help of magic brought him to her chambers in the city ruled by her father, Bana. The king sent his henchmen to capture him, but Aniruddha destroyed them with an iron club. Bana then used his occult powers to abduct Aniruddha. When Krishna, - Balarama, and Pradyumna learned of this, they determined to rescue Aniruddha. A great battle ensued in which Bana was supported by Shiva and Skanda, the god of war. Bana lost nonetheless, but his life was spared through Shiva's intervention. With Usha as his consort, Aniruddha returned to Dvaraka.

m one of the - ten great disciples of the Buddha.

Anish CJ (Anis), Skt., lit. "no master"; one who

is not free but bound by ignorance.

Anitya CJ

m Skt. , lit. "impermanence."

Cl Nothing is permanent; all is in flux and pass­ ing away; the characteristic of - miiyii, whose one consistent attribute is change. m (Pali, anicca); transitoriness or imperma­ nence is one of the three marks of everything existing (-+ trilakshana). Transitoriness is the fundamental property of everything conditioned­ that which arises, dwells, and passes away. From it derive the other two marks of existence, suffering and nonessentiality (- duhkha, aniitman). Impermanence is the basis of life, without which existence would not be possible; it is also the precondition for the possibility of attaining liberation. Without recognition of ani­ tya there is no entry into the supramundane path (- arya-miirga); thus the insight leading to "stream entry" (- shrota-iipanna) is often said to be recognition of the transitoriness or imper­ manence of existence.

The nature of existence as suffering is based on impermanence because the phenomena that comprise impermanence-arising, dwelling, and passing away­ are inherently painful. The impermanence of the five aggregates (-+ skandha) explains nonessentiality, since nothing that is impermanent (and thereby of the

13

Anja nature of suffering) can constitute a self. This is be­ cause the Hinduistic conception of the self (which determined that of Buddhism) entails permanence and freedom from suffering. In the Mahayana, the emptiness (- shunyata) of all - dharmas is concluded from their impermanence.

Anja B Jap.; the pronunciation customary in

Zen of a word otherwise pronounced gyoja: this is Japanese for the Skt. term acharin, denoting a Buddhist ascetic or wandering monk. Anja is the term for a Zen monk who attends the roshi. Anjali Cl Skt.; 1 . one of the postures of- Hatha­

Yoga, whereby the hands are clasped with fingers pointing upward; 2. the Indian manner of greet­ ing by pressing the palms of the hands together. Anjali-mudra Ill Skt. - mudra 9 Anjin B (also anshin), Jap., lit. "heart-mind

[- kokoro] in peace"; peace of mind, a state of consciousness that according to Buddhism, is possible only through the experience of - en­ lightenment. In Zen the practice of - zazen is seen as the shortest path to peace of mind.

A renowned koan, the example 4 1 in the - Wu­ men-ku-an, is concerned with peace of mind: Bodhidharma sat facing the wall. The second patri­ arch, who had been standing in the snow, cut off his own arm and said, "The mind of your student still finds no peace. I entreat you, master, please give it peace." Bodhidharma said, "Bring your mind here and I'll give it peace." The second patriarch said, "I've looked for the mind, but finally it can't be found." Bodhidharma said, "Then I have given it peace thoroughly!"

Annamaya-Kosha Cl (Annamaya-Kosa), Skt.; the

sheath of the body, also called the food sheath, which envelops the Self. It is the sheath best known and dearest to us (- kosha). Annamaya-Purusha Cl (Annamaya-Puru�), Skt.;

in taking on the food sheath (- annamaya­ kosha), the atman, the Self, becomes mater­ ialized consciousness, or the physical person.

Annapurna Cl Skt., lit. "one who gives nourish­

ment"; 1 . epithet for the divine Mother; one of the two resident divinities of - Kashi and Vishvanatha; 2. name of a Himalayan mountain range in Nepal. Anrakudo B Jap. - nehando

m Parthian

monk of the second century C.E. who went to China around 1 48 and An Shih-kao

14

was the first to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese. The translations contained primarily material on the practice of - dhyana and expla­ nations of enumerated categories. With the help of these texts he founded the so-called Dhy­ ana school of early Chinese Buddhism (­ Dhyana Buddhism).

An Shih-kao was the crown prince of Parthia and was intended to assume the throne at his father's death. However, he entered a monastery. Presumably he traveled to China as a fugitive. He lived there for more than twenty years. An Shih-kao is the first historical figure of Chinese Buddhism. He initiated the systematic translation of Buddhist texts through so-called "translation bur­ eaus." Records concerning the number of works he translated vary between 34 and 1 76. These works may be divided into two categories: ( 1 ) texts on the practice of dhyana, which also treat preparatory techniques such as counting the breath (- anapanasati), - kasina exercises, - mindfulness of body, and so forth; and (2) texts that treat enumerated categories like the five - skandhas and the six - ayatanas. An Shih-kao used many Taoistic terms in his translations in an effort to convey specialized Buddhist expressions in Chinese.

Anshin B - anjin

Antahkarana Cl (Antal:J_ karaQ.a), or Antarin­

driya, Skt., lit "inner organ, inner instrument"; that with which we think, feel, remember, and discriminate. It consists of - manas, - chitta, - buddhi, and - ahamkara. A fine form of prakriti, the antahkarana is lifeless, but be­ comes active and effective because of the con­ sciousness of the atman that is reflected in it.

Antara-Kumbhaka Cl Skt., suspension ofbreath

following a full inhalation (- pranayama); a term used in - Hatha-Yoga. Antaranga-Sadhana Cl (AntaraQ.ga-Sadhana),

Skt., lit. "inner spiritual exercises"; the final three of- Pataiijali's eight steps ofYoga, name­ ly, - dharana, dhyana, and samadhi. Antaratman Cl Skt.; the inner Self, the divine

spark; that which interprets all experience, de­ velops spiritual knowledge, and in time attains God-realization. Antarindriya Cl Skt. ; synonymous with - an­

tahkarana.

Antarmukha Cl Skt.; turned inward, observa­

tion of inner events. Similarities exist between this concept and the fifth stage of - Raja-Yoga, the withdrawal of the senses from exterior ob­ jects. Both serve as preparation for concentra­ tion and meditation.

Apara-Prakriti Antaryamin CJ Skt., lit. "inner leader"; God as

the Lord within us, our real Self (- atman), which is identical with divine consciousness.

Anubhava CJ Skt . , lit. anu: " toward some­

thing," bhava: "becoming, real being"; experi­ ence, direct perception, realization, certainty. The indirect knowledge of the divine that is obtained from sacred scripture, when realized through experience, leads to the certainty of direct knowledge and thereby to enlightenment. This entire process is summed up in the term

anubhava.

Anubhavi-Guru CJ Skt., lit. "the guru is eyewit­

ness." The guru is the witness of the highest truth, because he has experienced and realized it. Anuradhapura

m until the tenth century the cap­

ital city of Ceylon. In Anuradhapura are to be found the Mahavihara monasteries (one of the main seats of the - Theravada school) as well as Abhayagiri Vihara (focal point for a liberal Mahayana-influenced Buddhism). When the cap­ ital was moved elsewhere, Anuradhapura fell into oblivion and only in the nineteenth century were the temples, monasteries and stupas­ valuable examples of Singhalese Buddhist art­ rediscovered.

In Anuradhapura are two gigantic dagobas (-+ stupa), Ruwanweli and Thuparama, the beginnings of which go back to pre-Christian times, and which represent the original prototype of the stupa. A shoot from the -+ Bodhi-tree was purportedly planted in Anuradhapura.

Anuruddha

m important Singhalese scholar of

the - Theravada, who lived between the eighth and twelfth centuries. He is the author of the renowned work Abhidhammattha-sangaha

( Collection of the Meanings of the Abhi­ dharma), which expounds the entire teaching of

the Theravada. In many ways it is similar to the Visuddhi-magga of - Buddhaghosa, though it is shorter and harder to understand. In it Anuruddha treats particularly topics of psycholo­ gy. Other, less important works are ascribed to Anur­ uddha, such as the Namarupaparichcheda ( Con­

cerning Name and Form, Which Constitute the Individ­ ual Entity) and the Paramatthavinichchaya (Resolu­ tion Concerning the Supreme Meaning).

Anushaya

m (anusaya), Skt. (Pali, anusaya), lit.

"tendencies"; in Buddhism there are seven tend­ encies or latent passions: sensual desire kama), recalcitrance, view (- drishti), scepti­ cism (vichikitsa), arrogance (mana), craving for

existence (- bhava), and ignorance (­ avidya). These properties, which subsist uncon­ sciously, are considered tendencies in that they tend ever and again to reappear and call forth new arisings of sensual desire.

A c c o r d i ng to the --. Th erava d a a n d the Sarvastivada, these tendencies are mental in nature and are connected with the thinking process. They have an object and moral causes and are evil. Accord­ ing to the - Mahasanghikas, - Vatsiputriyas, Dharmaguptakas, and others, the anushayas are sepa­ rate from thinking and have no object and no moral cause. They are considered morally neutral.

Anushthana Cl (Anu�thana) Skt.; the carrying

out of religious practices and rites. Instructions for such practices are found in the portion of the Vedas known as the - Karma-Kanda.

m Pali;

contemplation. Practices de­ scribed in the Hinayana siitras that bring about both release from the three unwholesome roots (- akushala) of desire, hatred, and delusion and comprehension of, and joy in, the Buddhist teaching. Usually the term refers to the six contemplations: on the Enlightened One (­ Buddha), the teaching (- dharma), the commu­ nity (- sangha), discipline (- shzla), generosity (- dana), and heavenly beings (- deva). To those are frequently added four further contem­ plations: on death, the body, mindfulness of inhaling and exhaling (- anapanasati), and peace. Anussati

Anuttara-samyaksambodhi

m (anuttara-sam­

yaksarpbodhi), Skt., lit. "perfect universal en­ lightenment"; full form of samyaksambodhi (en­ lightenment of a complete buddha) (- samyak­

sambuddha).

Anuvyavasaya CJ Skt. ; a higher form of percep­

tion that arises from steadfast, determined reflec­ tion of the Self (atJnan); a direct perception of physical and psychic data that is not filtered through conceptual thought. Anvaya CJ Skt. ; a method of affirmation, that of

logical connection; that which agrees with our own experience and contradicts neither our ex­ perience nor logic. Anzen B Jap., lit. "peaceful Zen"; an expres­

sion for properly practiced - zazen, in which body and mind come to lucidly wakeful calm. Apadana l!1 Pali - Khuddaka-nikaya

Apara-Prakriti Cl (Apara-Prakrti) Skt.: the realm

of lower nature, in which everything material

15

Apara-Vairagya

(e.g., bodies, plants, and inanimate matter) be­ comes manifest. Apara-Vairagya Gl Skt .; the first stage of renunciation, whereby one attains purification, peace, and detachment. Apara-Vidya Gl Skt., lit. "lesser knowledge"; rel­ ative or indirect knowledge gained through the senses and intellect; knowledge of science, art, or literature, hence secondhand knowledge, as when one "knows" a city from maps and books without having actually walked through its streets. Its opposite is - para-vidya.

Aparigraha Gl Skt.; the state of being without possessions, desirelessness; the state in which one is free from the craving to hoard; one of the five virtues on the first step of - Raja-Yoga as stipulated in the Yoga-Sutra of - Patanjali. The other four are: satya (truthfulness), ahimsa (harm­ lessness), asteya (not stealing), and brahmachar­ ya (temperance, continence). Together they form the Great Vow ( - Mahavrata) that is made for all steps. Aparoksha Gl (Aparok�a), Skt., lit. "perceiv­ able, not hidden," also: present, visible; a desig­ nation for consciousness, which is present in every human being as waking, dreaming, and deep sleep. A short work by - Shankara is entitled Aparokshiinubhuti ("The Direct Experi­ ence of Reality").

m

Apaya Skt.; inferior modes of existence; four lower or evil forms of existence in the cycle of existence of beings (- gati). These are the hell beings (- naraka), hungry ghosts (- preta), animals, and "titans" (- asura). The latter are sometimes reckoned with the higher modes of existence. They are missing altogether in some schools of southern Buddhism. The first three inferior modes of existence are also called "the three woeful paths." Apramana

m Skt. - brahma-vihara

Apramatta Gl Skt., lit. "not careless"; to remain true to one's internal law without going astray; to refrain from carelessly wasting one's hard­ attained human embodiment, the spiritual pur­ pose of which is to achieve liberation.

m

Apratisamkhya-nirodha (apratisarpkhya-ni­ rodha), Skt.; unconscious, effortless dissolution (- nirodha), dissolution without productive cause, without the participation of wisdom (- prajiia). One of the unconditioned dharmas (- asamskrita) of the Sarva stivada and Yogachara schools.

16

Music and dance of the Apsaras. (Stiipa relief from Bharhut, 1 st century s.c.E.)

Apratishthita-nirvana m (aprati � { hita-nirva ­ I)a), Skt., lit. "unfixed, active extinction"; in this type of nirvana according to the Mahayana view, the liberated one renounces remainderless extinction and withdrawal from the cycle of existence. Nevertheless, he is not tied to the compulsions of the samsaric world (- samsa­ ra) because of remaining on in order to lead and sustain all beings on the path to liberation. Aprathishtha-nirvana is the nirvana of a tran­ scendent bodhisattva. An active liberated one is free from desire, hatred, and delusion and acts without creating further karmic bonds. He is independent of natural law and can manifest himself in any desired form.

Apsara Gl Skt., lit. "moving in water"; the apsaras are the celebrated celestial nymphs of - Indra's heaven.

Aside from - Urvashi, the Vedas mention few apsaras. They first play a role in the great epics. The Ramayana and the Puranas trace their origin to the Churning of the Ocean. As the apsaras emerged from the water, neither the gods nor the _. asuras wished to marry them, despite their charm and youthful beauty. Thus they were created for all, and they re­ ceived the name Sumad-Atmajas ("daughters ofjoy"). -

Aradhana Gl Skt.; 1. veneration of the Divine,

Arjuna adoration of and surrender to God, the striving to reach God; 2 . prayer and repetition of the divine name. -

Arambha-Vada GI Skt.; a theory according to which creation is based on causality, hence it is the effect of a cause. -

Aranyaka GI (Aranyaka) Skt., lit. "belonging to the woods"; the Aranyakas are supplementary texts to the - Brahmanas, which in turn are appended to the Vedic Samhitas; thus each belongs to a specific Veda. Meant as reading matter for forest hermits, they contain mystic reflections as wep as descriptions of iµiportant rites, and represent the point of departure for the - Upanishads.

The rites asnd cultic observances described in the Aranyakas were held to be particularly sacred; anyone who performed them prematurely, without proper authorization, ran the risk of forfeiting lifo and limb. Students were therefore given such instruction not openly in the village, but in the solitude of the forest. -

Arati GI , or Aratrika, Skt.; evening worship in the form of a - puja with fl o wers, incense, and - bhajana, whereby candles are swung in front of the image of a deity or a holy figure.

Arghya m Skt.; sacrificial offering to a divinity during ritual Hindu worship (- puja); it in­ volves the use of flowers, leaves of a sacred tree, sandalwood paste, durva grass, and rice.

Arhat m fJ Skt. (Pali, arahat; Chin., - lohan; Jap., rakan); "worthy one," who has attained the highest level of the Hinayana, that of "no­ more-learning" on the supramundane path (- arya-marga), and who possesses the certain­ ty that all defilements (- asrava) and passions (- klesha) have been extinguished and will not arise again in the future. The fruition of arhat­ ship is the nirvana with a vestige of conditions (- sopadhishesha-nirvana). The 'arhat attains full extinction immediately following this life.

The arhat was the ideal of early Buddhism. In contrast to the bodhisattva of the Mahayana who wishes to free all beings, with the arhat the main emphasis is on striving to gain his own salvation. He is fully free from the ten fetters of the cycle of existence (- samyojana), to wit, belief in an individual entity, skepticism, clinging to rites and rules, sensual desire, resentment, craving for refined corporeality and non­ corporeality, arrogance, excitement, and ignorance. An arhat is seen as a person all of whose impurities are dissolved, whose wishes are fulfilled, who has laid down his burden, attained his �oal, and freed his mind through perfect understanding.

Arhat -

Arjava CJ Skt.; honesty, uprightness; one of the daiva-gunas, the godly qualities (- guna); Krish­ na describes them and sets them against the demonic qualities in Bhagavad-Gzta, chapter 1 6. Arjava is mentioned in the fi r st verse of the chapter. Arjuna Cl Skt., lit. "white"; one of the five Pandava brothers aod the warrior hero of the Mahabharata. A friend and disciple of the avatara Krishna, Arjuna received spiritual in­ struction on the battlefield of - Kurukshetra, where Krishna served as his charioteer. Arj una exemplifies the spiritual seeker through whom God instructs all of humanity. The story of his instruction by Krishna is related in the Bhagavad­ GUa. 17

-

Aropa Aropa GI Skt.; synonymous with - adhyiiropa

Arpitamano-Buddhi GI Skt.; a mind that has been

surrendered to God's will, one that through spiritual practice has become free of egoistic impulses. Artha GI Skt.; wealth, possession; one of the four

goals of human aspiration, which, according to Hindu tradition, are not reprehensible so long as in pursuing them one has regard for moral precepts and - dharma. The other three are: dharma (righteousness, virtue), - kiima (sensu­ al desire), and - moksha (liberation).

Arya-marga

m Skt. (Pali, ariya-magga); sacred

supramundane path. It consists of the four stages of holiness, each of which is divided in two according to whether the noble one (- iirya­ pudgala) treading the path is still on the way or has already attained a given level of holiness, the "fruit" (phala). The first stage of the supramun­ dane path is that of the "stream enterer" (­ shrota-iipanna), the second that of the "once­ returner" (- sakridiigiimin), the third that of the "never-returner" (- aniigiimin), and the fourth and last that of the "worthy one" (­ arhat).

m Skt. (Pali,

ariya-puggala), lit. "noble one"; persons who are on one of the four stages of the supramundane path (- iirya­ miirga).

Arthana-Chandata-Kriya GI (Arthana-Candata­

Arya-pudgala

Arunachala GI (Arul)acala), Skt., lit. "red moun­

Arya-Samaj GI Skt.; nineteenth-century social and

Kriya), Skt.; one of the eight occult powers that may be gained by advanced yogis; that which enables yogis to carry out anything they wish to. tain" or "hill of light"; a holy mountain in present-day Tamil Nadu, South India. Accord­ ing to Tamil legend, it is older than the Himalayas.

At the foot of the mountain lies Tiruvannamalai, site of the great Arunachalasvara Temple, which is consecrated to Shiva. The Arunachala became known to Westerners through - Ramana Maharshi, who meditated in its caves for four years and subsequently established an ashram near Tiruvannamalai.

m Skt. - triloka Arupaloka m Skt. - triloka Arupasamadhi m Skt., Pali Arupadhatu

formlessness Aryadeva

four stages of

m disciple of Nagarjuna and author

of various short writings belonging to the Madhyamaka. Aryadeva was probably born in Ceylon in the third century. Under the name of Kanadeva he is considered as the fifteenth patri­ arch in the Indian lineage of Zen. He was pur­ portedly killed by enemies of Buddhism. His works, which are only fully extant in Tibetan and Chinese versions, are commentaries on the writings of his teacher Nagarjuna. The Chatuh-shataka (the Four Hundred) explains in 400 verses the absence of substantiality (- anatman, shunyata) through the use of negative dialectic. The Shata-shastra (Treatise on the Hundred Songs) exer­ cised a great influence on Buddhism. In it A ryadeva attempts to refute various philosophical theories op­ posed to Buddhism. It is one of the foundational works of the - San-lun (Three Treatises) school of Chinese Madhyamaka.

Aryaman GI Skt.; 1 . one of the - Adityas; lord

of yearning and striving for spiritual progress; 2. the aspiring forces of Truth; the light of divine consciousness, which acts as a force. 18

religious reform movement in India. It was founded by Svami - Dayananda and was influen­ tial primarily in North India. Arya-satya

m Skt. - four noble truths

Asamprajnata-Samadhi GI S k t . - sampra­

jniita-samiidhi Asamskrita

m (asarp.skrta), Skt. (Pali, asankha­

ta), lit. "unconditioned, unproduced," refers to everything that is completely beyond condi­ tioned existence, beyond arising, dwelling, and p a s s i n g a wa y . It i s t h e o p p o s i t e of samskrita. In the original teaching, only nirvana was regarded as unconditioned. To this view the - Theravada and - Vatsiputriya schools remained true. The other schools, how­ ever, in the course of further development inter­ preted this notion in various ways.

The - Mahasanghikas had nine categories of unconditioned dharmas: two kinds of dissolution (- nirodha), of which one is achieved through the ability to discriminate (- pratisamkhya-nirodha) and is equated with nirvana and the other, attained with­ out discrimination (- apratisamkhya-nirodha) or with­ out the participation of wisdom (- prajiia) is applica­ ble to future passions that in the case of worthy ones no longer arise. Also included among the nine are space (- akasha), the limitlessness of space, the limit­ lessness of consciousness, nothingness, that which is beyond conscious and unconscious, the content of the teaching on c o n d it i oned ari sing (- pratftya­ samutpiida), and the - eightfold path.

The Sarvastivada school had three kinds of unconditioned: space and the two above-men­ tioned kinds of dissolution. To these three dhar­ mas the - Yogachara school adds also extinction through a state of immovability in heavenly

Ashoka

meditation, the ending of thinking and sensing by an arhat, and suchness (--t tathata). Under the unconditioned the Dharmagupta­ kas subsume suchness and "continuity in things," by which they understand that which in their nature does not change and in virtue of which, for example, good deeds do not produce evil fruits; also certain absorptions. -

Asana GI Skt. ; 1 . any of the various bodily pos-

tures of-; Hatha-Y oga; 2. place or mat on which a spiritµal aspirant sits. The Bhagavad-Gzta states that the place should be firm, neither too high nor too low, and must be peaceful and clean; according to Indian tradition, it should be cov­ ered with a mat of sacred grass, over which a deerskin and a cloth are laid. For the Western devotee, any seat will suffice that is comfortable and allows the meditator to forget about the physical body; 3 . body position in meditation, the third stage of yoga as set forth by -; Pataiijali. For the correct posture, the back, neck, and head must be held still in an unbroken straight line. Indian aspirants customarily prefer to sit on the ground with the legs crossed, a secure position in the event that one loses consciousness of the body.

Asana-Jaya GI Skt. ; mastery of a bodily posture

of -; Hatha-Yoga; the ability to maintain a position without difficulty.

m (Asal).ga)

Skt., lit. "Untouched," "Unbound," "Unfettered." GI The state of a free soul (--t atman) that knows it consists not of body and mind but of absolute consciousness. m name of a founder of the -; Yogachara school. He lived in the fourth century C.E. and came from a brahmin family living in present-day Peshawar. His brother was -; Vasubandhu. Asan­ ga is said to have been converted to Buddhism by a monk of the Mahishasaka school but quick­ ly to have turned to the Mahayana. Asanga, influenced by the -; Sarvastivada school, de­ parted from Nagarjuna's view of absence of substantiality and advanced an idealistic doc­ trine. According to tradition, he received his teaching directly from Maitreya, the future Bud­ dha. Some researchers see behind this tradition the historical figure -; Maitreyanatha. Asanga GI

The most important works ascribed to Asanga (some­ times also to Maitreyanatha) are the - Yogii­ charabhumi-shastra and the Mahliyana-sutralankara ( Ornament of the Mahayana Sutras); definitely by Asanga is the Mahayana-samparigraha (Compen­ dium ofthe Mahayana), a treatise composed in prose

Asanga and verse that expounds the basic teaching of the Yogachara. It is only extant in Chinese and Tibetan translations. This work consists of ten parts dealing with the storehouse consciousness (- alaya-vijiifi­ na); the theory that everything is produced by the mind, that is, is pure ideation; the achievement of insight into pure ideation; the - paramitiis; the bhumis; discipline (- sh ila); meditation; wisdom (- prajiia); higher undifferentiated knowledge; the teaching of the three bodies of a buddha (- trikli­ ya). Sometimes the Guhyasmaja tantra is also attri­ buted to Asanga, which would make Asanga a sig­ nificant figure in Buddhist Tantrism.

Asat GI Skt., lit. "nonbeing, nonexistence"; often

called the basis of the material world. The concept is an abstract one, since we, as the instrument of being, cannot imagine nonbeing and can only speak of an absence of objects. Hence, asat also refers to the unknowable that is beyond being, that which is inaccessible to speech or thought and which eludes any defini­ tion. It is the qualityless Absolute of -; Advaita­ Vedanta. Asceticism

m -; dhuta

m (Asoka);

king of the Maurya king­ dom of northern India, who reigned 272-236 B.C.E. and died ca. 23 1. He is one of the most important figures in ancient Indian history. A bloody campaign in the east and costly victory over Kalinga in 260 brought him to a psychologAshoka

19

-

Ashrama

ical crisis and caused him to enter Buddhism. He became a lay follower and resolved to com­ mence a "reign of dharma." From his edicts one learns that he undertook journeys of inspection to all parts of his realm in order to establish uprightness and virtue (- dharma) throughout the country. Special functionaries were appoint­ ed to watch over the well-being of his subjects; on the basis of his pacifistic attitude he propa­ gated vegetarianism and forbade animal sa­ crifice. He maintained friendly relations with all neighb�r states. Under his rule Buddhism gained a foothold also in Ceylon: - Mahinda, a son of Ashoka's, led the missionary activity there.

Sources for the life of Ashoka are Pali chronicles in which he is described as a Buddhist king; and ar­ chaeological finds, especially the stele and pillar edicts that come from Ashoka himself. From these it is clear that he supported, in addition to the Buddhist sangha, a number of other religious communities in consonance with his duty as a ruler. The word dharma, frequently used in the edicts, cannot neces­ sarily be equated with the Buddhist concept of dhar­ ma. Ashoka's dharma contains none ohhe fundamental teachings of Buddhism; rather it is a moral teaching that drew its inspiration from the various religious currents of the time. The ideal of Ashoka is a moral, happy life for his subjects; it embraces generosity, compassion, refraining from killing, obedience, love of truth, inner insight, etc. Under Ashoka the first intervention of state power in the affairs of the Bud­ dhist community took place. The community was threatened by a schism whereby some of the monks were excluded from the sangha and forced to return to lay life (-- Buddhist councils).

Ashrama Gl (A.srama), Skt.; 1. or ashram, a cen­ ter for religious study and meditation; it can be a private home, a villa, a hermitage, or a monas­ tery. Anyplace where spiritual seekers gather is an ashram. 2. the four stages of life for a Hindu, according to Vedic precepts: - brahmacharya, - grihashta, - viinaprastha, - sannyiisa. Ashraya Cl (Asraya), Skt., lit. "domicile, ref­ uge"; consciousness as the basis of all things manifest and unmanifest. Ashraya is a concept found in Vedanta after Shankara's time. Ashtamangala bols

m Skt. - eight auspicious sym­

Ashtanga-Yoga GI (A� t a IJ.ga-Yoga), Skt. , lit. "eight-limbed yoga." The term refers specifical­ ly to - Raja-Yoga, which contains eight limbs (- anga) or steps. Ashtavakra Cl (A�tavakra), Skt., lit. "crippled eightfold"; a sage, the sone of - Kahoda. De-

20

spite his physical deformity, he became the teacher of - Patanjali. Ashtavakra is said to be the author of the Ashtii vakra-Samh itii ( or Ashtiivakra-Gztii), a brief treatise in essay form on the perceptions and truths of Vedanta. It is considered a standard work of - Advaita­ Vedanta. (English trans. by Hari Prasad Shastri, 1949.) Ashta-vimoksha

m Skt. - eight liberations

Ashubha GI m (asubha), Skt., lit. "unfavorable, unfortunate, i1npure, ugly"; the opposite of shubha ("favorable, fortunate, auspicious"). Cl symbolic term from the world of opposites; its meaning is relative and subjective. Cl contemplation of the ten disgusting objects. One of the forty meditation exercises (­ bhiivanii) introduced in the - Visuddhi-mag­ ga, which coincide essentially with the practice of charnel-ground contemplation. It is some­ times referred to as ashubha and also as contem­ plation of the thirty-two parts of the body (­ satipatthiina, - contemplation of the body). Ashvaghosha l!1 (Asvagho�a); Indian poet and Mahayana philosopher who lived in the first to second centuries and is considered one of the most important Buddhist authors. His most important works are the drama Shiiriputra­ prakarana, a fragmentarily extant life of the Buddha (- Buddha-charita), and the epic Saudar­ ananda-kiivya. Tradition also ascribes to him the - Mahiiyiinashraddhotpiida-shiistra. Ashvaghosha was originally a brahmin and is said to have been converted to Buddhism by a monk named Parshva. All of his works contain easily grasp­ able instructions and similes concerning the Buddhist teaching. The author recounts, for example, in the epic about "beautiful Nanda" the story about the young Nanda, who after his entry into a monastery remains in love with his wife and only after much instruction from the Buddha is cured of this love and renounces the world. Ashvaghosha is one of the four great Bud­ dhist sages who are called the "four suns that illumi­ nate the world. " The other three are -- Deva, -­ Nagarjuna, and -- Kumaralata, a sage of the -­ Sautrantika school. Ashvattha Cl (Asvattha), Skt. ; 1. the fig tree ven­ erated by Indians as sacred; 2. the Tree of Life, represented as having its roots in heaven and its branches and leaves on earth. The tree is sym­ bolic of cosmic existence, which has its roots in the transcendent realms, while its branches ex­ tend into the world. - Brahman, the One with­ out a second, has as cosmic existence two aspects: the roots of Ashvattha are the unmanifest Abso­ lute, its trunk and branches are manifest being.

Atharvaveda Ashvatthaman GJ (Asvatthaman), Skt. ; general of t h e - Kauravas . According to the Mahabharata, at the end of the great final battle, Ashvatthaman and two compatriots were the sole survivors among the Kauravas.

Ashvatthaman's wrath against the - Pandavas was great; he wished to wreak revenge on Drishtadyum­ na, who had slain his father, Drona. The three Kaur­ avas crept into the Pandava camp at night and found Drishtadyumna asleep. Ashvatthaman slew him to­ gether with other sons of the Pandavas. The following morning, they fled, but Draupadi wanted her sons' murders to be avenged and the murderers destroyed. - Yudhishthira interceded for Ashvatthaman be­ cause he was a brahman, and Draupadi agreed to spare his life if she were given the protective jewel that he wore on his forehead. Arj una, Bhima, and Krishna pursued him, overtook him, and forced him to relin­ quish the jewel, which they brought to Draupadi. She gave it to Yudhishthira, who wore it afterward on his forehead.

Ashvin GJ (Asvin), Skt., lit. "horse driver"; twin physician-gods named Nasatya and Dasra, sym­ bols of nervous strength and vital energy. These two divinities appear in the heavens before dawn in a golden carriage drawn by horses or birds and guide their vehicle over a golden path (Hiranyarupa) down to earth, in order to protect humanity from suffering and misery and to lead human beings to enlightenment.

The Ashvins are married to the daughters of Light and, like Castor and Pollux, represent powers that convey the - rishis as in a ship to the opposite shore and guard them from drowning in the sea of ignorance. They rule over the joyous mental and vital powers, energies that lead upward by means of the wine of divine bliss (ananda), which the Ashvins administer to human beings. They themselves further traverse the waters of heavenly bliss with the aid of - soma, the draught that dissolves all obstacles and leads to brah­ man and thereby to final emancipation.

m

Asparsha (Aspar s a), Skt. ; nonimprison­ ment. This state is attained when, despite the subject-object relationship, the - fiva views itself merely as a witness, and imprisonment is no longer possible, because events are now seen merely as the play of - maya, not as reality. The path to this state is called Asparsha-Yoga; its goal is the knowledge of transcendent, nondual reality. Asrava I]] Skt. (Pali, asava), lit. "outflow, secre­ tion," also "defilement" or "canker." Three cankers constitute the root of all suffering and the cause that beings are caught in the cycle of rebirth: the canker of desires (Skt., kamasra­ va; Pali, kamasava), of becoming (Skt., bha-

vasrava; Pali, bhavasava), and of ignorance (Skt., avidyasrava; Pali, avzjjasava). The extinction of

these three cankers means the attainment of arhatship.

The teaching of the cankers represents the final development in the historical sequence of different explanations for entanglement in the cycle of exis­ tence. It encompasses the two forms of thirst (­ trishnii) and ignorance (- avidyii), which constitute the root of suffering in the teaching on conditioned arising (- pra(itya-samutpiida).

Asteya GJ Skt., lit. "not stealing"; one of the five virtues on the first stage (yama) of - Raja­ Yoga, as stipulated in the Yoga-Sutra of Patanjali. They make up the Great Vow (­ Mahavrata) that applies to all eight stages. The four remaining virtues are: ahimsa (harmless­ ness), satya (truthfulness), brahmacharya (con­ tinence), and aparigraha (possessionlessness). Asthangika-marga -

m Skt. - eightfold path

Astika GJ Skt., lit. "orthodox, true to the Veda"; name for the six philosphical systems, or darshanas, which are characterized as orthodox because they acknowledge the authority of the Vedas. Asura GJ I]] (also asura), Skt., demon, evil spirit. Cl In the Rigveda, the word means "god" or the modifier "divine." Only later is the term used in hymns to represent dark powers, just as the battle of the asuras against the gods later be­ comes a favorite theme. Both the asuras and the gods, as well as human beings, are created by Prajapati. In the fourth verse of the sixteenth chapter of the Bhagavad-Gztii, Krishna enumerates the demonic qual­ ities in human beings, which he sets against the godly qualities. The demonic qualities plunge man into dark ignorance; the godly ones lead to illumination.

I]] the "titans"; one of the six modes of existence (- gati), sometimes reckoned among the higher modes and sometimes among the lower (­ apaya). In the sense of a higher or good mode of existence, asura refers to the lower gods who dwell on the slopes or summit of the world mountain Sumeru or in castles of air. Seen as a lower or evil mode of existence, the asuras are the enemies of the gods (- deva). They belong to the sensual desire realm (- triloka). In the classifications of many southern Buddhist schools, the asuras are entirely omitted.

Atharvaveda Cl Skt.; the fourth Veda (- Vedas), devoted to the "knowledge of magic spells." It originated much later than the Rigveda, the

21

Atisha

Slimaveda, and the Yajurveda,, and was for

some time not recognized as part of the Vedas, even though a portion of its 7 3 1 hymns derive from the Rigveda. The Atharvaveda was not strictly fixed in content; thus a series of mostly brief - Upanishads was appended to it. Many of these are apocryphal in character and actually represent textbooks for later schools of Hin­ duism. Only a few of these, in particular the Mundaka, Prasna, and Mlindukya- Upanishads, are recognized and utilized by Vedantists.

The Atharvaveda preserves many traditions of folk belief as well as atonement ceremonies, curses, and marriage and burial songs of the most ancient Indian priesthood, the Atharvan. The work can further be seen as the oldest document of Indian medicine, as it contains numerous magical spells against illness. The Atharvaveda was indispensable for priests serving at the court, since at that time (from the second century B.C.E.) magic and politics were closely conjoined.

Atisha m (Atis a), also Atisha D impamkara Shrijfiana, 980/90- 1055, Buddhist scholar of royal family who, particularly, systematized the method for generating enlightened mind (­ bodhicitta). As patriarch of Magadha and teach­ er at the great monastic university Vikra­ mashila, he was invited to Tibet and spent the last twelve years of his life there. Atisha founded the - Kadampa school and his teaching tradi­ tion had a decisive influence on - Tibetan Buddhism, especially on the school of - Tsongk­ hapa. His most important disciple was the Ti­ betan Dromton ( 1003-64). The so-called second spreading of the Buddhist teaching in Tibet was initiated in the tenth century by the west Tibetan royal family. First they sent subjects of theirs to India, as, for example, the translator Rinchen Zangpo; later they sought out suitable Indian masters and their choice fell on Atisha. In the year 1 042 Atisha entered west Tibet. Soon, however, he transferred his principal seat to Netang in central Tibet, whence his teachings spread rapidly. In his principal work Bodhipathapradipa (Lamp on the Way to Enlightenment), he gave a general overview of the way of the Great Vehicle (- Mahayana) and introduced a threefold classification of practitioners: persons who strive for a good rebirth, those who have their own enlightenment as goal (- Hinayana), and those whose motive is the salvation of all sentient beings (- bodhisattva). A main object of Atisha's was to stop random or careless propagation of religious texts. Also due to him was the spread of the cult of - Tara. He combined in h i s t e a c h i n g b o t h great trad i t i o n s o f the prajniipiiramitii: the tradition of deep insight into nothingness (- shunyata) as it was developed by Nagarjuna, and the teaching stemming from Asanga of the all-encompassing action of enlightened mind.

22

Ati-yoga -

m Skt. - dzogchen

Atmabodha GI Skt., lit. "knowledge of the Self'; a short but significant treatise of - Advaita­ Vedanta; attributed to - Shankara, it is repeat­ edly cited in the literature of this philosophy. In sixty-eight slokas, or verses, the text presents the most important concepts of Advaita, such as iitman, brahman, the superimposition of forms of the manifest world on Brahman, and the method that leads to knowledge of the Self and hence to liberation. (English trans. in Leggett, 197 8 and Menon 1964.) Atma-Chintana m (Atma-Cintana), Skt.; thoughts directed to the Self. -

Atmadana GJ Skt. ; surrender, the gift of the Self to the Divine. Only when God is acknowledged as the most precious commodity is such surren­ der (- bhakti) possible.

Atma-Darshan Gl (Atma-Darsan), Skt. ; a vision of the real Self (- litman). -

Atma-Droha Cl Skt. ; indifferent or hostile attitude toward the Self, the - iitman; the mental attitude of materialists, atheists, and the igno­ rant. Atma-Jnana GJ Skt.; knowledge of the Self, which according to Vedanta is synonymous with knowl­ edge of God. -

Atman Cl m Skt.; according to the Hindu understanding, the real immortal self of human beings, known in the West as the soul. It is the nonpar­ ticipating witness of the - fiva, beyond body and thought and, as absolute consciousness, identical with - brahman. Philosophically atman is known as - kutastha. In virtue of its identity with brahman, its special characteristic marks (litmakara) are identical with those of brahman: eternal, absolute being; absolute con­ sciousness; and absolute bliss. In Buddhism the existence of an iitman is denied: neither within nor outside of physical and mental manifestations is there anything that could be designated as an independent, imperishable essence. (Also - aniitman, -

skandha.)

-

Atmananda GJ Skt. ; the bliss of the Self (-

iitman). -

Atmaprasada GJ Skt. ; the clarity, serenity, and peace of the divine Self, which arise only when identification with the body and the mind is relinquished.

Aurobindo Ghose Atmarati Cl Skt.; the peaceful bliss of the divine Self in each of us, experienced only in deep meditation and in ------. samiidhi.

-

-

Atmasamarpana Cl (Atmasamarpana), Skt.; absolute surrender and submission to God.

Atma-Shakti Cl (Atma-Sakti), Skt.; the forces of the divine Self (- iitman) in the human being. As an aspect of absolute consciousness, they are capable of accepting all thought projections, both those that lead to liberation and those that lead to imprisonment in the world of appear­ ances. Atmavirya Cl Skt.; the strength and power of the Self that arise from the awareness of being one with God. Atmayajna Cl Skt.; the sacrifice of the small self, or "I," considered to be the most important offering on the path from darkness to light, from death to immortality.

AUM Cl Skt., ------. OM Aupapaduka Cl

m Skt. ------. chatur-yoni

Aurobindo Ghose Cl (Ghosh), called Shri (or Sri) Aurobindo, 18 72- 19 50; Indian spiritual leader, author of numerous works on yoga and the wisdom of the - Bhagavad-G'itii. An ashram that is now known worldwide arose around Shri Aurobindo. He developed the system of ------. Purna-Yoga, or Integral Yoga, and contributed much to the spread of the Eastern religious spirit in the West with his writings, which were strong­ ly influenced by Western thought due to the humanistic education he had received in Eng­ land. Aurobindo regarded the classical Yoga systems of Hinduism as one-sided paths on the "ascent" to the divine, which he also called the "supramental," remarking that "in India and elsewhere, men have tried to reach it by raising themselves up to it; what was not attained was a method to integrate it into one's life" (Letters on Yoga, vol. 1; trans. from German ed.). In his Integral Yoga, Aurobindo strove to connect the "ascent" to divine consciousness with an opening to the "descent" of the divine principle into the material world, whereby man ultimately becomes a "superman" of supramen­ tal abilities. Although Shri Aurobindo was close to the Western spirit, he saw its limits quite clearly. He writes: "Thought, intellect, the mental grew to be regarded in the West more and more as the supreme means and even as the supreme goal;

in philosophy, the thinking mind is the begin­ ning and the end. Truth must be discovered here through intellectual examination and specula­ tion; even spiritual experience is required to subject itself to the tests of the intellect if it wishes to be declared as valid. . . . Western thought is no longer dynamic, it has sought a theory, not realization . . . it turned into intellectual specu­ lation without any practical method of attaining the truth with the help of spiritual experience, spiritual discoveries, and spiritual transforma­ tion . . . . In the process of overintellectualiza­ tion of the mental realm in Europe, what was lost was the spiritual path, the way that leads past the intellect, the bridge from the outer being to the inmost self' (ibid.). The goal of Integral Yoga, in contrast to traditional Hindu Yoga and the way of Western spirituality, is characterized by Aurobindo as follows: "Not by 'thinking through' the whole of reality, but by a conversion of consciousness is it possible to move from ignorance to knowl­ edge, that knowledge by which we are known. The integral way to truth consists of turning from the outward to a direct and essentially inner consciousness, extending the conscious­ ness beyond the limits of body and ego, raising it by means of inner will and aspiration and opening it to the light until in its ascent it transcends the mental; further, in bringing about a descent of the supramental divine through self-giving and surrender and the continuous evolution of mental, life, and body. This is what is called truth and the goal of our Yoga" (ibid.). The chief works of Shri Aurobindo include The Divine Life and The Synthesis of Yoga. Aurobindo Ghose was born in Calcutta, the son of Krishna Dhan Ghose, a physician who was affiliated with the - Briihmo Samii} and who had strong lean­ ings toward Western thought. From his earliest years, Aurobindo was educated in a European-directed school; when he was seven his father sent him to England, where he attended the renowned Saint Paul's School and later received a scholarship to King's College, Cambridge. There he studied Latin, Greek, French, and German, and received a comprehensive humanis­ tic education. When in 1 893 his father died, he re­ turned to India, where he became professor of English language and literature at Baroda College and later was named director of National College. As he had already done in England, Aurobindo actively worked for the liberation of India from British colonial power; ulti­ mately he was imprisoned for a year for his under­ ground activities. It was during his term in prison that Aurobindo first had spiritual experiences; following his release in 1 909, he abandoned his political activities and turned wholly

23

Avachcheda-Vada toward the practice of Yoga, which over the years led him to even deeper religious experiences. In 1 9 1 0 he was again threatened with arrest but escaped to the French enclave at Pondicherry, where he was to re­ main until his death. There he met Mira Alfassa, the daughter of a Turkish-Egyptian family who had grown up in France; from 1 920 on she was Aurobindo's constant companion. The Aurobindo ashram owes its inception to the energies of Mira Alfassa, now known simply as "the Mother." After Shrl Aurobindo's death, she also found­ ed her own ashram-city, "Auroville," where devotees of Shri Aurobindo and the Mother live and work, seeking to realize the teachings of Aurobindo by lead­ ing an active life in the world while governed by spiritual principles. Avachcheda-Vada GI (Avacceda-Vada), Skt.; the

view that the - jzva is a form of - brahman, i.e., a manifestation of the Absolute, which, however, is limited due to ignorance (­ avidyii), which superimposes on the Absolute a veil of identifi c ation with the body and mind. Avadana

last component of the name is taken to be zshvara, "lord." Another interpretation is "He Who Hears the Sounds [Outcries] of the World" or also the "Sound That Illumines the World," in which svara, "sound" is regarded as the final component of the name. In any case, A valoki­ teshvara embodies one of the two fundamental aspects o f buddhahood, compassion (­ karunii), in virtue of which he is often given the epithet Mahiikarunii, "Great Compassion." The other fundamental aspect of buddhahood is wisdom (- prajnii), which is embodied by the bodhisattva - Manj ushri. Avalokiteshvara is the power of the buddha Amitabha manifested as a bodhisattva and appears as his helper (­ Pure Land school). His limitless compassion expresses itself in his wonderful ability to help all beings who turn to him at times of extreme danger. In folk belief, Avalokiteshvara also pro­ tects from natural catastrophe and grants bless­ ings to children.

m Skt., lit. "great deed"; Buddhist lit­

erary genre marking a transitional stage between Hinayana and Mahayana, in which strong tend­ encies towards glorification of the bodhisattva ideal are in evidence. The avadiinas consist of legends about the previous lives of Buddhist saints that were recited by monks to lay believ­ ers. They were mainly intended to show that good deeds bring about good results, and bad deeds, bad results. Among the most important collections of such tales are the second-century Avadiina-shataka (A Hundred Heroic Deeds) and the especially popular Divyiivadiina (Divine Deeds). Avadhuta GI Skt.; a human being who has at­

tained divine knowledge and has relinquished all ties to the world.

Avadhut-Gita GI Skt., lit. "song of an illumined

one"; a work consisting of 1 9 3 verses, composed by Mahatma Dattatreya, who is presumed to have lived in the fourth century B.C.E.

Nothing is known of Dattatreya's life except that he lived long before Christ but after Krishna, and that he wrote this one work only. As brief as the Avadhut­ Gita is, it summarizes in a nutshell the spirit of advaita and the - Upanishads and thus is highly prized by advanced seekers. Avalokiteshvara

m B (Avalokitesvara), Skt.; one

of the most important - bodhisattvas of the Mahayana. The literal meaning of A valokitesh­ vara is variously interpreted. One interpretation is the "Lord Who Looks Down," in which the

24

The bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara m his eleven­ headed, thousand-armed form

Iconographically, thirty-three different ways of depicting Avalokiteshvara are known, distin­ guished by the number of heads and arms as well as by the attributes held in the hands. Frequent­ ly he is shown with a thousand arms, a thousand

Avidya

eyes, and eleven faces. Usually adorning his head is a small image of Buddha Amitabha, which is his surest mark of recognition. In his hands he often holds a blue lotus blossom (hence his epithet Padmapiini, "Lotus Holder"), a rosa­ ry, and a vase of nectar. The numerous arms symbolize his ability to work for the welfare of sentient beings in a manner corresponding to any situation.

touch, a glance, or even through his silence. Because he is free from all bonds of the ego, he is beyond duality.

In his eleven-faced form, Avalokiteshvara wears as a crown the heads of nine bodhisattvas and that of a buddha; the latter is the head of Buddha Amitabha. Each triad of bodhisattva heads embodies compassion for suffering beings, wrath against evil, and joy con­ cerning good. According to another view, the ten heads symbolize the ten stages of the career of a bodhisattva (- bhumi) and the fruition of buddhahood. A legend explains the derivation of the eleven-faced, thousand-armed form. As Avalokiteshvara looked down on the suffering of the world, his head literally burst from pain; his spiritual father Amitabha put the pieces back together as nine new heads. The wish to help all beings caused Avalokiteshvara to grow a thousand arms, in the palm of each of which is an eye. Many depictions represent Avalokiteshvara as the helper of being in the six realms of existence (- gati): Avaloki­ teshvara with a horse's head or riding on a lion rescues animals; the thousand-armed Avalokiteshvara rescues hell beings; the eleven-faced one, the - asuras.

In China Avalokiteshvara is venerated under the name -- Kuan-yin, in Japan under the name Kannon (also Kanzeon or Kwannon), and in both countries is generally considered to be female. The Tibetan form of Avalokiteshvara is -- Chenresi. Avarana Cl (A.vara])a), Skt., lit. "concealing"; the power of ignorance (- avidyii) to cast a veil over brahman (see also -- vikshepa).

Avastha Cl Skt.; a plane or state of conscious­ ness. There are four avasthiis: -- jiigrat (the waking state, also known in Vedanta as vaishviinara), -- svapna (dreaming sleep), sushupti (deep sleep), and -- turiya ("the fourth").

Avatamsaka-sutra

saka-sutra

m Skt.

-- Buddhii vatam­

Avatara GI , or Avatar, Skt., lit. "descent"; an incarnation of divine consciousness on earth. An avatiira is born not as the result of karma (as are ordinary human beings) but from an act of free will, and such a one is conscious of his divine mission throughout his life. He appears in order to establish new pathways for religious realization and to adapt them to the age in which he is born; he is able to confer divine knowledge upon his fellow human beings by a

Vishnu in his avataric incarnation as Rama. According to the traditional Hindu view, it is Vish­ nu alone who is incarnated. Tradition speaks of ten incarnations: ( 1 ) Matsya, the fi s h; (2) Kiirma, the tortoise; ( 3) V araha, the boar; ( 4) N arasimha, the man-lion; ( 5 ) V amana, the dwarf; ( 6) Parashu­ Rama, or Rama the Ax Wielder; (7) Rama of the Ramayana; (8) Krishna; (9) Buddha; ( 1 0) Kalki. Vish­ nu has not yet appeared in the last-named form, which he will assume only at the end of the Iron Age (- kali­ yuga), when he will arrive with drawn sword on a white horse to anni hilate the wicked and restore dharma. Independent of this tradition, however, Hin­ dus also view Jesus as an avatara.

Avesha Cl (Avesa), Skt.; the ability of advanced yogis to enter other bodies.

Avidya Cl m B Skt. , lit. "ignorance, nescience." Cl As a Vedantic term, avidyii refers to both individual and cosmic ignorance. Individual ignorance is the inability to distinguish between the transient and the intransient, between the

25

Avidya-Maya

real and the unreal; cosmic ignorance is -. miiyii. Its effect is the same as that of -.

aJnana.

m B (Pali, avijja); ignorance or delusion, that is,

noncognizance of the -. four noble truths, the three precious ones (- triratna), and the law of -- karma. A vidyii is the first part in the nexus of conditionality (- pratltya-samutpiida), which leads to entanglement in the world of -. samsara as well as to the three cankers (­ iisrava). It is one of the passions (- klesha) and the last of the ten fetters (- samyojana). Avidya is considered as the root of everything unwholesome in the world and is defined as ignorance of the suffering-ridden character of existence. It is that state of mind that does not correspond to reality, that holds illusory phe­ nomena for reality, and brings forth suffering. Ignorance occasions craving (- trishnii) and is thereby the essential factor binding beings to the cycle of rebirth. According to the Mahayana view, avidyii with regard to the emptiness (­ shunyatii) of appearances entails that a person who is not enlightened will take the phenomenal world to be the only reality and thus conceal from himself the essential truth.

A vidyii is differently expounded by the individual Mahayana schools. In - Madhyamaka ignorance re­ fers to the determination of the mind through a priori ideas and concepts that permit beings to construct an ideal world, that confer upon the everyday world its forms and manifold quality, and that thus block vision of reality. A vidya is thus the nonrecognition of the true nature of the world, which is emptiness (shunyata), and the mistaken understanding of the nature of phenomena. In this way it has a double function: ignorance veils the true nature and also constructs the illusory appearance; the two condition each other mutually. In this system avidya characterizes the con­ ventional reality. For the - Sautrantikas and - Vaibhashikas avidya means seeing the world as unitary and endur­ ing, whereas in reality it is manifold and impermanent. Ignorance confers substantiality on the world and its appearances. In the _, Yogachara view avidya means seeing the object as a unit independent of conscious­ ness, when in reality it is identical with it.

Avidya-Maya Gl Skt., lit. "miiyii of ignorance"; the illusion that leads to a dualistic view of the world. It results in anger, greed, and other driv­ ing feelings that bind us to the phenomenal world. Its opposite is vidyii-miiyii. Both forms of miiyii belong to the world of relativity. (See also -. miiyii.)

Aviveka Gl Skt. ; the inability to discriminate, to distinguish between what is real and what is

26

unreal, what is permanent and what is transito­ ry, what leads to God and what leads to attachment to the world. Avyakta Gl Skt., lit. "unmanifest"; latent, hid­ den, not objectified; the power that is present even when the world of appearances is not yet manifest. -

Ayam Atman Brahman Gl Skt., lit. "This Self is brahman"; one of the - mahiiviikyas, the great Vedic precepts; it confirms that one's true self is not the body or mind but rather is identical with -. brahman. -

Ayatana m Skt., Pali; fields, especially the twelve sense fields, namely, the five sense organs (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body) and the objects corre­ sponding to them (form, sound, odor, taste, bodily sensations), as well as the sixth sense organ (the thinking mind [- manas]), and its objects (ideas or -. dharmas). Sometimes also iiyatana refers only to the objects of the sense organs (- shadiiyatana).

Ayurveda Gl Skt., lit. "the knowledge [science] of [long] life [ or health]"; an ancient system of healing, sometimes regarded as an - Upaveda and specifically as a later supplement to the -.

Atharvaveda.

The standard texts of Ayurveda include the Chara­ ka-Samhita, composed by Charaka, a physician who lived around the first century C.E. (according to Stutley 1 977), and the Sushruta-Samhita of Sushruta, who lived �pproximately a century later. Both works de­ clare Ayurveda to be of divine origin, although their authors differ regarding the details of its revelation. �ccording to Cha raka , - I n d ra revealed the �yurveda to Bharadvaja, whose disciples included Atreya Punarvasu, the legendary founder of the first school oflndian medicine. One of Atreya Punarvasu's followers was Agnivesha, whose teachings form the basis of Charaka's work; hence, the Charaka­ Samhita is also known as the Agnivesha- Tantra. Ac­ cording to Sushruta, Indra revealed the Ayurveda to the Vedic king Divodasa, whose teachings were passed on and formed the basis of the Sushruta-Samhita.

Ayurvedic diagnosis and therapy are based on a system of three dynamic principles or "hu­ mors" (- dosha) that are associated with the three basic qualities (- guna) of the material principle -. prakriti. Illness is caused by an imbalance in one or more doshas, which in combination also create the various constitu­ tional types of human beings. The remedies, which work primarily through their taste (rasa), act either to strengthen or to pacify the dosha, and thus are used to restore the balance of forces in the organism.

Bamiyan

A.yurveda is a holistic system of treatment, in which herbal therapy plays a major role, while the correct conduct of one's life in a religious sense is considered essential for the mainte-

nance of health. For an introduction to the basic principles of A.yurveda, see Vasant Lad, Ayur­ veda: The Science of SelfHealing (Santa Fe, N.M., 1 984).

B Babu Gl Hindi, lit. "lord" also, a country squire or distinguished man. This title of respect usual­ ly follows one's first name, as in Girish Babu.

Bahiranga-Sadhana m (Bahiral)ga-Sadhana), Skt.; the development of a gradual distaste for the outer world, the beginning of the spiritual path. The first three stages of --t Patanjali's yoga (yama, niyama, and asana) are expedient means for the development of bahiranga-sadhana.

Bahiratman Cl Skt.; the outer self, body and mind; from bahir: "outer," and --t atman, the Self.

Bahir-Mukha Gl Skt., lit. "turning away, di­ rected outward"; our mind is impelled by the senses to turn away from our true self (--t atman) and toward the outer world of appear­ ances. All the empirical sciences have arisen in this way. Bahya-Puja Gl Skt.; external form of devotion to divinities or --t avataras, resulting in the various --t pujas of Hinduism, with their basis in the --t Karma-Kanda of the Vedas.

m

Bala Skt. , Pali, lit. "power"; five spiritual powers or faculties, developed through strength­ ening the five roots (--t indriya), that make possible the attainment of enlightenment. These powers are ( 1) the power of fa ith (--t shraddha), which precludes all false belief; (2) the power of exertion (--t vzrya), which leads to overcoming all that is unwholesome through the application of the --t four perfect efforts; (3) the power of mindfulness, that is, perfect mindful­ ness achieved through application of the four foundations of mindfulness (--t satipatthana); ( 4) the power of --t samadhi, that is , the practice of --t dhyana leading to the elimination of pas­ sions; (5) the power of wisdom (--t prajiia), which rests on insight into the --t four noble truths and leads to the knowledge that liberates.

Balarama Gl , the elder brother of --t Krishna. The Mahabharata relates that --t Vishnu pulled a white hair and a black hair from his head; these became Balarama, whose skin was light, and Krishna, whose dark skin is represented icono­ graphically by the color blue. Bali Gl or Mahabali; a benevolent and virtuous --t Daitya king, the son of --t Vairochana and the husband of Vindhyavali. His capital city was Mahabalipura. Having been defeated in battle, he was permitted to decide whether to enter heaven accompanied by a hundred fools or to enter hell accompanied by one wise man. He chose hell, saying, "With the help of a sage I can easily turn hell into heaven, but a hundred fools will make even heaven into hell." By his atonement and surrender, Bali vanquished Indra, the lord of the firmament, humbled other gods, and extended his dominion to cover heaven, earth, and the underworld. When the gods begged Vishnu for protection, he manifested himself in his dwarf incar­ nation (- avatara) in order to put a stop to Bali. The dwarf asked the king to grant him the space he could cover in three steps. When Bali granted him this boon, the dwarf covered heaven and earth in two steps, but out of respect for Bali's pure character allowed him to retain the lower regions (- Patala). The origin of this legend is found in the Rigveda, where Vishnu traverses heaven, earth, and the lower region in three steps that symbolize the rising, zenith, and setting of the sun.

Bamiyan I]] Buddhist holy place in Afghanistan with rock-cut caves dating from 300 to 600 C.E. It is composed of numerous small interconnect­ ed caves on different levels carved into a cliff face over more than two kilometers. The caves served as assembly roon1s for monks living nearby and as --t chaityas. The Buddhism of Bamiyan, which was of the Mahayana type, was wiped out as a result of invasions by Islamic peoples and the Mongols ( 1 3th century). Especially noteworthy are the domelike ceilings of

27

Bana the caves, which have on them depictions of buddha paradises (- pure land) with their ruling buddhas, sometimes in clear mandala form. Against the cliff face are two colossal Buddha figures, one thirty-five and one fifty-three meters tall, today in badly damaged condition. They were originally painted and gilded. The faces are missing; they were probably made of gilded wood. The various artistic representations indi­ cate that the Buddha was understood as a person­ ification of the universe and that the countless buddhas of all ages were considered to be manifestations of him. The style shows Sassanian, Indian, and Central Asian influence.

Bana GI (BaI).a), a - Daitya, the eldest son of Bali, also known by the names Tripura and Vairochi. He was Shiva's friend and Vishnu's enemy. Bana's daughter - Usha fell in love with - Anir­ uddha, Krishna's grandson, and abducted him by m e a n s o f h e r m ag i c a l p o w e r s . Kr i s h n a , Balarama, and - Pradyumna wanted to rescue him but met resistance from Bana, who was supported by Shiva and - Skanda, the god of war. Shiva was vanquished by Krishna, Skanda was wounded, and Bana's many arms were knocked off by Krishna's missile weapon. Shiva then pleaded for Bana's life, and Krishna spared him. Band ha CJ Skt.; bondage, dependence, from bandh: to fetter or bind. Bondage to the sense objects of the manifest world is the greatest impediment to spiritual development. Banka B Jap., lit. "evening section"; the eve­ ning siitra recitation, part of the daily routine in a Zen monastery (- tera).

Banka-zoji B Jap., lit. "banka cleanup"; clean­ ing of the interior rooms of a Zen monastery after the evening siitra recitation (- banka). A form of - samu that is part of the daily routine of a Zen monastery (- tera).

Bankei Eitaku (Yotaku) B also Bankei Koku­ shi, 1622-93; Japanese Zen master of the Rinzai school; one of the most popular Zen masters of Japan and quite the most famous of his time. In his early years Bankei wandered through Japan and sought out numerous Zen masters. Then for two years he retreated to a hermitage in order to do nothing but practice - zazen. During this time he neglected his health to such an extent that he had almost died of consumption when, one morning as he coughed up a clot of blood, he suddenly had an enlightenment experience. Later he became a disciple of the Chinese Zen master Tao-che Ch'ao-yii an (lap . , Dosha Chogen, ca. 1 600-6 1 ) in Nagasaki, who led him to profound enlightenment and bestowed upon him the

28

seal of confirmation (- inka-shomei). Since Bankei was the only student who had received the confirma­ tion of this master, the latter advised him to make off during the night-as - Hui-neng and others in similar situations before him had done-in order to avoid bringing on himself the envy of his fellow students. Since Bankei found that nobody understood his living words, spoken out of profound experience, he lived for many years in hiding before he gave himself out as a Zen master and thousands of students, monks and lay people, from all classes of society, thronged around him.

In 1 672 Bankei was appointed abbot of the Myoshin-ji monastery in Kyoto by the imperial house. The power of his mind and his ability to present the truth of Zen in the language of the people in a way that was simple and widely comprehensible, contributed greatly to the re­ vival of Rinzai Zen in Japan, which to a great extent had rigidified into concern with outer forms. In this regard Bankei was a precursor of the sixty-four-years younger - Hakuin Zenji. In spite of the large number of his studnts, Bankei confirmed only a few dharma successors. Although he himself left no writings behind and forbade his students to record his teachings, a number of his presentations and dialogues were written down by followers. (A selection of them can be found in S. Waddell 1 984.) Bansan B Jap., lit. "evening devotion"; eve­ ning siitra recitation in a Zen monastery; syno­ nym for - banka. Banzan Hoshaku fa Jap. for - P''an-shan Pao­ chi

m

Bardo (bar-do), Tib., lit. "in-between state"; already in Hinayana and Mahayana works of around the second century there are indications of a concept of a state that connects the death of an individual with his following rebirth. This conception was further elaborated in the teach­ ings of the - Vajrayana. Finally, in the Naro chodrug and in the - Bardo thodol, six kinds of in-between states were differentiated: ( 1 ) the bardo of birth, (2) dream bardo, (3) bardo of meditation (- dhyana), (4) bardo of the moment of death, (5) bardo of supreme reality (- dharmata), and ( 6) bardo of becoming. While the first three bardos characterize the present life as a phase of "suspended states," the last three bardos encompass the forty-nine-day-long process of death and rebirth.

m

Bardo thodol (bar-do thos-grol), Tib., lit. "Lib­ eration through Hearing in the In-between State"; a text known as the Tibetan Book of the Dead

Bassui Zenji

composed of a group of instructions stemming from - Padmasambhava that were elaborated into a systematic teaching in the form of a terma in the 14th century. The process of death and rebirth is set forth in this work as three phases or in-between states (- bardo), which are closely connected with the three bodies of a buddha (- trikaya ): ( 1) in the bardo of the moment of death (dharmakaya) a dazzling white light manifests; (2) in the bardo of supreme reality (sambhogakaya) lights of five colors ap­ pear in the forms of mandalas, which emanate f rom the basic structure of the five buddhakulas; (3) in the bardo of becoming (nirmanakaya) light phenomena of lesser bril­ liance appear that correspond to the six modes of existence (- bhavachakra ). All three phases offer the possibility, through hearing the appro­ priate instructions, for a being to recognize the nature of his own mind and so attain liberation (- nirvana).

among other things, the process of dying, the appear­ ances of light in the bardo, and the technique of searching out the place of rebirth. The process of dying is presented in the Bardo thodol as a gradual dissolution of the body-mind organization, as a deterioration of the fi v e - skan­ dhas. With the falling away of external reality comes the bardo of the moment of death, in which the true nature of the mind is experienced as a brilliant light. If the dying person does not succeed in identifying with this experience, he falls into a state of uncon­ sciousness for three or four days, during which time a so-called consciousness body is formed, which is the subject of the experiences to come. In the following bardo of supreme reality (­ dharmatii), which lasts fourteen days, the conscious­ ness perceives the forms of forty-two peaceful and fifty-eight wrathful deities (- forms of manifestation). These appear as part of the unfolding of a mandala. The detailed description of these forms in the Bardo thodol is possible through the fact that a siidhana that encompasses the spectrum of human feelings is used to convey these experiences. The emptiness (­ shunyatii) aspect is represented by the peaceful deities, and the luminosity or clarity aspect by the wrathful deities. If the consciousness body fails also here to recognize these light appearances as its own projections, then the twenty-eight-day-long bardo of becoming begins. In the first three weeks of this in-between state, the consciousness relives its previous deeds (- karma) and, in a manner corresponding to the development of that process, is prepared for the search, during the last seven days, for one of the six realms of rebirth. There are already several translations of the Bardo thodol into English. The most noteworthy are Evans­ Wentz 1 960 and Fremantle & Trungpa 1 98 7 .

Bashashita B Jap. name for the twenty-fifth patriarch in the Indian lineage of - Zen. Basho Esei B Jap. for - Pa-chiao Hui-ch'ing Baso Doitsu B J ap. for - Ma-tsu Tao-i

Initiation cards used in the ritual reading of the Bardo Thodol. The symbols shown are the mystical jewel (chintiimani), lotus, double vajra, sword, dhar­ machakra, and bell (ghantii) with vajra handle. A tradition of the bardo teaching is contained in the - Naro chodrug, in the - dzogchen tradition, and in the - Bon school. This teaching was originally con­ ceived as a meditation instruction for practitioners for w.hom the process of death offered the best possibility of consummating the - siidhana practiced during their lifetimes. In the course of centuries, however, it was expanded into a death ritual consisting of ceremo­ nies and readings for the deceased. The death ritual is made up of several parts, in which are described,

Bassui Zenji B also Bassui Tokusho, 1327-8 7; Japanese Zen master of the - Rinzai school and one of the outstanding Zen masters of Japan. The death of his father when Bassui was seven years old drove him to try to resolve the ques­ tion of his being. His intensive doubtful ques­ tioning (- dai-gedan) led him to several enlightenment experiences, but he was never content with what he had attained but rather searched ever deeper. He began searching for a Zen master who could lead him to inner peace. At the age of twenty-nine, he received monastic ordination but did not, however, enter a monas­ tery, since he felt no connection to the ritual activity and the comfortable life in many mon­ asteries.

29

Bathing of the Buddha "On his numerous pilgrimages he stubbornly refused to remain overnight in a temple, but insisted on staying in some isolated hut high up on a hill or a mountain, where he would sit hour after hour doing zazen away from the distractions of the temple. To stay awake he would often climb a tree, perch among the branches, and deeply ponder his natural koan, 'Who is the master?' far into the night, oblivious to wind and rain. In the morning, with virtually no sleep or food, he would go to the temple or monastery for an encoun­ ter with the master" (Kapleau 1 980, p. 1 6 5).

Finally he found a master who was right for him, Koho Zenji. Koho ultimately led him to profound enlightenment, in which "all his pre­ vious concepts, beliefs, and views were entirely annihilated in the fire of his overwhelming expe­ rience" and through which his profound doubt finally vanished. After receiving - inka-shomei from Koho, he continued his life of wandering and for many years opposed the efforts of Zen students to make him their master. At the age of fifty he finally settled in a hermitage in the mountains, where students soon gathered around him. He now no longer drove them away. Finally he consented to be­ come abbot of a Zen monastery and there, until his death, he led monks and lay people on the path of Zen. Shortly before passing away at the age of sixty, he sat upright in the lotus position and said to those assembled: "Don't be fooled! Look closely! What is this?" He repeated this loudly and then calmly died. Bassui Zenji wrote little, nevertheless his "words of dharma" and the letters he wrote to a number of students are among the most penetrating writings in the literature of Zen. A translation of his "Dharma Talk" and some of his letters can be found in Kapleau 1 980. In a letter to "a man from Kumasaka," Bassui Zenj i wrote: "All phenomena in the world are illusory, they have no abiding substance. Sentient beings no less than Buddhas are like images reflected in water. One who does not see the true nature of things mistakes shadow for substance. This is to say, in zazen the state of emptiness and quiet which results from the diminu­ tion of thought is often confused with one's Face before on e's parents were born [- honrai-no­ memmoku]. But this serenity is also a reflection upon the water. You must advance beyond the stage where your reason is of any avail. In this extremity of not knowing what to think or do, ask yourself: 'Who is the master?' He will become your intimate only after you have broken a walking stick made from a rabbit's horn or crushed a chunk of ice in fire. Tell me now, who is this most intimate of yours? Today is the eighth of the month. Tomorrow is the thirteenth!"

Bathing of the Buddha

30

m a ceremony, especial-

ly one performed in China on the birthday of the historical Buddha - Shakyamuni, which falls on the eighth day. of the fourth month. In it a miniature image of Shakyamuni, sitting on a lotus throne with right hand pointing toward Heaven and left hand toward Earth, is bathed with water and flower offerings are made. The entire - sangha participates in this ceremony.

This custom, already known in India, is based on the tradition that immediately after his birth in the Lumbini Grove, nine - nagas sprinkled Siddhartha Guatma, later the Buddha Shakyamuni, with water.

Ben ares discourse m the first discourse of Bud­ dha - Shakyamuni after his awakening (­ bodhi). It was given in Sarnath near Benares. The content of this first teaching was the - four noble truths and the - eightfold path. This first discourse is often referred to as "the first turning of the wheel of dharma" (dharma-chakra). Ben'en B also Enni Ben'en or Enju Ben'en, also known as Shoichi (Shoitsu) Kokushi, 1202-80); an early Japanese Zen master of the Yogi lineage of Rinzai (- Yogi school). During a six-year stay in China he received the seal of confirma­ tion (- inka-shomei) from the Chinese Zen master - Wu-chun Shih-fan (Jap., Bushun [Mujun] Shiban). After his return to Japan, he made a major contribution toward the establishment of Zen there.

At the age of eight Ben'en began to study the teachings of the - Tendai school and later of the Shingon school of Japanese Buddhism. In 1 2 3 5 he went to China and experienced enlightenment under Master Wu-chun. After the latter had confirmed him, he sought out other Zen masters of the Sung period in order to deepen his experience. In 1 24 1 he returned to Japan and was active as a Zen master in various monasteries. He influenced the practices of the mysti­ cal schools of Tendai and Shingon through his style of Zen training. In 1 2 5 5 he became the first abbot of the Tofuku-j i monastery i n Kyoto; h e also assumed leadership of monasteries like the Jufuku-j i in Kamakura and the Kennin-j i in Kyoto. All three monasteries belong to the - gosan of Kyoto or of Kamakura and are among the most important Zen monasteries in Japan. Ben'en had more than thirty dharma successors (- hassu). Posthumously he received the honorific titles of Shoichi Kokushi, Kosho Kokushi, and Jinko Kokushi (- kokushi).

Bengali calendar m , a calendar introduced at the beginning of the nineteenth century and still used today in India. It divides the year into the following lunar months: ( 1) Vaishakh, mid­ April to mid-May; (2) Jyaishtha, mid-May to mid-June; (3) Ashad, mid-June to mid-July; (4)

Bhaishajya-guru-buddha

Shravan, mid-July to mid-August; (5) Bhadra, mid-August to mid-September: ( 6) Ashvin, mid­ September to mid-October; (7) Kartik, mid­ October to mid-November; (8) A.grahayan, mid-November to mid-December; (9) Paush, mid-December to mid-January; ( 10) Magh, mid­ January to mid-February; ( 1 1) Phalgun, mid­ February to mid-March; ( 12) Chaitra, mid­ March to mid-April.

m

Bhadrakalpika-sutra Skt., lit. "Sutra of the Fortunate Age"; a Mahayana siitra that contains the legends of the thousand buddhas of the fortunate age, of which - Shakyamuni is the fifth. It is the prototype of those siitras that focus on the legendary lives of the buddhas, bodhisatt­ vas, saints, deities, etc.

Bhaga m Skt.; 1. na1ne of a god, one of the A.dityas; 2. the divine enjoyer within a human being. The divine is pure bliss and immortal joy; it can dispel the nightmare of corporeality and death.

Bhagatyaga-Lakshana GI (Bhagatyaga-Lak�a­ Q.a), Skt.; a process of discrimination and sorting out, in order to recognize what separates us from the Self. It is a mental procedure that must be carried out prior to meditation. Bhagavad-Gita GI Skt., lit. "song of the exalted one"; a philosophical didactic poem, consid­ ered the "Gospel" of Hinduism. It constitutes the sixth book of the Indian national epic poem, the - Mahabharata, which was composed be­ tween the fifth century B.C.E. and the second century C.E. In eighteen chapters (700 verses) the great warrior Arjuna receives a fundamental teaching in the face of the impending battle. Western readers may be puzzled by the fact that the teaching is set against the backdrop of a battlefield; yet aside from the fact that Arjuna's karma has sent him into battle, the battlefield serves as a symbol of the bitter conflicts that are waged between the good and evil forces within each human being, between the ego and one's higher nature.

In the dialogue, which is held on the renowned battlefield of -. Kurukshetra, Krishna instructs his friend and disciple, Arjuna, regarding union with the highest reality. He shows him in turn the paths of knowledge (-- Jiiana-Yoga), devotion (-- Bhakti­ Yoga), selfl e ss action (-- Karma-Yoga), and medita­ tion (-- Raja-Yoga), the classic paths of yoga. The work presents a combination of teachings from the p h i l o s o p h i c s y s t e m s o f S a n kh y a , Yoga, a n d Vedanta. The Bhagavad-Gztli has influenced the religious life

of India as no other work has done. Acknowledging it to be a sacred text, the most prominent philosophers of various Vedantic schools have interpreted the work.

Bhagavan GI Skt., lit. "noble, holy, the exalted one"; epithets for God, when a devotee is ad­ dressing the personal form of God, that is pos­ sessed of qualities such as omnipotence, omniscience, wisdom, majesty, and so forth. Great saints and holy figures are also often addressed by their devotees and disciples as Bhagavan (e.g., Bhagavan Shri - Ramana Mahar­ shi). Bhagavata-Purana GI , also known as Bhaga­ vatam, Skt.; the "Purana of devotees of the exalted one [Vishnu]," it is the most famous as well as the latest of the eighteen "old histories" (- Purana). Presumably composed in the tenth century, it is attributed by many commentators to - Vyasa or his son Shukadeva and is consid­ ered by many to be equal in stature to the Bhagavad-Gzta and the Upanishads because of its poetic language and its philosophical depth. The Bhagavata-Purana expounds religious truths by means of stories featuring saints, seers, and kings, and devotes much space to the life of Krishna; hence it is considered particularly sacred by the - Vaishnavas. Bhagirathi GI Skt. - Ganga Bhairava GI Skt., lit. "frightening, the dreadful one"; 1. an epithet for - Shiva, frequently also the name of one of Shiva's divine companions; 2. a candidate for admission in a Tantric sect (- Tantra).

m

Bhaishajya-guru-buddha (Bhai� ajya-guru­ buddha), lit., "Medicine Teacher. " He is fre­ quently referred to as the "Medicine Buddha," but this epithet is not only awkward but also too narrow. He is a buddha who symbolizes the healing or perfecting quality of buddhahood. He reigns over an eastern paradise (- pure land). Iconographically, he is usually depicted with a healing fruit in his right hand and his left in the gesture of protecting (- mudra) or resting in his lap in the meditation mudra. He often appears as part of a triad with - Shakyamuni and Amitabha, in which he is on the left, and Amitabha on the right, of Shakyamuni. In a sutra dedicated to him, only extant in Tibetan and Chinese, twelve vows are mentioned that Bhaishajya-guru made in a previous life and in the fulfillment of which he is aided by a great number of helpers, including buddhas, bodhi-

31

Bhajana

sattvas, and the twelve generals of the - yak­ shas. He was of great importance in China, Tibet, and Japan (Jap., Yakushi Nyorai).

The twelve vows are ( 1 ) to radiate his light to all beings, (2) to proclaim his power to all beings, (3) to fulfill the wishes of all beings, ( 4) to lead all beings into the Mahayana path, ( 5) to enable all beings to maintain the rules of discipline (- shila), (6) to heal all psycho­ logical and bodily illnesses and to lead all beings to enlightenment, (8) to transform women into men in their next rebirth, (9) to keep beings far from false teachings and to cause the truth to be recognized, ( 1 0) to save all beings from rebirth in an unfortunate age, ( 1 1 ) to provide food for the hungry, ( 1 2) to provide clothing for the naked.

Bhajana Gl , or Bhaj an, Skt.; a form of worship

of God or of an - avattira, characterized by the use of music and singing. Bhakta GI Skt.; an adherent of the yogic path

who aspires to God-realization through love and surrender to God (- Bhakti-Yoga). Bhakti GI Skt.; love of God, surrender to the

guru and to the chosen deity ( - ishta-deva). Hinduism distinguishes between various types and levels of bhakti: guru-bhakti, surrender to the guru; vaidhi-bhakti, a preparatory stage dur­ ing which all instructions (vidhi) from one's guru for the practice of bhakti are followed; rtiga­ bhakti, a state in which the - bhakta thinks only of God. Everything reminds one of God and is related to God; para-bhakti, the supreme love of God, wherein nothing exists save God and the consciousness of unity with God; prema-bhakti, ecstatic love of God; - mahtibhtiva, intense, ecstatic love of God. These last three are different designations for the same state. Bhakti-Marga GI Skt.; the path to knowledge

and realization through the worship of a person­ al god. Bhakti-Shastras Cl (Bhakti-Sastras), Skt.; all texts

that have to do with the worship and veneration of God. Bhakti-Sutra GI Skt.; a work composed by -

Narada on the love and worship of God.

The work contains eighty-four sutras; these apho­ risms, some of which are famous, do not discuss worldly love, whether of one's neighbor or sexual love, but rather discuss the path of bhakti as the simplest path for the present age. Like the divine minne of medieval Christianity, love of God as demonstrated by Narada is the sole fulfillment of life and its chief goal. The individual sutras are extremely concise and in most editions are supplemented by the commentary of a spiritual teacher, since they are otherwise difficult to comprehend.

32

Bhakti-Yoga GI Skt. ; the path of love and sur­

render, one of the four primary yogic paths to union with God. After developing an intense love for the many aspects of God in a personal form-often in the form of some divine incar­ nation-the ego of the worshiper merges with the chosen ideal, the - ishta-deva. Bhakti-Yoga is the natural path to knowledge of God. Here the - bhakta has no need to suppress his feel­ ings; rather, one intensifi e s them and directs them toward God. The majority of believers from the various world-traditions are funda­ mentally adherents of this path. Bhakti-Yoga distinguishes between five different devotional attitudes, or bhtivas, toward God.

The stages of Bhakti-Yoga are 1 . bhakti, veneration; 2. - bhiiva, mature love, an ecstatic state; 3. - prema, a state in which the devotee completely forgets the world as well as his own body; 4. - mahabhava, the supreme manifestation of divine love. - Radha, Krish­ na's playmate, is considered its embodiment. Only avataras and - "ishvarakotis can attain a state beyond bhiiva. A competent, fundamental introduction to Bhakti-Yoga is in Vivekananda 1 9 5 5 b.

Bharata GI 1. a king and saint in the - Bhti­

gavata-Purtina, the son of - Shakuntala and progenitor of the Bharatas, whose great battle is described in the famous epic poem the Mahti­ bhtirata. India was once named Bharatavarsha for him, and Indians now refer to their country again as Bharata. - Arjuna often bears the epithet Bharata, which characterizes him as a member of the Bharata clan or as a descendant of Bharata. 2. a halfbrother of - Rama; 3. an epithet for - Agni. Bharatavarsha GI Skt. - Bharata Bharati GI Skt.; the comprehensive word that

brings all forth from its divine source; the breadth of wisdom and the magnitude of the conscious­ ness of truth. Bhargavi-Varuni-Vidya GI (Bhargavi-Varu:qi­

Vidya), Skt.; the knowledge of - Bhrigu (Bhargav'i-Varuni: from Bhrigu, the son of Var­ una) that all matter is brahman but that one experiences brahman as the material universe through identification with one's material, mor­ tal body. If through enlightenment such iden­ tification ceases, one realizes that the entire universe, in truth, is brahman. Bhaskara GI Indian philosopher who lived around

900 C. E., one of the main commentators on the - Ve d anta-Su tra. H i s work i s entitled Bhaskarabhashya. I n it he represents the

Bhava-chakra

Bhedabheda-Vada, the teaching that identity lies at the basis of all d i ffe rences ( ­ Dvaitadvaita-Vedanta); on many points he agrees with the views of - Nimbarka. He believes that full union with brahman is possible only after the death of the body.

offer further philosophical explanation of the cycle of existence.

Bhava CJ Skt.; emotion, ecstasy; designation for

any of five various devotional attitudes that a - bhakta may adopt in relation to his chosen deity (- ishta-deva): I . shanta, a serence, peace­ ful mood wherein one feels close to God without having developed a particular relationship to him; 2. dasya, the attitude of servant to master or child to parent or guardian; 3. sakhya, the attitude of one friend to another; 4. vatsalya, the attitude of parent to child (e.g., that of Mary and Joseph toward Jesus); 5. madhura, the attitude of a wife or beloved toward her husband or lover. - Bhava is also the designation for the second stage of - Bhakti-Yoga. Bhava

m Skt., Pali, "being, becoming"; used in

Buddhism in three different contexts; ( 1) bhava as every kind of being in the three worlds (­ triloka): kamabhava (being in the desire realm), rupabhava (being in the realm of desireless form), arupabhava (being in the formless realm); (2) bhava as the tenth link in the chain of condi­ tioned arising (- pratitya-samutpada) means a process of becoming that is conditioned by identification with the components of individu­ ality; (3) in the Mahayana bhava is brought into opposition with nothingness (- shunyata) and is interpreted differently by different schools. Bhava-chakra

m (bhava-cakra), Skt., lit. "wheel

of life"; a representation of the cycle of existence (- samsara) very widespread in - Tibetan Buddhism. The main types of worldly existence are divided into six segments of the wheel. The realms of the gods, of the antigods (or jealous gods, the "titans"), and of human beings consti­ tute the upper part of the wheel. The realms of animals, hungry ghosts, and hell beings make up the lower half. Common to all these realms is the experience of suffering and death and the causes of these experiences. Death is symbolized by Y ama, the god of the Underworld, who holds the wheel of life in his claws. The causes of this cycle are represented by the animals found in the center of the wheel: the cock (desire), the pig (ignorance), and the snake (hate or aggression). A third iconographical element are the twelve factors of conditioned arising (- pratztya­ samutpada), which form an outer circle and

Bhava-chakra, the Wheel of Life The symbology of the wheel oflife can be interpreted on various levels. Originally the six realms of existence were viewed as concrete forms of existence ( each characterized by a particular state of mind), into which beings were born in accordance with their - karma. The Tibetan Book ofthe Dead (- Bardo thodo[) takes this point of view and in certain places gives precise instructions on how to bring about rebirth in the higher realms (gods, antigods, and humans) and on how to avoid rebirth in the lower realms (animals, hungry ghosts, and hell beings). In a modern sense, these realms can also be understood as personality types or situations of life, each distinguished by a basic characteristic. A later development in the depiction of the wheel of life are six forms of - Avalokitesvara shown in the six realms teaching the respective types of beings the way to liberation from the cycle of existence. Also with this sense the six syllables of the mantra of A valoki­ teshvara (- om mani padme hum) were assigned each to one of the realms of existence. While in the six realms is shown the development of the world on the basis of the motives depicted in the center of the wheel, the outer circle symbolizes the causes created in individual life. The point of depar­ ture for both levels of explanation is ignorance (­ avidya). The formula of conditioned arising is present­ ed in the following pictures: a blind woman (igno­ rance), a potter (power of fo rmation), monkey (consciousness), two men in a boat (name and form or

33

Bhavamukha

mind and body), six-windowed house (the six senses), a couple embracing (contact), an arrow piercing an eye (sensation), a person drinking (craving), a man gather­ ing fruit (grasping, attachment), copulation (becom­ ing), a woman giving birth (birth), a man carrying a corpse ( death). Bhavamukha

m Skt.; a sublime state of spiritu­

al experience wherein the seeker's conscious­ ness hovers at the borderline between absolute and relative consciousness. With equal ease, the seeker can meditate on - brahman without qualities and participate in the activities of the world of appearances, which is viewed thereby as a manifestation of the Absolute. In technical terms, the seeker's consciousness moves be­ tween the aJFza-chakra and the sahasrara-chak­ ra. (See also - chakra and - kundalinz.) Bhavana l!1 Skt., P al i ; meditation, mind

development, all those practices usually desig­ nated as meditation. Two types of bhavana are distinguished: the development of tranquility (- s h a m a t h a ) a n d c l e a r s e e i n g ( ­ vipashyana). Tranquility is the prerequisite for attaining clear seeing. According to the - Vi­ suddhi-magga there are forty different exercises leading to the development of tranquility. They include absorption (- dhyana), contemplation (- s a mdp a t i ) , a n d c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( ­

samadhi).

The forty exercises are ten - kasina exercises, contemplation of the ten disgusting obj ects (­ ashubha), the ten contemplations (- anussati), the four - brahma-viharas, the - four stages of formless­ ness, contemplation of the repugnance of food, and analysis of the four elements (- dhatu-vavatthana). Bhavana-marga l!1 Skt. - Yogachara Bhava-Pratyaya

m Skt. ; complete control over

the material world, by means of which a high samadhi state is attained.

Bhavasagara

m Skt., lit. "ocean of becoming";

the world of change. The creation is in a state of constant flux and knows no rest. The true goal of human life is to surmount this unstable con­ dition and to realize truth and inner peace. Bhava-Samadhi Cl Skt. ; an ecstatic state at­

tained through worship and love of God. In this state, the devotee retains a trace of the ego in order to enjoy God and his divine play. Ramakrishna described this as "tasting sugar rather than becoming sugar." Bhavatarini Cl (Bhavataril).1), Skt., lit. "redeem­

er of the universe"; a name for the Divine 34

Mother - Ka.II, under which she is worshiped in the temple of Dakshineshvavra. Bhavaviveka l!1 also called Bhavya; spokesman

of the - Madhyamaka who lived ca. 490-570. He was born in south India and went to Ma­ gadha, where he studied the teaching of Nagarjuna. Then he returned to his homeland, where he quickly attained renown. In his works, which are only extant in Chinese and Tibetan translations, he attacks the theses of the Yogachara. He founded the Svatantrika school, one of the two schools of Madhyamaka, and opposed Buddhapali ta, the founder of the Prasangika school, using a positive dialectic. The development of his school led in the 8th century to the founding of the Svatantrika­ Yogachara school by Shantarakshita. Bheda Cl Skt.; difference, disparity, division; the

chief characteristic of our manifest world (­ namarupa).

Bhedabheda-Vada Cl Skt.; synonymous with -

Dvai tadvaita-Vedanta

Bheri-Nada Cl Skt.; the inner reverberation of

the spoken syllable - OM or some other sound upon which one meditates. Bhikshu l!1 (bhik�u), Skt. (Pali, bhikku); beggar,

monk, male member of the Buddhist - sangha who has entered - homelessness and received full ordination. In ancient times the bhikshus formed the nucleus of the Buddhist community, since according to the early Buddhist view, only a person who had renounced the world could reach the supreme goal, nirvana. The main activities of bhikshus are meditating and pre­ senting the dharma. They are not allowed to work. Buddhist monks renounce the amenities of the world and lead a life of wandering. The basic principles of the monastic life are poverty, celibacy, and peaceableness. The lifestyle is gov­ erned by the rules layed down in the - Vinaya­ pitaka. Poverty expresses itself in the clothing of the monk, which consists of three parts (­ trichivara) and is supposed to be made of rags. Possessions are limited to articles of daily use: alms bowl, razor, sewing needle, water filter, walking stick, and toothbrush. A bhikshu may not come into contact with money or other things of value; gifts and invitations may only be accepted under certain circumstances. He begs for his food in a daily begging round. For medicine he uses only animal urine.

Bhumi In the beginning all bhikshus without exception led battlefield of - Kurukshetra who is mentioned a life of wandering. During the rainy period, however, in the Mahiibhiirata and the Bhagavad-Gztii. they were obliged to spend three months in a monas­ Bhoga GI Skt. ; 1. enjoyment of sense objects, tery (- vihara). According to tradition the reason for this was that during the rainy season a wandering sensory pleasure; 2. food that is offered to a monk could cause too much damage to the animal and divinity. plant worlds. During this period of repose, leaving the Bhranta GI Skt. ; confused, deluded, uncertain, monastery was permitted only under certain condi­ tions, as for visiting relatives or the sick. This period dubious; error; a term referring to the unspiri­ was ended with the pravarana (Pali, pavarana) cere­ tual person's inability to discriminate (­ mony, which consisted in asking forgiveness of the viveka). Such a person cannot perceive the line other monks for injuries caused during the period of between reality and unreality, between the per­ common retreat. manent and the transient. In - Shankara's In the course of the development of the sangha, the terms, such people inevitably see a snake when monks became sedentary and lived in monasteries. However, pilgrimages play an important role in the only a rope is present. The consequences of such lives of monks up to the present day. The life of a · ignorance are fear and grief. modern monk corresponds essentially to that of a Bhranti-Darshana Cl (Bhranti-Darsana), Skt. ; an bhikshu in the time of the Buddha. Of course, with the understanding or vision that arises on a false spread of Buddhism, certain rules have been adapted basis and therefore is illusory. to new social and geographical conditions. Chinese monks do physical labor, especially farming, which Bhrigu GI (Bh:rgu), a sage named in the Vedas, was forbidden to the early sangha since it involved son of - Varuna; one of the seven great Rishis killing sentient beings. Monks of particular schools of (- Maharishi). Tibetan and Japanese Buddhism marry and have families. Also the rules concerning the begging round Bhrumadhya-Dhrishti GI (Bhrumadhya-D:r�ti), and the acquisition of food have greatly changed. Skt., lit. bhru: "eyebrow," madhya: "in the mid­

m (bhik�uni),

Skt. (Pali, bhikkuni); nun, fully ordained female member of the Bud­ dhist - sangha. The order of nuns was founded by - Mahaprajapati Gautami, the stepmother of the historical Buddha, after the death of her husband. - Ananda interceded on her behalf and was reproached for this by the monks at the first council. Buddha himself was reportedly against creating an order of nuns, fearing for the moral state of the order. He is said to have been convinced that by consenting to the founding of the nuns' order he would diminish the lifespan of the Buddhist teaching from 1000 to 500 years. Bhikshuni

The life of nuns is considerably more strictly regu­ lated than that of monks. Nuns are dependent on monks for their education and for certain decisions. For the ordination of a nun to be valid it must be repeated in the presence of the order of monks; a nun may not reprimand a monk under any circumstances; the oldest nun must treat the youngest monk with deference. Acts punishable by exclusion from the order are much more numerous than in the order of monks; certain violations that in the monks' order bring only a limited suspension in the nuns' order are punished by definitive exclusion. The order of nuns has never played an important role in the Buddhist sangha; the number of nuns compared to that of monks is extremely small.

Bhishma Cl (Bhi�ma), teacher of - Kauravas

and the - Pandavas; one of the warriors on the

dle," drishti: "to see"; an exercise in concentra­ tion in which the attention is directed to a spot between the eyebrows. Bhuman Cl Skt. , lit. "abundance, supreme be­

ing"; the highest goal of human life, absolute consciousness (- brahman), with which the individual, as the - atman (but not as the limited - jzva), is identical.

Bhuman-Vidya GI Skt. ; knowledge of the infinite

Self that contains everything and by its immor­ tal character banishes darkness and care, dis­ ease and death.

Bhumi I]] Skt., lit. "land"; each of the ten stages

that the bodhisattva must go through to attain buddhahood. The individual stages are not de­ scribed in the texts in an entirely consistent manner; the following exposition is based on the - Dashabhumika-sutra and the Bodhisattva­ bhumi. The ten stages are as follows: 1. Pramudita-bhumi (land ofjoy). In this stage the bodhisattva is full of joy on having entered the path of buddhahood. He has aroused the thought of enlightenment (- bodhicitta) and taken the bodhisattva vow. He especially culti­ vates the virtue of generosity (- diina) and is free from egotistical thoughts and the wish for karmic n1erit. Here the bodhisattva recognizes the emptiness of the ego and of all dharmas. 2. Vitnalii-bhfuni (land of purity). Here the

35

Bhur

bodhisattva perfects his discipline (- shzla) and is free from lapses. He practices - dhyiina and - samiidhi. 3. Prabhiikiirz-bhumi (land of radiance). The bodhisattva gains insight into the imperma­ nence (- anitya) of existence and develops the virtue of patience (- kshiinti) in bearing difficul­ ties and in actively helping all sentient beings toward liberation. He has cut off the three roots of unwholesomeness (- akushala)-desire, hat­ red, and delusion. The attainment of this stage is made possible through ten qualities known collectively as "undertaking a firm resolve," which include determination, satiety with worldy life, and passionlessness. The bodhisattva achieves the four absorptions (dhyiina) and the - four stages of formlessness and acquires the first five of the six supernatural powers (- abhijnii). 4. Archismatz-bhumi (the blazing land). The bodhisattva "burns" remaining false concep­ tions and develops wisdom. He practices the virtue of exertion (- vzrya) and perfects the thirty-seven requisites of enlightenment (­

bodhipiikshika-dharma). 5. Sudurjaya-bhumi (the land extremely difficult

to conquer). In this stage the bodhisattva ab­ sorbs himself in meditation (dhyiina) in order to achieve an intuitive grasp of the truth. Thus he understands the - four noble truths and the - two truths . He has cleared away doubt and uncertainty and knows what is a proper way and what is not. He works further on the perfection of the thirty-seven requisites of enlightenment. 6. Abhimukhz-bhumi (the land in view of wisdom). In this stage the bodhisattva recog­ nizes that all dharmas are free from characteris­ tics, arising, manifoldness, and the distinction between existence and nonexistence. He attains insight into conditioned arising (- pratztya­ samutpiida), transcends discriminating thought in the perfection of the virtue of wisdom (­ prajn ii), and comprehends nothingness (­

shunyatii). 7. Durangamii-bhumi (the far-reaching land).

By now the bodhisattva has gained knowledge and skillful means (- upiiya), which enable him to lead any being on the way to enlightenment in accordance with that being's abilities. This stage marks the transition to another level of existence, that of a transcendent bodhisattva, one who can manifest himself in any conceiv­ able form. After passing through this stage, falling back into lower levels of existence is no longer possible. 8. Achalii-bhumi (the immovable land). In

36

this stage the bodhisattva can no longer be disturbed by anything, since he has received the prophecy of when and where he will attain buddahood. He gains the ability to transfer his merit to other beings and renounces the accu­ mulation of further karmic treasures. 9. Siidhumatz-bhumi (the land of good thoughts). The wisdom of the bodhisattva is complete; he possesses the ten powers (- dashabala), the six supernatural powers (- abhijnii), the - four certainties, the - eight liberations, and the dhiiranzs. He knows the nature of all dharmas and expounds the teaching. 10. Dharmameghii-bhumi (land of dharma clouds). All understanding (- jniina) and im­ measurable virtue are realized. The dharma­ kiiya (- trikiiya) of the bodhisattva is fully developed. He sits surrounded by countless bod­ hisattvas on a lotus in - Tushita Heaven). His buddhahood is confirmed by all the buddhas. This stage is also known by the na1ne of abhi­ sheka-bhumi. Bodhisattvas of this bhumi are, for example, - Maitreya and - Maii.j ushrI. Bhur GI Skt.; a - vyiihriti, the first word of the

- Gayatri. From this word, which was spoken by - Prajapati at the dawn of creation, the earth (bhu) was created. Bhurloka

m Skt. ; the material world; the body

and its material requirements constitute the earthly world for human beings.

Bhuta GI Skt. ; 1. creature; in general, everything

that has become; 2. the five elements of the material world (- prakriti).

Bhuta-Siddhi GI Skt.; mastery over the elements

and thus over - prakriti. As prakriti maifests itself in the three gunas, these must be brought under control.

m Skt.,

"suchness of existents"; the reality as opposed to the appearance of the phenomenal world. Bhutatathatii is immutable and eternal, whereas forms and appearances arise, change, and pass away. This concept is used synonymously in Mahayana texts with the absolute, or ultimate reality (- tathatii, trikiiya, - buddha-nature). Bhutatathata

Bhutatman GI Skt., the self-recalling self that

knows what it truly is (from bhuta: "past," and - iitman: "Self').

Bhuva GI Skt. ; a - vyiihriti: the second word of

the - Gayatri. Out of this word spoken by Prajapati, the atmosphere came into being.

Bodhi Bhuvaneshvara GJ (Bhuvenesvara), Skt., lit. "lord of the world"; 1. epithet for - Shiva; 2. a city in Orissa (present-day Bhubaneswar), the site of many beautiful temples dedicated to Shiva. The largest and best known of these is the Lingavaj temple, described by Babu Rajendra Lala in his great work on Orissa. In former times, the region around Bhuvaneshvara was a forest named Ekamra-Kanana that is said to have been a fa'vorite hunting ground of Shiva's. Bhuvarloka GJ Skt.; the world of multifarious appearances, in which sensations, feeling, pas­ sions, and attractions exist as the result of de­ sires. In this vital, nervous plane, located above our material earth, the gods associate with hu­ man beings. It is a vast and confusing region whose paths are many and difficult. Bibhishana GJ Skt. - Vibhishana

Bija GJ m Skt.; energy, seed, root power; the po­ tential behind every material manifestation; par­ ticularly important in a b"ija mantra (seed sylla­ ble), which is given by a guru � In the letters of a Hija mantra the nature of a particular aspect of the supreme reality is concentrated in the form of a symbolic sound. Such symbolic sounds, based on the experience of a spiritually accom­ plished person, have mystical, divine powers if they are received from a suitable, authentic guru. Every student of a guru receives such a mantra upon initiation.

Bimbisara m king ofMagadha at the time of the Buddha - Shakyamuni. At the age of thirty Bimbisara heard a discourse of the Buddha and at once became a lay follower of his and an active fosterer of Buddhism. He gave the Bud­ dha the bamboo forest Venuvana, where Bud­ dha o ften remained with his students . Bimbisara was killed by his son - Ajatasattu.

Bindu GJ Skt., lit. "particle, dot, spot"; a symbol for the universe in its unmanifest form. Because the metamorphosis of the unmanifest into the manifest world (i.e., the creation of something from nothing) is difficult to comprehend, the dot serves as an example of a starting point from which all lines and forms may emerge. In Tan­ tra, the term refers to the male semen, out of which new forms and new life emerge. Bodai B Jap. pronunciation of the Chinese char­ acter used to translate the Sanskrit word bodhi into Chinese. It means "complete wis­ dom," - enlightenment, - buddhahood, kokoro ("enlightened mind"). In Zen bodai is

generally used to refer to the wisdom that de­ rives from enlightenment. Bodaidaruma B J ap. for - Bodhidharma Bodaishin B Jap., lit. "enlightenment mind"; aspiration toward - buddahood; resolve to find complete - enlightenment (see also - hotsu­

bodaishin).

Bodh-gaya m (short form, Gaya), one of the four holy places of Buddhism, ninety kilometers south of Patna. Here the historical Buddha Shakyamuni reached complete enlightenment after having meditated for forty-nine days un­ der the so-called - bodhi tree. In Bodh-gaya the Mahabodhi Temple, built by a Singhalese king, still exists today, although in an altered form. (Also - Mahabodhi Society. For the sacred city of Hinduism, - Gaya.)

Bodhi GJ m B Skt., Pali, lit. "awakened." GJ perfect knowledge. m B Bodhis referred originally to the four stages of the supramundane path (- iirya-miirga) and was attained through the completion of the thirty-seven prerequisites of enlightenment (-➔ bodhipiikshika-dharma) and the dissolution of ignorance (- avidyii), that is, through realiza­ tion of the four noble truths. In Hinayana bodhi is equated with the perfec­ tion of insight into, and realization of, the four noble truths, which perfection means the cessa­ tion of suffering. Here three stages of enlighten­ ment are distinguished: the enlightenment of a noble disciple (- shriivaka), the enlightenment of one who sought only his own enlightenment (- pratyeka-buddha) and the enlightenment of a buddha (- samyak-sambuddha). The last is equated with omniscience (- sarvajiiatii) and is called mahiibodhi (great enlightenment). By contrast, in Mahayana bodhi is mainly understood as wisdom based on insight into the unity of - nirvana and - samsara as well as of subject and object. It is described as the realiza­ tion of - prajiiii, awakening to one's own buddha-nature or buddha-essence (- bussho), insight into the essential emptiness (­ shunyatii) of the world, or omniscience and perception of suchness (- tathatii).

The Mahayana also recognizes three ki nds of bodhi: enlightenment for oneself (the enlightenment of an - arhat), liberation for the sake of others (enlight­ enment of a bodhisattva), and the complete enlighten­ ment of a buddha. The individual Mahayana schools interpret this concept variously according to their views.

37

Bodhichitta Bodhichitta m Skt., lit. "awakened mind"; the mind of enlightenment, one of the central no­ tions of - Mahayana Buddhism. In the Tibetan tradition it is seen as having two aspects, rela­ tive and absolute. The relative mind of enlight­ enment is divided again into two phases ( 1) the intention and wish, nurtured by limitless com­ passion, to attain liberation (- nirvana) for the sake of the welfare of all beings and (2) actual entry into meditation, the purpose of which is the acquisition of the appropriate means to actualize this wish (- bodhisattva). The abso­ lute mind of enlightenment is viewed as the vision of the true nature (- shunyata) of phe­ nomena. The various methods for arousing the mind of enlightenment stem primarily from Atisha and entered into all schools of Tibetan Buddhism through him.

In addition, the systems of - Tantra developed the notion of the mind of enlightenment as a concrete physiological entity. The sublimation of the mind of enlightenment conceived as a "seed essence" leads to an enlightenment that can be directly experienced corporeally.

Bodhidharma m B Chin., P'u-t'i-ta-mo or Tamo; Jap., Bodaidaruma or Daruma, ca. 470-543 (?); t h e twenty-e ighth patriarch after Shakyamuni Buddha in the Indian lineage and the first Chinese patriarch of Chan (- Zen). Bodhidharma was the student and dharma suc­ cessor (- hassu) of the twenty-seventh patriarch Prajnadhara (Jap., Hannyatara) and the teacher of - Hui-k'o, whom he installed as the second patriarch of Zen in China. The event that marks the transmission of the - buddha-dharma from Prajnadhara to Bodhidharma is described in the - Denko-roku as follows: Once the twenty-seventh patriarch, the vener­ able Hannyatara, asked, "Among all things, what is formless?" The master [Bodhidharma] said, "Nonarising is formless." The patriarch said, "Among all things, what is the biggest?" The master said, "The nature of dharmas is the biggest." After Bodhidharma was confirmed by Prajnadhara as the twenty-eighth patriarch, ac­ cording to tradition, he traveled by ship from India to south China. After a brief unsuccessful attempt to spread his teaching there, he wan­ dered further to Lo-yang in north China and finally settled at the - Shao-lin Monastery on - Sung-shan (Jap., Suzan, Susan) Mountain. Here he practiced unmovable - zazen for nine

38

Bodhidharma, the "Barbarian from the West" (ink painting from Bokkei, 1 5th century)

years, on which account this period is known as menpeki-kunen (- menpekz), which roughly means "nine years in front of the wall." Here Hui-k'o, later the second patriarch of Zen in China, found his way to the master and, after an im­ pressive proof of his "will for truth," was accept­ ed as his disciple.

The dates of Bodhidharma, who is said to have been the son of a south Indian brahmin king, are uncertain. There is a tradition that says that his teacher Praj nadhara charged Bodhidharma to wait sixty years after his death before going to China. If this is the case, Bodhidharma must have been advanced in years when he arrived in China. According to other sources, he was sixty years old when he arrived in China. Both these traditions are incompatible with the dates 4 70543, which are given in most sources. After his arrival in what is today the port city of Canton, he traveled at the invitation of the emperor Wu of the Liang Dynasty to visit him in N anking. The fi r st example in the - Pi-yen-lu reports the encounter between Bodhidharma and the emperor. Wu-ti was a follower and fosterer of Buddhism and had had several Buddhist monasteries built in his realm. Now he asked the master of buddha-dharma from India what merit for succeeding lives he [Wu-ti] had accumulated thereby. Bodhidharma answered curt­ ly, "No merit." Then the emperor asked him what the supreme meaning of the sacred truth was. "Expanse

Bodhisattva of emptiness-nothing sacred," answered Bodhidhar­ ma. Now the emperor demanded to know, "Who is that in front of us?" "Don't know, " replied Bodhidhar­ ma, who with this answer had really revealed the essence of his teaching to the emperor without the latter's catching on. The encounter with Emperor Wu of Liang showed Bodhidharma that the time was not yet ripe for the reception of his teaching in China. He crossed the Yangtse-as the legend tells us, on a reed (this is a favorite subject in Zen painting)-and traveled on to north China, where he finally settled at Shao-lin Mon­ astery. It is not certain whether he died there or again left the monastery after he had transmitted the patriarchy to Hui-k'o. According to a legend given in the ---+ Ching-te ch 'uan-teng-lu, after nine years at Shao-lin Monastery he became homesick for India and decided to return there . Before departing, he called his disci­ ples to him in order to test their realization. The first disciple he questioned answered, "The way I under­ stand it, if we want to realize the truth we should neither depend entirely on words nor entirely do away with words� rather we should use them as a tool on the Way [---+ do]." Bodhidharma answered him, "You have grasped my skin." The next to come forward was a nun, who said, "As I understand it, the truth is an auspicious display of the buddha-paradise; one sees it once, then never again." To her Bodhidharma replied, "You have grasped my flesh." The next disciple said, "The four great elements are empty and the five ---+ skandhas are nonexistent. There is in fact nothing to grasp." To this Bodhidharma responded, "You have grasped my bones," Finally it was Hui-k'o's turn. He, however, said nothing, only bowed to the master in silence. To him Bodhidharma said, "You have grasped my marrow. " According to another legend, Bodhidharma was poisoned at the age of 1 50 and buried in the mountains of Honan. Not long after his death, the pilgrim Sung Yun, who had gone to India to bring the sutra texts back to China, met Bodhidharma on his way home in the mountains of Turkestan. The Indian master, who wore only one sandal, told the pilgrim he was on his way back to India; a Chinese dharma heir would continue his tradition in China. Upon his return to China the pilgrim reported this encounter to the disci­ ples of Bodhidharma. They opened his grave and found it empty except for one of the patriarch's san­ dals. The form of meditative practice the Bodhidharma taught still owed a great deal to Indian Buddhism. His instructions were to a great extent based on the tradi­ tional sutras of Mahayana Buddhism; he especially emphasized the importance of the ---+ Lankavatiira­ sutra. Typical Chinese Zen, which is a fusion of the Dhyana Buddhism represented by Bodhidharma and indigenous Chinese Taoism and which is described as a "special transmission outside the orthodox teach­ ing" (- kyoge-betsuden), first developed with - Hui­ neng, the sixth patriarch of Zen in China, and the great Zen masters of the T'ang period who followed him.

Bodhipakshika-dharma IJl (bodhipak�ika-dhar­

ma), Skt. (Pali, bodhipakkhiya-dhamma), lit., "things pertaining to enlightenment"; thirty­ seven prerequisites for the attainment of en­ lightenment, which are divided into seven areas ( 1 ) the four foundations of mindfulness (­ satipatthana); (2) the - four perfect efforts; (3) the four roads to power (- riddhipada); (4) the five roots (- indriya); (5) the five powers (­ bala); (6) the seven factors of enlightenment (- bodhyanga); (7) the - eightfold path.

m (Bodhiruci);

north Indian Bud­ dhist monk, who traveled to China in the year 508, where, together with Ratnamati, Buddha­ san ta, and other s , he translated the Dashabhumika-sutra into Chinese. He is con­ sidered the first patriarch of the northern branch of the - Ti-lun school of early Chinese Bud­ dhism. Bodhiruchi

Bodhiruchi, however, also taught the doctrine of the ---+ Pure Land school and in 5 30 acquainted T'an-luan with this teaching; the latter then became the first active spokesman of this school in China.

Bodhisattva

m B Skt. , lit. , "enlightenment be­

ing"; in Mahayana Buddhism a bodhisattva is a being who seeks buddhahood through the systematic practice of the perfect virtues (­ paramita) but renounces complete entry into nirvana until all beings are saved. The determin­ ing factor for his action is compassion (­ karuna), supported by highest insight and wis­ dom (- prajna). A bodhisattva provides active help, is ready to take upon himself the suffering of all other beings, and to transfer his own karmic merit to other beings. The way of a bodhisattva begins with arousing the thought of enlightenment (bodhicitta) and taking the bo­ dhisattva vow (pranidhana). The career of a bod h i s a t t v a i s divided into ten s tages (bhurni). The bodhisattva ideal replaced in Mahayana the Hinayana ideal of the - arhat, whose effort is directed towards the attainment of his own liberation, since this was found to be too narrow and ego-oriented.

The notion of the bodhisattva is already found in Hinayana writings, where it refers to the historical Buddha ---+ Shakyamuni in his previous existences as they are described in the ---+ Jiitakas. In Mahayana the idea of the bodhisattva is rooted in the belief in future buddhas, who have long since existed as bodhisattvas. The Mahayana distinguishes two kinds ofbodhisatt­ vas-earthly and transcendent. Earthly bodhisattvas are persons who are distinguished from others by their compassion and altruism as well as their striving toward the attainment of enlightenment. Transcen-

39

Bodhisattva-bhumi dent bodhisattvas have actualized the piiramitiis and attained buddhahood but have postponed their entry into complete nirvana. They are in possession of perfect wisdom and are no longer subj ect to samsara. They appear in the most various forms in order to lead beings on the path to liberation. They are the object of the veneration of believers, who see them as showers of the way and helpers in time of need. The most important of these transcendent bodhisattvas are - Avalokiteshvara, - Mafij ushri, - Kshitigarbha, Mahasthamaprapta, and - Samantabhadra.

m Skt.,

lit., "Lands of the Bodhisattva"; Mahayana work attributed to Asanga, which describes the course of develop­ ment of a bodhisattva (- bhumi). Bodhisattva-bhumi

Bodhisattva-shila

m (Bodhisattva-sTia), Skt.; rules

of discipline of a bodhisattva; obligatory rules for a follower of Mahayana Buddhism, observed by monks and nuns as well as laymen. They are set forth in the - Brahmajiila-sutra, where fifty-eight rules are to be found, of which the first ten are the most essential. These are refraining from ( 1) killing (2) stealing (3) unchaste behav­ ior (4) lying (5) the use of intoxicants (6) gossip (7) boasting (8) envy (9)resentment and ill will and ( 10) slandering the three precious ones (- triratna). Followers of Mahayana undertake to observe these rules in the framework of the so-called bodhisattva ordination, which is add­ ed to the Hinayana ordination formula (- ordi­ nation). The ceremony comprises the assumption of bodhisattva-shUa, the burning in of scars (- moxa) and the actual ordination ceremony, which is conducted by the abbot of a monastery.

The disciplinary and moral rules of the Mahayana differ in nature from those of the Hinayana (­ shila); they are altruistically directed, while those of the Hinayana aim primarily at the attainment of personal merit; the latter can be taken without witness­ es in the form of a personal vow. In contrast to Hinayana shila, bodhisattva-shila is more concerned with mental attitude than with the formal side of the rules. A violation of the rules in the Hinayana has as a consequence expulsion from the - sangha in every case; in the Mahayana this is not the case when the shila is violated for the sake of the welfare of another being.

Bodhisattva vow Bodhi tree

m - pranidhiina

m B (ficus religiosa); the fig tree un­

der which - Siddhartha Gautama, the histori­ cal Buddha, attained complete enlightenment.

In - Bodh-gaya there is still today, located on the left side of the Mahabodhi Temple, a "grandchild" of the tree under which Siddhartha meditated for forty­ nine days. The original tree was destroyed in the 7th

40

century by the Bengali king Shashanka; its offshoot fell victim to a storm in 1 8 76. The tree venerated today is a scion of a sprout of the original tree, a sprout that - Ashoka had the king of Ceylon bring to his country in the 3rd century B.C.E. and that still stands today in the capital city of those times, - Anuradhapura.

Bodhyanga

m (Bodhyanga), Skt. (Pali, bojjhan­

ga), lit. "factors of enlightenment"; seven fac­ tors that lead to enlightenment (- bodhi). They constitute the sixth element of the thirty-seven prerequisites for enlightenment (bo dhi­ piikshika-dharma) and consist of ( 1) mindful­ ness (- smriti), (2) distinguishing right and wrong in accordance with the Buddhist teach­ ing, (3) energy and exertion in the practice (­ vzrya), (4) joy concerning the view of the teach­ ing (przti), (5) pacification through overcoming the passions (- klesha), (6) equanimity (­ upekashii), and (7) freedom from discrimi­ nation.

m Already

in early Bud­ dhism (- Hinayana), the actions that produce - karma were subsumed under the categories of body, speech, and mind. The teachings of Vajrayana give this threefold division a new sense in that they regard various methods of meditation practice as sublimations of the three aspects. The goal of the transformation to be accomplished through - siidhana practice is the realization of the three bodies of a buddha (- trikiiya). This goal is reached through specific bodily postures and gestures (- mudra), con­ centration of the mind (- samiidhi), and the recitation of sacred syllables (- mantra). These relationships and the intermediary role of speech, that is, of mantra, can be represented as follows: Body, speech, mind

Manifest Reality Means

Supreme Reality

body

mudra

nirmanakaya

speech

mantra

sambhogakaya

mind

samadhi

dharmakaya

This conception of the threefold division is symbol­ ized in many ritual texts by the seed syllables om ah hum. They are focal points in the initiations necessary for the practice of the siidhanas and are frequently starting points in visualizations. Projected onto the practitioner, the white syllable om appears in the forehead and symbolizes body, the red ah corresponds to the throat center and speech, and the blue hum is in the heart, which in this system is equated with mind. The negative tendencies of these three levels of experi­ ence, which one is intended to transform, are connect­ ed with the three root causes of - samsara: desire,

Bon hate, and ignorance. In their purified form, body, speech, and mind are likened to a - dorje, a sign that they have actualized their true nature. The symbology of body, speech, and mind also finds application in the consecration of thangkas (scroll paintings)-on the back side of a painting of, for example, Buddha, at the level of the forehead, throat, and heart centers the syllables om ah hum are placed.

The actual transformation of body, speech, and mind is encouraged in the -- mahlimudrli and -- dzogchen teachings through four special practices (ngondro), the ritualized execution of which is precisely described in the various medi­ tation manuals: ( 1 ) taking refuge (- kyabdro) and arousing elightenment mind (- bodhicit­ ta); (2) the -- vajrasattva practice of purification of body, speech, and mind; (3) accumulation of further merit through symbolic - mandala offer­ ings; ( 4) integration of the individuality of the practitioner into the tradition represented by the master (- guru).

Many other concepts of Tibetan Buddhism are con­ nected with the principle of body, speech, and mind. Noteworthy is the repeated resolution of the opposi­ tion between body and mind through the communica­ tive element of speech.

Bokatsu B Jap., lit. "stick [and] shout"; expression

for a type of Zen training customary in Zen since - Te-shan Hsi.ian-chien (J ap., Tokusan Senkan) and -- Lin-chi I-hsi.ian (Jap., Rinzai Gigen). It consists of the skillful use of blows from a stick (- kyosaku, -- shippei) and a shout (- katsu) by an experienced Zen master, who knows how to apply these at the right moment for the benefit of his students.

Te-shan (Tokusan) is as famous in the Zen tradition for his use of the stick as Lin-chi (Rinzai) is for his use of the shout. The great Japanese Zen master Ikkyii Soj un highly esteemed the legacy of Te-shan and Lin-chi in a time when the Zen of Japan was in decline and threatened to rigidify into outer forms. In the mocking tone so typical of Zen literature, lkkyu, who himself was known as Crazy Cloud, in one of his poems contained in the - Kyoun-shu, sings the praises of his Chinese forefathers: Crazy cloud Crazy wind, You ask what it means: Mornings in the mountains Evenings in the town I choose The right moment For stick and shout And make Tokusan And Rinzai Blush.

Bokuju Chinsonshuku B Jap. for -- Mu-chou

Ch'en-tsun-su

Bokuseki B Jap. , lit. "traces of ink"; work of

calligraphy from the hand of Zen masters and monks. The content of a bokuseki is usually "words of dharma" (- hogo) of the ancient Zen masters and patriarchs (- soshigata). A bokuse­ ki is not done with the intention of creating an art work; rather it is the outcome and expression of living Zen experience.

The "traces of ink" are executed by Zen monks practicing the way of calligraphy (- shodo) for the inspiration of their followers and sometimes at their request. The master who gives one of his students a calligraphy "communicates his heart-mind" (Jap. , ko­ koro-o ataeru) to him. The bokuseki sometimes consist of a single character, sometimes of a word central to the Zen teaching, sometimes of a Zen poem or hogo. The bokuseki of Zen masters like - Muso Soseki, - Ikkyii Sojun, - Hakuin Zenji, and in our century, for example, - Yamamoto Gempo belong to the outstanding works of Japanese calligraphy. For a scene typical of those in which bokuseki come about, - Gyo-ju-za-ga.

Bokushu Chinsonshuku B J a p . for - M u­

chou Ch'en-tsun-su

Bokushu Domei B also Bokushu Domyo, J ap.

for -- Mu-chou Tao-ming

Bompu B Jap. -- bonpu-no-joshiki Bon

m Tib. lit. "invocation, recitation"; a gen­

eral heading in Tibetan Buddhism for various religious currents in Tibet before the introduc­ tion of Buddhism by -- Padmasambhava. The word bonpo referred originally to priests with varying functions, as, for example, performing divination or burial rites for the protection of the living and the dead. In a later phase it referred to a theoretical doctrinal system devel­ oped that was strongly influenced by foreigners from the neighboring countries to the west. A special role in this was played by the Shang­ shung kingdom, usually considered to cover a geographical area corresponding to today's west Tibet. In the beginning of the 1 1 th century Bon appeared as an independent school that distinguished itself from Buddhism through its claim to preserve the continuity of the old ban tradition. This school, which still exists, shares certain teachings with the -- Nying­ mapas. The Tibetan tradition recounts that in pre-Buddhist Tibet the people with its chieftains, preeminently the king, was protected by three kinds of practitioners­ the bonpos, the bards with their songs, and the practi­ tioners of certain riddle games. With time the duties of the bonpos, who were held responsible for exorcism of hostile forces, changed and expanded. Later three aspects of this process were distinguished.

41

Bonno Revealed Bon represents the first, preliterary, stage. Practitioners of this Bon used various means in order to "tame the demons below, offer to the gods above, and purify the fireplaces in the middle." Divination with the help of strings and lots made the decisions of the gods visible. With the murder of the legendary king Trigum began irregular Bon, the principal duty of which was the ritual burial of kings. This period, however, was also that of contact with non-Tibetan bonpos from the west and of the elaboration of a philosophical system. In the phase of transformed Bon major portions of the Buddhist teaching were made part of this system, still without giving up the elements of the folk religion. This period coincides with the so-called first spread of the buddhist teaching between the 8th and 1 0th centu­ ries and is also that in which appeared the teacher Shenrab, the founder of the actual Bon school. The various teachings of this school were finally organized into a canon, the structure of which corre­ sponds approximately to that of the Buddhist scrip­ tures (- Kangyur-Tengyur). The instructions ofShenrab were classified by later generations into nine vehicles (- yana). The first four vehicles are the "cause," the next four the "effect," and, parallel to the Nyingmapa school, the bonpos possess their own version of the dzogchen teachings as the ninth vehicle.

Bonno B Jap., lit. "worldly care, sensual desire,

passions, unfortunate longings, suffering, pain"; the (worldly) cares, suffering, and passions that arise out of a deluded (- Delusion) view of the world. Bonno is generally translated by "pas­ sions," but that, as the above-listed meanings of the Japanese word indicate, is too narrow a word. In the four great vows (- shiguseigan), an adherent of Zen vows to eliminate these "pas­ sions," which obstruct the path to the attain­ ment of enlightenment.

If the way of Zen is seen as a process that leads from delusion to enlightenment, then the above­ described distinction between enlightened and unenlightened consciousness is appropriate. How­ ever, from the standpoint of enlightenment, "everyman's consciousness" is not different from enlightened consciousness. Enlightened and unen­ lightened consciousness- � samsara and nirvana-are identical in nature. The distinc­ tion consists only in that the person living in bonpu-no-joshiki does not realize his perfection, which is present in every moment. The value in the Zen view of "ordinary con­ sciousness" is expressed in a famous koan from the - Wu-1nen-kuan (example 19). - Hei­

joshin kore do.

Bonpu-Zen B Jap. - five types of Zen 1 Borobudur Ill famous - stiipa in Java, built

around the 9th century. Borobudur is a repre­ sentation of the way of enlightenment in man­ dala form. This stiipa is comprised of five square, graduated terraces, on top of which are three circular platforms and a final stiipa. The walls of the terraces are adorned with reliefs and buddha figures; the round terraces hold a total of seventy-two stiipas.

Bonpo CJ Tib. - ban

Bonpu-no-joshiki fl Jap., lit. "everyman's con­

sciousness"; ordinary consciousness as opposed to that of an enlightened person. Everyman's consciousness is characterized by - delusion, identification with an imaginary separate ego as subject opposed to "outside" objects, and, as a result of this, by the three poisons: aggression, desire, and stupidity (also ignorance, - avi­ dyfi,). According to the Buddhist understanding, the bonpu-no-joshiki is a sick state of mind, in which a person is not aware of his true nature or buddha-nature (- bussho) and therefore re­ mains imprisoned in the suffering-ridden cycle oflife and death until he overcomes the deluded state of consciousness through - enlightenment and the realization of the experience of enlighten­ ment in everyday life (- mujodo-no-taigen). 42

Mandala-form ground plan of the stupa of Borobudur The mandalic character is clearly expressed by the arrangement of the buddha images on the first four terraces; they hold the respective buddhas of the four directions: - Akshobhya in the east, - Ratnasam­ bhava in the south, - Amitabha in the west, Amoghasiddhi in the north. The central buddha is Vairochana, who is found on all sides of the fifth terrace.

Brahmajriana The pilgrim who climbs the stiipa from below sym­ bolically arrives at ever higher levels of the way to enlightenment: The lowest terrace shows in reliefs the world of desire (kamaloka, - loka) and the realm of hell, that is, - samsara. After that come reliefs that depict the life of the Buddha Shakyamuni and, higher up, illustrations pertaining to various siitras, and sym­ bols of the world of form (rupaloka). The circular terraces symbolize the formless world (arupaloka) and emptiness (- shunyata).

Bosa�su I]] B J ap. for - bodhisattva

Brahma GI S k t . ; t h e fi r s t g o d o f t h e -

trimiirti, the Hindu trinity of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. Brahma is God in his aspect as creator of the universe. Originally all three were accorded equal veneration, but in modern-day India - Brahmanism has diminshed in impor­ tance compared with - Vaishnavism, - Shaivism, and - Shaktism. The concept of Brahma be­ longs to the realm of miiyii ( cf. ishvara) and is by no means to be confused with - brahman. Brahma is often depicted as having four faces and four arms that hold such symbols as the Vedas and prayer beads.

Brahmachari Gl (Brahmacarin), Skt.; 1 . a reli­

gious seeker who has submitted himself to spiri­ tual disciplines and has taken the first monastic vows; 2. a young man on the first of the four stages of life according to the Vedas, that of brahmacharya. Brahmacharya Gl I]] (brahmacarya), Skt.; conti­

nence, chastity. Gl 1 . continence in thought, word, and deed, one of the fi v e virtues of the first stage (yama) of Raj a-Yoga, as stipulated by the Yoga-Sutra of - Patafij ali; together these five constitute the Great Vow (- Mahavrata) that is undertaken for all eight steps. The other four virtues are ahimsii (harmlessness, noninjury of others), as­ teya (not stealing), satya (truthfulness), and aparigraha (noncovetousness, poverty); 2. an ordination ceremony at which a novice takes the first monastic vows; also, the attitude assumed by a - brahmachiiri after taking such vows; 3. the first of the four stages (- iishrama) into which a man's life is divided according to Vedic tradition. During this stage, the youth receives religious and worldly instruction from his par­ ents and teachers. He develops his mental facul­ ties and the virtues that lead to a spiritual life. I]] (Pali brahmacariya); holy conduct oflife, lead­ ing a life in harmony with the Buddhist rules of discipline (- shUa) and especially one of chasti­ ty. The lifestyle of a Buddhist monk. Brahmajala-sutra

m Skt., lit. "Sutra of the Net

of Brahman"; siitra of Mahayana Buddhism that contains the basic teaching on discipline and morality (- shzla) and that is therefore of major significance for Chinese and Japanese Buddhism. It contains the ten rules of Mahayana, which are obligatory for every follower: avoidance of ( 1 ) killing, (2) stealing, (3) unchaste behavior, ( 4) lying, (5) use of intoxicants, (6) gossip, (7) boasting, (8) envy, (9) resentment and ill will, ( 1 0) slander of the three precious ones (­ triratna). Violation of these rules means expul­ sion from the - sangha. Brahma. (Sandstone sculpture from Baset, Cambodia, 1 0th century)

Brahma-Chaitanya Cl (Brahma-Caitanya), Skt.;

brahman-consciousness, also referred to as tufiya, the fourth, supraconscious state, which is experienced only in - samiidhi and in which there is no longer any identifi c ation with the body and mind.

The Brahmajala-sutra also contains a further forty­ eight less important injunctions. I n this siitra, too, permission is given for self-ordination in cases where the requirements for an official - ordination cannot be fulfi l led. The fifty-eight rules in the Brahmajala­ sutra constitute the content of the bodhisattva vow, which every Mahayana monk takes after ordination. Brahmajnana Gl , or Brahmavidya, Skt.; the tran­

scendent knowledge of brahman; its realization. " O n e w h o k n o w s b r a h ,n an, b e c o m e s 43

Brahmakara-Vritti

brahman, " proclaim the Upanishads, and the fourth chapter of the Bhagavad-Gfta states, "He who sees brahman in every action, shall attain brahman. " The highest goal of human life ac­ cording to Hinduism is the realization of brahman; thus brahmajiiana is the summit of all knowledge. One who attains it is called a brahmajiiani (lit. "a knower of brahman"). Brahmakara-Vritti Cl (Brahmakara-Vrtti), Skt.;

devout thoughts concerning the knowledge of God and the experience of divine conscious­ ness. Brahmaloka CJ Skt. ; a heaven or plane of exis­

tence where advanced spiritual aspirants go after death, there to dwell in the company of the divine. Brahmamuhurta GI Skt., lit. "Brahma's hour";

the time of day that is most propitious for meditation; the hour at dawn or at dusk when night turns to day or day to night. Brahman Gl Skt.; the eternal, imperishable Ab­

solute; the supreme nondual Brahman

m Skt. (Brahmal)a), a member of the

priestly class, the highest of the four castes (­ varna ). In Vedic times, the brahmans were sim­ ply reality of Vedanta (not to be confused with - Brahma); brahman is a concept that has no equivalent in the religions of dualism, all of which feature those priests who sang the hymns revealed to the - Rishis and set down in the Rigveda. However, these hymns were never com­ mon property; rather, they a personal God. As absolute consciousness, brahman is an abstract concept that is not accessible to the thinking mind. In the process of any attempt to were transmitted orally from father to son in families of singers. As time went by and the people became increasingly estranged from the origins of these render it more concrete; brahman be­ comes - Ishvara.

Brahman is a state of pure transcendence that can­ not be grasped by thought ancient hymns, the sense and understanding of their texts grew ever dimmer in the minds of the common people. Consequently, the b rah m a n s , as the o r speech . Hence Shrf Ramakrishna's trenchant statement, "No tongue has ever defiled brahman. " Seekers employ linguistic ap­ proximations such as guardians of this spiritual trea­ sure, grew in stature. To extend their control further, the brahmans supported the common belief that only through such "the One without a second" or _, Satchidananada. Such phrases are meant to express that brahman is absolute being, absolute conscious­ ness, and absolute ancient hymns, and the sacrificial

44

rites associated with them, would proper communion with the gods be possible, such communion in turn being held to bliss. Without brahman as absolute being, existence would not be possible, and brahman as consciousness makes it possible for us to perceive existence determine one's earthly happiness, the be­ getting of progeny, the accumulation of wealth, victory over one's enemies, and so forth. and bliss. Brahman as - chit, or absolute consciousness reflected in the fiva, gives rise to mental consciousness, which in turn projects the The - kshatriyas opposed the dominance of the brahmans, and a bitter struggle for supremacy ensued between the two classes. The relationship between entire manifest world of names and shapes (­ namarupa). The Vedic utterance "Kham Brahm" (All is brahman) means that brahman alone exists, the two rishis - Vasishtha and - Vishvamitra clearly reflects this struggle. Finally, the brahmans gained the upper hand. Just as the living while we project upon it an imaginary world of notions, like the superimposition of the idea of a snake on a rope. religion threatened to turn to stone under their ambitious rule, the Buddha ---. Shakyamuni appeared and with his teaching over­ came the dominion of the brahmans, freed the other castes from oppression, and brought reform to all of India. After more than a thousand years, Buddhism in turn lost its force in India and became frozen in a series of outer forms, whereupon - Shankara rose as the next great reformer. Returning to the profound teach­ ings of the - Vedas and - Upanishads, he gave them new life through his commentaries and writings, his teachings, and the establishment of monastic orders.

Brahmana CJ (BrahmaIJ.a), Skt.; or Brahma­

na m ; each of the - Vedas includes a Brahmana, a manual of instruction (vidhz) for the practical use of the material found in the Samhita. Appended to these are various explan­ atory texts (arthavada) that have served as the point of departure for philosophical discus­ sions, most of which originated toward the end of the Brahmanas and which therefore have been compiled under the name - Vedanta ("end of the Veda"). This last category forms the content of the supplementary te�ts appended to the Brahmanas, the so-called Aranyakas; the Upanishads were later derived from these and are thus each allocated to a specific Veda. Brahma-Nadi GI Skt.; a Tantric term for the

channel of energy in the body through which the - kundalinz begins to rise. Brahma-Nama CJ Skt.; a - japa-practice, the

repetition of the name of Brahma.

Brahmananda Cl S k t . , 1 i t . " t h e b 1 i s s o f

brah,nan"; 1 . according to the Vedantic view, brahman is absolute consciousness and admits

Brahma-vihara

no opposites; hence it must be pure, unclouded bliss; 2. one of the two major disciples of Ramakrishna ( 1 8 6 3 - 1 9 2 2); the other was Svami - Vivekananda.

Svami Brahmananda, born Rakhal Chandra Ghosh, joined Ramakrishna in Dakshinesvara in 1 88 1 and became his disciple. After the master's death, he re­ nounced the world and, as Svami Brahmananda, be­ came the leader of the head monastery of the Ramakrishna Order, in Belur. In 1 900, he became its president. He traveled throughout India, visiting the centers of the Ramakrishna Mission and establishing new ones.

Brahmanaspati Gl ( Br a h m a n a s p a t i ) , S k t . ; Brahma as one of the three great divinities of the - trimurti. He becomes creator through the word, bringing everything into existence by his cry. He gives expression to all existence, all vital movement, and all conscious knowledge. Brahman-Bhavana Gl Skt.; identification of one's self with the supreme reality, the absolute con­ sciousness (- chit). Brahmanda Gl (Brahmal).c;la), Skt., lit. "the egg of Brahma"; the universe, the manifest world.

Brahmani Gl (BrahmaIJ.i), Skt.; 1 . another name for - Durga; 2. the wife of - Brahma. Brahmanirvana Gl Skt.; dissolution and release in brahman, possible only in the state of nirvikalpa-samadhi, in which even the last traces of duality are dissolved. Brahmanism Gl 1 . a term used in the West for orthodox - Hinduism; 2. the worship of Brahma as the creator god. The notion of a creator god plays a much smaller role in India than it does i n the West. In the Vedas, Brahma is rarely mentioned as creator. Rather, Prajapati is named lord of the creation, and Brahma is at times accorded equal status; both gods emerged from - Hiranyagarbha. The Nasadasiya, the renowned creation hymn from the Rigveda (the oldest Veda), states that the gods appeared only after the creation ( 10. 1 29.6). Not until the development of the - trimurti, the Hindu trinity, which arose much later, is Brahma venerated as a creator god; even here he shares his position with Vishnu, the main­ tainer, and Shiva, the destroyer, whereby each of the three takes a dominant role in turn, until Brahma ultimately declines in importance.

Brahman Satyam, Jagat Mithya m Skt.; this fa­ mous utterance of the teaching of - Advaita­ Vedanta proclaims that brahman alone is real and the world is illusory, a superimposition.

Brahmarandhra Gl Skt.; the crown of the head. It is made accessible through certain yogic prac­ tices, so that the consciousness is able to ascend to higher planes. Symbol for the dematerializa­ tion of consciousness (- kundalini).

Brahma-Samadhi Gl Skt.; an illuminatory (­ samadhi) state of brahman-consciousness, sup­ posed to be attained through - japa, the correct and steadfast practice of repetition of a mantra. However, there is no causal relationship be­ tween the period of practice or number of prac­ tices and illumination, a state that lies beyond causality.

Brahmasthiti Gl Skt.; a firm stand in that which is divine, from stha: "to stand." The term refers to a firm foundation in God, by which any doubt regarding God's existence is dispelled. In one who has attained Brahmasthiti, faith in God as a "working hypothesis" has dissolved into the certainty that God is ever-present. The closing lines of the second chapter of the Bhagavad­ Gita, in which Krishna describes those of constant

wisdom, states: "Thus it is with the God-illumined. Never does such a one fall back into delusion. Even at the hour of death one lives in the light of truth. God and he are one" (2. 72f.).

Brahma-Sutra Gl Skt.; a collection of aphorisms and verses on the philosophy of Vedanta; also known as the Vedanta-Sutra.

Brahmatejas Gl Skt.; the power and majesty of brahman; the fire or burning embers of the divine.

Brahma-Vastu Gl Skt.; the truth or reality of God. As long as it exists in the mind, it is not yet the ultimate truth, which is realized only in union with God (- brahman), at which point it is beyond expression. Brahmavid Gl Skt.; one who has seen and known God, an illuminated one, for whom God has become real; one who had the "visio Dei," as the Christian mystics put it. Brahmavid-Varishtha Gl ( Brahmavid-Vari � ­ {ha), Skt. ; one who has attained supreme God­ knowledge; the best of God-knowers. Brahmavidya Gl Skt.; knowledge of brahman; synonymous with - Brahmajnana.

Brahma-vihara I]] Skt., Pali, lit. "divine states of dwelling"; content of a meditation practice in which the practitioner arouses in himself four positive states of mind and radiates them out in all directions. The four brahma-vihiiras are lim-

45

Brahma-Yoga

itless kindness (- maitrf) toward all beings; limitless compassion (- karuna) toward those who are suffering; limitless joy (- mudita) over the salvation of others from suffering; limitless equanimity (- upeksha) toward friend and foe. Arousing these states of mind permits the prac­ titioner to overcome ill will, gloating over oth­ ers' misfortune, discontent, and passion. In Mahayana the brahma-viharas are included among the "perfect virtues" (- paramita). These are states of mind required by the bodhisattva in order to lead all beings to liberation. Practic­ ing the brahma-viharas is said to bring about rebirth in the heaven of Brahma (- deva). This belief explains the name brahma-vihara. The brahma-viharas are also known as the four im­ m e asurables ( Skt. aprama na ; Pali appa­ manna).

The siitra text on this meditation practice is: "There are four immeasurables. Therein, brothers, a monk radiates with a mind fi l led with kindness [ compassion, sympathetic joy, equanimity] first one direction, then a second, then a third, then a fourth, above as well, and below, and all around; and feeling himself connected with everything everywhere, he irradiates the whole world with a mind fi l led with kindness [ compassion, sympathetic joy, equanimity], with expansive, sub­ lime, unconfi n ed mind, free from malice and resent­ ment (trans. from German edition of Nyanatiloka 1 972).

Brahma-Yoga GI Skt.; union with divine im­

mortality, with the All, with everything that is manifest and unmanifest.

Brahmopasana GI Skt.; worship of Brahma, or

the divine (- upasana).

Brahmo-Samaj Cl Skt.; a nineteenth-century In­

dian religious and social-reform movement. Marked by a theistic strain, it was devoted to the worship of the eternal, impenetrable, and immutable One, the creator and upholder of the universe.

The movement was founded by Ram Mohan Roy ( 1 772- 1 8 3 3 ) and organized by Devendranath Tagore ( 1 8 1 7- 1 905). Membership was open to all, irrespective of religious denomination, caste, race, or nationality. In 1 8 57 - Keshab Chandra Sen ( 1 8 3 8- 1 8 84) became the third leader of the movement. He came under Christian influence, left Tagore's samiij, and founded the Sadharan-Brahmo-Samaj . Sen met several times with Shri Ramakrishna and died two years before Ramakrishna, who had expressed great trust in him.

Braja GI Skt. - Vrindavan Brihadaranyaka-Upanishad GI (Brhadaranya­

ka-U pani�ad), Skt., lit. brihat: "great," ara­ nyaka: "of the forest"; an Upanishad belonging

46

to the White - Yajurveda. Entitled "great" for its length and profundity, it is famous for the teaching on the Self that it contains as related by the sage Yajnavalkya to his wife, Maitreyi. The work teaches the absolute identity of atman and brahman. Shankara wrote a com­ mentary on it. Brihaspati GI (Brhaspati), synonymous with Brah­

manaspati (Brahmal).aspati), Skt., lit. "lord of prayer"; the creator of the word, who in the Vedas (as in the Gospel of John) stands at the origin of creation and is one with God. Through the word, Brihaspati conveys knowledge, con­ viction, and the faculty of the creative rhythm of expression.

With the help of the word, Brihaspati makes it possible to indicate things that lie beyond reason and can be grasped only through intuition. Moreover, by mastering all subtieties of language, one can gain influence and vanquish one's enemies by argument. Hence the great import accorded in Hinduism to the word. Brihaspati thus rose from his initial position as an unimportant deity to an increasingly higher rank.

Brindaban GI , or Brindavan, Skt. - Vrin­

davan

m B Skt. , Pali, lit. "awakened one. "

1. a person who has achieved the enlightenment that leads to release from the cycle of existence (- samsara) and has thereby attained complete liberation (- nirvana). The content ofhis teach­ ing, which is based on the experience of enlight­ enment, is the - four noble truths. A buddha h a s overcome every kind of craving (­ trishna); although even he also has pleasant and unpleasant sensations, he is not ruled by them and remains innerly untouched by them. After his death he is not reborn again. Two kinds of buddhas are distinguished: the pratyeka-buddha, who is completely enlight­ ened but does not expound the teaching; and the samyak-sambuddha, who expounds for the wel­ fare of all beings the teaching that he has discov­ ered anew. A samyak-sambuddha is omniscient (sarvajnata) and possesses the ten powers of a buddha (dashabala) and the - four certainties. The buddha of our age is - Shakyamuni (Also - Buddha 2). Shakyamuni Buddha, the historical Buddha, is not the first and only buddha. Already in the early Hinayana texts, six buddhas who preceded him in earlier epochs are mentioned: Vipashyin (Pali, Vipassi), Shikin (Sikhi), Vishvabhu (Vessabhu), Krakuchchanda (Kakusandha), Konagamana, and Kashyapa (Kassapa). The Buddha

Buddha

2. The historical Buddha. He was born in 56 3 B.C.E. , the son of a prince of the Shakyas, whose s mall kingdom i n the foo t hills of the Himalayas lies in present-day Nepal. His first name was Siddhartha, his family name Gau­ tama. Hence he is also called Gautama Buddha. (For the story of his life, - Siddhartha Gau­ tama.) During his life as a wandering ascetic, he was known as Shakyamuni, the "Silent Sage of the Shakyas." In order to distinguish the histori­ cal Buddha from the transcendent buddhas (see buddha 3 ), he is generally called Shakyamuni Buddha or Buddha Shakyamuni. 3. The "buddha principle," which manifests itself in the most various forms. Whereas in Hinayana only the existence of one buddha in every age is accepted (in which case the buddha is considered an earthly being who teaches hu­ mans), for the Mahayana there are countless transcendent buddhas. According to the Mahayana teaching of the trikaya, the buddha principle manifests itself in three principal forms, the so-called three bodies (- trikiiya). In this sense the transcendent buddhas represent em­ bodiments of various aspects of the buddha principle.

An early depiction of the Buddha with companions under the Bodhi-tree (sandstone sculpture from Mathura, 2nd century)

buddha who will follow Shakyamuni in a future age and renew the - dharma is - Maitreya. Beyond these, one finds indications in the litera­ ture of thirteen further buddhas, of which the most important is - D'ipamkara, whose disci­ ple Shakyamuni was in his previous existence as the ascetic Sumedha. The stories of these legendary buddhas are contained in the Buddhavamsa, a work from the Khuddaka­

nikii,ya.

The life course of a buddha begins when he, as a bodhisattva in the presence of a previous buddha whose disciple he is, takes the bodhisattva vow to become an awakened one. After that he practices the ten - paramitas for countless existences. Before his last birth, he dwells in the - Tushita Heaven. When he is reborn for the last time, the bodhisattva bears the thirty-two marks of perfection (- dvatrimshadvara­ lakshana) and the eighty minor marks. He is in posses­ sion of the thirty-seven preprequisites of enlighten­ ment (- bodhipakshika-dharma). The mother of this buddha dies seven days after his birth. At the appropri­ ate time the incipient buddha enters into - homeless­ ness, and after attaining enlightenment he founds an order. The course of his life is ended by his final extinction in nirvana (- parinirvana).

A m o n g the transcendent buddhas are Amitabha, - Akshobhya, - Vairochana, - Ratna­ sambhava, - Amoghasiddhi, - Vajrasattva, and many others. They are teachers of the bodhisattvas, and each reigns over a paradise (- pure land). The transcendent buddhas are supramundane (- lokottara), perfectly pure in spirit and body and possess eternal life and limitless power. According to the trikaya teaching they are so-called sambhogakaya buddhas, which accord­ ing to some views are regarded as spiritual creations of the bodhisattvas, to whom their luminous images become so clear that they take on form as subjective realities or obj ectively present, unearthly beings of refi n ed materiality. As sambhogakaya manifestations, they are the spiritual fathers of the nirmanakaya buddhas, the embodiments of the buddha principle in human form. Around 7 50 C. E . , as an outgrowth of the Vajrayana, a hierarchical schema developed, which admits, in addition to the dharmakaya (- trikaya), which all buddhas have in common, five transcendent buddhas. Each of these buddhas is associated with an earthly buddha and a transcendent bodhisattva. The transcendent buddha Vairochana is associated with the earthly buddha Krakuchchanda and the transcen­ dent bodhisattva - Samantabhadra; the transcendent buddha Akshobhya is associated with the earthly bud­ dha Kanakamuni and the bodhisattva Vaj rapani; to Ratnasambhava belong Kashyapa as earthly buddha and Ratnapani as bodhisattva; the transcendent bud­ dha Amoghasiddhi is associated with the earthly bud­ dha Maitreya and the transcendent bodhisattva Vishvapani. (Also - buddhakula.)

47

Buddhabhadra

4. A synonym for the absolute, ultimate reali­ ty devoid of form, color, and all other proper­ ties-buddha-nature. When in Zen the question is posed, "What is a buddha?" this is neither a question about the historical dates of an earthly buddha nor a question concerning the philo·­ sophical and psychological nuances of the trikiiya teaching; rather it is a question concern­ ing the eternal, or timeless, truth of buddha­ nature. Buddhabhadra l!I 359-429 ; monk of the -

Sarvastivada school, born in Kashmir. In 409 Buddhabhadra went to China, where he trans­ lated important works of Mahayana Sanskrit literature into Chinese, in part together with Fa-hsien.

Buddhabhadra entered the Buddhist order at the age of seventeen and was soon well known for his ability in meditation and in the observance of the rules of discipline. In his homeland he met the Chinese monk Chih-yen, who persuaded him to go to China. In 409 he arrived in Ch'ang-an where he became a spokesman for the doctrines of his teacher Buddhasena, a famous master of - dhyana. He soon came into conflict with monks from the school of - Kumarajiva, who had the support of the imperial court. Buddhabhadra was compelled to leave the capital. In 4 1 0 Buddhabhadra reached the - Lu-shan, where he met Hui-yuan (­ pure land). In 4 1 5 he came to present-day Nanking. There he translated fundamental works of Buddhism: for example, the - Vinaya-pitaka and the Mahii­ parinirviina-sutra; between 4 1 8 and 42 1 he composed a sixty-volume version of the - Buddhiivatamsaka­

sutra.

Buddha-charita l!I S k t . , 1 i t . " L ife of th e

Buddha"; poetic work of - Ashvaghosha. It is

the first complete life story of the Buddha Shakyamuni from his birth to his parinirviina. The Buddha-charita originally comprised twen­ ty-eight songs, of which only thirteen are ex­ tant in Sanskrit. It also exists in a Tibetan translation.

pitaka, the Buddhavamsa (- Khuddaka-nikii­ ya), the Abhidhammiivtiira, and the Rupiirupa­ vibhaga, the latter two being handbooks of the - Abhidharma, which set forth the teachings of the Theravada in a concise, clear way. Buddha-dharma l!I B Skt. (Jap., buppo); the "bud­

dha law," "buddha teaching," "buddha norm"­ generally, the teaching of the historical Buddha - Shakyamuni, which is based on enlighten­ ment and is intended to lead to it; as such, buddha-dharma is a synonym for Buddhism. In Zen buddha-dharma (buppo) is not understood as a teaching that can be transmitted concep­ tually, as through writings and oral explana­ tions, but rather as the conceptually ungraspable essential truth from the experience of which the teaching of the Buddha sprung and which is only accessible in the immediate realization of one's own enlightenment experience. Buddhaghosha

m (Buddhagho�), Pali, Skt., lit.,

"Buddha Voice"; scholar of the - Theravada school. He was born to a brahmin family at the end of the 4th century in Magadha near Bodh-gaya. After reading Buddhist texts, he converted to Buddhism and went to Ceylon, where, in the Mahavihara Monastery, he stud­ ied Theravada teachings under the tutelage of t h e mon k Sanghapa l a T he r a . I n A n u ­ radhapura he wrote nineteen commentaries to canonical works, among others, the - Vinaya­ pitaka and the - Nikayas, and the Dhamma­ sangani and the Vibhanga of the - Abhi­ dharma. His principal work is the - Visuddhi­ magga ( Way of Purity), a complete exposition of the Theravada teaching as taught at the Mahavihara Monastery. Buddha hood l!I B expression for the realization

Chinese pilgrims of the 7th century who traveled to India reported that the Buddha-charita enjoyed great popularity there and was frequently read and recited. The work resembles in its style classical Indian heroic poetry and is rich in poetical descriptions. It reflects the trend toward devotion (- bhakti) to the Buddha as a cult figure and contributed to the widespread diffusion of Buddhism.

of perfect enlightenment, which characterizes a buddha. The attainment of buddhahood is the birthright and highest goal of all beings. Accord­ ing to the highest teachings of Buddhism, as they are formulated, for example, in Zen, every sen­ tient being has, or better, is already buddha­ nature (Jap., - bussho); thus buddhahood can­ not be "attained"; it is much more a matter of experiencing the factuality of this primordial perfection and realizing it in everyday life.

Buddhadatta l!I scholar of the - Theravada

Buddhakula l!I Skt., lit. "buddha family"; the

school who lived in the 4th to 5th centuries. He was of Tamil origin and was born in Uragapura in Ceylon. After long journeys to the capital Anuradhapura, he composed his works. Bud­ dhadatta wrote commentaries to the - Vinaya48

fi ve fundamental q ua l ities of the sam­ bhogakaya (- trikaya), manifested in the man­ dala of the five - tathiigatas. They embody the properties of the five different aspects of wisdom (- prajna), but manifest themselves not only as

Buddhavatamsaka-sutra

positive energies, but also as negative states of mind. Since every phenomenon exhibits one of these five qualities, they are known as the "fami­ lies" with which all phenomena are associated. This is a principle of organization much used in the - Vaj rayana; all iconography and symbolo­ gy are based on it. The typology of the five buddha families also provides the basic frame­ work for the deities visualized in - siidhanas. The lords of the five familes are - Vairochana, - Akshobhya, - Ratnasambhva, - Amita­ bha, and - Amoghasiddhi.

The first of the five tathagatas, white in color and in the center of the mandala, is Vairochana. He repre­ sents the ignorance (- avidya) that is the origin of the cycle of existence (- samsara) and also the wisdom of the ultimate reality that is the basis of everything. Since as the central figure he is the point of origin of the mandala, his buddha fa mily is called the tathiigata or buddha family. On the east side of the mandala (which, following the Indian tradition, is below) is Akshobhya. He is the lord of the vajra family and his negative energy is aggression, which, however, can be transmuted into "mirrorlike wisdom. " His body is blue in color. In the southern part of the mandala (on the left side) is Ratnasambhava, yellow in color, the lord of the ratna family. He is associated with pride and its antidote, the wisdom of equanimity. Above, in the west, appears Amitabha of the lotus or padma family. With his red color he symbolizes passion and longing, which corresponds to the wisdom of discriminating awareness. On the right, northern, side is Amoghasiddhi of the karma family, green in color. The negative quality associated with him is envy or jealousy, which is related with all-accomplishing wisdom. In particular Tantras, there are variations in this arrangement, particularly with regard to the place­ m e nt o f the buddha and vajra fam ilies. The tathagatas possess further attributes beyond those mentioned and are accompanied by a feminine aspect.

Buddhamitra B ninth patriarch in the Indian

lineage of - Zen.

Buddhanandi D eighth patriarch in the Indian

lineage of - Zen.

Buddha-nature D - bussho

Buddha-nature

m (Skt. buddhata); according to

the Mahayana view, the true, immutable, and eternal nature of all beings. Since all beings possess this buddha-nature, it is possible for them to attain enlightenment and become a buddha, regardless of what level of existence they occupy. The interpretation of the essence of buddha­ nature varies from school to school; there is

controversy over whether all beings and also inanimate entities actually possess buddha­ nature.

The answer to the question whether buddha-nature is immanent in beings is an essential determining factor for the association of a given school with Hinayana or - Mahayana, the two great currents within Buddhism. In Hinayana this notion is un­ known; here the potential to become a buddha is not ascribed to every being. By contrast the Mahayana sees the attainment of buddhahood as the highest goal; it can be attained through the inherent buddha-nature of every being through appropriate spiritual practice.

Buddhapalita

m

--t

Buddha-shasana

Madhyamika

m (buddha-sasana), Skt. (Pali

buddha-siisana); buddha discipline, teaching of the Buddha. A term used in Asia for the Bud­ dhist religion, which refers to the teaching, the rules of discipline or morality (- shila), devo­ tional and meditative practices-all of which are said to stem from the Buddha. In a narrower sense, in the - Theravada, buddha-shiisana designates the nine forms in which the message of the buddha is contained: sutras; prose mixed with verse; verse (giithii); ceremonial expres­ sions (udiina); stories about the previous exis­ tences of the Buddha (Jiitaka); words of the master (itivuttaka); extraordinary things; and analyses. Buddhas of the three times

m buddhas of the

past, present, and future: Kashyapa, - Sha­ kyamuni, and - Maitreya. In most pictorial representations of the buddhas of the three times - Dipamkara is the buddha of the past.

m Skt. - buddha-nature Buddhavamsa m Skt. - Khuddaka-nikiiya Buddhata

Buddhavatamsaka-sutra CJ 6 (Buddhavata:rp.­

saka-sutra), short form Avatamsaka-sutra, Skt., lit. "Sutra of the Garland of Buddhas" ; Mahayana sutra that constitutes the basis of the teachings of the Chinese Hua-yen (Jap., Kegon) school, which emphasizes above all "mutually unobstructed interpenetration." In addition it teaches that the human mind is the universe itself and is identical with the buddha, indeed, that buddha, mind, and all sentient beings and things are one and the same. This aspect of the Mahayana teaching was especially stressed by the Chinese Ch'an (Jap., Zen) school, whence the frequent citations of the Avatamsaka-sutra by these schools. The Buddhavatamsaka-sutra is one of the - Vai­ pulya siitras and is thus a collection of several individ-

49

Buddhehparatah ual writings, of which the longest is the - Ganda­ vyuha; another important part is the - Dasha­ bhumika. The siitra is extant only in Tibetan and Chinese translations. The oldest Chinese translation is from the 5th century. The teachings presented here are not spoken by Shakyamuni Buddha himself; he is present but remains silent most of the time. They are rather utterances of the dharmakaya (- trikaya) as­ pect of all the buddhas. The silence of the Buddha corresponds to emptiness (- shunyata), and the pro­ nouncement of the teaching is born out of this silence as a manifestation of the true reality that is graspable by human consciousness. (Also - Hua-yen school, Keg on school.) Buddhehparatah

m (Buddhel)paratal)), Skt. ; ly­

ing beyond reason; higher consciousness, intui­ tion. Without intuition, spiritual experiences are not possible, and such experiences are more important than logic and reason. Buddhi

m Skt.; intelligence. The discriminatory

element in the - antahkarana, that which cate­ gorizes all sensory impressions. In itself a lifeless instrument, buddhi draws upon the intelligence and consciousness of the - iUman and develops all human faculties, incluiding intuition. Buddhindriya Buddhism

m Skt. - indriya

m the religion of the awakened one

(- buddha, - buddha-dharma); one of the three great world religions. It was founded by the historical Buddha - Shakyamuni in the 6th to 5th centuries B.C.E. In answer to the question concerning the cause of the entanglement of beings in the cycle of existence (- samsara) and the possibility of removing it-the central ques­ tion for Indian philosophy at the time of the Buddha-he expounded the - four noble truths, the core of his teaching, which he had recog­ nized in the moment of his enlightenment. Life is regarded by Buddha as impermanent (­ anitya), without essence (- anatman), and char­ acterized by suffering. The recognition of these three n1arks of existence (- trilakshana) marks the beginning of the Buddhist path. The suffer­ ing-ridden quality of existence is conditioned by craving (- trishna) and ignorance (- avidya), through the clearing away of which liberation from samsara can be attained. The entangle­ ment of beings in the cycle of existence is explained in Buddhism by the chain of condi­ tioned arising (- pratztya-samutpada). The ter­ mination of the cycle is tantamount to the realization of - nirvana. The way to this can be summarized in terms of the four noble truths, the eightfold path, 50

training in discipline and morality (- shzla), meditation (- samadhi, - dhyana), and wis­ dom and insight (- prajiia). The basic thought of Buddhism is summed up in the - Tripitaka. The Buddhist community (- sangha) consists of monks and nuns (­ bhikshu, - bhikshuni) as well as lay followers (- upasaka). The historical development of Buddhism can be divided into four major phases: ·1 . From the middle of the 6th to the middle of the 5th century B.C.E., the phase of early Buddhism, in which the teaching was ex­ pounded by the Buddha and diffused by his disciples. 2. The middle of the 4th century B.C.E. to the 1 st century C.E., division into various schools on the basis of differing interpretations of the teach­ ing (- Hinayana, - Buddhist Councils). 3 . The 1 st to the 7th century C.E.; the rise of the Mahayana with its two major currents, Madhyamaka and - Yogachara. 4. After the 7th century; the emergence of Buddhist Tantra (- Tibetan Buddhism, Vajrayana, - Tantra). After the 1 3th century Buddhism became practically extinct in India, the country of its ong1n. From about the 3d century, Buddhism began to spread outside of India, adapting itself to local conditions. Today Hinayana Buddhism of the - Theravada school is to be found in Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Thailand, Burma, and Cambodia; Mahayana in China, Japan, Vietnam, and Ko­ rea; Vajrayana in Tibet, Mongolia, and Japan. Exact figures concerning the number of Bud­ dhists in the world ( 1 50-500 million) cannot be given, since adherence to Buddhism does not preclude adherence to other religions. Buddhism in Burma: According to tradition Burma came into contact with Buddhism dur­ ing the reign of King - Ashoka (3d century B.C.E.). Another tradition says that Buddhism was brought to Burma by two merchants at the time of the Buddha. The merchants are said to have brought with them from India some of Buddha's hair, which is still preserved today in the Shwe-dagon Pagoda in Rangoon. After the 5th century, there is evidence of a flourishing Buddhist life in Burma. Activity of the Theravada and that of another school (prob­ ably the - Sarvastivada), which used Sanskrit, can be documented. In the 7th century both Hinayana and Mahayana (especially in the north) coexisted. In the following century, Buddhist

Buddhism

Tantrism penetrated Burma. In the 11th centu­ ry the e n t i re c o untry w a s conve rted to Theravada under the rule of King Anaratha. This spelled the end of Mahayana in Burma. The Theravada gradually assimilated the indig­ enous folk belief in spirits called nats and gave it a Buddhist sense. Pagan, in the north of the country, became the center of Buddhism. Burma maintained inten­ sive contact with Ceylon. There, toward the end of the 12th century, the Buddhism practiced at the Mahavihara Monastery was declared obliga­ tory for all Buddhists of Ceylon. This had a negative effect on Burmese Buddhism, since according to Burmese monks who had been in Ceylon, only those monks whose ordination had taken place at Mahavihara were legitimate. This met resistance within the Burmese sangha and resulted in the splintering of the community into several rival groups. In the 15th century King Dhammacheti unified the Burmese com­ munity under the auspices of the Mahavihara M o n a s t e r y . S i n c e t h e n , t h i s fo r m o f Theravada has become the prevailing form of Buddhism in Burma. The conquest of the country by the English in the 19th century greatly damaged the sangha and its organization. Only after the recovery of independence in 1 94 7 could the old structures be restored with the help of the government. In 1956 a council took place in Rangoon at which the full text of the Tripitaka was recited. Today about 85 percent of the population of Burma is Buddhist. Buddhism is the official religion of the country. Buddhism in Cambodia: This region was in contact with a Sanskrit tradition of Buddhism in the 3d century C.E., probably that of the Sarvastivada school, which reached its zenith in the 5th and 6th centuries. An inscription from the year 791 found in the neighborhood of --t Angkor Wat bears witness to the existence of the Mahayana in Cambodia. The country was also under the influence of Shaivism. The synthesis that developed out of the mixture of the two religions was characterized by the cult of the bodhisattva Lokeshvara, a fusion of Avaloki­ teshvara and Shiva. Later the Shaivite element seems to have been eliminated. However, again in the 1 3th century an upsurge of the Shiva cult took place, in the course of which the Buddhist sangha was exposed to severe persecution. Records left by Chinese pilgrims show that during this time Theravada was represented by numerous followers, while Mahayana was los-

ing influence. The first inscription in Pali is from the year 1309; it makes clear that the Thera­ vada was under the protection of the royal house. Since that time it has been the dominant form of Buddhism in Cambodia. Toward the end of the 19th century the Dhammayut school of Thailand gained a foothold in Cambodia. Buddhism in Ceylon: According to tradition, Buddhism was brought to Ceylon from India around 250 B.C.E. by --t Mahinda and Sangh­ ami tta, children of King Ashoka. The king of Ceylon, Devanampiya Tissa, himself became a Buddhist and built the Mahavihara Monastery, where he preserved the branch of the --t Bodhi­ tree that Mahinda and his sister had brought. This monastery remained for many centuries the center of orthodox Theravada. In the course of time various schools were formed. There was sometimes very vehement rivalry among them. A number of kings tried to end these disputes by convoking synods or by persecution of certain schools. The main antag­ onists were the monks of Mahavihara on one side and those of the Abhayagirivihara and the Jetavanavihara on the other. The latter party was under the influence of Indian schools; traces of Mahayana and Buddhist Tantrism can also be documented. The Theravada gained the up­ per hand, to which result Buddhaghosha, one of the great scholars of the Theravada, decisively contributed. His work marks Singhalese Bud­ dhism to this day. The many-sidedness of Bud­ dhism in Ceylon met a bitter end in the 12th century, when King Parakkambahu I convoked a synod and forced all hostile schools to adopt the Buddhism of Mahavihara. The arrival of the Portuguese in Ceylon in the 16th century-who tried to introduce Catholi­ cism by force-and that of the Dutch in the 1 7th century aroused national feeling and had a strength­ ening effect on Buddhism, which had been in the process of deterioration. Several Singhalese kings undertook measures to give new impetus to Buddhism. They sent delegations to Burma ( end of the 17th century) and Thailand (18th century) in order to gain support. As a result of this contact with foreign monks Burmese and Thai tendencies began to make themselves felt in the sangha in Ceylon. Thai monks introduced an aristocratic principle of selection, which aroused resistance in other strata of the population but established, in spite of this, one of the main enduring tendencies of Singhalese Buddhism. In 1 802 a Burmese branch of the sangha emerged-Amarapura, the mem51

Buddhism

bers of which came from the ordinary classes of the people. Both tendencies remain today, the Thai-inspired being the stronger. More recently a third current developed, which is of Burmese origin and is characterized by particular strictness. In the 19th century the Buddhism of Ceylon was at its nadir; Western Buddhists, who formed new centers and organi­ zations (- Mahabodhi Society), contributed decisively to its revival. By 1948 Buddhism was again a driving force in Singhalese culture and played a role in the achievement of national independence in that year. Today Singhalese Buddhism is influential in other Asian countries as well as in the West. Buddhism in China: According to Chinese tradition Buddhism penetrated into China in 2 C.E. from Central Asia. In the beginning it was regarded as a variety of Taoism and associated with Lao-tzu. The latter is said to have left China riding on an ox in order to bring his teaching to the "barbarians" in the west. Thus Buddhism was understood as the barbaric ver­ sion of Taoism. This equation of Buddhism and Taoism was probably based on the fact that both religions offer a teaching of salvation and the differences between the two were not known in this early phase. One reason for this was that the Chinese language did not possess a conceptual apparatus adequate for the abstract thought of Buddhism and therefore translations had to have recourse to the terminology of Taoism. The use of familiar concepts contributed sig­ nificantly to the diffusion of Buddhism in Chi­ na. The 3d century saw the beginning of lively translation activity; the most important San­ skrit texts were translated into Chinese. The preeminent figures of this period are - An Shih-kao, who primarily translated Hinayana sutras, and Chih-lou Chia-ch'an, who devoted himself to the translation of Mahayana works. In the year 355, permission was given for Chinese officials to enter the Buddhist sangha. This considerably advanced the establishment of Buddhism in China. In the 4th century the various Prajiiaparamita schools (- six houses and seven schools) emerged, the most important spokesman of which was - Chih-tun. In 399 Fa-hsien was the first Chinese pilgrim to travel to India. A series of others was to follow (­ Hsuan-tsang, - I-ching). In the 5th and 6th centuries Buddhism spread throughout China and received the support of the imperial house, which also encouraged the building of monasteries and the study of the 52

teaching. At this time the renowned cave tem­ ples of - Yun-kang and - Lung-men were created. In the years 446 and 574-577 there were persecutions of Buddhism, which, howev­ er, did not hinder its rise. The translation of sutras, thanks to the work of - Kumarajiva and - Paramartha, reached a very high level. By this t i me a l l the i m p ortant H ina y a na and Mahayana texts existed in Chinese. The most important for the development of Buddhist phi­ losophy were the - Lankavatara-sutra, the Mahaparinirvana-sutra, and the - Satyasid­ dhi, under the influence of which the - Satya­ siddhi, - San-lun, and - Nirvana schools were formed. During the Sui and T'ang dynasties (end of the 6th to beginning of the 10th centuries) Buddhism in China reached its high point. The great schools of Chinese Buddhism made their appearance: - Hua-yen, - T'ien-t'ai, Chan (- Zen), - Pure Land, - Fa-hsiang. The most important spokesmen of the Buddhism of this period were Hsuan-tsang, - Chih-i, and Tu-shun. The monasteries became so powerful eco­ nomically that they represented a threat to the ruling house. Since the monasteries were ex­ empt from taxes, many peasants gave them their properties and leased the land back. In that way the peasants were able to elude compulsory labor levies and military service, while the mon­ asteries grew ever richer. For this reason in 845 there was a further persecution of Buddhism; the monasteries were dismantled, and the monks and nuns were obliged to return to worldly life. Buddhism in China never entirely recovered from this blow; nevertheless it had already left indelible marks on all areas of Chinese culture. During the Sung Dynasty ( 1Oth- 13°th centu­ ry), there came about a fusion of Buddhist, Confucian, and Taoist thought. Of the many Buddhist schools, in any broader sense only Ch'an (Zen) and Pure Land were still of any significance. The others were reduced to the status of objects of Buddhist philosophical study. Under the Ming Dynasty ( 14th- 17th century) - Chu-hung brought about a synthesis of the Ch'an and Pure Land schools and a strong Buddhist lay movement developed. Under the Manchurian Ch'ing Dynasty ( 17th to the beginning of the 20th century) - Lama­ ism made a major advance, but soon a strong decadent tendency became visible. The Bud­ dhism of the 20th century is characterized by an effort toward reform (- T'ai-hsii) and adapta-

Buddhism tion to modernity. Under Communist rule "religious freedom" subsisted nominally, but party func­ tionaries made it clear that citizens did not have the freedom to believe anything that conflicted with the basic principles of Communist policy. Buddhists were permitted to continue their ac­ tivities within the monasteries. During the land reform of 1950-52, however, most of the mon­ asteries were dispossessed; and the monks, whose basis of livelihood was removed, for the most part returned to worldly life. After 1 957 no further ordinations took place. In 1953 the Chinese Buddhist Association was founded, the task of which was to convey to Buddhists the directives of the government and to report on their activities. In 19 56 the Chinese Buddhist Institute was founded; its curriculum also included political training. Its task was to educate Buddhist scholars and mo­ nastic administrators. During the Cultural Revolution ( 1966-76) many monasteries and other Buddhist monu­ ments were destroyed. The last remaining monks left the monasteries. After the end of the Cultur­ al Revolution still existing monasteries were renovated; the monks, in limited numbers, could return. The Chinese Buddhist Association re­ sumed its activities; local associations were cre­ ated in all the provinces. The Chinese Buddhist Institute in Peking and other large cities was again educating monks in Buddhist philosophy. These monks, after completing their three years of study, assume leadership positions in the monasteries. Since 198 1, the journal Fa-yin ( Voice of the Teaching) has appeared. It has the task of sup­ porting the government in its religious policies; however, it also gives practical instruction for Buddhist practice and discusses problems of Buddhist philosophy. In Taiwan Buddhism is active predominantly in its popular Pure Land form; in addition, however, there is also lively interest in the Ch'an school. Besides this "orthodox" Buddhism there is also in Taiwan a folk Buddhism that is known as Chai-chiao (Religion of the Vegetarians), which includes Confucian and Taoist elements. Its followers are lay people and wear white robes. Also in Taiwan there is a strong revival movement that wishes to adapt Buddhism to modern times and that therefore particularly emphasizes its scientific qualities. Buddhism in Indonesia: The first signs of Buddhism in Indonesia can be traced back, on the basis of Buddha statues, to the 3d century

C. E. According to reports of

the Chinese pilgrim - Fa-hsien, who visited Indonesia in 4 18, Bud­ dhism had developed very little there. However, already by the end of the 5th century considera­ ble progress is detectable, the effect of the efforts of Indian monks. In the 7th century Sumatra and Java were already important study centers for Buddhism, as can be learned from the re­ ports of 1-ching. The dominant current was Mahayana; in addition, however, there were also Hinayana communities, which probably belonged to the Sarvastivada school. In the 8th century Mahayana underwent a major upsurge under the Buddhist dynasty of the Shailendra. At this time, too, the famous stiipa of - Bor­ obudur was built. Around the end of the 8th century the Buddhist Tantra spread in Indone­ sia. The Mahayana and especially Tantrism continued into the 15th century. Inscriptions show that King Adityavarman (middle of the 14th century) was a follower of the Kalachakra and was considered an incarnation of - Lokeshvara. At this time Indonesia culti­ vated lively intercourse with India, including with the monastic university - Nalanda. In Sumatra and Java there was fusion of Buddhist Tantra, Shaivism, and the cult of the king. Through the inroads of Islam Buddhism van­ ished from Sumatra at the end of the 14th century and from Java in the early 15th. In the following century it had all but disappeared from all of Indonesia. Today only small Buddhist enclaves still exist. The immigrant Chinese are for the most part Buddhists. In addition there are tendencies in Indonesia toward a re­ vival of Buddhism. Buddhism in Japan: Buddhism was intro­ duced into Japan from Korea in the year 522. In the beginning, as a foreign religion, it met with resistance but was recognized in 585 by Emperor Yomei. During the period of govern­ ment of Prince Shotoku (593-62 1 ) Buddhism was the official religion of Japan. Shotoku de­ creed in 594 that the three precious ones (­ triratna) were to be venerated. He fostered the study of the Buddhist scriptures, himself com­ posed important commentaries to several siitras, and had monasteries built. He founded among others the famous monastery Horyii-ji in Nara. Chinese and Korean monks were invited as teachers, and the first Japanese joined the Buddhist community. During this early period it was primarily the - Sanron school that spread. During the Nara period (7 10-794) there were already six Buddhist schools in Japan, which /

53

Buddhism

were brought over from China and officially recognized in the 9th century: the - Kosha, Rosso, Sanron, - Joj itsu, - Ritsu, and Kegon schools. Buddhism was firmly estab­ lished in the imperial house, which especially took the teaching of the Kegon school as the basis of its government. The - Sutra of Golden Light was of particular importance. The most famous monasteries in Nara stem from this time. During the Heian period (794- 1 1 84) the - Tendai and - Shingon schools gained in influence and became the dominant forms of Buddhism in Japan. The relationship of monks to the imperial house became even closer. Bud­ dhism became de facto the state religion. Around the middle ofthe 1 0th century Amidism began to spread; in the Kamakura period ( 1 1 8 51 333) it was organized into the - Jodo-shu and the - Jodo-shinshu. In 1 1 9 1 - Zen came to Japan and has remained until today the most vital form of Japanese Buddhism. Two schools of Zen are of major importance: - Soto and Rinzai. In the 1 3th century the - Nichiren school emerged. In the following centuries, in part owing to the political situation, there were no significant new developments in Japanese Bud­ dhism. In the 1 9th century - Shintoism was elevated to the state religion. Since the Second World War there are clear signs of a renaissance of Buddhism in Japan. A whole series of popular movements have taken place, such as - Soka Gakkai, - Rissho Koseikai, - Nipponzan Myohoj i, which, thanks to their concern for adapting Buddhism to modern times, have a very large following. Buddhism in Korea: Buddhism entered Korea from China in the 4th century C.E. It attained its only high point in the 6th to 9th centuries during the three kingdoms of Koguryo, Paekche, and Silla and the united kingdom of Great Silla (668-93 5). During this time the most important schools of Chinese Buddhism gained a foothold in Korea. Of particular importance were the Ch'an (- Zen), - Hua-yen, and esoteric Bud­ dhism (- Mi-tsung, - Shingon). Also the teach­ ings of the - Prajnaparamita-sutra were known early on in Korea. It is from this time that the most signifi c ant Buddhist art treasures of Korea stem. During the Yi dynasty ( 1 392- 1 9 1 0) - Confu­ cianism became the state religion and Buddhist monks were forced to retreat into the moun­ tains. Thus Buddhism lost influence with the 54

people. Only after the end of Japanese rule ( 1 945) did a revival of Buddhism begin. This took the form of a new movement within Bud­ dhism (- Won Buddhism). In present-day South Korea there is no real discrimination between teachings of different schools. In the monasteries the meditation of the Rinzai school of Ze n , repetition of Amitabha's name (- nembutsu, - Pure Land school), and sutra recitation are all practiced side by side. The recitation of - dharanzs is also widespread, which goes back to the Tantrism that was prevalent in the middle ages. Among intellectuals Zen meditation is most popular; in rural areas the practice of the repetition of Buddha's name is predominant. In Korea also, elements of the old autochtho­ nous religion were assimilated into Buddhism. Mythological figures like Mountain God, Tiger, and the Deity of the Seven Stars are also to be found in rural Buddhist temples. Believers re­ late to the veneration of these deities as part of their religious practice. Buddhism in Thailand: Concerning the begin­ nings of Buddhism in the area of present-day Thailand little is known. Archaeological sources permit the conclusion that Buddism came to Thailand from Burma in the 6th century C.E. The Buddhism that initially spread there was of the Hinayana type. Between the 8th and 1 3th centuries, the Mahayana appears to have been predominant, based on the evidence of buddha images of this period. Between the 1 1 th and 1 4th centuries broad regions of Thailand were under the rule of the Hinduis Khmer. In the 1 3th century the Thai kings propagated the Theravada. Relations with Ceylon strengthened the influence of this school, which became the dominant form of Buddhism. In 1 8 82 a council was convoked by the king during which the entire Tripitaka was rehearsed. In the 1 9th century, with Mongkut (Rama IV), a king was in power who was himself a monk at the time of his enthronement. He laid the ground for modern Buddhism by initiating a reform move­ ment within the Buddhist sangha. He founded the Dhammayut school, which lays special em­ phasis on the observance of the - Vinaya rules. The Dhammayuts have the greatest number of followers down to the present day. King Chulalong­ korn (reigned 1 86 8- 1 9 1 0) had an edition of the Pali canon published, which is one of the most important and complete. Later there were fur­ ther reforms and Buddhism was subsumed un­ der the pontificate of the king, who nominated

Buddhist councils

himself as sanghariija, head of the Buddhist community. Today 95 percent of the population are Buddhists. Buddhist councils

m (Skt., samgiti); in the de­

velopment of Buddhism, four councils are known, the history of which remains partially obscure. These councils were originally probably local assemblies of individual monastic communities tl)at were later reported by tradition as general councils. The first council was that of Raja­ griha, said to have taken place immediately after the parinirviina, i.e., the death of the Bud­ dha. The second council was held in Vaishafi approximately a century after that of Rajagri­ ha, around 3 86 B.C.E. The third took place in Pataliputra, present-day Patna, during the sec­ ond century after the parinirviina of the Buddha. This council is not recognized by the � Theravada school which recognizes instead the so-called synod of the Pali school, which took place during the reign of King � Ashoka. The fourth council took place in Kashmir. Concern­ ing this council, too, there are various opinions in the texts: some regard it as a general council convoked by King Kanishka, others as the syn­ od of the � Sarvastivada school. The purpose of the councils was generally to reconcile differences of opinion within commu­ nities as well as to present, reshape, and fix the canonical writings.

First council: Accounts of the first council are found in the - Vinaya-pitaka. This assembly was convoked by - Mahakashyapa, who had detected tendencies within in the - sangha toward loss of discipline. In 480 B.C.E., 500 monks, all of them - arhats, came together in the vicinity of Rajagriha. Mahakashyapa questioned - Upali concerning the rules of discipline and - Ananda concerning the doctrine. On the basis of Upali's responses the Vinaya-pitaka was set down, and on the basis of Ananda's the - Siitra-pitka. The text, upon which all had agreed, was then recited. At this council Ananda was the obj ect of forceful reproaches by Mahakashyapa, since at the time the council began Ananda had not yet realized arhathood; this, however, took place during the council. More­ over, Ananda had been empowered by the Buddha to eliminate certain less important rules; however, he had neglected to ask the Buddha for precise instructions concerning this matter. Another point of contention was Ananda's advocacy of founding an order of nuns (- bhikshunz). Ananda's greatest failure, however, was considered to be that he had not entreated the Buddha to delay his entry into parinirvana. The historicity of this council, at least in the form described above, is doubted by many. Nevertheless, it is likely that the first collection of writings took place relatively early. This traditional account shows pri-

marily how the individual school conceived of this process. Second council: The second council is considerably better documented in the texts than the first and is generally recognized as a historical event. The reason for the convocation of the council, around 3 8 6 B.C.E., was disunity concerning matters of discipline. The Vaishali monks had accepted gold and silver from lay adherents in violation of the Vinaya rules. More­ over, they were accused by Yasha, a student of Ananda's, of nine further violations, including taking food at the wrong time, separate observance of the uposatha by monks of a community, and drinking alcoholic beverages. On the other side, the monks expelled Y asha from the community because of his accusations. Y asha then sought support from influen­ tial monks in all areas to which Buddhism had spread. Finally a council, composed of 700 monks, all arhats, took place at Vaishali. The monks of Vaishali were found guilty by a committee composed of four monks from eastern and western regions, respectively. The Vaishali monks accepted this judgment. Records of this council are found in both the Pali and Sanskrit versions of the Vinaya-pitaka. The Singhalese tradition (Theravada) explains the schism between the - Sthaviras and - Maha­ sanghikas on the basis of the conflict that led to the convocation of this council. According to their ver­ sion, the monks of Vaishali convoked a counter coun­ cil in which they established themselves as Maha­ sanghikas. Third council: There are no records of this council in the Vinaya-pitaka. The records in other texts di­ verge markedly; nevertheless, most accounts give the reason for the convocation of the council as disagree­ ment over the nature of an arhat. A monk from Pataliputra, Mahadeva, put forward the following position: An arhat is still subj ect to temptation, that is, he can have nocturnal emissions. He is not yet free from ignorance (- avidya). In addition he is still subj ect to doubts concerning the teaching. Moreover, according to Mahadeva's view, an arhat can make progress on the path to enlightenment through the help of others and, through the utterance of certain sounds, he can further his concentration (- samadhi) and thus advance on the path. Differing views on these five points led to division of the monks into two camps. The council, which was intended to reconcile these differences, could only confirm the division. Those who affirmed these five points, and who believed themselves to be in the majority, called them­ selves Mahasanghika (Great Community). Their op­ ponents, represented by the " elders," who were distinguished by outstanding wisdom and virtue, cal­ led themselves Sthavira. The Pali school of Sri Lanka does not recognize this council. For them third council refers to the so-called synod of the Pali school of Pataliputra that took place around 244 B.C.E., during the reign of King Ashoka. The occasion for this council was a confl i ct between

55

Buddhi-Yoga the "authentic" Buddhist monks and those who in­ sisted that the sangha be allowed to enjoy certain privileges. At the urging of Ashoka, Moggaliputta Tissa convoked the synod, in which those monks who rej ected h i s po sition were exclu ded from the sangha. In his work Kathavatthu, which is included in the - Abhidharma of the Theravada school, he re­ futed the heretical views. At this synod also, the entire canon was read out. Fourth council: This council seems also to have been the synod of a particular school, the Sarvastivadins, rather than a general council. It is purported to have taken place under the reign of King Kanishka and to have served for a new interpretation of part of the Abhidharma that was intended to forestall reformato­ ry tendencies. According to various sources, this coun­ cil was attended by 500 arhats as well as a like number of bodhisattvas. The principal role is ascribed to Vasumitra, who is said to have supervised the writing of the Mahavibhasha, a commentary on the Abhidhar­ ma. Because of the great importance later attained by the Sarvastivadins, this synod came to be evaluated as a council having general authority. Buddhi-Yoga GI Skt.; self-knowledge, attained

by the power of discrimination. In the Bhagavad­ Gita (2.49), the engagement of the - buddhi as the intelligence and discriminatory faculty is referred to as buddhi-yoga and is characterized as one of the most important prerequisites for the realization of God. Buji-zen B Jap.; an exaggerated, frivolous atti­

tude towards the training and discipline of Zen. It comes about, for example, when someone, based on the mere thought that he is already Buddha, comes to the conclusion that he need not concern himself with practice, a disciplined life, or enlightenment. This is an attitude to which a misunderstanding, particularly of the teaching of the - Soto school of Zen (also mokush8 Zen), can lead.

Bukan B Jap. for - Feng-kan

Bulkka Zenji B Jap. for - Fo-kuo-ch'an-shih Bukkyo,

m B Jap., lit. "buddha teaching"; Bud­

dhism, - buddha-dharma.

Bu'nan Shido B 1 602- 1 676; Japanese Zen mas­

ter of the - Rinzai school; a student and dhar­ ma successor (- hassu) of Gudo Kokushi (d. 1 66 1 ) and the master of - Dokyo Eitan, the master of - Hakuin Zenji.

Buppo

m B J ap. for - buddha-dharma

Bushun Shiban B Jap. for - Wu-chun Shih­

fan 56

Busshin B Jap . , l i t . "buddha-body" (Skt . ,

buddhakaya). Busshin originally

Busshin B J ap., lit. "buddha-mind" (for shin,

- kokoro); 1 . the great compassion by which a fully enlightened one (buddha) distinguishes himself. meant the physical body of the histori­ cal Buddha - Shakyamuni; in Mahayana Bud­ dhism the meaning gradually shifted to "the limitless ability and 2. synonym for - bussh8. potential that arises from the full realization of buddha-nature (­ bussh8). It is in this sense that busshin is also used in Zen. Busshin-in B Jap., lit. "seal of buddha-mind";

another expression for - inka-shomei. Short forms of busshin-in are shin-in and butsu-in.

Bussho B Jap., lit. "buddha-nature"; a con­

crete expression for the substrate of perfection and completeness immanent in sentient beings as well as things. According to the Zen teaching, every person (like every other sentient being or thing) has, or better, is buddha-nature, without in general, however, being aware of it or living this awareness as one awakened to his true nature (a buddha) does. This awakening-and a living and dying that is a spontaneous expres­ sion from moment to moment of one's identity with buddha-nature-(- muj8-d8-no-taigen) is the goal of Zen. (Also - Sho.)

As expounded by Hakuun Ryoko Yasutani, a Japa­ nese Zen master of the 20th century, buddha-nature (also dharma-nature, - hossho) is identical with that which i s called emptiness (Jap . , ku ; S kt . , shunyata) in Buddhism. He further says, "\\Tith the experience of enlightenment, which is the source of all Buddhist doctrine, you grasp the world of ku. This world-unfi x ed, devoid of mass, beyond individuality and personality-is outside the realm of imagination. Accordingly, the true substance of things, that is, their Buddha- or Dharma-nature, is inconceivable and in­ scrutable. Since everything imaginable partakes of form or color, whatever one imagines to be Buddha­ nature must of necessity be unreal. Indeed, that which can be conceived is but a picture of Buddha-nature, not Buddha-nature itself. But while Buddha-nature is beyond all conception and imagination, because we ourselves are intrinsically Buddha-nature, it is possi­ ble for us to awaken to it" (Phillip Kapleau 1 9 80, 79). Busso B Jap., lit. "buddha patriarch(s)"; 1 . the

Buddha and the patriarchs (- soshigata), the forefathers of Zen, with whom all the transmis­ sion lineages of all Zen schools originate (cf. Ch'an/Zen Lineage Chart). 2. the Buddha Shakyamuni as the founder of Buddhism.

Chaddar

m B J ap. for - buddha Butsuda m B J ap. for - buddha Butsu

Butsudan B Jap.; shrine or altar as found in a

Buddhist temple or monastery, or, in miniatur­ ized forn1, in many Japanese homes. Butsuden B J ap., lit. "buddha hall"; in large

monastic complexes, a special building in which images of buddhas and bodhisattvas are placed and venerated. Butsudo fa Jap., lit. "buddha way"; 1. the teach­

ing of the Buddha, Buddhism. Butsudo is often used as a synonym for buppo (Skt., - buddha­ dharma), but stresses more strongly the aspect of practical training on the path of enlighten­ ment; 2. the path to - enlightenment or bud­ dhahood; 3. complete enlightenment, buddhahood. In Zen, butsudo is particularly used in the last sense (for example, in the - shiguseigan.)

Butsugen-on B Jap. for Fo-yen-yiian, - Kaku­

shin

Butsuju B - My6zen Ry6nen Butto Kokushi B Japanese Zen master, - J a­

kuhitsu Genko

m B J ap.,

lit. "White-garbed Kannon"; a manifestation of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, who in Japan is called K(w)an­ non or Kanzeon and is often considered female and venerated as such. Byakue-Kannon is a favorite theme in Zen painting. Byakue-Kannon

Byodo B Jap., lit. "sameness"; sameness of na­

ture or nondistinction of all phenomena as expe­ rienced in -+ enlightenment. Byodo-kan B Jap., lit. "view of sameness"; the

experience that all things and beings are identi­ cal or nondistinct in their true nature or bud­ dha-nature (- bussho).

C Celestial kings

m (Chin., t'ien-wang; Jap. ,shi­

tenn6; Skt., devaraja), also called world protec­ tors; four demonic-looking figures, images of which are to be found in every Chinese and Japanese monastery. The celestial kings, who according to myth dwell on the world mountain - Meru are guardians of the four quarters of the world and of the Buddhist teaching. They fight against evil and protect places where goodness is taught. Their bodies are protected by armor and they wear helmets or crowns on their heads.

Each celestial king is associated with one of the directions. The guardian of the North (Skt., Vaish­ ravana) has a green body. In his left hand he holds the parasol-like furled banner of the buddha-dharma; in the right hand he holds either a pagoda (in which Nagarjuna is said to have found the Buddhist scrip­ tures near the sea palace of the -+ niigas) or a silver mongoose vomiting jewels. He is the most important of the world guardians. The guardian of the South (Skt., Vin1dhaka) has a blue body. He brandishes a sword in his battle against darkness (i.e., ignorance, - avidyii). He protects the root of goodness in human beings. The guardian of the East (Skt., Dhritarashtra) has a white body. He plays on a Chinese lute, the sound of which purifi e s the thoughts of men and brings them to tranquility.

The guardian of the West (Skt., Vin1paksha) has a red body. In his right hand, he has a serpent (niiga) before which he holds the wish-fulfilling gem (-+ chintiimani). Although the niigas desire to guard su­ preme treasures, this treasure deserves to be guarded only by enlightened beings and saints. The four celestial kings have been known in China since the fourth century but have been venerated, in their present form only since the T'ang Dynasty. Each has ninety-one sons who help him to guard the ten directions as well as eight generals and other minions who care for the world quarter assigned to him. The practice of placing images of the celestial kings in their own hall in a monastery derives from the following legend: In 7 42 Amoghavajra (- Mi-tsung) invoked the help of the celestial kings by reciting dhiiranzs. Through their support they put an end to the siege of Hsi-an-fu by foreign peoples. The guardian of the North appeared to the soldiers with his retinue in the midst of clouds; mongooses bit through the bow­ strings of the enemy. The guardian of the West re­ pulsed the foe with his terrifying glance. As thanks for this, the emperor issued an edict prescribing that images of the celestial kings be placed in all monas­ teries.

Chaddar GI Hindi; a long strip of cloth that is

wound around the upper torso; a traditional form of Hindu garb. 57

Chado Chado B Jap., lit. "tea way"; one of the Japa­ nese ways of training (- do), which in Japan is often also called cha-no yu, which means "hot tea water" or simply "tea." Both names indicate that it is not a matter of a ceremony that a subject executes with the tea as object, as the inappropriate translation "tea ceremony" would suggest. Here it is a question of only tea, a nondualistic state of consciousness to which this, as well as the other Zen-influenced Japa­ nese training ways, leads. In chado, many arts, such as pottery, architecture, and the way of flowers (- kado) come together to create a total work of art that lasts only momentarily, one in which all the human senses participate yet which stills the dualistic intellect.

state of thinking consciousness); 2. in orders belonging to the -- Ramakrishna Mission, a name appended to that of an initiated brahmachari, as in bhakti-chaitanya, "he whose consciousness is full of devotion" ; 3. Indian mystic ( 1 485- 1 534), born in Nadia (Nabadwip), Bengal; he is also known under the names Gaur­ anga, Gaur, Gora, Nimai, and Krishna-Chai­ tanya.

Chai D Chin., lit. "fasting"; one of the most important festivals of religious Taoism (- tao­ chiao), known since its beginnings. In the official state ritual chai designates a fast before sacri­ fices. In Taoism the term refers to feasts held under the direction of a master, at which a specific number of pupils (between six and thir­ ty-eight) participate. These feasts serve mainly for the confession of sins, which are considered to be the cause of all illness. Every school of religious Taoism celebrates its own fasts. These are particularly important in the -- t'ai-p 'ing tao, -- wu-tou-mi tao, and the - ling-pao p 'ai. One of the best-known ceremo­ nies is the t 'u-t 'an chai-a fast during which the participants smear themselves with charcoal. Chai ceremonies are very complicated, so that those

Chaitanya-Purusha m (Caitanya-Puru�a), Skt.; consciousness of the -- purusha. Although man is essentially absolute consciousness (- chit), the individual uses this consciousness to super­ impose on the essential nature the notion that one is the body and mind, and thereby becomes the -- jzva, who creates the manifest world (- miiyii) by means of thoughts.

participating at them require detailed instruction. They are usually held in the courtyards of Taoist monasteries and may extend over several days. After a platform of strictly prescribed dimensions-its sides limited by ropes-has been erected, the participants, holding hands, step onto it. Their hair is tousled and their faces are covered with coal dust and dirt to signify their remorse. To the accompaniment of a drum, the master of the ceremony implores various deities to attend the feast. There follows a recitation of sins and their possible consequences. At this point the religious ecstasy of the participants reaches its peak. They throw themselves to the ground and roll in the dust to demonstrate their repentance. As the twelve vows of repentance are recited, the participants touch their foreheads to the ground and ask for their sins to be forgiven. The ceremony ends with further rituals. These collective repentance sessions are held three times daily, but participants are allowed only one meal each day. The resultant physical exhaustion produces a psychic collapse, which effects an inner purification.

Chaitanya GJ (Caitanya), Skt.; 1 . spiritually awak­ ened consciouness (i.e., not merely the common

58

Chaitanya was an outstanding scholar who abruptly renounced the world and became an ardent devotee of Krishna. The ---. Vaishnavas regard him as part incar­ nation of Krishna. The ecstatic love that he felt for God embraced sinners and saints of all castes and faiths. For Chai tan ya, ---. Bhakti-Yoga was the simplest path to God-realization and ---. japa one of the most important practices.

Chaitya m (Caitya), Skt. (Pali, cetiya), lit. "sanc­ tuary" ; assembly hall of a Buddhist community for meditation and presentation of teaching. The chaitya hall, which developed from cave mon­

asteries, was originally a three-naved, rectangular room with rows of pillars on both sides and a ---. stupa at its focal point in the apse. The stupa contained relics or, more often, ---. sutra texts written on palm leaves, bark, leaves of metal, etc. The chaitya hall lost its popularity early on and its function was taken over by a room containing a buddha image.

Chaitya-Purusha GJ (Caitya-Puru�), Skt.; accord­ ing to the school of -- Sankhya, the universe is conceived by the union of the cosmic soul (­ purusha) and material nature (- prakriti). The cosmic soul contains within itself all individual souls, which in turn are designated as chaitya­

purusha.

Chakra Gl m (cakra), Skt., lit. wheel, circle; 1 . in Hinduism a circle of worshipers. 2. Term for the centers of subtle or refined energy (- priina, -- kundalinz) in the human energy body (astral body). They concentrate, transform, and distribute the energy that streams through them. Though chakras have correspon­ dences on the coarse, bodily level (for example, heart or solar plexus), these correspondences are not identical with them but belong to another level of _ phenomenal reality. The chakras are

Chakra

Diagram of the chakras with their most important symbols

points where soul and body c0nnect with and interpenetrate each other. The seven principal chakras of Indian - kundalin'i-yoga (these cen­ ters are known under other names in other cultures) lie along the - sushumna, the princi­ pal channel of subtle energy, located in the spinal column, through which kundalin'i rises in the course of spiritual awakening. The first six chakras are located within the coarse body and the seventh outside of it above the crown of the head. When the kundalin'i is aroused, which is generally brought about by the special practices of a yoga based on this system, it rises from the first, i.e., lowest, chakra, activating one chakra after the other, up to the seventh and highest. In every chakra to which the yogi brings the kundalin'i, he experiences a particular kind of bliss (ananda), acquires a particular psychic power (- siddhi), and realizes a particular form of knowledge. Thus the chakras are also known as centers of consciousness (chaitanya). From each chakra radiate a specific number of energy channels (- nadi). Mediumistically gifted persons who can see the human astral body describe the chakras as "lotus blossoms" with varying numbers of pet­ als; this is the way they are traditionally de­ picted in illustrations. The number of petals of a given chakra corresponds to the number of nadis radiating from it. These "lotus blossoms" are in circular motion, hence the impression of a wheel (for example, a whirling wheel of fire) and the name chakra. According to the system of kundalin'i-yoga each chakra corresponds to specific psychophysical properties, which are expressed through various symbols (shapes, col­ ors, mantric syllables, animal symbols, divini­ ties, etc.). The seven principal chakras and their most important attributes are as follows ( 1) Muladhara-chakra. It is located at the lowest part of the sushumna between the root of the genitals and the anus. In the muladhara­ chakra (in the unawakened state), the kunda­ lin'i, which is depicted as a coiled snake (whence the epithet "serpent power"), reposes, provid­ ing power and energy to the other chakras. Four nadis radiate from this chakra, representing the four petals of the lotus. The symbolic shape is a square, its color is yellow, the associated seed syllable is lam, the animal symbol is an elephant with seven trunks, and the divinities are Brahma and Dakin'i, Brahma's - shakti. The yogi who by spiritual practice penetrates to the muladhara-chakra conquers the quality of earth (prithivl-tattva) and no longer fears

59

Chakra

bodily death. Concentrating and meditating on this chakra, he attains "complete knowledge of kundalini and thus the means to arouse it. Arousing it, he receives the darduri-siddhi, the power to levitate and to control breath, con­ sciousness, and seed. His priina enters the cen­ tral brahma-niidi. His sins are wiped away. He knows past, present, and future and enjoys natu­ ral bliss (sahaja-iinanda)" (trans. from German edition of Sivananda 1 93 5). (2) Sviidhishthana-chakra. It lies in the energy channel sushumnii at the root of the genitals. It corresponds to bhuvarloka, and its bodily corre­ spondence is the plexus hypogastricus, which controls the inner organs of elimination and procreation. From its center radiate six niidis, or petals. The symbolic shape is the half-moon, its color is white, the seed syllable is vam, the animal symbol is the crocodile, the associated deities are - Vishnu with the lesser divinity Rakini as shakti. "One who concentrates and meditates on the devatii has no fear of water and completely masters the water element. He acquires various psychic powers, intuitive knowledge, complete mastery of his senses, and knowledge of the astral essences. Desire, wrath, greed, deception, pride, and other impurities are wiped away. The yogi becomes victori o u s over death [­ mrityunjaya-siddhi]'' trans. from ibid.). (3) Manipura-chakra. It lies within the energy channel sushumnii in the navel region. The corresponding bodily center, the solar plexus, controls liver, stomach, and so on. From this chakra radiate ten niidis, the petals of this lotus. The symbolic shape is the triangle, its color is red, the seed syllable is ram, the animal symbol is the ram, the ruling deities are - Rudra and - Lakini. "The yogi who concentrates on this chakra attains satala-siddhi and is able to find hidden treasures. He is freed of all diseases and knows no fear of fire. "Even if he were thrown into a blazing fire, he would remain alive and without fear of death." (ibid.). ( 4) Aniihata-chakra. It lies in the heart region within the sushumnii energy channel. The bodi­ ly center corresponding to it is the plexus cardiacus, which controls the heart. From this chakra radiate fifteen niidis, the petals of this lotus. The symbolic shape is the double-triangle star, its color is grayish blue, the seed syllable is yam, the animal symbol the gazelle, the ruling deities - isha and Kakini. " I n this center, the sound anii hat [60

aniihata-shabda], the sound of - shabda­ brahman, is eviden�. One perceives it very dis­ tinctly when one concentrates on this center. Whoever meditates on this center completely masters the viiyu-tattva (quality of air), which is full of sattvas (harmonious properties). He can fl y through the air and enter the bodies of others (bhuchari-siddhi, kechari-siddhi, kaja-siddhi). Cos­ mic love and other divine qualities come to him" (ibid.). ( 5 ) Vi shu d dh a - c ha k r a . It l i e s in t h e sushu,nnii niidi at the lower end of the throat and is the center of the ether element. From this chakra, which corresponds to the bodily center, plexus laryngeus, radiate sixteen niidis, the pet­ als of this lotus. The symbolic shape is the circle, its color is white, the seed syllable is ham, the animal symbol an elephant with six tusks, the ruling deities are Sada-Shiva and the goddess Shakini. "Concentration on the qualities (tattva) of this chakra is called iikiishi-dhiiranii. One who practices this concentration will not perish even with the destruction of the cosmos (- pra­ laya), for he attains complete knowledge of the four Vedas. He becomes a trikiila-jniini [­ trikiila-jniina] and knows past, present, and fu­ ture" (ibid.). (6) Ajnii-chakra. It lies in the sushumnii niidi and has its physical correspondence in the space between the eyebrows. In Wes tern esoter­ ic systems this chakra is known as the "third eye." This lotus has two petals, i . e. , it has two niidis radiating from its middle. I ts color is milky white, the seed syllable is short a, the associated deities are Parama-Shiva in the form of - Hamsa and the goddess Hakini This chakra, the corresponding physical center of which is the plexus cavernus, is regarded as the seat of consciousness. "One who concentrates on this chakra de­ stroys all karma from previous lives. Thus the benefits of such meditation, which transforms the yogi into a jivanmukti (- jivanmukta), one liberated in this lifetime, are indescribably sig­ nificant. The yogi acquires all the higher and the thirty two lesser siddhis" (ibid.). (7) Sahasriira-chakra. This chakra is located above the crown of the head, thus outside the coarse body, above the upper end of the sushumnii. As the name of the chakra indicates, this lotus has a thousand petals, that is, a thou­ sand, or countless, niidis radiate from it. The physical correspondence of the sahasriira-chak­ ra is the brain, its seed syllable is om, the sacred

Chandrayama

utterance (- pranava). The fifty letters of the Sanskrit alphabet run twenty times around the thousand petals of this lotus so that this lotus blossom represents the totality of all seed sylla­ bles and all chakras, which the sahasrara­ chakra, set above all the other chakras, encom­ passes. It radiates light "like ten million suns" and belongs to a higher level of reality than the other six chakras, which as the six chakras (shat-chakra), constitute the chakras in the nar­ rower sense of the word. The sahasrara-chakra, which is regarded as the abode of the god Shiva, corresponds to cosmic consciousness. "If the kundalinI is unified with the god Shiva in the sahasrara-chakra, the yogi experiences supreme bliss ( - para­ mananda), superconsciousness, and supreme knowledge . He becomes a - brahmavid­ varishta, a perfect jiiani " (ibid.). A detailed exposition of the chakras and their many aspects according to the teaching of kundalinI-yoga can be found in Arthur Avalon's The Serpent Power (see Woodroffe 19 19). Although developed by Hinduism, the system of the chakras also plays a role in Buddhism, especially Tantric Buddhism (- Tantra, Vajrayana, - Tibetan Buddhism). In basic out­ line the system of energy centers (chakras) and connecting channels (nadi) is the same as in kundalinI-yoga. The symbolism connected with it, however, is taken from Buddhist iconogra­ phy, and the meditation practice based on it is significantly different in many respects from that of kundalini-yoga. An exposition of Bud­ dhist chakra-yoga can be found in Govinda 1959. Chakrabandha Gl (Cakrabandha), Skt. ; a state in which all the - chakras are activated, thereby enabling the - kundalinf to rise to the seventh center of subtle energy (sahasrara) and thus bring about illumination. Chakravartin l!I ( cakravartin) Skt., lit. "wheel ruler"; a ruler of whom it is said, "the wheels of his chariot roll unobstructedly everywhere," a world ruler. Four types of chakravartin are dis­ tinguished, symbolized by wheels of gold, silver, copper, and iron. Chakravartin later became an epithet for a buddha whose teaching is universal and whose truth is applicable to the entire cosmos. Chakugo B J ap. - jakugo

Chamatkara Gl (Camatkara), Skt., lit. "aston­ ishment"; a term referring to the uncommon or

unusual, especially that which lies beyond the realm of the senses and thought; that which belongs to the realm of subtle consciousness and is revealed only through intuition. Ch'an l!I B Chin. for - Zen Chanchala Gl (Cancala), Skt. , from cane: "to hop, spring, flicker"; unsteady, unreliable, in­ constant. The term refers to our usual un­ governed thought processes, which flit restlessly from one object to another, constantly mislead­ ing us and putting us in a state of agitation. In the sixth chapter of the Bhagavad-Gzta - Arjuna says to Krishna, "The mind is verily restless, turbu­ lent, strong, and obstinate, and as difficult to control as the wind" (6. 34).

Chandas Gl , or Chhandas, Skt. ; one of the six - Vedangas, the science of prosody. It is con­ cerned not only with the number and length of syllables but also with their "weight," that is, the value ascribed to any particular syllable.

An important authority on this subject was ----+ Pingala, author of the Chandah-Sutra ("manual of prosody"). For a long time, the teachings of the ----+ Vedas were transmitted orally; therefore, each syllable was treated with great attention so that it might be impressed deeply into the student's memory. The teachings were ultimately written down.

Chandi Gl (Cal).nt. Chang Hsiu organized his followers on a strictly hierarchical basis, the most important functions being performed by the presenters of liquid sacrifices (the chi-chiu), whose task it was to determine whether all believers followed the teachings of the - Tao-te ching -the root text of the Chang Hsiu movement, albeit interpreted in a manner peculiar to that school. The religious hierarchy was based on a military model: the chi-chiu were "officers" and their subordinates "de­ mon soldiers."

Chang-hsiung fl (Jap. , Choyii); Chinese master

of the Fuke school of Zen - Kakushin.

Chang Liang II d. 1 87 B.C.E. ; high-ranking official

of the early Han Dynasty and traditional foun­ der of religious Taoism (- tao-chiao). He is one of the first immortals (- hsien) mentioned in

Taoist literature. It is said that to attain immor­ tality he performed physical exercises (- tao­ yin) and abstained from eating grain (- pi-ku).

Chang Lu II 2d century C. E.; one of the founders

of the - wu-tou-mi tao ("Five-Pecks-of-Rice Taoism"). Chang Lu was a grandson of - Chang Tao-ling. In 1 90 C.E. he succeeded with the help of - Chang Hsiu in establishing a strictly hier­ archical politico-religious state, which lasted for thirty years. As a leader he emerged from the circle of his later followers, who venerated him as a miraculous healer. His teachings were based on the view that external well-being is depen­ dent on morality, so that illnesses are ordained by the spirits in retribution for sinful actions. He organized mass ceremonies during which be­ lievers repented of their transgressions and there­ by were cured of their afflictions. For every such cure Chang Lu charged a fee of five pecks of rice, hence the name of the religious school founded by him. He called himself a celestial master (- t'ien-shih)-a title passed on by his descend­ ants to this day.

The state founded by Chang Lu was organized on a strictly military basis. Local communities were led by the presenters of liquid sacrifi c es, known as liba­ tioners (chi-chiu), who officiated at healing ceremonies for the sick, during which sacrifices were made to the three rulers (-- san-kuan), i.e., Heaven, Earth, and Water. Chang Lu adopted these ceremonies from Chang Hsiu. Public life centered on communal dwell­ ings (i-she) in which everyone was provided with food free of charge. A further characteristic feature of Chang Lu's rule was the manner in which transgres­ sions were punished: in the case of the first three transgressions the sinner simply had to regret his evil deeds. A fourth transgression, however, called for active repentance; i.e., the guilty person might be ordered to meet the cost of repairing a thousand paces of public road, or effect the repair in person.

Chang Po-tuan II 9 8 4- 1 08 2 C . E . ; well-known

Taoist master who combined the teachings of Taoism with those of Zen Buddhism and Confu­ cianism. Chang Po-tuan was one of the most important representatives of the alchemical School of the Inner Elixir (- nei-tan), whose aim con­ sisted in attaining spiritual immortality. The inner elixir is not produced by a method of chemical transmutation but rather is said to consist in spiritual enlightenment, in a return to the source (- Ju). Chang Po-tuan explains his teaching in his Wu-chen p 'ien (Essay on the

A wakening to the Truth).

According to the Wu-chen p 'ien, which is couched in the language of the School of the Outer Elixir (­ wai-tan), the ingredients of the inner elixir are "true

63

Ch'ang-sha Ching-ts'en lead" and "true mercury," i.e., the essences of yang and yin. The latter has to be caught and absorbed by the yang; Chang Po-tuan calls this the "marriage of yin and yang." A commentary on the Wu-chen p 'ien de­ scribes the essence of yang to be that which is real, and the essence of yin as that which is unreal. By lying on his bed at midnight of the winter solstice and meditating, the alchemical practitioner marries these two essences within his body with the help of the life energy (- ch 'i), thereby giving birth to an embryo (- sheng-t 'ai), which increases in size proportionate to the growth of yang. By this method the alchemist can attain immortality. The embryo referred to is the new "I," which, being enhghtened and knowing no difference between subject and obj ect, is immortal.

Ch'ang-sha Ching-ts'en fl (Jap., Chosha Kei­ jin), d. 1868; Chinese Ch'an (Zen) master; a student and dharma successor (--t hassu) of --t Nan-ch'iian P'u-yiian (Jap., Nansen Fugan). Af­ ter Ch'ang-sha had received the seal of confirma­ tion (--t inka-shomei) from Nan-chiian, he wan­ dered homelessly through China and expounded the buddha-dharma according to the circum­ stances he encountered. He had two dharma successors. We encounter him in example 3 6 of the --t Pi-yen-lu. There we find Ch'ang-sha in a - mondo with one

of his students: "One day Ch'ang-sha was wandering around in the mountains; then he turned back and came to the gate. The eldest of the monks asked him, 'Master, where did you go and where did you come back from?' "Ch'ang-sha said, 'I'm coming from a walk in the mountains.' "The elder monk said, 'How far did you go?' "Ch'ang-sha said, 'First I followed the fragrance of the herbs; then I came back following falling flower petals.' "The elder monk said, 'That sounds a lot like spring. ' "Ch'ang-sha said, 'It really goes beyond the autumn dew that drips from the lotus blossoms. ' "

Ch'ang-sheng pu-ssu ii Chin. , lit. long-living, nondying; immortality, the goal of various Taoist practices. Immortality can be either physical or spiritual. The idea of physical immortality goes back to the very beginnings of Taoism and its attainment is the aim of most schools of reli­ gious Taoism (--t tao-chiao). The followers of the alchemical School of the Outer Elixir (--t wai- tan) strove to become immortals (--t hsien) by swallowing various life-prolonging sub­ stances. Other practices for attaining physical immortality were abstention from eating grain (pi-ku), various breathing exercises, gymnastics (--t tao-yin), meditation, and certain sexual prac­ tices (--t fang-chung shu). A person who is physi-

64

cally immortal ascends to Heaven (--t fei­ sheng) in broad daylight or dies in appearance only; when his coffin is opened, it is found to be empty (--t shih-chieh). The philosophical Taoism of --t Lao-tzu and --t Chuang-tzu strives for spiritual immortality, i.e., enlightenment and the attainment of one­ ness with the highest principle (--t Tao)-a state in which the distinction between life and death is dissolved and yin combines with yang. The followers of ihe inner elixir (--t nei-tan) also strive for spiritual immortality. Spiritual im­ mortality implies not only freedom from life and death but also from time space and sexual identity; for that reason immortals may be de­ picted as either male or female. Common immortality symbols found in Taoist­ inspired art are a crane, a gnarled staff of wood, pine trees, peaches (--t Hsi wang-mu), the mush­ room of immortality (--t ling-chih), the god of immortality (--t Shou-lao, --t San-hsing), etc.

It may be difficult to determine which type of immortality a particular school or practice strives for, because many texts employ esoteric terminology that can be interpreted either way. Even some passages in texts of philosophical Taoists such as - Chuang-tzu and - Lieh-tzu can be taken as pointing toward physical immortality: descriptions of places such as K'un-lun or the isles of the immortals (- P'eng-lai, Ying-chou, - Fang-chang), which are considered to be dwelling places of immortals, can be understood either abstractly or concretely. Ch'in Shih Huang-ti, the first Chinese emperor, organized several-albeit unsuc­ cessful-expeditions with the aim of discovering the mysterious isles of the immortals and obtaining the draught of immortality. Some commentators consider such passages to be descriptive of a spiritual journey into the center or essence of man. This ambiguity applies to alchemical texts in gener­ al; e.g., followers of the inner elixir (- nei-tan) may employ the language of Outer Alchemy (- wai-tan) to describe processes of consciousness. In the early stages of Chinese alchemy the inner and outer methods for achieving immortality were coexistent and of equal importance until ca. the 6th century C.E. when immor­ tality increasingly came to be considered as being of a spiritual nature; instead of trying to manufacture a pill of immortality from gold, cinnabar, and other chemical substances, alchemists were almost exclu­ sively concerned with developing the inner gold, the golden flower, the sacred embryo (- sheng-t 'a i). By the 1 3th century c.E. the Outer Elixir School had faded into insignificance, although its language continued to be used. The followers of the Inner Alchemy despised those who tried to attain immortality by the transmu­ tation of chemical substances. The influence of Bud­ dhism-above all, Zen-decisively contributed toward the spiritualization of the search for immortality, so

Chao-chou Ts'ung-shen that ancient alchemical texts were consistently inter­ preted in accordance with the teachings of the Inner Elixir School. In the search for immortality specific sexual tech­ niques played an important part in many schools of religious Taoism and were practiced in public (- ho­ chi) from the 2d to the 7th century, when they were forced to retreat to the private domain under the pressure of Confucianist morality but continued to be performed as a preliminary to Taoist meditation.

Chang Tao-ling Ii also known as Chang Ling,

34- 156 C.E.; founder of - wu-tou-mi tao, one of the most important schools of religious Taoism (- tao-chiao). Toward the middle of the 2d century Chang Tao-ling practiced as a healer in Szechwan Province, curing the sick by the reci­ tation of magical formulae and by serving them sacred water. His fee for each such treatment consisted of five pecks of rice, so that the school founded by him came to be known as Five­ Pecks-of-Rice Taoism. His followers venerated him as a celestial master (- t'ien-shih), a title borne by his descendants to this day.

According to legend, Chang Tao-ling carried out alchemical experiments over a period of many years and in the end even succeeded in producing a pill of immortality. Upon swallowing this pill, his face be­ came as fresh and rosy as that of a young boy, despite the fact that he was sixty years old at the time. It is said that he received the instructions for producing such a pill and for healing the sick from - Lao-tzu in person, together with a book of spells for driving out demons. Chang worked as a healer to finance his expensive alchemical experiments and attracted a great number of followers. He died in Szechwan province at a ripe old age and allegedly ascended to Heaven in broad daylight (- fei-sheng).

Chang Tsung-yen Ii d. 1292 C.E.; celestial mas­

ter (- t 'ien-shih) in the thirty-sixth generation. Chang was granted the title of celestial master in 1276 C.E. by the Emperor Khubilai, together with rulership over all Taoist believers south of the Yang-tse river. In 1288 C.E. the emperor again summoned him to court and demanded to see the jade seal and sword that, according to legend, had been passed from one celestial mas­ ter to the next since the time of the Han Dynas­ ty. The emperor considered the survival of these treasures to be a sign from Heaven and declared that the title and office of a t'ien-shih could be passed on by inheritance. The importance of the Chang family line in religious Taoism rests on this pronouncement (- Chang Tao-ling). Ch'an-na B Chin. for Skt. dhyiina; - Zen Ch'an-shih B Chin. for - zenji

Ch'an-tsung B Chin. (Jap., zenshu), lit. "the

Ch'an school"; Ch'an (Zen) as a school of Bud­ dhism (- Zen, exoteric). The Chin. tsung (Jap., shu) is often translated as "sect." This overly stresses the sense of separating or splintering from the mainstream of a religion and-as the form sectarian shows clearly-has too negative a connotation. The various schools of Bud­ dhism rather complement each other than con­ tradict and conflict with each other; they are different manners of expressing the -- buddha­ dharma, suited for bringing people of different types onto the path. Officially in Japan there are only the -- Rinzai school, the -- Soto school, and the - Obaku school and no "Zen school"; nevertheless the term zenshu is used in Japan, like ch 'an tsung in China, as a general concept.

Chao-chou Ts'ung-shen B (J ap. , J o shu J u ­

shin), 7 7 8-897; one of the most important Ch'an (Zen) masters of China; a student and dharma successor (- hassu) of Nan-chi.ian P'u-yi.ian (Jap., Nansen Fugan). The great Japanese mas­ ter Dogen Zenji, who applied the strictest possi­ ble standards in evaluating Zen masters, called him deferentially "J oshu, the old buddha." Chao­ chou had thirteen dharma successors, but since there were few who equaled him, let alone surpassed him, in profundity of experience, his lineage died out after a few generations. The life story of Chao-chou is an especially good example of what Zen masters repeatedly stress-that enlightenment is only the begin­ ning of real training on the path of Zen. Chao­ chou had already experienced profound enlight­ enment at the age of 18; following that he trained himself for forty more years under his master Nan-ch'i.ian. After the latter's death, he set about wandering in order to deepen his experience further through - hossen with other Ch'an masters. It is said that during this period he sought out as many as eighty of the dharma successors of his "grandfather in Ch'an," _ Ma-tsu Tao-i (Jap. , Baso Doitsu). Finally, at the age of 80, he settled in a small Ch'an monastery in the town of Chao-chou. There at last students gathered around him and he led them on the path of Ch'an until his death at the age of 120. Chao-chou had a way of instructing his students that people called "Chao-chou's lip and mouth Ch'an." In a soft voice, often almost whispering, he answered his students' questions with short, simple pronounce­ ments. His words were, however, very powerful; it is said they were able to cut through the deluded feeling and thinking of his students like a sharp sword. Many famous koans originated with Chao-chou, among them

65

Chariya-pitaka the one used by Master -+ Wu-men Hui-k'ai (Jap., Mumon Ekai) as the first example in his renowned koan collection, the Wu-men-kuan. "A monk once asked Master Chao-chou: 'Does a dog really have buddha-nature, or not?' "Chao-chou said, ' Wu, ' " [Jap., mu]. Since the time when words of the old masters began being used as a means of training (-+ koan), this so-called koan mu has helped thousands of Zen stu­ dents to a first enlightenment experience(-+ kensho, -+ satori). Still today it is given to many Zen students as their first koan.

We encounter Master Chao-chou in examples 1 , 7, 1 1 , 1 4, 1 9, 3 1 , and 3 7 of the - Wu-men­ kuan, as well as in examples 2, 9, 30, 4 1 , 45, 52, 5 7, 58, 59, 64, 80, and 96 of the - Pi-yen-lu. The biography and the record of the words of Master Chao-chou are found in the Chao-chou Chen­

chi-ch 'an-shih yu-lu hsing-chuan.

For the incident that led to the enlightenment of the eighteen-year-old Chao-chou in a -+ mondo with his master Nan-ch'iian ( Wu-men-kuan 1 9), -+ Heijoshin kore do. For Chao-chou's famous answer to a monk's question about the meaning of Bodhidharma's coming out of the west (-+ seirai-no-i), -+ mondo.

Chariya-pitaka

aJan

m Skt. - Khuddaka-nikaya m (Pali,

siva­ thika), a part of the practice of - mindfulness of body within the framework of the four foun­ dations of mindfulness (- Satipatthana). Charnel ground contemplation

The siitra text explaining this practice is as follows: "Monks, it is as though a monk were to see a corpse that had been thrown on the charnel ground, one, two, or three days after death-bloated, bluish, festering­ as though he saw this and related it to his own body: 'Also this, my own body, has a like destiny, a similar lot, and cannot evade it.' Or further, monks, as though the monk saw a corpse that had been thrown on the chamel ground as it was being devoured by crows, sea gulls, vultures, dogs, jackals, or by many kinds of worms, . . . as though he saw a skeleton held together by sinews on which flesh and blood still hung, . . . a bloodstained skeleton held together by sinews from which the flesh was gone, . . . bones loosed from the sinews, scattered in all directions, here a bone from the hand, there a bone from the foot, there a legbone, there the spine, there the skull, . . . bleached bones resembling shellfish, . . . heaped-up bones after the passage of many years, . . . mouldered bones, crumbling into dust: as though he saw this and related it to his own body: 'Also this body has such a destiny, a similar lot, and cannot evade it' " (Trans. from Nyanatiloka 1 956).

Charvaka Cl (Carvaka), Indian philosopher whose

precepts are founded upon skepticism and ma­ terialism. The writing presumed to be his princi­ pal work, Biirhaspati-Sutra ( ca. 600 B.C.E.), is 66

lost to us, but citations from it are found in various eighth-century Buddhist and Jain texts (- Jainism). The philosophical school named for him advocates the pursuit of happiness and perfection in the here and now. Charya B J ap. - ajari Chatur-Ashrama Cl (Catur-Asrama), Skt.; the four

(chatur) life stages of a Hindu (- iishrama).

m (cat ur-yon i ) ,

S k t . ; fo u r (chatur) kinds ofbirth by which the beings of the six modes of existence (- gati) can be reborn: ( I )jariiyuja, born alive (mammals, humans); (2) andaja, egg-born (birds, reptiles); (3) sam­ svedaja, moisture- or water-born (fish, worms); ( 4) aupapiiduka, born by metamorphosis, i.e., not by a " mother" but rather through the power of - karma alone. In the last way - devas, pretas, - hell beings (- naraka), and beings of a newly arisen world are born.

Chatur-yoni Cl

Chela Cl

m really

cheta ( ceta), Skt., lit. "ser­

vant"; a general word for student, but especially a spiritual seeker who is expecting teaching from his guru and therefore serves him.

The relationship between guru and chela can only be fruitful if it goes beyond the mere teacher-student relationship in that the student manifests complete trust in his master. To make this possible, the student must fi r st critically examine whether he has found the right master.

Ch'eng-huang II Chin.; protective deity of a

city. In Taoist belief these deities ward off disas­ ters and catastrophes and protect the inhabi­ tants of cities under their care, who may also supplicate them. In periods of drought, the ch 'eng-huang cause rain to fall and the sun to shine again after a thunderstorm. They grant a plentiful harvest and ensure the affluence of the citizens. In addition, the ch 'eng-huang act as guides of the souls of the departed. A Taoist priest who wishes to help the souls (- hun, - po) of a dead person out of Hell, must inform the protective deity of the city by submitting a document. The ch 'eng-huang tradition dates back to ancient times and was adopted by Taoism, which admitted these city protectors to the ranks of its most important deities. As a rule, prominent citizens who devoted their energies to the public good were also venerated as ch 'eng-huang. Toward the end of the 1 0th century it became the custom to accord to city deities the title king or duke, depending on the importance of the city in question. The feast day of a city deity was an important festival in the life of a city and was celebrat­ ed with parades, at which a statue of the ch 'eng-huang was carried through the streets.

Chenrezi Cheng-i tao Ii Chin., lit. "Way of Right Uni­ ty"; collective term for all Taoist schools that use talismans, amulets, etc. as part of their religious practice (- fu-lu p 'ai). Next to the ch 'uan-chen tao (Way of the Realization of Truth) the cheng-i tao was the most important branch of religious Taoism (- tao-chiao) since the time of the Yuan Dynasty. The beginnings of the cheng-i tao go back to the Five-Pecks-of-Rice Taoism (- wu-tou-mi tao) founded by Chang Tao-ling during the Eastern Han Dynasty. During the T'ang and Sung dynasties the cheng-i tao school combined with the - ling-pao p 'ai (School of the Magic Jewel) and several other schools. In 1304 C.E. one of Chang Tao-ling's descendants in the thirty-eighth generation w,1s accorded the title leader of right unity, because he led several religious schools that made use of talismans. Since then all schools using talismans are con­ sidered to be part of the Way of Right Unity, in whose practices exorcisms, talismans, spells, and other magical elements play an important role. The priests of the cheng-i tao, unlike those of the ch 'uan-chen tao, may marry. The cheng-i tao still has active followers in Taiwan and Hong Kong. Cheng-i tao priests pass on their magical skills through inheritance. The believers visit the priests to obtain talismans, which protect the wearer against evil spirits, sorcery, sickness, fire, and other disasters. The tao-shih of this school also officiate at various ceremo­ nies, e.g. , to cause the soul of a dead person to return into that person's body or to guide a dead person through Hell. Some tao-shih practice as spiritualists and soothsayers, basing their prophecies on astrology, physiognomy, or the Book of Change(_s) (- 1-ching).

Ch'eng-kuan

m - Hua-yen school

Chen-hsieh Ch'ing-liao B ( J a p . , S h i n gets u Sh6ry6 [Seiry6 ]), I 089- 1 15 1; Chinese Ch'an (Zen) master of the - Soto school; a student and dharma successor (- hassu) of - Tan-hsia Tzu-ch'un (Jap., Tanka Shijun) and the master of T'ien-t'ung Ju-ching (Jap., Tendo Nyojo), who in turn was the master of - D6gen Zenji. Chen-jen Ii Chin., lit. "true [pure] human be­ ing"; ideal figure of philosophical and religious Taoism. The term was first employed by Chuang-tzu and refers to a person who has realized the truth within himself and thus at­ tained the - Tao. The true man is free of all limitations, has abandoned all concepts and attained total freedom: Chuang-tzu ( chap. 6) describes the true or pure men as follows:

"The pure men of old acted without calculation, not seeking to secure results. They laid no plans. There­ fore, failing, they had no cause for regret; succeeding, no cause for congratulation. And thus they could scale heights without fear; enter water without becoming wet; fire without feeling hot. So far had their wisdom advanced toward Tao. The pure men of old slept without dreams, and waked without anxiety. They ate without discrimination, breathing deep breaths. For pure men draw breath from their innermost depths; the vulgar only from their throats. The pure men of old did not know what it was to love life or to hate death. They did not rejoice in birth, nor strive to put off dissolution. Quickly come, and quickly go-no more. They did not forget whence it was they had sprung, neither did they seek to hasten their return thither. Cheerfully they played their allotted parts, waiting patiently for the end. This is what is called not leading the heart astray from Tao, nor to let the human seek to supplement the divine . . . . Such men are in mind absolutely free; in demeanour, grave; in expression, cheerful. If it is freezing cold, it seems to them like autumn; if blazing hot, like spring. Their passions occur like the four seasons. They are in harmony with all creation, and none know the limits thereof." (See Giles 1 96 1 . )

The - Huai-nan-tzu says that the pure man is "neither born, nor does he die; he is not empty, nor is he full." The Book of Supreme Peace (- T'ai-p 'ing ching) places the chen-jen above the immortals (- hsien) and below the gods (- shen) in the Taoist hierarchy. Since the T'ang Dynasty chen-jen has been an honorary title of historical personalities and Taoist masters. The Emperor T'ang Hsi.ian­ tsung bestowed upon Chuang-tzu the title "Pure Man from the Southern Land of Blossoms" (Nan-hua chen-jen) from which the title of his collected writings (Nan-hua chen-ching) derives.

Chenrezi m (sPyan-ras-gzigs), Tib., lit. "look­ ing with clear eyes"; the Tibetan form of Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of compas­ sion. He is considered as the patron and protec­ tor of the "land of snow," and important events and personalities of - Tibetan Buddhism are regarded as connected with Chenrezi's action. Legend sees in him the founding father of the Tibetan people; also Kjng Songtsen Gampo (reigned 620-49), who is responsible for the introduction of Buddhism into Tibet, is re­ garded as an incarnation of Chenrezi. Among the countless persons who over the centuries have been venerated as incarnations (­ tulku) of Avalokiteshvara are the - dalai lama and the - Karmapa. The Sanskrit formula associated with him (- om mani pad,ne hum; Tib. form, om ,nani

67

Chen-ta-tao chiao

peme hung) was the first mantra introduced in

Tibet and is most widespread there. In one of the most important iconographical forms, Chen­ rezi is represented standing with eleven heads and a thousand arms. In this form, he is the main focus of particular meditation practices (-+ siidhana) that are connected with periods of fasting. In his best-known form, however, he has four arms and sits on a lotus; it is this manifesta­ tion to which -+ Thangtong Gyelpo devoted an imporant meditation practice. Chen-ta-tao chiao Ii Chin., lit. "Teaching of the True Great Tao"; school of religious Taoism founded in 1 142 C.E. by Liu Te-jen. Based on the concepts of the -+ Tao-te ching, this school stresses the ideals of unmotivated action (-+ wu­ wei), contentment, and altruism. The adherents of the chen-ta-tao chiao strive toward the good and endeavor to avoid evil. Life-prolonging and magical practices play no part in this school, in which a strong Confucianist influence can be felt. The chen-ta-tao chiao reached its peak in the 13th century but faded out soon after. Chen-tsung D 968- 1022 C.E.; Sung Dynasty em­ peror who, in 10 12 C.E., instituted the venera­ tion of the Jade Emperor -+ Yii-huang after allegedly having received a letter from him. In 10 16 C.E. Chen-tsung granted the use of a large area of land on Dragon-and-Tiger Mountain (-+ Lung-hu-shan) to the then heavenly master (-+ t'ien-shih). It is said that this mountain continued to be an abode of heavenly masters until the year 1949. In addition, Chen-tsung promoted the compilation of the Taoist canon (-+ Tao-tsang), which first appeared in print in 10 19 C.E. Ch'en T'uan Ii ca. 906-8 9 C.E.; Taoist scholar well-versed in the teachings of both the inner and outer elixir (-+ nei-tan, -+ wai-tan), Ch'en lived as a hermit on Hua-shan, one of the sacred Taoist mountains, where h� is said to have carved the diagram of the ultimateless ( wu-chi­ t 'u) into the rock face near where he meditated on the Inner Alchemy. Ch'en T'uan is also considered to be the creator of the diagram of primordial heaven (hsien-t'ien-t'u). These two diagrams influenced the neo-Confucian philos­ opher Chou I-tun as he worked on his diagram of the supreme ultimate (-+ t 'ai-chi-t'u). Chang Chung-yi.ian interprets Ch'en T'uan's dia­ gram of the ultimateless as follows: "The diagram consisted of several tiers of circles describing the process of meditation. The fi r st tier (bottom row in the illustration) was a circle labeled,

68

@

Compounding the spiritual conscious­ ness back to nonbeing and returning to the ultimateless Unifying K'an : : with Li

Five breaths assemble at the source

0 0

Compounding essence into breath and breath into spiritual consciousness

Gate of Dark Femininity

The Diagram of Ultimatelessness in Lao-tzu's expression, 'The Gate of the Dark Femi­ ninity,' which is the Foundation of Heaven and Earth. The next tier is another circle, illustrating the process of compounding - Ching (essence) into - Ch'i (breath) and then into -- Shen (spirit). Ching, ch 'i and shen are the fundamental concepts of meditative breathing . . . . This tier [thus] shows how the energy from the lowest center of the body [- tan-t 'ien] is transformed in to the circulation of breath and . . . further into spiritual consciousness. The following, or middle, tier of the diagram consists of the Five Elements [- wu-hsing]: fire and wood on the left, metal and water on the right, and earth in the middle. They symbolise the five movers in the lesser circulation ( of the breath), which ultimately reach the grand circulation. The fourth tier shows the unification of k 'an and Ii in the form of a circle, which is divided into yin and yang. The fluctua­ tion of yin and yang [represents] the grand circulation through the entire body. Both the five movers in the small circulation and yin and yang in the grand circula­ tion lead to shen, or spiritual consciousness. The tier at the top of the diagram shows the compounding of shen back to hsu, or nonbeing. "Thus all things return to ultimatelessness (wu­ chi). The spiritual consciousness is the ultimate of the individual, and nonbeing is ultimatelessness. In other words: the spiritual consciousness is compounded

Ch'ien and K'un back to absolute nonbeing, the origin of all things." (Chang 1 963, p. 1 6 5) Chetas CJ (Cetas), Skt.; intelligence, thinking con­

se1ousness. Chetasika

m (cetasika) Skt., Pali; factors of mind

or consciousness, the mental concomitants con­ nected with a simultaneously arising conscious­ ness and conditioned by it. Chetasika is one of the categories of the -----+ Abhidharma; it includes feeling ( vedana), perception, and fifty mental formations (- samskara). Ch'i D Chin., lit. air, vapor, breath, ether, ener­

gy; also "temperament, strength, atmosphere"; central concept in Taoism and Chinese medi­ cine. In the Taoist view ch 'i is the vital energy, the life force, the cosmic spirit that pervades and enlivens all things and is therefore synonymous with primordial energy (-----+ yuan-ch'i, - nei­ ch 'i). In the human body ch 'i is accumulated in an area near the navel, known as the ocean of breath ( -----+ ch 'i-hai), and must be carefully tend­ ed to prevent it from being wasted, which results in sickness or death. Ch 'i as life energy is a central concept in Taoist breathing exercises aimed at strengthen­ ing and increasing this energy (- hsing-ch 'i, fu-ch 'i, yen-ch 'i, lien-ch 'i, -----+ t 'ai-hsi). By training his ch 'i a Taoist adept can acquire extraordinary abilities, which, incidentally, play an important part in the various martial arts. The meditative breathing techniques of the Inner Alchemy (-----+ nei-tan) also work with the ch'i, with the aim of purifying and transmuting it. In his Pao-p 'u-tzu the great Taoist alchemist - Ko Hung says concerning the importance of ch 'i, "Man is in ch 'i and ch 'i is within each human being. Heaven and Earth and the ten thousand things all require ch 'i to stay alive. A person that knows how to allow his ch 'i to circulate (- hsing-ch 'i) will preserve himself and banish illnesses that might cause him harm."

In addition to this understanding of ch 'i as cosmic energy, ch'i also designates the breath­ the air we breathe in and out-and in this sense is known as outer ch 'i (- wai-ch 'i). Ch 'i is moreover an important element in the teachings of the neo-Confucianist philosopher - Chu Hsi, who distinguishes between ch 'i as the mate­ rial aspect of things and Ii as their principle, or inner aspect. Only in combination with the form-giving power of ch 'i can this principle (Ii) manifest in the visible realm. In Chinese medicine ch 'i designates the general life energy that circulates through the body along the so­ called meridians and regulates the body's main-

tenance and growth. Disruptions or blockages in the circulation of ch 'i are the cause of illness. In addition, ch 'i designates the breath. In any case, these two aspects of ch 'i are considered to be inseparable. Lastly, ch 'i refers to the emo­ tions and-in a more modern view-to the activity of the body's neurohormonal systems.

In the Taoist view the world is an expression of the Tao-i.e., the One in which yin and yang intermingle with the primordial ch 'i (- yuan-ch 'i). Heaven and Earth came into being through the separation of yin and yang, and their renewed intermingling caused the ten thousand things-i.e., all things and creatures­ (- wan-wu) to appear. A Taoist text- The Experience ofthe Golden Flower -contains the following passage: "Before Heaven and Earth were separate, there was only the indefinable ONE. This ONE was divided and yin and yang came into existence. That which received yang-ch 'i rose up bright and clear and became Heaven; that which received yin-ch 'i sank down heavy and obscure and became Earth; and that which received both yin-ch 'i and yang­ ch 'i in right proportions became man." (Translated from Miyuki 1 9 84, p. 1 8 5. See also Wilhelm 1 93 8 .) Like human beings, Heaven and Earth breathe and as with human beings, the inhaled breath is clean, and the exhaled breath is stale. For that reason each day is divided into two periods. The period of the living ch 'i (Chin. sheng-ch 'i)-when Heaven and Earth in­ hale-runs from midnight to noon. The period of the dead ch 'i (Chin. ssu-ch 'i)-when Heaven and Earth exhale-from noon to midnight. According to the relevant Taoist teachings breathing exercises should only be performed during the living ch 'i period, be­ cause only then can positive energy be absorbed. -

-

Chid-Abhasa CJ (Cid-Abhasa), Skt., lit. "appear-

ing like consciousness"; absolute consciousness ( -----+ chit) reflected in mental activity and igno­ rance; the consciousness of the individual soul, or - 1zva. Chidakasha CJ (Cidakasa), Skt. ; the realm of

the all-pervading, absolute consciousness (­ chit), which is identical with - brahman.

Chidambaram CJ Skt. ; 1 . famed temple pilgrim­

age site in South India; 2. an epithet for God, who permeates everything with his consciousness. Chidatman CJ (Cidatman), Skt. ; consciousness

of the - at,nan, the Self. This consciousness (- chit) is identical with - brahman, or abso­ lute consciousness. Ch'ien and K'un D Chin. ; the first and second

hexagram of the _, 1-ching (Book of Change[ s]) or two of the eight trigrams (- pa-kua). The ch 'ien hexagram consists of six yang (unbroken) lines and the ch 'ien trigram of three yang lines, thus

69

Chien-chen

representing pure yang, Heaven and the creative principle. The k'un hexagram consists of six and the k 'un trigram of three yin lines and symbol­ izes pure yin, the Earth and the receptive principle:

__ Ch'ien

==

K'un -- Ch'icn - - K'un

Ch 'ien and k 'un are the gateway to transfor­

mation and considered to be the parents of the remaining hexagrams, which are combinations of yin and yang lines. In the language of Taoist alchemy (- nei-tan, wei-tan) ch'ien and k'un refer respectively to the furnace and cauldron (melting pot) or to the head and belly of the practitioner.

Ch 'ien is furthermore associated with external fea­ tures of the physical body such as the ears, eyes, nose, mouth, and tongue, whilst K 'un is said to be related to the internal organs such as the heart, lungs, kidneys, and pancreas. Chien-chen

m Jap., Ganjin, 688-763; Chinese

Vinaya master, who went to Japan at the invita­ tion of the Japanese emperor and founded there the - Ritsu school (School of Discipline) in 7 54.

Chien-chen entered the - sangha as a child; he spent many years wandering and studied the entire Buddhist canon. In his home city Yang-chou he propa­ gated his teaching, in which particular emphasis was laid on the rules of the Vinaya. He was invited to Japan in 742; however, the Chinese emperor, a convinced Taoist, denied him permission to go. Five secret at­ tempts to leave China failed. During this time Chien­ chen lost his eyesight. But in 754 he finally reached Japan where the Japanese emperor put a monastery in Nara at his disposal. All the members of the imperial family had themselves ordained by Chien-chen. He built an ordination hall on the Chinese model, which became the center for the Japanese ----. Ritsu school.

Chien-hsing fl Chin. for - kensho

Chien-yuan Chung-hsing fl ( J a p . , Z e n g e n

Chiik6); a Chinese Ch'an (Zen) master of rough­ ly the ninth century; a student and dharma successor (- hassu) of - Tao-wu Yiian-chih (Jap., Dogo Enchi). He appears in example 5 5 of the - Pi-yen-lu.

Chien-yuan is considered the dharma successor of Master Tao-wu, although according to example 55 of the Pi-yen-lu, he first came to a glimpse of enlighten­ ment after the death of Tao-wu under Master ----. Shih-shuang Ch'ing-chu (Jap., Sekiso Keisha).

70

Ch'i-hai D Chin., lit. "ocean of breath"; a point

situated two to three fingers' breadths below the navel near the lower cinnabar field (- tan­ t'ien), where - ch 'i, the vital energy, is stored. The ch 'i-hai is of special importance for a prac­ tice called embryonic breathing (- t'ai-hsi), as well as in traditional Chinese medicine. Chih-i

m fl also called Chih-che (Jap., Chisha),

5 3 8-97, the actual founder of the - T'ien-t'ai school of Chinese Buddhism, who is considered its fourth patriarch. Chih-i was the first in the history of Chinese Buddhism to elaborate a complete, critical, and systematic classification of the Buddhist teach­ ing. He did this in order to explain the many and partially contradictory doctrines of Buddhism. As for Buddhist practice, he developed in his works the practice of - chih-kuan, which is still today one of the most widespread meditation practices in Chinese and Japanese Buddhism. His most important works are Mo-ho chih-kuan

(Great Shamatha-vipashyanii), Liu-miao fa­ men ( The Six Wondrous Gates ofDharma), and T'ung-meng chih-kuan (Shamatha-vipashyanii for Beginners). These are among the most widely read works on meditation in China.

Chih-i is said already to have shown special gifts as a child. After hearing it only once, he could recite an entire siitra by heart. According to his biography, he comprehended the past of all beings when he saw a valuable library destroyed by troops. This experience moved him to enter the monastic order and to become a student of the third patriarch Hui-ssu (51 5-77), under whom he studied Vinaya texts. In addition he occupied himself with the _, Lotus Sutra and learned various methods of - dhy[ma. In 567 he went to Nanking, where he began teaching. In 576 he went into retreat on T'ien-t'ai Mountain (hence the name of his school). His fame was soon so great that the emperor commanded the tax revenues of an entire district to be used for the maintenance of his monastery. He received the honorary title of chih-che ("man of wis­ dom"). Chih-i died on T'ien-t'ai Mountain.

Chih-jen D Chin., lit. "perfected human being";

one of the names used by - Chuang-tzu to describe his ideal human being. Chih-jen is employed synonymously with - chen-jen, shen-jen and - sheng-jen. A perfected human being has realized unity with the Tao and is free of all limitations and concepts. The Chuang-tzu (chap. 2) describes the perfect man (through the words of Wang I) as follows: "The Perfect Man (chih-jen) is a spiritual being. Were the ocean itself scorched up, he would not feel hot. Were the Milky Way frozen hard, he would not feel cold. Were the mountains to be riven with thunder and the great

Ch'i-kung deep to be thrown up by storm, he would not tremble. In such case, he would mount upon the clouds of heaven and, driving the sun and moon before him, would pass beyond the limits of this external world where death and life have no victory over man-how much less what is bad for him?" (Giles 1 961 ).

Chih-kuan l!1 C h in. (Skt. , shamatha-vipa­

shyana; J ap., shikan); tranquility and insight; special meditation methods of the - T'ien-t'ai school. Chih (shamatha) refers to calming of restless mind and freeing it from distinctions; kuan (vipashyanii) refers to contemplation, ex­ amination, and insight into the truths of Bud­ dhism. In some works, these methods, which are very widespread forms of meditation practice in China and Japan, are described in complete detail. An example is the Tung-meng chih-kuan (Shamatha- Vipashyanafor Beginners) by Chih-i. This practice is divided into preparatory and main parts. The preparatory practices are divided into achieve­ ment of favorable preconditions; diminution of de­ sires; overcoming hindrances (- nzvarana); regulation of eating, sleeping, body, breath, and mind; observ­ ance of - shzlas. In the main part the various kinds of chih-kuan are practiced. Three kinds of chih practice are distin­ guished: fixing the attention on the tip of the nose; taming the mind by interrupting rising thoughts as they begin; apprehension of conditioned arising (­ pratztya-samutpiida) and emptiness (- shfmyatii). Kuan can be practiced in five ways: contemplation of impurities (- ashubha); contemplation of kindness (- maitrf) in order to do away with hatred and resentment; contemplation of the limitations of the realms of existence (- gati) in order to overcome belief in an ego; contemplation of the emptiness of all dharmas. These contemplations can be carried out during any bodily activity. In the controlling of the six sense organs, which follows, chih represents recognition of the unreality of all existence and avoidance of the arising of repulsion and desire. Kuan is the turning inward of the mind during the process of perception in order to become aware of the formlessness of the mind. Definitive realization takes place through the meditation on the unreal, which leads to the realization of shunyatii. This is possible through insight into the - Middle Way.

Chih-men Kuang-tsu B (Jap., Chimon Koso),

d. 103 1; Chinese Ch'an (Zen) master of the U mmon school; a student and dharma succes­ sor (- hassu) of - Hsiang-lin Ch'eng-yiian (Jap., Ky6rin Ch6on) and the master of Hsiieh-tou Ch'ung-hsien (Jap., Setch6 Ju.ken). Chih-men, whom we meet in examples 2 1 and 90 of the Pi-yen-lu, had thirty dharma succes­ sors. He was one of the first masters of the Ch'an (Zen) tradition to celebrate the words of the old

masters in poetic form-an art at which his student Hsiieh-tou was even better than his teacher.

Example 90 of the Pi-yen-lu shows us Master Chih­ men in a - mondo with one of his students: "A monk asked Chih-men, 'What is the wisdom body?' "Chih-men said, 'The Venus mussel bears the bright moon [in it].' "The monk asked, 'And what is the effect of wis­ dom?' "Chih-men said, 'The female hare gets pregnant. ' "

Chih Tao-lin l!1 - Chih-tun Chih-tun l!1 also known as Chih Tao-lin, 3 14-

66; one of the most important monks of the 4th century and founder of the so-called Prajiia school of early Chinese Buddhism, the School of Appearance As Such (- six houses and seven schools). Chih-tun was the first to reinterpret Ii, a central notion in Chinese philosophy. Accord­ ing to the classical view, Ii means the cosmic order; Chih-tun, in contrast, saw in Ii the su­ preme truth, the ultimate principle, "suchness" (- tathatii). This meaning for Ii was adopted by other schools in the course of the development of Buddhism in China (- Hua-yen school). Chih-tun was also known as a student of the Chuang-tzu and enjoyed great popularity in Taoist circles. Chih-yen l!1 - Hua-yen school Chiji fa Jap. - ino Chi-kuan B Chin. for kikan (- koan) Chikuhei B Jap. - shippei Ch'i-kung D Chin., roughly "working the ener­

gy" (- ch 'i); physical exercises important in Chinese medicine. These health exercises com­ bine Buddhist and Taoist elements and cover a wide range of practices, such as techniques for regulating the body, the mind (by reducing and quieting thought activity), and the breath (e.g. - t 'u-ku na-hsin); movement exercises (e.g., t 'ai chi chuan and - tao-yin), self-massage, etc. In a wider sense the various martial arts ( wu­ shu) are also a form of ch 'i-kung. Instructions for performing certain basic ch 'i-kung exercises can be found in Zoller 1984.

Ch 'i-kung exercises are usually classified as either active (tung-kung) or passive (ching-kung). The former are performed while standing, sitting, or lying down and are aimed at relaxing the body, regulating the breath, and turning the mind inward. They are also known as inner exercises (nei-kung). The active exer-

71

Ch'i-ming cises consist of sequences of physical movements of the body and with which the consciousness and breath of the practitioner have to be coordinated. They are also known as outer exercises (wai-kung).

Ch'i-ming B ---t Shih-shuang Ch'u-yiian

Chimon Koso B Jap. for ---t Chih-men Kuang­

tsu

Ching II Chin., lit. "semen, spermatozoa"; one

of three life forces, the intermingling of which­ according to Taoist teachings-is essential for the preservation of life. The other two are the breath, or vital energy (---t ch 'i), and the mind, or consciousness (---t shen). Ching literally desig­ nates the semen of a man or the menstrual flow of a woman. In Taoist texts, however, it is not used in such a concrete sense but rather de­ scribes a subtle substance or essence, capable of combining with ---t ch 'i. Ching is produced in the abode of ching (ching-she) near the lower cinnabar field (---t tan­ t'ien). If ching is present only in small quantities within the body, the person concerned will be­ come ill; when the ching is exhausted, death ensues. For that reason, Taoist adepts strive to restrict the loss of ching by means of various sexual practices and techniques essentially based on avoiding ejaculation and to strengthen the ching (---t fang-chung shu, ---t huan-ching pu­ nao) with the help of the female yin essence (---t yin-yang).

According to the most ancient Chinese dictionary, ching designates cleaned rice; it is additionally defined as "seed," and "source of life." The -----. Huang-ti nei-ching defines ching not only as "seed essence" but also as "essence of the [bodily] organs" and "germ of life." It is said that after conception the first to form is the ching, and only after that the brain and spinal cord. Taoist practice knows several methods to strengthen and increase ching. The simplest of these states that a man should, as often as possible, have successive sexual intercourse with different-and preferably young and beautiful-female partners but not allow himself to ejaculate until the end of the final copulation. By this practice his essence is strengthened under the influence of the female yin, any illnesses are healed and the life force increases. The practice of allowing the semen to return to nourish the brain (huan-ching pu­ nao) is considered to be more effective.

Ching-ch'ing Tao-fu B (Jap., Kyosei [Kyosho]

Dofu), 863/68-9 3 7; Chinese Ch'an (Zen) mas­ ter, a student and dharma successor (---t hassu) of ---t Hsiieh-feng I-ts'un (Jap., Seppo Gison). Ching-ch'ing had five dharma succes­ sors. We encounter him in examples 16 ' 23 ' and 46 of the ---t Pi-yen-lu. 72

Ch'ing-lung II Chin. ---t k'an and Ii

Ch'ing-t'an II Chiq., lit. "pure conversation"; neo-Taoist school (---t hsiian-hsiieh) that origi­ nated in the 3d century C.E. Ch 'ing-t'an refers to

a refined form of conversation on the teachings of philosophical Taoism (---t tao-chia), particu­ larly those of Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzu. In this way the followers of the ch 'ing-t'an formed a basis for reinterpreting the Confucianist classics from a neo-Taoist point of view. The most important representatives of the school were ---t Wang Pi (226-49 C.E.), Kou Hsiang (?-ca. 3 1 2 C.E.), and Hsiang Hsiu (22 1-300 C.E.) .

Wang Pi and several others held that Confucius (- K'ung-tzu) was a greater Taoist than either Lao-tzu or Chuang-tzu, because he actually attained a state of nonbeing (-----. wu), while Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzu con­ tented themselves with talking about such a state. The Ch 'ing-t 'an School also shows Buddhist influences.

Ching-te ch'uan-teng-lu B Chin. (Jap., Keito­ ku Dent8-roku), "Record Concerning the Pass­ ing On of the Lamp, Composed in the Ching-le Period "; the earliest historical work of Ch'an

(Zen) literature, compiled by the Chinese monk Tao-hsiian (Jap., Dosen) in the year 1 004. It consists of short biographies and numerous an­ ecdotes from the lives of the early masters of Ch'an up to ---t Fa-yen Wen-i (Jap., Hogen Bun'eki), the founder of the ---t Hogen school. This thirty-volume work, in which the deeds and sayings of over 600 masters are recorded and more than 1000 masters are mentioned, is one of the most important source works of Ch'an (Zen) literature; many of the koans that are found in later Zen literature were fixed in writing here for the first time. Selections from this work in English translation can be found in Chang 1 969.

Ch'ing-yuan Hsing-ssu B (Jap., Seigen Gyo­

shi), 660?-740; early Chinese Ch'an (Zen) mas­ ter, a student and dharma successor (---t hassu) of ---t Hui-neng. Little is known of Ch'ing­ yiian Hsing-ssu except that he was an outstand­ ing student of Hui-neng and the master of ---t Shih-tou Hsi-ch'ien (Jap., Sekito Kisen). The first main lineage of Zen goes back to the T'ang period and Ch'ing-yiian (see the Ch'an/Zen Lin­ eage Chart). He received posthumously the hon­ orific title of Hung-chi-ch'an-shih (Jap., Kosai Zenji).

Chin-lien II Chin., lit. "golden lotus"; - ch 'uan­ chen tao

Chinmatra Gl (Cinmatra), Skt.; state of pure be-

Chi-tsang

ing (- sat); a reference to - brahman. Prior to the manifestation of its primal energy (­ shakti), brahman is absolute being, without name or form. Chinmatroham Cl (Cinmatroham), Skt., lit. "I am absolute pure being." Absolute being is difficult to grasp with the mind; Meister Eckhart referred to it as Istheit ("is-ness"). Since God is not an object and thus cannot be described, Hinduism refers to him with the term satchidananda: Absolute being, absolute con­ sciousness, and absolute bliss. The phrase "chinmatroham "affirms that one's identity with God as being, consciousness, and bliss can be realized. Chinmayakosha CJ. (Chinmayakosa), Skt.; the sheath (- kosha) in which the - atman 's state is still one of divine self-awareness; the sheath of divine consciousness.

m

Chinnamasta Skt. ; the Divine Mother (­ Shakti) in her creative and destructive aspects; a symbol for dissolution and return to the source (- brahman).

Chin-niu B (Jap., Kingyu); 8th- to 9th-century Chinese Ch'an (Zen) master; a student and dharma successor (- hassu) of - Ma-tsu Tao-i (Jap., Baso Doitsu). Chin-niu appears in exam­ ple 7 4 of the - Pi-yen-lu. Ch'in-shan Wen-sui B (Jap., Kinzan Bunsui); Chinese Ch'an (Zen) master of the T'ang period; a student and dharma successor (- hassu) of Tung-shan Liang-chieh (Jap., Tozan Ryokai). We meet Ch'in-shan in example 56 of the -

Pi-yen-lu.

In the - Ching-te ch 'uan-teng-lu it is reported that Ch'in-shan, after already having entered a Ch'an mon­ astery in his early years, went on pilgrimage with Yen-t'ou Ch'iian-huo (Jap., Ganto Zenkatsu) and Hsiieh-feng I-ts'un to seek out various Ch'an masters. At last the th ree of them came to - Te-shan Hsiian-chieh (Jap., Tokusan Senkan). While Yen-t'ou and Hsiieh-feng became outstanding students of his and his dharma successors, Ch 'in-shan could not get used to Master Te-shan's extremely strict style of training. After the master had beaten him so hard that he had to be taken sick to bed, Ch'in-shan left and went to Master Tung-shan, under whom he also at last experienced enlightenment. Ch'in-shan is said to have become abbot of the monastery on Mount Ch'in at the age of twenty-seven.

Chintamani Cl � (cintamaQ.i), Skt. Cl 1. a mystical jewel with the power to fulfill its possessor's every desire; 2. an epithet for God;

3. the title, or part of the title, of numerous works in Sanskrit. � 1. the wish-fulfilling jewel, attribute of vari­ ous buddhas and bodhisattvas (- Kshi­ tigarbha, - Avalokiteshvara, - Ratnasam­ bhava, etc.). 2. a symbol for the liberated mind. Chin-tan D Chin., lit. "golden cinnabar"; the golden elixir, a variously interpreted concept in Taoist alchemy (- nei-tan, - wai-tan). In texts predating the T'ang and Sung dynasties, chin­ tan usually refers to the outer elixir. The adher­ ents of the Outer Alchemy strove to produce gold from various chemical substances, which was to bestow immortality on those who swal­ lowed it. In later texts chin-tan usually desig­ nates the inner elixir, and in this sense is synonymous with the sacred embryo (- sheng-t'ai) and the golden flower of Inner Alchemy (- nei-tan).

m

Chisha B also known as Chisha Daishi, J ap. for - Chih-i.

Chit GI (cit), Skt.� absolute consciousness; an important concept in - Vedanta, it is sharply distinct from Western ideas of consciousness. Whereas Westerners essentially live by Des­ cartes's "I think, therefore I am," states that "I am also when I am not thinking," as in the "unconscious" states of fainting, deep sleep, or - samadhi, also called - turzya. By contrast, thinking consciousness is present only in the states of waking and dreaming. According to - Advaita-Vedanta, to be an atheist is impossible, since whoever doubts the existence of God does not doubt that he doubts; yet in order to doubt one must use chit, consciousness-which is just what the atheist is trying to deny: for chit is identical with God or - brahman. In the great play of the inner organ of mind (- antahkarana), which projects the manifest world, a faint glow reflects the light of the chit, said to be "brighter than a thousand suns." Chitam Cl (Cita) Skt. ; a technical term for the seat of the unconscious, conscious, and super­ conscious. By means of yoga, the first two are mastered so that the superconscious may be made manifest. Chit-Purusha Cl (Cit-Puru�a), Skt. ; the force of consciousness of the Self (- purusha).

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45 1

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Taoism Thompson, Edward J. 1 926. Rabindranath Tagore: His Life and Work. Oxford. Tipperudraswami, H. 1 968. The Virasaiva Saints. My­ sore. Torwesten, Hans. 1 980. Ramakrishna und Christus. Planegg. ___ 1 98 1 . Ramakrishna: Schauspieler Gottes. Frank­ furt. 1 98 5 . Vedanta: Kern des Hinduismus. Frei­ burg. Tyberg, Judith M. 1 976. The Language of the Gods: Sanskrit Keys to India 's Wisdom. Los Angeles. Vivekananda, Swami. 1 95 5a. Jnana- Yoga. New York. ---· 1 95 5b. Karma- Yoga and Bhakti- Yoga. New York. --· 1 95 5c. Raja- Yoga. New York. --· 1 9 5 7- 1 959. The Complete Works (8 vols.). Calcutta. ___ 1 977. What Religion Is. Calcutta. Vogl, Carl. 1 92 1 . Sri Ramakrischna, der letzte indische Prophet. Munich. Wolf, Otto (ed.). 1 957. So spricht Aurobindo. Munich and Planegg. ---· 1 96 7. Sri Aurobindo. Reinbek. Woodroffe, John George (Arthur Avalon). 1 9 1 9. The Serpent Power. London. (New York, 1 974) --· 1 9 5 1 . The Garland of Letters (Varnamala): Studies in the Mantra-Shastra. Madras.

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Taoism Secondary Sources Bauer, Wolfgang. 1 974. China und die Hojfnung auf Gluck. Munich. Beky, Gellert. 1 972. Die Welt des Tao. Freiburg & Munich. Blofeld, John. 1 973. The Secret and the Sublime: Taoist Mysteries and Magic. London. --· 1 974. Beyond the Gods: Taoist and Buddhist Mysticism. London. ---· 1 9 78. Taoism: The Road to Immortality. Boul­ der, Colo. ---· 1 979. Taoism: The Quest for Immortality. London. --· 1 98 3 . Selbstheilung durch die Kraft der Stille. Bern. Carns, Paul. I 907. Chinese Thought. La Salle, Ill. Chan, V✓ing-tsit. 1 979. Commentary on Lao- Tzu. Hono­ lulu. Chang Chung-yuan. 1 963. Creativity and Taoism. New York. Christie, Anthony. 1 968. Chinesische Mythologie. Wies­ baden. Colegrave, Sukie. 1 980. Yin und Yang (German trans­ lation of The Spirit in the Vailey). Bern. Cooper, J. C. 1 9 77. Der Weg des Tao. Bern.

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Rossbach, Sarah. 1 983. Feng Shui: The Chinese Art of Placement. New York. Saso, Michael. 1 968. The Teachings of Taoist Master Chuang. New Haven. Schipper, Kristof. 1 982. Le corps taoiste. Paris. Schluchter, Wolfgang (ed.). 1 982. Max Webers Studien uber Konfuzianismus und Taoismus. Frankfurt. Sherrill, Wallace A. , and Wen Kuan Chu. 1 977. An Anthology of I Ching. London. __ 1 976. The Astrology ofthe I Ching. New York & London. Simbriger, Heinrich. 1 96 1 . Geheimnis der Mitte: Aus dem geistigen Vermdchtnis des a/ten China. Diisseldorf & Cologne. Siu, R. G. H. 1 974. A Neo- Taoist Approach to Life. Cambridge, Mass. Sivin, Nathan. 1 968. Chinese Alchemy: Preliminary Studies. Cambridge, Mass. Skinner, Stephen. 1 982. The Living Earth Manual of Feng Shui: Chinese Geomancy. London & Boston. Smith, D. Howard. 1 97 4. Confucius. Frogmore, Eng­ land. Twam, Kim. 1 982. Geheime Ubungen taoistischer Manche. Freiburg. Unterreider, Else. 1 984. Gluck ein ganzes Mondjahr fang. Klagenfurt. Watts, Alan. 1 97 5 . Tao: The Watercourse Way. New York. Welch, Holmes. 1 9 5 7 . The Parting of the JVay. Lon­ don. Werner, E. T. C. 1 96 1 . A Dictionary ofChinese Mythol­ ogy. New York. Wilhelm, Hellmut. 1 960. Change: Eight Lectures on the I Ching. New York. ---· 1 972. Sinn des I-Ging. Diisseldorf & Cologne. Wing. R. L. 1 979. The I Ching Workbook. New York. Zenker, E. V. 1 94 1 . Der Taoismus der Fruhzeit. Vienna. Zoller, Josephine. 1 9 84. Das Tao der Selbsthei­ lung. Bern.

Zen Primary Sources Bankei Eitaku. See Waddell 1 984. Blofeld, John (trans.). 1 95 8 . The Zen Teaching of Huang Po on the Transmission of Mind. London. --· 1 962. The Zen Teaching ofHui Hai on Sudden Illumination. London. Chan, Wing-tsit (trans. ). 1 963. The Platform Sutra. New York. Chang Chung-yuan (trans.). 1 969. Original Teachings of Ch 'an Buddhism, Selected from the Transmission of the Lamp. New York. Ching Te Ch 'uan Teng Lu. See Chang 1 969.

Chao Chou Ch 'an Shih Yu Lu. See Hoffman 1 978. Cleary, Thomas (trans.). 1 97 8b. The Original Face: An Anthology of Rinzai Zen. New York. ___ 1 978c. Sayings and Doings ofPai-Chang, Ch 'an Master of Great Wisdom. Los Angeles. ---· 1 9 80a. Record a/Things Heard from the Trea­ sury ofthe Eye ofthe True Teaching. Boulder, Colo. ---· 1 980b. Timeless Spring: A Soto Zen Anthology. New York. --· 1 986. The Book of Serenity. New York. __, and Cleary, J. C. 1 978a. The Blue CliffRecord. Boulder, Colo.

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Bibliography Cook, Francis Dojun. 1 978. How to Raise an Ox: Zen Practice as Taught in Zen Master Dagen 's Shobogen­ zo. Los Angeles. Deshimaru, Taisen (ed.). 1 979. Shinjinmei, von Meister Tozan. Berlin. ---· 1 980. Sandokai, von Meister Sekito. Berlin. ___ . 1 98 1 . Hokyozanmai, von Meister Tozan. Berlin. Fuller Sasaki, Ruth (trans.). 1 975. The Record of Linchi. Kyoto. ---, Y oshitaka lriya, and Fraser, Dana R. (trans.). 1 9 7 1 . The Recorded Sayings ofLayman P 'ang. New York. Genja Kaan. See Maezumi 1 97 8 . Gundert, Wilhelm (trans.). 1 964/73. Bi- Yan-Lu: Meister Yuan-wu 's Niederschrift von der Smaragdenen Felswand. Munich. Hakuin Zenji. See Shaw 1 963, Yampolski 1 97 1 . Han Shan. See Lu 1 966, Red Pine 1 9 8 3 , Snyder 1 96 5 , Watson 1 970. Hoffmann, Yoel (trans.). 1 977. Every End Exposed: The 100 Perfect Kaans of Master Kida. Brookline, Mass. --· 1 97 8 . Radical Zen: The Sayings of Jashu. Brookline, Mass. Hsin Hsin Ming. See Deshimaru 1 979. Hsu T 'ang Yu Lu. See Hoffmann 1 977. Huang Po Shan Tuan Chi Ch 'an Shih Ch 'uan Hsin Fa Yao. See Blofeld 1 958. Hung Chou Pai Chang Shan Ta Chih Ch 'an Shih Yu Lu. See Cleary 1 978c. lkkyu Soj un. See Shuichi & Thom 1 979. Kyaun Shu. See Shuichi & Thom 1 9 79. Lin Chi Lu. See Fuller Sasaki 1 97 5 ; Schleogl 1 97 5 . Liu Tsu Ta Shih Fa Pao T 'a n Ching. See L u 1 9601 962; Wing 1 963; Wong 1 9 5 3 . Lu K'uan Y ii (Charles Luk) (trans.). 1 960- 1 962. Ch 'an and Zen Teachings (3 vols.). London. ---· 1 966. The Surangama Sutra, with a commen­ tary by Han Shan. London. ---· 1 972. The Vimalakzrti Nirdesa. Berkeley. ---· 1 97 4. The Transmission of the Mind outside the Teaching, vol. 1 . London. Maezumi, Hakuyu Taizan. 1 97 8 . The Way of Every­ day Life: Zen Master Dagen 's Genjokoan with Com­ mentary. Los Angeles. Masunaga, Reiho (trans.). 1 972. A Primer ofSato Zen: A Translation of Dagen 's Shobogenza Zuikmonki. London. Nishiyama, Kosen, and Stevens, John (trans.). 1 97 51 9 8 3 . Shobogenzo: The Eye and Treasury ofthe True Law (3 vols.). Tokyo. Orategama. See Shaw 1 96 3 , Yampolski 1 9 7 1 . Pai Chang Kuang Lu. See Cleary 1 978c. P'ang Chu Chih Yu Lu. See Fuller Sasaki 1 97 1 . Pi Yen Lu. See Cleary 1 97 8a, Sekida 1 977.

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Red Pine. 1 983. The Collected Songs of Cold Moun­ tain. Port Townsend, Wash. Renondeau, G. (trans.). 1 965. Le Bouddhisme japon­ ais: Textes fondamentaux de quatre grands moines de Kamakura: Honen, Shinran, Nichiren et Dagen. Paris. Ryokan Daigu. See Stevens 1 9 79, Watson 1 977. San Mei K 'o. See Cleary 1 980b, Deshimaru 1 98 1 . Schleogl, Irmgard (trans.). 1 97 5 . The Record ofRinzai. London. Sekida, Katsuki (trans.). 1 977. Two Zen Classics: Mumon­ kan and Hekigan-roku. New York. Shaw, R. D. M. (trans.). 1 963. The Embossed Tea Kettle: Orate Gama and Other Works of Hakuin Zenji. London. Shibayama Zenkei. 1 97 4. Zen Comments on the Mumon­ kan. Trans. Sumiko Kudo. New York. Shigematsu, Soiku (trans.). 1 98 1 . A Zen Forest: Say­ ings of the Masters. New York. Shabogenza. See Cook 1 978, Nishiyama & Stevens 1 975- 1 9 8 3 . Shabagenza Zuimonki. See Cleary 1 980a, Masunaga 1 972, Renondeau 1 96 5 . Shuichi Kato and Thom, Eva (trans.). 1 979. Ikl(yu Sojun: Im Garten der schonen Shin. Diisseldorf & Cologne. Snyder, Gary (trans.). 1 965. Cold Mountain Poems. Portland, Ore. Stevens, John (trans.). 1 979. One Robe, One Bowl: The Zen Poetry of Ryakan. New York. Thurman, Robert A. F. (trans.). 1 976. The Holy Teach­ ing of Vimalakzrti: A Mahayana Scripture. U niversi­ ty Park, Pa. , & London. Ts 'an T 'ung Ch 'i. See Cleary 1 980b; Deshimaru 1 980. Ts 'ung Jung Lu. Sec Cleary 1 9 86. Tun Wu Ju Tao Yao Men Lung. See Blofeld 1 962. Vimalakzrti Nirdesha Sutra. See Lu 1 972, Thurman 1 976. Waddell, Norman (trans.). 1 9 84. The Unborn: The Life and Teaching ofZen Master Bankei. San Francisco. Watson, Burton (trans.). 1 970. Cold Mountain: JOO Poems by the T 'ang Poet Han-Shan. New York. ---· 1 977. Ryokan: Zen Monk-Poet ofJapan. New York. Wing, Tsit-chan (trans.). 1 963. The Platform Sutra. New York. Wong Mou-lam (trans.). 1 9 5 3. The Sutra of Wei Lang (Hui Neng). London. (Berkeley, 1 969) Wu Men Kuan. See Sekida 1 97 7 , Shibayama 1 974, Yamada 1 979. Yamada, Koun (trans.). 1 979. Gateless Gate. Los An­ geles. Yampolski, Philip B. (trans.). 1 97 1 . The Zen Master Hakuin: Selected Writings. New York. Zenrin Kushu. See Shigematsu 1 98 1 .

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Zen Secondary Sources Aitken, Robert. 1 978. A Zen Wave: Basho 's Haiku and Zen. New York. ---· 1 982. Taking the Path of Zen. San Francisco. ---· 1 984. The Mind of Clover: Essays in Zen Buddhist Ethics. San Francisco. Bancroft, Anne, 1 979. Zen: Direct Pointing to Reality. London & New York. Benoit, Hubert. 1 9 5 1 . The Supreme Doctrine: Psycho­ logical Studies in Zen Thought. New York. Benz, Ernst. 1 962. Zen in westlicher Sicht: Zen­ Buddhismus, Zen-Snobismus. Weilheim. Blyth, Reginald Horace. 1 949- 1 9 52. Haiku (4 vols.). Tokyo. --· 1 960- 1 970. Zen and Zen Classics (5 vols.). Tokyo. --· 1 963- 1 964. A History of Haiku (2 vols.). Tokyo. Brinker, Helmut. 1 98 5 . Zen in der Kunst des Ma/ens. Bern. Buksbazen, John Daishin. 1 977. To Forget the Self Los Angeles. Chang Chung-yuan. 1 963. Creativity and Taoism. New York. Chang, Garma Chen-chi. 1 959. The Practice of Zen. New York. Davidson, A. K. 1 982. Zen Gardening. London. Deshimaru, Taisen. 1 977. Zen et /es arts martiaux. Paris. ---· 1 9 78. Zen-Buddhismus und Christentum. Ber­ lin. ---· 1 979. Za-Zen: Die Praxis des Zen. Berlin. Dumoulin, Heinrich. 1 963. A History of Zen Bud­ dhism. New York. Boston, 1 95 9. ---· 1 9 7 6 . Der Erleuchtungsweg des Zen im Buddhismus. Frankfurt. Diirckheim, Karlfried von (ed.). 1 979. Wunderbare Katze und andere Zen-Texte. Bern. --· 1 987. Zen and Us. New York. Enomiya-Lassalle, Hugo M. 1 973. Zen: Way to En­ lightenment. London. --· 1 974b. Zen-Buddhismus. Cologne. ---· 1 974a. Zen Meditation/or Christians. LaSalle, Ill. Grames, Eberhard, and Muller, Michael (ed.). 1 985. Zen. Hamburg. Groening, Lies. 1 98 5 . Die lautlose Stimme der einen Hand: Zen Erfahrunginen einem japanischen Klos­ ter. Reinbek. Hammitzsch, Horst. 1 980. Zen in the Art of the Tea Ceremony. New York. Hasumi, Toshimitsu. 1 960. Zen in der japanischen Kunst. Munich & Planegg. ___ . 1 986. Zen in der Kunst des Dichtens. Bern.

Herrigel, Eugen. 1 960. The Method ofZen. New York. ---· 1 97 1 . Zen in the Art ofArchery, New York. Herrigel, Gustie L. 1 9 58. Zen in the Art of Flo�er Arrangement. London. Hisamatsu, Hoseki Sen'ichi. 1 984. Die Fu/le des Nichts. Pfulligen. Hoffmann, Yoel. 1 975. The Sound of the One Hand. London. Hoover, Thomas. 1 977. Zen Culture. New York. ---· 1 980. The Zen Experience. New York. Humphreys, Christmas. 1 984. Zen Buddhism. London. Ital, Gerta. 1 978. Meditationen aus dem Geist des Zen. Freiburg. ---· 1 987. Master, the Monks, and I: A Western Woman 's Experience of Zen. \Vellingborough, Eng­ land. Izutsu, Toshihiko. 1 982. Toward a Philosophy of Zen Buddhism. Boulder, Colo. Kammer, Reinhard. 1 978. Zen and Confucius in the Art of Swordsmanship. London. Kapleau, Philip (ed.). 1 980. The Three Pillars of Zen: Teaching, Practice, and Enlightenment. New York. Kennett, Jiyu. 1 972. Selling Water by the River: A Manual of Zen Training. New York. ---· 1 976. Zen Is Eternal Life. Emeryville, Calif. Legget, Trevor. 1 960. A First Zen Reader. Rutland, Vt. ---· 1 964. The Tiger 's Cave: Translations ofJapanese Zen Texts. London. ---· 1 978. Zen and the Ways. London. ---· 1 985. The Warrior Koans. London. Lu K'uan Yii (Charles Luk). 1 969. Secrets of Chinese Meditation. London. Maezumi, Hakuyu Taizan, and Glassman, Bernard Tetsugen. 1 976. On Zen Practice (2 vols.). Los Angeles. ____ 1 978. The Hazy Moon ofEnlightenment. Los Angeles. Merton, Thomas. 1 96 1 . Mystics and Zen Masters. New York. ---· 1 968. Zen and the Birds ofAppetite. New York. --�· 1 97 5 . Weisheit der Stille. Bern. Miura, Isshu, and Fuller Sasaki, Ruth. 1 965. The Zen Kaan. New York. Mountain, Marian . 1 982. The Zen Environment: The Impact of Zen Meditation. New York. Munsterberg, Hugo. 1 978. Zen-Kunst. Cologne. Ohasama, Shueji, and Faust, August. 1 925. Zen: Der lebendige Buddhismus in Japan. Gotha & Stuttgan. 6mori, Sogen, and Terayama, Katsuj o. 1 983. Zen and the Art of Calligraphy. London. Reps, Paul. 1 976. Ohne Worte, ohne Schweigen. Bern. Sasaki, Joshu. 1 974. Buddha Is the Center of Gravity. San Cristobal, N.M.

467

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Schleogl, Irmgard. 1 975. The Wisdom of the Zen Masters. London. Sekida, Katsuki. 1 9 75. Zen Training: Methods and Philosophy. New York. Shibayama Zenkei. 1 970. A Flower Does Not Talk. Trans. Sumiko Kudo. Rutland, Vt. Shimano, Eido. 1 982. Der Weg der wolkenlosen Klar­ heit. Bern. S o k e i - a n , Sh igetsu Sasaki. 1 9 8 5a. S okei-an 's Ubertragung des Zen. Zurich. ---· 1 98 5b. Der Zen- Weg zur Befreiung des Geistes. Zurich. Stein, Hans Joachim. 1 985. Die Kunst des Bogen­ schiessens: Kyudo. Bern. Stevens, John. 1 989. The Sword of No-Sword: Life of the Master Warrior Tesshu. Boston & London. Stryk, Lucien; Ikemoto, Takashi; and Takayama, Taigan (ed.). 1 9 73. Zen Poems of China and Japan. Garden City, N.Y. Sung Bae Park. 1 983. Buddhist Faith and Sudden Enlightenment. Albany, N.Y. Suzuki, Daisetz (Daisetsu) Teitaro. 1 930. Studies in the Lankavatara Sutra. London. --· 1 9 34. The Training of a Zen Monk. Kyoto. --· 1 935. A Manual ofZen Buddhism. Kyoto; New York 1 960. ---· 1 949. Introduction to Zen Buddhism. London & New York. (New York 1 964) --· 1 9 50- 1 9 5 3. Essays in Zen Buddhism, Series 1 -3 (3 vols.). London.

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The (\uthors of the encyclopedia are fou r schol­ ars specializing in five su bject areas: BUDDH ISM AND TAOISM I ngrid Fischer-Sch reiber U n iversity of Vien na TI BETAN BUDDH ISM Franz-Karl Eh rhard U niversity of Hambu rg H I NDU I SM Ku rt Friedrichs President, German Vedanta Society ZEN Michael S. Diener Japanologist, Tokyo

SHAMBHALA PUBLICATIONS, I NC. Horticu ltu ral Hall 300 Massachusetts Avenue Boston, Massachusetts 02115 © 1989 Shambh��½ f✓�,,b�iG�tions, I nc. Printed in U.S.A.

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