The Archaeology of Afghanistan from the Earliest Times to the Timurid Period

The Archaeology of Afghanistan from earliest times t o the Timurid period

Edited by

F. R . Allchin and Norman Hammond

of

Faculty O r i e n t a l Studies, University of C a m b r i d g e , E n g l a n d Douglass College, Rutgers U n i rersitr-, Keri- Jersel., U .S . A. l

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ACADEMIC PRESS London

. . . Nelv York . . . San Francisco

,A Subsidial-\- of Hal-coui-t HI-acc. Jo\.ano\.ich, P u h l i s l ~ ~ r s

AC'A1)EMIC tJKESS INC'. ( L O N I I O N ) LTI). 2 4 / 2 8 O v a l Itoatl, I ot1i1o11 N W I 71)X Ilnitcttl S t a r c s Ixlition ~)i~l>lishc.tl ant1 t l i s t r i l ) i ~ t v t lI)\.

AC'AI>I'MIC' I'KESS INC'. l l l Fifth Avc.t~uc.,Nv\v Yol-k, Nv\v Y o r k 1003

All r i g h t s ~.cascr\,vtl.N o I).lrt 01' tllis I ~ o o knlay I>v r c l ~ r o d u c r t lin a n y f o r m I)y ~ > h o t o s t a t , 1l1ic.rol11111,o r ~ I I Yot11c.r I I I ~ ~ I I\ Sv i, t l ~ o i ~\vrittvti t p c \ r ~ i ~ i s s i ol ' ~r ol t ~ ~the\ p i ~ l > l i s ~ ~ v r s .

I i I ) l . , ~ r01'~ C ' O I I ~ I XC',~talog ~S~ C',~r(lN L I I I I ~ > 7C7- ~c)2S2S : ISHN : '0 I 2 050410 5

Contributors F. K . Allchin Fac.ulc~.01'Orienrul Srudirs, Ilnil.ersir,l. 01'('ornbriJ,qc, Carnhrr J'qe. E n y l o r ~ d S . R . Ho\rlb\. Dcporrmenr o/'Gco,qrrlI~l!l~, Ur~i~.cpr.sin. of' Rcadrny, Il'hitckniyhrs, Reudrng, bn,qlanJ Ijccts f r o m early . . Aq K u l w i ~ k :objects f r o m l a t c r I)c.riotl . . Acl KUIII-ilk:grave* p o t t e r y . . Aq Kulwuk: g ~ - a \ . c1x)ttc.ry . . Acl K u p r i ~ k :graifc pottery . .

Chapter 6.1. 6.2. 6.3. 6.4. 6.5. 6.6. 6.7. 6.8. 6.9.

275 276 277 280 281 281 281 282 283 284 285 286 286 287 287 288 288 290 291 291 292 293 294 294 296 297 298 298 298

6 Islamic sitc,s in Afghanistan . Plan o f tht. Abbasitl mosque at Halkh . Halkh: A1)lxsitl mosque,, view 0 1 i n t c r i o r Halkh: A l ~ l ~ a s i mosquc., tl clctail o f s t u c c o tlccoration . Lashkari Hazal-: grountl plan o f palace, . L.ashkal-i Hazal-: southc,rn palac(, . Lashkari Hazar: fl-agmc>nto f \call painting . Ghazni: palace, ot' Masutl Ill, gl-ountl plan Ghazni: palace. o f Masutl 111, w i t h clc,tails o f marl>lc clccoration

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305 306 308 309 310 310 312

314 316

(ihazni: palaco of Masud Ill, f'ragnicnts ol' rnarhl(. clc.c.oration . . Gliazni: palace* 01' M a w 1 Ill, niarl)l(. slab ~ v i t hhunting sc,c.ncB . . Ghazni: minarc-t ol' Hahram Shah . . Gliazni: coppcbr dish . . Gliazni: glazc.tl bowl w i t h lustre. decoration , . Hust: facatle of' niutl 11ric.k palace . . I3al)a Hatini Ziyarat: t'acacle of' monumc*nt t o the. mc.morv 01' Salar Chalil . . Charkh-i Lohgar: \~fooclc.nniihrah in local niosquc- . . Charkh-i Lohgar: zonc of transition in niihral, . 1)aulatabatl: minaret . . J a m : t h e n-rinarc,t . . J a m : clctail of clecoration ol' t h e rninarc.t . J a m : mutl brick f;)rtific,ation . Aana: lines of square ant1 round to\vc,rs . . Malc Alau: mutl brick tow,cbro n stone base, . . Male Alau: geometrical decoration o f tower . . Khissar: fortification in t h e pass . . Khissar: fortress seen 11-om abovc . . Yahan: moclcrn villagc, surroundctl bv brick ruins . . Yahan: line of t o w e r s of ancicnt fortification . . Yahan: t o w e r in line of fortification . . Chislit: m o d c r n settlcnic~ntn.ith G h o r i d d o m e d ruiris . . Larwand: facade and c n t r a n c c of rnosquc, . . H c r a t : "Great Friday" mosque . . H e r a t : "Grcat Fridayw mosqucb, rcmains ol' Gliorid a r c h i t c c t u r c ~ . Sliahr-i Masliatl: g r o u n d plan . . Shahr-i Mashatl: south tbcatlc, . Shahr-i Mashad: zonc ol' transitional in main d o m e . . Shallr-i Mashad: niclic, \vitli inscription o n south tacadc . . Dancstama: g r o u n d plan of ruin . . G l i a ~ n i :moulded tcrr-acotta f r o m tlic Ghorid phase ot' tlic palace, ot Masud 111 . . Hust: so-called Z i ~ a r a tof Ghi! atli al-Din, ~ n s ribc.d c tombstone . . Bust: remains o f gl-cat arch bcforc rcstorat ion .

317 318 319 320 320 322

323 324 325 326 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 344 345 346 347 349 349 350 350 351

351 353 354

Chapter 7 7.1. 7.2. 7.3. 7.4. 7.5.

Kol-tlu: rc%mainsot' m u d to11-crs near ruin fic,ItIs Qala Hauz: mucl 111-ick ruins of castlc . I'c~sIi\va~-an:multi-to\~.crc'dcitaclc'l . t'csh\varan: facadc of mosquc . KIi\vaja Siali Posh: plan of 11iinarc.t .

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362 363 364 365 367

Khwaja Siah Posh: mutl brick ruins o f t o w n w i t h remains of'hakctl brick niinarc't L>c.\\.al-i Khotlaydatl: groi~nclplan of i ~ / a nc o u r t y a r d houscs. Got-i Safccl: air photograph of abantlonctl c i t y . Gol-i Safctl: grountl plan of courtyarcl basc .

Gal-i Safctl: clccoratc5tl wall of i r o n

. Gol-i Safctl: tloublc-storcxycd m u d brick t o w e r . Qala-i C'hcgini: general vicw of t h e ruin g r o u p Qala-i Chcgini: rc>rnains of t h e main ;van Nishk: castlc w i t h c o r n e r bastions Nishk: fortilied gatc o f city wall . Chcqini 11: facade of ivcln . . H c r a t : Kushk gatc in t h e fortific(1 city \vall H c r a t : niausolt.uni of Gauhar Shatl H c r a t : mausoleum of Gauhar Shad H c r a t : Musalla c o m p l e x , m i n a r e t . H c r a t : Gazar (;liar, view of main ivon . H c r a t : nioscluc o f Hauz-i Karboz, m i h r a b H c r a t : mausolcum o f Shaikh Zatlch Abtlallah, g r o u n d plan. Ziyarat Gah "Grc,at Fritlay" m o s q u e . Livarat Gah: Khaniqah-i Mullah Kalan . Kohsan: mausolcum, section Kohsan: c x t c r i o r 1.icw of mausolcum . Halkh: Shrinc of Khwaja Abu Nasr Parsa Metal c w c r . History of Rustam ant1 Divakwan, illustration f r o m m a n u s c r i p t of Firtlausi's Shah-nama Hihzatl: construction of t h e castlc of Khawarnaq, f r o m an illustrated manuscript of Nizami . H c r a t : C~hahrsuk,covc,rcd reservoir .

Recent Discoveries It is inc\litablc that, in spitrc.cc,dingperiod. This niust belong t o t h e early second millennium. T h e implications of this disco\.t-r\. a r c quitc remarkable. Although Shortugai lies only somc 500 niilcs north\vest of Harappa, as the cro\r, flies, t h e journey involves crossing t h e heights of t h e Hindu Kush and passing through sc\.c.ral Iiuntlred miles of niountainous terrain. T h c establishment of a colony at t h e end of such a journey, in an area hitherto \vithout evidence of othtxr Indian contacts at this datc, must bc unprc~cedcntcdin t h e third n ~ i l l e n n i u m . For t h e beginnings of historv t\vo d e \ ~ c l o p m c n rdescr\,c s mcntion. First, t h e appearance of' t h e r e p o r t o n t h e American c,scavations at Nad-i Ali, Sorkh Ilagh in 1968 (tlalcs, 1 9 7 7 ) . This is important because it confirms t h e vicivs of t h e earlier cxca\,ator, K . Ghirshman, that t h e fountlation o f the. city, and construction of tlic great citadel mound, bcllong t o a prcbAchac,n~cnid, p r h a p s Median, pcriod. Intcrcsting support li)r this vie\\ conics ti-om t h c continuing \ ~ . o r kat Kandahar (McNicoll, 1978; Whitchousc, 1978), \\-here ttic Hritish Institute's excavations, ciirectcd by 111-S\.cnd Hc,lms, (Helms, in press), indicate that not onlv t h c massive, citaelcl mound, but also almost t l ~ c n t i r c plan of thcx dt~l>nccsaround tlic 0 1 ~ 1 tit\.

I,clong 10 a silnilarly early (late,. I'c~l-lial)sthe- triost d r a m a t i c tlisc,o\~cry01'thc. 1 9 7 7 78 scbnsonat ~ , l I l e ~ ~ l\\-as ~ l , l al -~ ~ - , r(,l)ortc>(l t i o~~ ~ ,r t o~ b e , ~l-.lalilitc~ o f I)~-ol,aI,lyAcliac*mc~nitl(late. . f h c Frc~nc~ll c,xc,a\.ations at A i Khanurn c o n t i n u c ~t o jicl(l s u r ~ ~ r i s c Isl.u r i n g t11c. past t\j.o sc,ls()lls tllc c.xc.a\.ation o f the t h c a t r c has I>c,cn c o n l l > l c t c ~ l .Herex 1i)r the, Iirst time, in . 4 f k h n i s t a nis a large (;rcc,k t h a t re,, 1,uilt o n nlorc*o r 1c.s~t ratlit ional 1inc.s ant1 cstimatc~tlt o I>c. cal>,il)lcot'accommotlating an autlic~ncc,o f sc,vcral tliousancl. I'clually c.xciting is t h e cxc.avation I o r trcasurY" containing a grcbat \vc~igIito f l a l ~ i slazuli atit1 othc'r semi 131-c~cious

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stoneas. This must testify t o t h e c.ontinuing traclc' in lapis, t w o thousantl ycbal-s attc,r the, cstal)lislimc~ntot' th(, H a r a l ~ p a ncololiy a t Shortugai. A thirtl i m l ~ o r t a n tn e w tlisco\.c,rj is o f I'ragmcnts of C;rc~c>km a n u s c r i l ~ t .Ful-thcr information is c a g c r l j awaited. T h c gro\\.ing intcl-national intvl-c,st in Afghanistan is apl>arcnt f r o m t h e n u m b e r of' nc\v I)ul,lications, t o o I ~ u m c r o u st o list, \vhich have al)l>cal-ctl(luring t h e past t w o years; and from t h e \ ~ . c I e o ~a1>1>ca1-a1icc~ i~c of an A f ~ l l ~ c ~ ~ ~j oi u. sr rt ~c c~~~~>ul>lishccl l ,~ in GI-az, Austria. W c c\lclcomc t o o the, first numhcr- o f t h c ncx\v Hritisli ~>criotlical,/lfihon .Sfucfre.s. Among otlicr l>uhlications \vc c\:cIconic t h e long awaited al>l>caranccof SchlilrnI)c~-gcr's 1-c1x)rt of t h c French excavations at Laslikari Hazar (MI)AFA, 1 9 7 8 ) , ant1 look t;)ru.a~-(It o filrtlicl- I>ul>licationsof t h e FI-cnch Archaeological 1)clcgation w h i c h wet untlcrstantl a r c n o \ \ i l l 111-css. Also \ \ . c ~ 1 c . o 1 i i c ~as a bac~kgrountl\\.ark is : I Hisroric.c~/Atlas of'So~1r11,lsia (eel. 1. 1;. Sc~Ii\\.,irtzl~c~rg, Ilni\.crsit\, of C'hic,lgo I'~.c,ss, 1 9 7 8 ) . Continuing \\.ark i l l atljaccnt c ~ o u n t r i c shas I ~ r o ( ~ i ~ 1~11-thcr c c ~ ( I i ~ i i l ~ o r t adisco\.c~~-ic~s. ~it Fro111 Tajikistan comc,s nc,\\.s o f funtlamc,ntal rc~scarchin ~>alacolitliicarcliac.olog):. Hc.1-c Ranov ant1 his c~ollcaguc~s have matlc \.alual>lc~atlvancc.~in the' al-cliacology ant1 palacogcogl-aphy o f t h e Mitltll(- ant1 Ill>l~cxrl'alacolitliic ( A . E . I)o(lono\l an(1 V . A. Ranov, 1978; V . A . Ranov, 1 9 7 7 ) . 7'1ic. rc1x)rt ol'tlic~c.xcavation o l ' c c ~ r n c ~ t c ~ roifc tsh e sccontl millennium 13.c.in Uzbekistan ( A . Askal-o\., IC)77), ant1 01' ot1ic1- clisc.ovcric~sincliltling sccbtls o f Intlus t y p e f r o m A l t ~ n - t l c ~ ~ > c ( V . M . Masson, 1'176, 1977) cilso tlcscl-\.cs mewtion. Fro111 Iran t h c r c is a t i d e o f new clisc.o\.crics; a m o n g tlic~nitlic contiliuing c,xca\.ations o f t h e Italian t e a m at Slialir-i Soklita Iia\.c ~ - c ~ l c ~ \ ~f01a n cs~ocu t h e r n an(l \\,c,stcrn Afghanistan (luring t h e f o u r t h ancl tliir(l millclinia, *c~l-e~at nntl '11-ct ~ ~ - o ( l i ~ cco~nl,rc~hcnsivc~ ing cl,ita o n many asl>c,c.tsof the' lit;, ancl e c o n o m y ol'thosc arcas. FI-0111Pakistan the, most irnl>ort.'~~nt clisc.o\~cricsarc' tliosc~o f t l i c FI-c.nc.11A I - c l ~ a c o l o ~ i cMission al at Mc~hrqarli,at tlic lic~atlo f t h e Kachi plain near the‘ o u t l e t 01' tlic Holan pass. H e r e t h e r e is c~\.itlclic.c~ ol'an al)l>al-cmtlvunl>l-okcwsc~qucnccol'occupation t'l-om very c,arly timc,s tlown t o the* sc,contl half of the, tliirtl millcwnium. Tlic s c t t l c ~ i i c n tal>pcal-s t o lia\.c- I>ccn 01' c~onsitlc~~.al>lc c'xtc'lit. Tlic'~.c'is 1' (Ic'cp (1c'l)osit 01'11011-cc1-a1~1ic nc~olitliicocc.ul>ation, c>ntlingc.. 5000 1i.c.., in a pcl-io(l i l l ~~llic.11 11ii1(II>l-ic.kstrilc.ti~~-e's \\.c'~-c' made untl burials inc~luelc~tl I>catls of' turcluoisc, al>l>.~~-e'~itlv iml>ortc(l l'rolli Central Asia. 111 tlic scx,ontl t o I i ) i ~ ~ - tpc'riocls li tlic' use' o f ~ > o t t c * r \ . I~c*c.arnc~ c~st~~l>lisIic~tl, anel the. sc,qucnc.c sliows c.losc, ~ > ~ ~ r a l\\.it11 l c ~ l sthosc~ot'tlic (Juctta ~ a l l cant1 .~ Mulicligak. Also rc.lc,\.ant li)r tl~c,1atc.1-1,1-c~liistor~ o f A t ~ l i d n i s t a ~,ire, l the, c.lll-l-c.nt cxca\.ations at lic~liman1 ) I i c ~ l - i in the, 1)c'1-a Ismail Klian clistrict, I>\. a tc,,in~1'1-omI'csha\\~arIlni\.c\l-sity. Hc'1-c a ~-ctgi~l,l~.l!. ~)lanlic~el, \\.'~llc~lto\vn ol' the> ~lii(l-ti)ul-tht o c > , i ~ -tliil-(l l~ millcnniuni has I)c,c,n ( l i h c . o \ . ( ' l - c ' ( l , I ) c * l o ~ i ~ i1Iic'1-c'Ii)1-c' ~ig t o tlic lOl-lii,~ti\c'htagc' 01' tlic* Intlus ci\.ilizatio~i.

References Askarov, A . 1 9 7 7 . I ) r e ~ ~ r ~ c / t . m l c d c l ~ ~ I ~ A'ulturd e s k ~ y o I:,,okhr Brorl/r ~ u g cI J / h e k r ~ r ~'T.lslik(-nt. i~~. I)ales, C;. F . , 1 9 7 7 . h ' c ~ I:xc~u~~orions ~. or h'od-i ,411 (.$orkh l ) o c q 1 ~.4/cql,onr\tor~. ) Ht.rkc.lc.v, C'alilOrriia. I )otlonov, A. 1-.. & Itanov, V . A . 1978. 1 ~ ) r i m iins(-cliamc.nti u ~ n a ~I :~r l ti rt. lopetIra tlcllo . h r e n / ~c ~dclllr 7'cc,nico Morldodorr . Itomc,. H c l m s , S . V . , in press. I h c British t-.xc.avations at O l d Kantlahar: t1rc.liminarv lic-l)c~rtol tht. w c ~ r k(11 1 9 7 7 . A l j h u n Srudies, vol. 2 . Lyonnct, H. 1 9 7 7 . I)ccouvc.rtc. clc sites I'agc clu l)ronzcb clans Ic. N .I-.. dc. I ' Al'ghanistan: Ic-urs ral)port\ a \ v c la civilisation clc* L'lntlus. Annoli d e l l ' I s t i r u ~ oOrrcnrdl dl Nopolr. 37. Nal)lcbs. Masson, V . M . ctl. 1 9 7 6 . Bokrryiskic flrcl~nosti. I-caningrad. Masson, V . M . 1 9 7 7 . I'cchati protointlic~kovo typa i~ Alt!.~i-clc.~)c~. I'c\trrrk I)rc\ nzri I\rorrr, No. 4 . 147 1 5 6 . M c N i c o l l , A. 1 9 7 8 . Exca\.ations at Kandahar, 1 9 7 5 . A/Hhon . S t ~ ~ d r c \\.()I. , l. lianov, V . A. 1 9 7 7 . Polcockolo,qi,~~udrcvncgc~C c l o ~ . c k o M . osco\~. Schluml>crgcr, 11. ct o l . 1 9 7 8 . L.ashkari Hazar. Unc- ri*siclcnc.c. rovalt. ghazn;~\.iclc~(-1 ghoriclc*. I A , 1. 'archircctirre. Paris. W h i t r h o u s e , D. H. 1 9 7 8 . Exc.a\,ations at Kantlahar, 1 9 7 4 . .1/,$hor1 S t u d r c ~ ,\,ol. I . 7

Introduction Normarl Hummond and Rur:mond Allchin Afghanistan is a political r a t l ~ c r tharl a gcogral)hic,al c.ntit\., 1i)rnlc-d I)v the- c.ornpc.tin~ irn1)c.l-ialisms of' Russia and Britain in tllc latter part ol'thc, c ~ i ~ h t c ~ t,~n(l ~ ~ ni~lc-tc-c.rlth lth c,c-nturic-5 and I)\- tht. Ihl-sightccl aml>ition ol'thc 1)iirrani d\-nasty, \\IIO c.nhurc.cl tllat Al'gh.lnist.ln s u n i\c.tl as an cntit\. all(] \vas not simpl\. ahso~.l)cdI)c%t\\.ccntllc t\4.0 I d ~ . ~ (c-llll)irc*3 -r ( I)LII)I.(-(', 197 3 1 . Afghanistan has \rcxIl 1)c.c.n c.allcd t h c cl-oss-roads ol'.4sia, in that it is I)ountlccl o n t hc. south , ~ r l c l cast I)\, t h c Indian sulj-continc,nt, o n t h c \\.c\st I)\- tllr deserts .lncl plateaus 01' Irarl, ,111d o n the* north t h c great inland drainage. I)asins 01' ('c~ntr,~l,4sit3, 01' t h e O s u s (.Anlu-c1an.a)ant1 the. Jasartc's (Syr-dar\.n). ?'hroughout t h c kno\\.n 1~1stthc.sc- thl-c-c- rn,~jor c.iiltural arcas 1~1i.c nourishe~dtllc.ir o\vn traditons, c.ivilizations rising , ~ n dclcx.lining 1' 1 dill'crcnt ti111c.s in cdc.li 01' thcrn, ant1 t h r o i i ~ h Afgh,~~listan has passed ~ n i i c ~01'h t h e c.i~ltiir,~l a ~ l dc o ~ l ~ ~ i l c r ctralhc. i,~l hct\\.c.c.n thc.sc arcas and m o r c distc~ntl\-I)c.t\\.c~-~l C'hin.1, Incli,~, the* t't.rsian Gull' ant1 theM c d i t c r r a n r a n \\,orlcl. Afghanistan has I)c,cn hotll a nlcc,ting pldcc and t h e nlc,lting 1x)t 01' cultural inllucnccs 11-on1\\,hie11 it has c,volvc.d throughout histor\. its o\\.n liiglil\~tlistine.ti\ ct cultural e~ontrihutiont o civilization. T h c broad gcogral)hical . ~ ~ lc~i~Itiir.~l d rcki l ' o n 01' \\.hic.ll Atghanistan t;)rnls t h e h c , ~ r strctc.hcs t f r o m t l ~ t0x11s , t o tlic, Indus, and \-ct \\.ithill t h c I~ounclsOF t h c nlodcrn statex t h c r c is mnrkcd di\.c'rsit\. both 01' pll\-sical ancl 01' I l u ~ n a ngc~og~.,il)li\-. \vith ~ n o u n t a i n s ,dcsc.1-ts and 1i.1.tile. \,.~llc\.sc.losc,l\. j u s t , ~ p o s e ~ i . Surprisingly thcrc, has nc.\tcr hex-n a hook prinl,~ril\.c.onc,c-~.ncd\\.it11 tllc. arc~hac~oloqv 01' Afghanistan, although ti1.o rcc.cbnt ~,ul)licatio~ls I > \ h?asson ancl Ronlotlin ( I 964) and I)upr-cc ( 1 973) h,~vc.utilizcd m u c h archacv)logic,~le~\.idc~ilcr \vitllin 1no1-cgcncral Ilistoric,~lace-oilnts. T h c forn1c.r of thcsc at Icast is n o t casilv av,~ilahlct o an English r c ' ~ d i ~ laudic~lc-cb g and nt'itllcr can I ) c x said t o I ) c r t ; , r ~t~h~e function of,^ hasic i ~ l t r o d u c t i o nt o t h c arc.hacologv o1'.4fqhanistan h r t h c E11glish rcbatlcr, o n e \vhicll \\.cs h o p c t h ~ this t hook \\,ill IuItiI. Sine.(, the, Sc.concl W o r l d W a r thcl-c- has hcew an incrcasc in intrrnational intCrc.st in Afghanistan ,ancl this has t;)und cxprc~ssionin tl~clgro\+.ingnii111l)~rol'c.ount~-ic,s\\.ho ha\.c sent archat.ologicaI c.xpcditions and ~ n i s s i o n st o \vork in t h c c o u n t r y . All o f this nlcb,l~lsth.~t t h c t i n ~ cis IN)\\. ripc t o prcscnt a s\.ilthcsis ol'I>oth ca1.lic.r anti rcccilt \vork; one. night almost sa\, t h ~ 1;)r t tilt. first t i m e thcrc, is i i i o ~ xc.llcc,st~ tl1,111I ~ o l c ~ Tl~c-rc, s! has , ~ l s oI I ~ X > I,111 ~ i n c ~ r c ~in, ~ intc\~-t-st s~~ \\.ithi11 .Afgh~nist,~n itsc~lf ,~ii(i\\,c, l i o l ~ c *t l i ~ this t l)ook, , ~ l t l i o i i gthe, l ~ proc111c.t ot'li)rc\ign sc.l~ol,~rsllip, \\.ill pro\,c, iist~fiilJ I ~ ( I a(~c,c1>ta\1>1c\ t o tht' .41'gh,111 l)c~ol)le~. \Vith the. inc.rc*.~sc~ in a~-c.hacologic.,lIkno\\.lc.clgc 01' t h c l~iglic~iiltiirt~s ol'lil~li,~ Ii-,ln , an(I C'c~iitr,~l ,4si,1 t h e i-c\gion 0 1 ~ .4I'gli,111istan, p c r i p l ~ e ~ rt~oi lc-ac-1101' the-st. c.c\nt~-;ll t o ,111 thrc,(\, llas I>cc.o~nc, nlorc. inll)oi.t,lnt ancl kno\\ It~Igc'01' its arc.hacolog\\.it,~lt o ,I s t i ~ ( l \01', .III\ 01' t l i c ~ ~ l l . L

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I

Choice of approach and structure of the book Tllis book is l>otll c,ollaI>orati\,cant1 intc~rnationalin its a u t h o r s l i i ~bccausc ~ a~-clia~olo~ical \\.ark in Afqlianistan o\.ci- tlic past three dccadcs has bccn truly intc.1-national in scopc~.In \,ic,a. L

of tlic. timc S P ~ I the' I , I-angc of cultural complcxitv, and the nc\\,ness of much o f t h e rcscarch llcrc l-c,l>~)rtc(l, it sc.c,mcd dcsirablc t o choose. authors \vho \vcxrc immc.diatcly acquaintctl \\.it11 tllc \.arious regions and I>criodsof the arcliacoIog\ of Afghanistan 1-ather than t o ~ - c l vo n a nc~ccssarilymorc sccondliantl s\.ntlicsis bv one o r t\\.o ~>c'ol>lc T h e contriI>utors t o this book come from both Eul-ope, ant1 Amc~rica'incl all lia\.c> carrictl out ticld ~1.ol-k in Afghanistan \vithin the, past fc\\. years. Sc\-eraI ha\.c' major rcscarcli 131-ogrammes tlicrc in progress and all arc outstanding autlioritirs in their ficxlds, \vhich often range far beyond the boundaries ot' .4F~liaiii~ta11 itself. HY making this \\.ark collaborative \\.c have been able, t o ohtain a much g1-cater dcgrCc of local cx~)cl-tiscthaii ~ v o u l dhave bccn otlicr\\.isc possible and each chaptcr placc~sits l~el-iodof Afghan archacolog! ivithin a broadcr South Asian ant1 Central Asian contcxt in a \\.a\. that \voul(l be difficult for a singlc author t o colliprc~liend\\,liilc using tlic most u[>-to-(latci1it;)rniation. S i ~ i i i l a rtlic l ~ editors have both carried out archaeological ficltl \\-01-k in Afghanistan, ,~lthougIitlicir major efforts have lain clsc\\.Iic~rt~, and both ha\.c\ l>c,c,n in\-ol\-cdin tlic a r c h a c o l o g ~of Afghanistan for man\. years. As editors \\.c 1ia1.c intc,rfc,rccl as little as possible \\.it11 the texts of o u r co-aut1io1-s, apart (1-om the motlifications nc,c.essary t o \vcl(l thcxir separate, contributions into a cohcrent \+.hole,. Nor have sought uniti)l-mitv of Eii~lislist1.1~.T h e basic organization of tlie book is chronologic~albut naturall\. tlic subject matter \.aric.s very much from the prehistoric through into the historic period. T h e gc>ographical background t o Afghan prehistoi-Y and 1iistol-v is clt~scril>cdin tlic first chaptc~rin both pIi\~sicaland human t e r i i ~ sby Sophia Ho\vlby. This is follo\\.ctl I>\. chal>tcrstlealing chronologicall~with c~acliof the iiiaior pt,riods of prchistorv and history. C'lial>tc~r 2 by Riclial-tl S. L)a\.is gi\-csan account of tlic carlic,st kno\vii inhabitants, ant1 tlc,als \\.it11the last major gco~~iorpliological cha~igc~s at the' end of tlie final glaciation. Tlicrc is tliciiiatic coiitinuitv bct\\.e\c~nthis chapter and the' next by Jim G . Shal'fcr, \\-lio opens \\.it11 a tliscussion of the final stage of thc Stone Age and the prclutlc t o scxttlcd agricultural production in this part OF the, \\.orltl. This chapter c~mbraccsthe, rest of Afghan p r c ~ l i i s t o rdo\\,n ~ to thc cornl>arati\~cl~ littlc kno\\.n sccontl iiiillcnnium ancl earl! Iron Agc. Kccordcd liistor\. begins \\-it11the, ~ ~ l i a c l i l c n ic(o1l i q ~ c ~ softlie ts sixth ccntur\. H . C . C'hal>tc.rs4 alicl 5 arc the joint \\()rk of Llavitl Maello\\-all and Maul-izio Tatltlci, thc formcr tlcaling \\.it11 the c'viclcnec of insci-iptions ant1 numismatics, and s i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~al short \ ~ i i iliistorical g introtluction, and tlic latter (Icali~ig\\.it11 the c\~i(lciict~ of scttlcmciits, arcliitccturc ant1 art histor\.. Chapter 4 co\.c,rs tlic ccnturics bct\\.c.cn the Acliacmcnitl conc~ucstant1 the at-I-i\-alin tlic last t\vo ccnturic~sH . C . OF the noinatlie Yur.11-Chi in the north. It inclutlcs tliei-cfi)rc the, campaigns of Alc~xan(lc~r the' Grcat ant1 the sul~scquc~nt Grcck kingtloiiis in Hactria anrl KaI>uI. Clial>tcr 5 l>cSins \\.it11 tlic I-isc OF the, Kushan cmpi~.cand continues througli the, successor d\,nastics t o tlic Hcl~1ithalitcs and thc Toi.Ls, and the Aral) in\asions \vhicli hc~ral(lec1tlic start of Musli~iirnlt, i l i Afglialiistrn. This clial>t('r ilicl~(1cstlic'r('t;)~-crc~f;~~-c-iic~c to tht' ca\.cs at Hami\.an ,1ntl allied m o n ~ ~ m c n tThc s. a~-c.hacolo~!. of thc Muslim ~>crio(l is (lc,alt \\-it11in Clial,tc~~-s 6 ,3ntl 7 by Klaus Fisclicr. Tlic fil.st L

olx'ns wit11 t h e Arab in\,asions and covers t h c cc.nturic.s u p 10 tl~c.Mongol iil\,asiolls, inc,lucling tlic Gliaznavitl and Ghoritl clynastics; and t h e latter clcbals w i t h tllt. dvnastic.s \vhO suc.c.c.c.cl(.cl the. Mongols, down t o t h c Timuritls. I-.ach lays strcss o n t h e (lisc~o\.c.ric~s ancl stu(lv ot rnonurncntal r c ~ n ~ a i n\vIiich s ha\,c. liithc.rto f;)r~nc,tla major asl)cbc.t ot' t h c arcliac-ologv ot' this ~ ~ e r i o in tl Afghanistan, but incluclc~salso notice. ol'tlic o t h c r principal catc.goric.s ol'c\,itlc.ncc.. The. short historical introductions which prcfacc~thcsc chaptc.rs w e r e kincllv s ~ ~ , ~ > l i cat. cshort l notic c- Ov Pctc.r Jackson, Fcllo\\. o f Churchill Collcgc C'arnl,ridgc., (luring I'roh-ssor Fisc,hc.r's tc,mporarv indisposition. W i t h i n t h e wide scope o f t h e hook w e havc tried t o makc t h e c~nil)hasisarchac~c)logital r a t h e r than historical. W c a r c all t o o conscious of tlic. rc'sultant gap I)c.t\\.c.c.n tlic archaeological accounts o f t h c historical pc.riotl, ant1 full historical ancl archaeologic.al svnthesis of t h e kind so brilliantlv achic.vctl bv Ghirsliman in his \\.ol-ks on Iran ancl Afghanistan. O u r justification, if indclcd justiticat ion be rc.quircd, must I>(. that \r-c arcpresenting so m u c h ncb\v material that t o have, included this sort o f s ~ n t h c s i must s Iia\.c. grc*atlv e x t e n d e d tlic length of this alread!. considcrablc \.olumcx. For tlic rc.adc.r \s.ho \vishcs l o ha\.c. f u r t h e r reference t o tlic h i s t o r ~\ve rccomnic~ndhim t o consult t h e I>il>liographics01' sue ti w o r k s as Fraser-Tvtler ( 1967), Masson and Homoclin ( 1 9 6 4 ) , 1)uprc-c. ( 1973 1, ant1 more* gc~ncrallv in t h e accounts of t h e historv of Afghanistan in t h c L~c.I-c.lopucdru o f 1sldr11 ant1 incidentallv in t h e Cambridge Histor). o f ' l r u n . As e d i t o r s \ve lia\fc a t t e m p t e d , \i.ithin reason, t o atlopt a single s\.stc*ni01'translitcration for all o u r authors, b u t \ve a r c a\varc that inconsistc~ncic.~ still o c c u r . U'lic.rc scvc~ralspellings of a n a m e o r place n a m e a r e c u r r e n t , \i-e havc sonictimc.~allo\vcd dift;.rcnt IOrrns. hut \s-c a r c conscious that in man! instances \vherc cvc liavc~t r i c d t o be consistcwt \vcb shall o t k n t l sonic In o u r c h o i c e o f o n e f o r m o r a n o t h e r . As far as possiblc \vc ha\,on clatcs arct quotc.(l e i t h e r as ra\v dates (Libby halflifc~unlc,ss othcr\\.isC s t a t c d ) L ) l l o \ s . c ~ t l I)\. I3.c-. I).]' anti the. laboratory n u m b e r , o r bascd upon bristlecone pine calibration as datc,s in calc.ndar vcbars.The. calibration tables published hv MASCA ( 1 9 7 3 ) havc bccn uscd. Most clatcs a r c l>ul>lislictlin journal Radiocarbon and t h e reliabilitv and trchnicalitics of t h C original dating ma\- bc~ ascertained t h e r e . For t h e historical

period

datcs a r c q u o t c d in

H.C. .A.D.

The history of archaeological research in Afghanistan 1 f o n.1 .fool this high san~ootc-hcsplnrc Charlcs .!lacson has bccn hcrc lrc./brc

Knoll

Unlikc h e r t n - o g r r a t nrighhours, Inrlia and Kussia. both o f \\horn rlcl-clo~>rrla a t c a r c l ~ a ~ o l o g i c ast,rviccs l (luring t h e nineteenth century. Afghanistan rrlnaintxl alnwst unkno\r,n t o a r c h a r o l c ) g ~and \\,ithout an\ d r p a r t n i c ~ n to f its o\vn until r r r r n t vrars. T h r carlicst r c c o r d s o f its m o n u m e n t s a r c in t h c accounts of tra\.cllcrs, tirst C'hinc*sc,t h c n Muslim and f nallv European. Tlic c l ~ i n c s r rccords a r c niainlv thosc o f Hudtlhist pilgrims \I-ho. o n

4

N . H A M M O N D A N D F . I .400). The detailed account of the travels of Hiuen-Tsang in the mitltlle of the sc\.enth century contains a number of references t o rnonumcnts, both living and ruined, just as it provides us ~ . i t our h earliest secontlary source for many of the Asokan sites and monuments in In(lia. Among the places mentioned by Hiuen-Tsang are the "New monasterym (na1.o sangharama o r nau bihar) at Balkh, and monasteries at Kapisa and Nagarahara. T h c tlescription of the great Buddhas at Hamiyan, which in those days must have still been relatively new, is particularlv interesting, and he informs us that t h e great Buddha shonc goltlrn in t h e sun (Beal, 1 906). From the eighth century Arab and o t h e r Muslim travellers and geographers begin t o write about Afghanistan, and in some of their works t o o there arc accounts of monuments. Thus the Hudud al-Alam (c. A.D. 982) mentions Balkh and its famous, painted nau bihar, as well as Bamivan and Nagarahara, also commenting on t h e great Buddha figures (Minorsky, 1937). These attracted the attention of many subsequent writers, including Yaqut ( A . D .1461) \!.llo gi\.es a description of the to1a.n ant1 some of its remains. He mentions the wall paintings at Bamiyan, adding that they representcd "all t h e birds created by God". W i t h European writings w e encounter for the first time not onlv the accounts of travellers, but also coin collectors. As might be expected, much of this interest found its focus in lndia o r Russia. It was the recognition of coins of Eukratides and Theodotus which suggested t o Theophilus Bayer t h e plan of his history of the Greek kings of Bactria (Historia Regni Graecorum Bactriani) in 1738, and thereafter further Bactrian coins found their way to collectors in France, Britain and Italy. Indeed it seems that these coins led European scholars towards Bactria and its Greek rulers. This interest received a special stimulus, as did that in all other branches of oriental archaeologv, in India and in Europe, from the foundation of the Asiatic Society of Bengal in Calcutta by Sir William Jones in 1784. T h e new spate of researches which immediately began t o appear found thcir publication in the pages of the society's Journal, while in the person of the society's librarian, James Prinsep, the stud\. of Indian epigraphy and numismatics found a notable proponent. Prinsep undertook t o publish and illustrate many of the coins and antiquities which travellers and others recovered, both from the northwest of lndia itself and from Afghanistan. Among early travellers w e may mention W . Moorcroft and G . Trebeck, whose Travels in the Himalayan Provinces (1 81 $25) were published in 1841, and H . W . Bellew's Afghanistan and the Ajghans ( I 839). They noticed liumerous monuments on the road from Peshawar t o Kabul and thencc t o Bamivan and Balkh. Another earlv traveller was Sir Alexander Rurnes whose acute eye and keen intellect made many valuable historical and archaeological observations on his way t o Hukhara in 1831 3 3 (Burnes 1833, 1839). The 1830s saw a sudden outburst of archaeological w o r k , fed no doubt t,v the gro~vinq British concern for Russian imperial rxpansion towartls Central Asia. Foremost among those \vho contributed t o knowledge of the archaeology of Afghanistan was Charles Masson \vho between 1834 and 1837 travelled witlely there. T o him wc, w e the first report of the old tit!. olBegram, which he proposed t o identify with the city founded bv Alcxanc1c1-ant1 k n o ~ from n

cIa4\1('1l \oiil-rc'. a4 4 l c \ a n ( l 1 la at1 C ,iuca4um 01 41c \ a n ( l ~1'1 l ' a ~ol)ani~,a(lac (.11a.\011. I h 3 3 . 1863,a,I)) Hc-l-c*he. r o l l c t t c ~ ol \ c.1 the, n c \ t l e > \ \ \e*,at s 40mc 30.000 coin.. I I I C 1ucI111l:nlat)\ ( 1 1 c .! a n d K u \ l i a n . It \ \ a \ 11114 hntl mol-c. t h a n a n \ o t l i c ~\ ~\ I i t c 11 t I ~ - r attc n t l o n t o t h t 111ipo1 t ~ t c i ot~ 4 t c h a n t \ t a n lot- c la\\ical a r c h a c o l o g \ . Ma4\on t l ~ ~ c o \ c ~ t - cotl1c.t~cl .ttc.4 ant1 a n t ~ c l u ~ t ~at-ouncl c*. K a b u l , ant1 \ 1\1tc(l H a m ~ \ a n\I hcl-c lie. n o t ~ ctl c t h e charcoaI afhtt I c It I)\ c,al-l~cl- l,ltor-., ~ n c l u t l t n qM o o t - c r o f t a n d T1-cbccL (Ma.\on 1 X 3 6 c . ( I ) , a n d la( lc.lt 1114 o \ \ n (Iog~e't-c'Ic o i ~ p l ( ' t ( q u o t c t l a t t h e h e a d of t h i 4 c h a l ~ t c t -high ) ul) tn a n ~ n a cc ( ~ ~ . 1 1 ~11lacc 1 ( ~ a l > o \(. the hcacl 01 tlic 21 a t H u d ( l h a , \I hcl-c 11 \ \ a \ t l i \ c o \ (11-eela c c n t u n l a t c r h\ the. Frcync I1 mls.lon 4 n o t h ( > t -al-(,a \ \ l i ~ 1c h e sul-1 c \ c(1 \ \ a \ in t h e tr Inlt\ ot Jalalahacl, In the‘ l ~ l a ot ~ nt h c K a h u l I - I \ c.1- \ a l l ( . \ , ~ t kht r t k ~ n ;

st

.

(

1-ct4ult4, ( I i . c o \ c ~ - ~dno~l c n 5 01 Hutltllit\t \ t u p a \ , a. \ \ c - 1 1 a4 m a n \ m o u n t l k Th(\ r . c ~ 4 u l tot ~ hr. \\ o r k a t H(.grarm a n ( ] c>14c\\her-cs \I c.1-c 111-st I ~ u l ~ l ~ \ hIn c ctlic. l ] o u r r ~ ~(11~rl h ~4 \ 1 c l [ l ( . \ C ' L ~ C01I Ifi~'i~yt~l ( \ ' o l s 1 5 ) ant1 1atc.1- a4 a p a r t 01 H . H 12'1140n'4 lr~cli~cllr?r1q~1~i I I SLFO) RIa\\oti c \ c d \ ate ( I cXt-c. n u m c l - o u h r oln. ant1 the, f a m o u \ \c3\ ('1-a1 01 tllc' \ t i i l ) ~ \ati(1 a ~ i l o n gthe' r r l ~ c ~-c,co\c t - c ~ l Htrn,a~-at~ ca41\c't, n o \ \ 111 tIi(- HI-ttt.11 hlu4c~i111i . 4 t a h o i ~ tthe, 4a1iic' t l m ( * a. AIa4,oll \\,a. \ 1 \ t t 1 1 1 g 1.4 p l ~.tc \ la11 (111 tlic, .c\l-\ I ( c> 01 the%\11\Ii.), 1)t R l H o r i t g l ~ e ~ r g c t~ria~\ , 1 l c ~ O t l i c \ c l)lac c>, a (

h o m r t o l ~ u r o l , r . He, t o o \,isit(d many of t h r sites arollll(l ~ l l ~ - o LAighanistan ~gll 011 the, J,l]alal,ntl dn(l ll(\ar K a l ~ u l also , (loin< some, cxc.avations ant1 collcctilig coins. T h e results of Ills

\\ark \\,cl-c l~tlI>lislirclin t h r ) o l l n ~ o l .4sii~riy11'. I 8 36- 39. Anotlirr mc(lical m a n , J . G . Gerard

lcft a m c m o i r o f these sanic s i t r s (Grrarcl, 1 8 3 4 ) . ac~c~(,llll,a~iccl Hvrncs TIlr, \ , , i r i ~ l l src~scarchcsof t h e t h i r d clcca(lc o f t h c ninc.tc~c1nthcc%nturyI(*(] t o S V V ~ . ~ ~ ] iml,ortat~tn l . 1 ~pul,lications. Wc have alrcatlv m t ~ n t i o n c t lWilson's Ariana Antiqlrtl. AnotI1cr \\.l-itcr t o use. tlic nc,\v matc'l-ial was Christian Lasscn, a Norwegian w h o spcbnt most of'11,s \ \ . ( ) k i n glife at t h e Llni\,crsit\ o f Honn. H e w r o t e a monograph o n t h c history o f t h c C;rcc,k an(! lntlo-Sc\.tIiia11kings o f Hactria, Kahul ant1 Intlia, pul>lisIird in 1 8 3 8 . W i t h t h o Hritish invasion 01' AicIianistan in 1 8 3 9 , and t h c I ~ o l i t i c a lunccrtaintics that ensued, t h e v o l u m e of original rcsc~arehclrics u p , ant1 o n c e m o r e t h c stray travc.llcr's r e p o r t is t h c only n c w material h~rtI1coming.For instance, J . 1'. F c r r i c r ' s Caravan J o u r n f y r , publishctl in 1856, rccortfs his travcbls in 1846, \vith many rc.fcrcnc-cs t o archaeological rcmains a t Karabagh, Kantlahar, and clsc~\\.Iici-c.He- also inc~lutlctla tantalising r c f c r c n c c t o rc,n~ainsof an old city in a vallry I,ct\\.ceii Sar-il)ill antl Hootlhi, \vhc.rc. h c noticctl s o m e g r e a t rclicfs c u t o u t o f t h c r o c k . Thrsr ha\.c so far c~ludc~dthc' a t t e m p t s of subscqucnt archac.ologists t o rc(liscovcr t h c m . Thc c,ollccting OF coins continued as is witncsscd by P. Gartlncr's Cotalogllc o f c o i n s o f t h e Grcek ond Sc,~,thic kinil.s ol'Bactrio 111 the Rriti.sh M u s e ~ l m ,( 1 8 8 6 ) ; while such geographical a c c o u n t s as H . C;. lia\.c,rt\.'s A'otrs on / I f i h a n i s t a n , 1878 ant1 T . H . Holdicli's Indian Borderland ( I901 ) and Gates 01' Intlia ( 1 9 1 0 ) , contain m u c h of valuc t o t h c archac.ologist, cvcn if n o t primarily w r i t t c n from this point of vicwr. Russian intcrcst in Ccntral Asia hat1 all-catly fountl cxprcssion in F. Nazarov's \vork ( 1 82 1 ), ant1 tlcvclopccl a11 archac~ologicalo r historical bias in a numbci- o f o t h e r w o r k s , such as 1. Hicliurin's studv o f t h e antiquities of Central- Asia ( 1 8 5 1 ) , K . K i t t c r ' s h'i~hu/i.stanar~d Kt!f~ri.ston(1 8 6 7 ) , ant1 t h e \\,ritings o f 0. T o m a s c h c k , ~,articularl!~his Ccntrul Asiotic St[rciics ( 1 877). T h c t\\.cnticth c c n t u r \ . I~rotlucccla numbc>rof nCw nanicxsa m o n g bvhorn \\.c ma!. mention t h r e e in I ~ a r t i c , i ~ l aV. r , V. Hartoltl, 1869--I 9 3 0 , whosc~many ~ v o r k so n tlic Iiistorj. of Central Asia contain m u c h o f rc~lcvancc h ) r Afghanistan; Sir Aurcl Stein, 1 8 6 2 ~1- 9 4 3 , \vhosc longstantling intr.1-cst in a r c l i a c o l ~ gt o~o k him o n a set-ics of c,xpc(litions in Cent]-al Asia, Intlia ant1 Iran, \ h i e l l although they largely skirtc'cl t h e gcograpliical confines 01' Afllhanistan none-thclcss contributc~tl m u c h that relates t o it; ant1 A . Fouclic~r, 1865 1 9 5 2 , \vhosr c,onsuming intcrcst in t h e cxtciisions of Greek ant1 Hcllcnistic c u l t u r e i n t o tlic cast Ictl him to Al-qhanistan, \\.here t h e stu(1ic~so f his I,itc~~\.c>al-s\\.t,rc i-naiiily co1iccnt1-atc~l.. His i n t t ~ r c s cxarl~ t 10untl c,xlx-c,ssion in t h e monunic~ntalI. 'c~rtgrec-o-houdtll~iy~re tlu G t ~ n t i l ~ u r(Vol. a 1 . Paris, 1905; VoI. 2 . l'aris, 19 1 8 ) ; ant1 in a w.holc set-ics of s u l ~ l ~ o r t i nI~ul,lications. g Hy tlirsc \vorks Foi~chc~l. cstal,lishctl a claim t o 1,c the, Icatling a r t historian in this tirltl. T h e collc~ctionant1 l~ul>lication of hasic clata c.ontinuc~l\\.it11 \vork such as that o f Tatc, ( 1 9 1 2 ) 0 1 1 Sistan. ,4 n c \ \ c,ra 1;)r arcliac~ologyin Afghanistall I,cgan in I 9 2 2 w i t h the, siqning OF t h e France)Atillan a ~ c a o o g i c ac o n \ . r n t i o n . T h e t r r m s I this c r a t , p e r m a n c ~ n t D ~ / ~ ~ ~ l ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ L ~ I I I -~ ~ ~u I ~I ~~ L I CI Io.I ~A~~ / ~~ ~~ /~I ~~ II I Ic( ~l~I.AS F~ AL )J,Igi\.ing I it a \,irtual nlo11o~,ol1~ o \ , c * l - rc~scarc~h. This cstal~lishc~(l 1i)r t h e hrst t i m e a p e r m a n r n t I ~ a s r1;)1-arcl1aeological rrscal-ch in the, c o o n t l - r . Its c.1-cation \\-as in n o small \\.a\.tlic~rc~sultofI-'oiichc~.'sc~ntlii~si~iarn, an(l lie \\-as the, natul-al I,c,l-son L

t o I)i-c.onic its first dirc*c,tor.l'hi. I'ruits of' its la1,ours (.an I)(, sc-c-n I)v rc.f;.rc.nc.(. IO 111~.1,agt.s "1 t h e scbric-s 01' Mcbnloirs whic.11 it ~>ul)lislictl.'Tlicsc. i~lc.lu(Ic.,a111011gothc-rs, I - o t l c hear's rllagrlt11~1 o l ~ u so n 1.0 vicllc routc dc I'lr~dc,dc hocrrcs A 7'axrld ( 2 vols, 1942 ancl 1947); c-xc.avariorls ant1 stutlics at Hadda 1,): J . Barthoux and o t h e r s ; a sc~ric-sol' stutlic-s ol' I j a m i ~ a n partic , ularlv, I,\-, J . Hackin, w h o succcc.dccl 1-ouchc*ras clirc.c.tor; c.xc.avations ancl stuclirs at He-gram, inc-lurlinp tllc. tliscovcrv ant1 publication of' its wonclc-rlul treasure., by Hac.kin, K . C;hirslinlan arlcl othc.rs; numismatic stu(lic.s of't h c coins ol' t h e Hcl)hthalitc,s ancl 01' important hoarcls 0 1 ' C;rc.c.k coins; the d i s c o \ ~ c ~ r yand excavation ol' a Kushan tlynastic. temple. at Surkh Kotal, I)\. I). Schlumbc.rgcr, 1 9 5 2 63; studies o l ' t h c (;hazna\rid I)alac.cs at Hust and 1.aslikari H a y ~ r ant1 ; of tlic tlisco\:crv o f t h e minaret of J a m I>\A. Mar-ic.q; ancl finall\- ti+,()~)rcbhistoricc.xc.a\.ations, of Nacl-i- A l i in Scistan I)\. Gliirshman, 1 9 3 8 , ant1 at Mundigak ncsar Kanclahar I)\. J - M . C'asal, 195 1 58. T h e niost recc.nt discovc.ry, \vhich sets t h e sc-a1 upon Fouchcr's grcbat vision, lias bccn of t h e G r e e k citv ot' Ai-Khanum, in 1963, an(l its ~ u l , s c . ~ u r n tc.xc.avation t)v Schlumbcrgcr and his successor 1'. Hcrnard. In tlic years lcading u p t o the, Scc.on(l WOI-lclW a r o t h c r nationalitic's brgan t o take- an intcrcst in t h c sul>jcct. In 1938 a small British cxpc.tlition, c.onsisting ol' 1:. Hargc-r ancl 1'. W r i g h t , surveyed sitcs in n o r t h Afghanistan, particularlv arountl Quntluz ant1 in Hadakhslian. Hut it was n o t until t h e e n d of t h e \\.ar that international intcrc,st in At'glianistan and hcsr archaeology t o o k o n a n e w fi)rm. As m u c h of t h c w.ork ant1 m a n \ of tlic namchs \vhich arc. c o n n e c t e d w i t h this period a r c dcalt \vith in dctail in suhsc~qucntchaptc,rs of' this I ~ o o k ,n-c. shall n o t c n u m c r a t c t h e m h e r e . Iiathcr \ftc. sliall indicate. somc*thingol'th(' brc-acltli ol'this neb\\. i n t e r e s t . In 1946 tlic Indian Government scwt a t c a m hcadcd b\. t h e 1lirc.c.tor (;cmc.ral ot' Archaeology, M o r t i m e r W h e c l c r , t o visit Af hanistan and make a survey of' sitcs, nlainlv in t h e n o r t h . Indian intcrcst has continued and founti c,xprcssion in a n u ~ n h c rol' cxpcditions a i m e d a t offering assistance, t o t h e Go\,crnmcwt o f Afghanistan in tlic. conset-\-ation ol'Hamivan; plans a r c also in hand for an cscavation. Wc ha1.c alrcadv nicntionc.~lt h c c o n t i n u i n c \+.ark 01the, FI-cnch llclcgation. An Italian Mission, affiliated t o t h ~ Istituto . Italiano 1,c.r i l Mctlic,o c a c l E s t r c m o O r i c n t c ( I s M E O ) , and inspired by G . T u c c i , lias 1,c.c.n \vorking since t h e 1950s. This mission has carried o u t cxtcnsi\.c c'xca\.ations and c\sl,lo~-ationsaround Gliazni. undclr .4. Hombaci and U . Sccrrato, and at t h e nc.ighbouring Hutl(1hist c o m p l e x of Tapa Sardal-, untlc.r M . T a d d c i . British \q.ork \\.as n i a i n l ~o n an indi\.idual hasis, until 1 9 7 2 , \+.lien a Hritish Institute of Afghan Studies \{.as cstablishcd in Kabul. This institutc~has undCrtakcn c,xca\-ations at Kandahar. Gcrnian \vork has hccn mainlv conccrnccl \\.it11 t h c sur\-cSvo f sitcs o f thcb Muslim lwriotl in Scistan and t h c Hc,rat area. T h c r c has bccn a considcrablc volume, of Amcrican rc.sc~arcli.In 1949 LC'. Fairsc.r\-is It-(I t h e first cxpcdition t o Kandahar and Sistan arcas, s u r \ . c ~ i n ga n u m h c r ot'sites. In t h c foIIo\\-ing scason Louis Dul>rcc, cxca\.atcd at I>ch Mol-asi Ghundai. \\-hilt Fairscl-\.is made turtlic-r csl)lorations in Sc,istan: D u p r c c also cxca\.atctl a t Sliamshir G h a r . In 1 9 5 3 Kotlnt,\. l ' o u n q c~xcavatcdpart of t h c tlc~fcnccso f t h e lo\vrr city of Halkh, obtaining important c-hronological data; and in 1 9 5 4 Car-lcton Coon carriCti o u t pioneering cxxca\.ations in Kara Kamar cave near Haihak. rc\,caling Stone Agcx deposits (Coon. 1 9 5 7 ) . Tlicsc- \\.c,rc tlic tirst t.sca\.ations 01' a ~ x c h i s t o r i cca\-c site of this period in Afghanistan. Sinc.c 1959 I l u p r c c has m a d c furtlicr sur\.cys ant1 csca\-ations ot' I,rchisto~-icand la.tc~r sit(,>, notahl\. at A q Kupruk in \\.cstc,rn

8

N . H A M M O N D A N D F . K. ALLCHIN

Hadakshan, and e l s e ~ h c r ein north Afghanistan. In 1970 George Dales carried out a survey in Seistan and exca\rated at Nad-i-Ali. The Soviet Union have rccently established cooperation in the form of a Soviet-Afghan archaeological expedition which sincc 1971 has undertaken explorations and excavations at several sites in the neighbourhood of Akcha, including Dashli, Tillya Tepe and Altin Tepr. These excavations have ),ielded very promising materials, t o judge by the published results to date. A Japanese expedition from Kyoto University have been working in Afghanistan since 1960; initially led by S. Mizuno it made surveys in the Haibak region, and m o r e recently in collaboration with Afghan archaeologists has been excavating and surveying Buddhist sites in the Hadda region. Finally some mention must be made of the initiation of field work bv t h e Afghan G o ~ e r n m c n titself. Since 1965 D r S . Mustamandi and subsequently D r Z . Tarzi have been excavating at Tapa Shotor and other sites in the neighbourhood of Hadda, and thus laid the foundations for a local school of archaeological research. In view of the number of ancient sites already kno\vn and the magnitude of the work involved in their excavation, one can onl, applaud this development, and look forward t o its future progress. T o conclude this brief survey of the history of archaeological research in Afghanistan, we \\-ould like t o point t o t w o trends which have become apparent during the past three decades. The first is towards international participation. The Government of Afghanistan have permitted and encouraged the presence of foreign' teams and archaeological missions, and these have been able t o make a substantial contribution. T h e international authorship of this book is one of the fruits of this tendency. The second, in t h e long run m o r c important, trend has seen the beginnings of an indigenous pool of trained archaeologists, undertaking their own researches. This was looked forward t o by one of us at the beginning of the period (Allchin, 1957, 141): It is to be hoped that the time is not too far distant when the Government of Afghanistan will

recognize the tremendous interest of its ancient sites and institute its own program of research. If the ark is to succeed it will do so best when local interest supports local \vorkers. Through the harmonious progress of these t w o trends Afghanistan has made great strides, and its past-once so tantalizing because unknown and i n a c c e s s i b l ~ h a sbegun t o gro\v more distinct.

The Geographical Background Sophia R . Bowlbv Afghanistan lies at the heart of Eurasia within the vast belt of steppe ant1 semi-(lcscrt that stretches from the Mediterranean t o China (Fig. 1 . 1 ). Routes from north t o south, wcbst t o east criss-cross the country and through the centuries have carricd in a tliversitv ol'pcoples Mongols, Greeks, Indians and Iranians during the historic alonc.. Man\. of th(.hcdifferent groups can still be distinguished in the population todaj.. This varictv of ih easily matched by the \.arietv of landscapes which range from the icv pinnacles of'thc tlintlu Kush t o the blazing wastes of the Dasht-i-Margo, from drv, dustv stcppc-lands t o oases and terraced valleys. Given this variety of environment and peoples, thcre are manv forms of economv that the. early inhabitants ma)- have adopted. The purpose of this chapter is t o reconstruct the naturc, and distribution of resources available t o these settlers and t o outline the range o f cconomic alternatives open t o them. This should help us t o understand the economv and socict\. that each group created. Any such attempt at reconstruction must consider \$.hat resources \I-crc rclcvant to the peoples of the past. The archaeology of Afghanistan co\.ers a vast span of time and a great variety of human groups, some \vith primitive and some ~ . i t hlairl\. advanced technologv. However, most of them had t o gain the bulk of their food and their materials tbr tools, sheltcr and clothing from their immediate localit!:, so that the distribution of natural resources must have been of great significance t o their livelihood. Perhaps the major influence on the distribution of natural resources \l,ithin an area is its climate. The climate of Afghanistan todav certainly has a profound effect on its agricultural possibilities, natural vegetation and wild life. Thus one of the first questions that needs t o be answered is whether there have been significant changes in climate during the time period of interest her-namely from around 70,000 B . C . t o the sixteenth century A . D . Before dealing with this question, holvever, it is pertinent t o describe brieflv the major physiographic features of Afghanistan, since these plav an important part in its past and present climatic character. Tlic g e o l oLq. ~01' Afghanistan is not \\-ell kn0u.n. The \\.hole country is part of the bclt of recently folded mountains that strctches from the Pyrenees t o the Hinialavas and bevond (Brice, 1966; Cressev, 1960). T h e Teth\.s sea once lav bet\\.een a large, stable continental block t o the south (of which modern India and Africa \verc a part) and a similar stable block t o the north. As time passed, tlic older rocks on the bottoni of the Tethvs sea becanie co\.ered over ~ v i t hscdinients carried offthc neiglibouring land masses. Then, during the late Mesozoic

9 R

Land over 3 0 0 0 f t

Inland lakes

Afghanlston

---Approximate llmlts of steppe and desert ( ~ncludlnghlgh plateau steppe

Fig. 1 . I : Thc location of Afghanistan kvithin Eurasia. and early Tertiary, the wholc sea bctl was folded upwards against the continental blocks to north and south so forming a wholc system of mountain chains. These chains tend t o be composed of series of parallel ranges and their directions w e r e partly determined by the outlines of the resistant continental blocks. The mountain building activity was accompanied and followed by volcanic activity, rifting and fracturing. Rivers and \veathcring agcnts have further altered the landscape. In thc Afghan area today there are t w o main sets of mountain chains, onc of jvhich s\+.ceps south-southwest ti-om the Pamir knot along the Indus valley tojvards t h r Persian gulf; the other splits into t w o branches, one running \vcstw~ardstowards Herat and t h e Caspian and anothcr running south\vest, dccreasinq in hciqht until it vanishes into the Helmand basin. (Fig.

1.

T H E lc'living u p and clown t h e valley both t o maintain the. irrigation works an(l t o a(lrnini\tcbr t h e tlistribution 01'thc w a t e r . Maintenance would have bccm important bt-c,ausc.ot' rive-r's seasonal Hootling. In t h c n o r t h thc. Amu-(larva an(] its tri1,utaric.s arcb u s c ~ lc.xtc.nsi\c.lv I;)r irrigation ant1 this is facilitated in areas with Iocss sincc. it is a matt-rial I'rom \\.hic.h it i h (.as\ t o construct tlitchc-s ant1 d a m s and w h c n irrigated it fi,rms a t;-rtilc. soil. T h e principal c r o p s that a r c groL5.n o n thcbsc irrigatc,O lands in the- soutll at prcscbnt arc-

K a r e z /qanat

-

Jui

Fig. 1.10: P1-intil,al t\-pes ot' agl-itultul.al irrigation.

SOPHIA K. HOWLBY

Fig. I . I I : t o u r

oh

1 ~ 1 ~ 1 4 ,111

canals a1101 c thc (;hc)rl)antl

I-I\

CI-,near C'harikar.

hcat, I>arlc\, lentils, l>can\ antl mal;lc. T h c first t h r e e a r c har\cstecl in t h c \prlng and the last t n o I I I t h c a u t u m n . A 3 ar1c.t) of c1thc.r 1c~gc~tal>lcs antl s o m e c o t t o n and oil plants a r c c u l t i ~ a t e d along w ith 1 inc,, fruit trccs and melons. T h e \inch a r c particularly i m p o r t a n t as t h c dried gralx,s form o n c of Afghanistan3\ principal exports. They a r c g r o w n in trc,nchcs t o protcct t h c m from t h e hcat anrl t o facilitate w-atcring. In t h e arcas irrigatctl f r o m t h e ribcrs some rice ma\ bc g r o w n and t h ~ c\ r o p is important in t h e n o r t h e r n irrigatctl lands along w i t h cotton, wheat and sugar l ~ c t Vegetables . ant1 fruit t r c c s a r c groxvn in t h c n o r t h as in t h c south. 1-cntils, 11txasanc1bcans a r c found as an important foot1 c r o p throughout qfghanistan b u t whcat 1s untloubtctll) t h e most important single footl. Although ~ r r i g a t i o nI S such an important k a t u r c of agriculture, tlr! farming is also ~ x ) s \ ~ hant1 l c is fount1 c,\pcc.iall\ in t h e mountains. W h c a t i.s g r o w n \z ithout irr-igat~onhcrc as a \ t a l ~ l cfoot1 c r o p an(I H u ~ n l u m( 1959) rc.port\ \c,r'lng ~tgrow n at a l t ~ t u ( l eof \ u p to 3000 mc,tcr.s. \I

The farmers work with the aid of vcry simplr tools. Humlum (1959, girrs an ex((.llt.nt description of these along with line drawings and photographs. Hef'orc ploughing th(. lic.lrl may be ~ r e ~ a r by e dpulling over it a heavy piece of'woocl drawn by o x m t o brc>akup lumps of %oil. The ~ l o u g h are s also pulled by oxen and are made ofwoo(l with a mctal tip. Thrrr arc a varitstv of types, however none of them turn the sod but merely scratch a shallow furrow. Sowing is usually broadcast and generally a sickle is used for harvesting, while thrrshing is ilonr 1)) simply marching cattle round and round over the heaped up grain o r occasionally by bc~atingit bv hand with a flail. For winnowing the grain is tossed into the air with a wootlc.n Iilrk and the-n sifted through a simple sieve. These tools, along with spades and sho\:c.ls, complrte the most important mechanical equipment of the farmer. His grain may be millcd 1)). hand but morc often this is done in gravity-fed water mills. The fertility o f t h c soil is maintaincad by 1c.aving fields fallow for one o r t w o years in three. Whcn the ticlcls arc fallokv, animals arc. somtirnt-s put t o graze on them thus providing manure which is later ploughed in. The sedentary farmers in the oases, river valleys and mountains also keep livestock; thc-sc supply not only food but also material for clothes, dung for fucl and motive pouxJr for transport and farm work. Oxen are kept for ploughing and threshing and are also usctl as beasts of burden over short distances. They are fed through the winter on lucerne which is groum tor the purpose. Cattle supply some milk but this is also obtained from goats which, along with sheep, feed on the natural scrub vegetation. Sheep are numericallv the most important domestic animal in Afghanistan and, particularly in the north, supplv tint. pelts for trading. Throughout the country poultry are found scratching for food around thc houses and thcir eggs and meat supply a valuable addition t o the diet. In addition t o cattle, horses are used for transport in the north and in the Hindu Kush hut in the south donkeys and mules are more common. Camels are used cspcciallv tor long distance movement; both the one and t w o humped varieties are found; the former predominantlv in the south, the latter predominantly in the north. In t h e mountains transhumance is common. The men take the flocks up t o high pasturcs in the summer leaving the women and old men t o cultivate the fields, the men and flocks then return t o the valleys with the colder weather. T h e r e is thus a similar pattern of subsistence farming throughout the country, varying in detail with altitude and the abundance of water but centred around kvheat and barlev as the staple grain crops, with pulses and vegetables as further important additions t o the diet. Livestock are an integral part of this farming system which also relies heavily on irrigation techniques. Crops are raised for exchange as well as for subsistence and nowadays cash crops arc growing in importance and some processing plants have been established in the countrvside. Cotton, rice, sugar beet and oil crops are raised in the north and some cotton, oil crops and grapes in the south. Produce and livestock were traded before the modernization of agriculture began and allowred the sedentary farmer t o acquire goods from far as-av. The a similar rolc in nomads play an important part in this trade today and mav well have prehistory. It seems pertinent at this point t o consider what aspects of the farming system of the past could be similar t o the modern situation. Certainly the tools used today are not more

laved

30

SOI'HIA

acl\ane.ecl

l i . HOWLBY

tlldll tliosr tllat might havr b(>(-nusc*(l bv an iron Agc3 f a r n m r . S o m e 01' thv crcll)r

gro\\-n t(lclav\~olllclIla\,e l)crn unknown but many prol)al,ly grew as wild l ~ l a n t in s Alihaoistal i l l tll(%I)'lst a:s tIlry (lo to(lav. V a \ i l o \ (195 I ) s u g g r s t c ~ that l t h e ants ot' Afghanistan and I'akistall t;)l-llls an intlc-l,c~n(I(,ntcl~lturallioarth ti)r a variety ofc,rol)s notal)ly the* whcat, chick peas

I,L-,lns

that still Iilrm an important part of thc. thrniing system; morc.ovcr, most Aflhans still usc.

~ > ~ I ) ir i m ~ i tl i \ c~ f;)rnis of wheat. T h e silnplc riverinc systcm 01' irrigation WOUICI havc ~;~as;l,l(~ ti)r most I)l-ctiistoric. farniing cornmunitirs but t h r k a r o system is technically nlorc. tlill-ic.ult. accel)t that t h e ~)rcsc,ntfarming system is not unlike that of t h e prc,historic farnlcrs tll(bn (lala o n tllc \~ic~ltls that arc) obtainc,tl to(lay o r o n t h e ~ ) o p u l a t i o nsupl>ol-tc(I Ily a givc.n C.lll~i\.atc(Iacreage ~ . o u l t lg i \ c s o m e indication ot' t h e p o l ~ u l a t i o n that coultl have. I,ccbn s ~ ~ l , l ) o r t cin( l tlic past but unti)rtunatc,l\. t h c r c is little rc*liahlr tlata of' this n a t u r e . Howcvc~., IIillnli~rn,in stutlving the oasis ot'I'irza(1a ~ l h i c his irrigatctl by karcz, ti)untl that samples from f;)ur ficltls s h o w c ~ la whc-at yicltl varying f r o m 4.7 t o 14.3 quintauxlha. A soil analysis sucrqcstc(l 5, that these, lo\v vic.ltls ~ , c r l~rol>al,ly c clue t o t h e primit ivc strains of'wlicat used ant1 to tlihcbasc I-athc*rthan t o a poor soil ( H u m l u m , 1959, 1111. 229~-~23 1 ). It certainly s r c m s that thcsc yicbl(ls ma\. I,c o f a similar o r d e r t o thosc that coultl havc been attainctl by prehistoric farmcrs. In the, n o r t h , MichcI ( I 959) quotes whcat yieltls in Kataghan l'rovincc in 1956 of 1440 Ibs/acrc ( a l ~ P r o x i m a t c 13.2 l ~ quintaux per hectare). T h e s e yieltls w e r e gainetl on loess ant1 alluvial soils using river irrigation ant] simple tools f i l l - cultivation but employing organic fertilizer and a gootl rotation. Lastly, w h e r e tlry farming is used in t h e higher areas H u m l u m suggests that t h c ~ , h c avic~ltls t niav I)c only t w o t o t h r c c times t h e seccl sown although wheat g r o w n by dry t h r ~ n i n gmcthotls is saitl t o havc a higher protein c o n t c n t than that g r o w n u n d e r irrigation. Michcl (1 959) quotcs rc.sults f r o m t h e wheat varietal test station near Kabul w h e r c local \,arictics 01' w.Iicat gave vic:l(ls of t h e o r d e r of 3G40 bushels p e r a c r e .

Nomads Not all th(b rural of Afghanistan a r e setlcntary farmcrs: t h c r c a r e groups showing all tlcgl-ccs of nomatlism from the. pure "hcrcling" nomatls t o thosc w h o c o m b i n e seasonal noma(lisn1 with t h e cultivation ot' crops. Many groups adjust t h e i r tlegrec of nomadism to fluctuating cconornic o r climatic circumstances. Some groups m o v e o v e r very s h o r t tlistanccs ~ ' h i l others c migrate u p t o 1000 km b ( ~ t w c ~ cs un m m e r ant1 w i n t c r pastures. Fcrtlinantl (1 959) (listinguish('s t w o main groupings of noniatls-those of t h e south ant1 west and thosc o f the cast. Thcsc divisions corrcspontl t o broatl cultural clivisions as well as t o contrasts in the environment . In both arras onet c.ncountcrs ' pure" nomatls and semi-nomads whilc in tlic a st t h c r c a r c also groups w h o a r c cssc~ntiallymigratory farm w o r k c r s w i t h hcrtls and groups \I-ho move. in a rathc~rrc~strictc~tl arca within t h e f;)rcstc,tl mountains of' Nuristan. , Thc, ''INII-C. n o n ~ a ( l sprincipal ' means of'livclihoocl a r c thc,ir hcrcls ofshccl) an(l goats which sul~l~l!ti)o(I, tu(.l, inatrrial li)r c l o t h r s ancl sh(.lt(tr and goo(ls t i ~ exchange r w i t h t h e t i r m c r s and tracl(~1-sin t h c towns. They move from w i n t c r pasturrs in t h e uplancls along t h r southrrn bor(1(.r t o sulxinicr ~ a s t u r c sin t h c c r n t r a l mountains ( s r r Fig. I . 1 2 ) . Although thvir animals L

I

-

-

Fig. I . 12: Seasonal nio\.c~nc-ntsol'nomaclh (altc.1-I)uprc.c,

197 3 ) . Kc,\-: black lint.1>rox1niatc.1 i ~ n i (11 t ivintcr pasture lands; arrowccl lincs: tlirc.ction 01' spring migration I-outc.s; narrotr \c,rlic a1 11atc11ing: grazing area of ~ v c s t c r nPushtun (mainly Ilurrani ); narro\\. 1101-izontalharc hing: graying '1rc.a 01 c . ~ < t c . r ~ ~ t'ushtun (main]\. Ghilzai); \\-itlrr crosshatching: Haluc,Ii 1r.intc.r cluartc5rs (otl1c1-Haluch nlirlglc.11 \ \ it11 l'ushtun in tlir n o r t h ) sul>pIv t h e m ~ . i t hs o m u c h t h e y a r c n o t s c l f - s u f h c i c n t an(] clcpcn(1 o n cbsc-hangc. \\.it11 t h c s c ( I c . n t a r ~I ) o I ~ ~ l a t i ot lol g C t m a n v t o o l s ancl manufbc.turc~d0 h j c c . t ~in aclclition t o artic.lc*\ o I ' t l i c t . A c c o r t l i n g t o F c r t l i n a n d ( 1 959) t h c n o m a d s o f the. s o u t h ant1 west arc. Icbs3 dcpcnclc*nt o n s u c h t r a t l c t h a n t h o s c o f t h v cast a n d southeast. Somc. n o m a t l s a r c p r i m a t - ~ I Y t r a t l c r s a l t h o u g h tlic'\, a l s o kc-c,p hc*rtls.Thcsc. g r o u l l s arc. lOun(l ~ n o s t al m ~ o n g t h r casttxrn nomatls a n d a n inil,ortant p a r t in t h c csc-onom\.(11' cc'ntral A f g h a n i s t a n , b r i n g i n g g o o d s f r o m P a k i s t a n i n t o t h c c c n t r a l m o u n t a i n s t o r t r a d i n g \\,it11 iarlnc>rs

and other nomads (Fig. 1 . I 3 ) . Much of t h e trade is done at four large ' 'fairs' ' in t h e TchaharAimak area in Herat province. T h e traders bring in clothes, sugar, tea and metal wares and exchange these for money o r for wheat, butter and animals. In the Jalalabad area there are nomadic groups w h o spend the winter in the valley sometimes living in houses, near o r in villages where they perform odd jobs in return fol living space and who then move off towards t h e uplands in t h e late spring t o harvest the crop in other villages along their route. In return for this they get a share in t h e c r o p and freedom tc put their herds in fallow fields, thus improving t h e soil fertility. They spend t h e summer wit] their flocks in villages in the uplands and return t o their winter quarters in t h e autumn. Theil herds consist largely of cows and donkeys with some sheep, goats and chickens. Yet another type of nomadism is found in t h e eastern mountains of Nuristan. Here art found herders of goats who live in their winter quarters on t h e lower edge of t h e forest whert they build huts of stones, earth, branches and straw t o protect themselves against the bittel cold. In summer they take their tents and move u p t o t h e treeline. They exchange mill products, wool and animals for wheat and o t h e r foods and manufactured goods. Lastly, in the south and west are semi-nomads who cultivate their o w n land and live

Fig. 1.1 3: Nomads nrar Kabul

1.

THE GEOGRAPHICAL HACKGROUNI)

33

during the winter in settled villages but who move away t o the mountains with thceir hc-rds during t h e summer months after planting their crops and return in time fi)r the harvcst. In times of ~ l e n t i f u rain l they may concentrate on farming but during bad years their flocks ofti-r an alternative means of livelihood and it may be that during dry periods such scmi-nomaclism increases (Ferdinand, 1959, p. 287). It is n o t always easy t o categorize the various nomadic groups since thev may adjust thcir habits t o economic circumstance. It is clear that they form an important part of the economy of the sedentary farmers and that their trading activity is important. Study of their ways of life offers some ideas on possible relationships between nomads and farmers in the past and suggests what a wide range of adaptation t o local environments and economic opportunitcs is possible. T h e forms of shelter used by both the sedentary and nomad population are closclv related t o the local environment and the people's economy. The different nomadic groups use a great variety of tents; some are made from woven wool, others from hides; some are stretched over ~ v o o d e nsupports, others use rough stone walls as well as timber. The sedentary population also lives in a variety of dwelling tvpes ranging from caves t o large houses built of sun dried brick. In the mountains stone is often used while in the desert areas mud bricks are more common. What is evident is that there is no lack of local material for providing shelter whatever the level of technology available. Whilst t h e general patterns of subsistence in Afghanistan have been outlined it is important t o remember that there are many variations depending upon the local environment. For example, in Seistan the Sayyid population net fish and migratory birds as the major part of their food supply; in Nuristan, gathering of wild plants has an important part in the economy. Again, the division between sedentary agriculture and nomadism is not firm and groups may shift the emphasis from one t o the other depending on changing local circumstances of climate o r economy.

Opportunities for Trade Afghanistan's position gives it opportunities for trade with a varietv of different areas. O n the whole it does not possess any outstanding natural endowment o r rare commodity but in the 1950s and 1960s fresh and dried fruits, karakul, skins, raw \vool and cotton, carpets, rugs and sheepskins were some of the principal items produced for trade abroad. Sugar and tea, textiles and manufactured goods were bought in return (Wilbur, 1969). W e hare seen how- the nomads trade in animal products and grain for goods from Pakistan and beyond. Thus, Akhanistan is now a producer of primary products and an importer of finished goods. This pattern may also have occurred in t h r past. Afghanistan's position makrs it a natural focus for routes between East and West and between India and the North. In the past the Silk Route ran across the north of the country through Balkh. Routes also \vent up the Khvber pass from the Indus \-alley to\\-ards the north and east (Fig. 1 . 1 4 ) . In the south routes skirting the central mountai~lsalong thc linc of thc p r r s m t road lrd t o Quctta and t h r Indus from the north-east via Ghazni and fronr tlrc Iranian plateau via Herat and Kandahar. The Helmand I-allw also

34

S O P H I A K. ROM'LHY

I l l - o \ . i ( I C ~a sout11\~.ar(Ilink f r o m t h e central mountains t o Scistan and o n t o t h c passes across tllcs

(jcscl-t mountains t o tho Gulf o f O m a n and Straits of H o r n i u z , t h u s this r o u t e c o u l d have linkctl \\-it11 coastal tracling r o u t c ~t o Mc,sopotaniia and t h e Indus. One, rare c o m m o d i t v 111-otlucctl in Afghanistan that is know11 t o havc bccn tratlctl in t h , 1 3 ~ " is tlic lapiz lazuli of Hatlaklislian (Hcl-rmann, 1968). l.apis lazuli is n o t a c o m m o n mineral ant1 the, only o t h e r kno\\.n sourccs for suppl\,ing the‘ Mitltllc East a r c in t h e I'amil-s, Lakc, Haikal

Fig.

1 ,14: '1 IN. ,IIIC l t h l l t

1.0111~' t11ro~tg111 1 1 ~11111t111 K t l $ l l

li.0111 I ~ , I I I I I \ ; \ I ~ 10

K~;dl,ul.

and a possible source in Iran in Azerbaijan and possibly in Kcrman as LVc.ll.'leh(.I,akc- Haikal source stones o f ' a n inferior quality t o those of' Haclakhshan ant1 was prr,l>al>lv0 1 ' tar lesser importance in antiquity than t h e Afghan source,. T h e Paniir clc.l)osit is at about 3 300 m and is extremely difficult of access while the Iranian source, if'it cxistc-c), has csvi()c.ntlvt>(-cn worked o u t . H e r r m a n n concludes, after rcvic.wing the. c.vidcncc, that t h e Haclakhshan lapix lazuli was t h c principal source for an important trade with Mcsopotamia that flourished from about 3 500 n . c . This is evidence of t h e extent of trading links that c.ould be cstablishc*tl in th(. ancient \\.orld and t h e distance that \.aluablc gootls niiglit l>c transportc-d. It is I)rc)l)al>l(.that this trade was not clircct and tliat the Afghans usccl Shalir-i-Sokhta as an cmt~-c-~,Ot \f,lic-rc-tli(.\. exchanged t h e lapis lazuli f o r goods from ncarcr at hand than Mesopotamia. tlowc.vc.r, Mesopotamian o r even Egyptian goods of valuc may ha\'c rcturnc.d I>\: t h c same- route-. T h e Badakhshan mines a r c hardly casy of acccss. T h e ones prcsc.ntl, knon-n lie at~o\fc* theKcrano-Munjan valley at Sar-i-Sang, Stromby, Chilniak and Robat-i-Paskaran. T h e vallc\. is narrow and steep with scanty vegetation and few permancnt sc~ttlcmc.nts.T h e mints can onlv be reached by precipitous paths along which all materials for niining must I>(, carrictl. In t h e past the mining was d o n e by firc-setting. Fuel and watcr \z.crc carricd up t o t h e mines, a fir(. was lit beneath t h e face t o be quarried and then cold w.atcr \vas throwm o n t o t h e Iicatc.cl rock t o make it crack. T h e lapis was then by using picks, haninicrs ancl chiscbls. T h e provision of fuel and w a t c r for t h e mines must have invol\.cd grcat labour in amassing t h e fuc.1 and transporting it and this is suggestive of the valuc of the stoiic in tlic past. (-)nee quarriccl the lapis could be taken south t o Kabul and beyond via the Anjunian pass and Panjshir vallcv, t o the n o r t h and \vest \ria Faizabad o r t o t h e cast along t h e Wakhan c o r r i d o r . T h e e\,idencc suggests that t h e prehistoric ~ e o p l e sof Afghanistan a r c unlikclv t o have I x e n isolated from contacts with o t h e r peoples o r from t h e opportunity for trade dcspitc t h c of tra\fel across desert and mountain barriers. Indeed its position \\.oulcl ha\.(encouraged such contacts and t h e development of trade. ~

.

(

b

l

l

Summary A highland country surroundrd hv lowlands and lying at t h e crossing point of a n u m b c r of iinportant natural routrwa\-s, Afghanistan had considcrablr arl~antagesin t h r past as a locale k ) r trade and cxchanrjr. T h e products of t h e mountains could easily I>c cxchangctl for both manufactured and primary products from t h e Indus o r from Iran and the \I-rst . T h e divcrsit\ of I K O P ~at ( >~ x r s c inhabiting ~~t t h e country bear \\,itncss t o its opcnness t o migration anel in\.asion in t h e past. W i t h i n t h c country itself the aridity of tlic climate means tliat cultivated arcas a r c located c i t h r r in t h e upland \.alleys o r along r i \ c r s in t h e Ion-lands. Irrigation t r c h n i q u r s arc .I ~ > a t - t i c u l a rinilx)i-tatit l~ aspect of agriculture. H o n - c v r r , t h r r r a r e a grcat \ a r i r t r of natural hahitats and a fl-aturr o f moclrm Afghanistan is t h e diversity of mrtho(ls of s u b s i s t t w c ~ ~ including noma(lism, hunting and and scttlcd agriculturc. Bccaust~of t h c strong r c l i c f q u i t c d i f i r r n t cn\ir(,iimmts can be kmnd relati\cly close t o g c t h r r . This fc~aturc\ ~ . o u h I liarr l>rcli particularly helpful t o Palarolithic groups \\it11 tlicir liniitcd tc~chnolog! and small L

rile. ~t muat also harc b r r n important at times of climatic changr sincc groups could sluwl) 111o\ c from arcas M ith dctcriorating climatic conditions t o m o r e favourable ones, without need t o m o \ e far. This bariety of habitats is a feature that is likely t o havc cncouragetl tratlp

and cxchangc ithin the country. ~ a s t l y ,it must be stressed that data on the nature and distribution of resources in Afghanistan during the archaeological period are extremely scanty. T h e picture presented al,oye may b r modified substantially as further research is undertaken.

The Palaeolithic Richard S. Davis

Before 195 1 the Palaeolithic period in Afghanistan was almost unkown; Afghanistan was blank space on the Palaeolithic map. It was never predicted, ol'coursc, that Afghanistan \voultl prove t o have been unknown t o Palaeolithic hunters and gathcrcrs, and prol,ahlv most Asian prehistorians in the early 1950s would have expected that evidence. for at lcast Mitltllc and Upper Palaeolithic occupations would eventually turn up. The, tn.cnt\, ,vcars sincc. that tirnc. have clearly established the presence of Middle and Upper Palaeolithic sitcs ancl vcrv rcccntlv tentative evidence for the Lower Palaeolithic has bccn disco\.crcd. Ol,scr\.c.rs of thc Palaeolithic scene, howeiler, could not have prcdictctl the nature of thcsc I'alacolithic adaptations in Afghanistan, and this chapter is intended t o sur\.cv the, e\,i(lcncc~ and t o rclatc it t o known Palaeolithic occurrences in surrounding regions. In this presentation the Palaeolithic is divided into four succcssi\.c phasc,s: Lo\vc.r, Middle, Upper, and Epi-Palaeolithic. The last t w o terms arc collectivclv r c k r r c d t o as the Late Palaeolithic. This terminology eliminates the need for the "Mesolithic" \vhich has often been an ambiguously used t e r m , and is used by few prehistorians in South\\.cst Asia. Although the t e r m Palaeolithic had its genesis in the nineteenth century as a tcchnological and chronological term (chipped stone tools from the Ice Age) its use hcrc is in thc c.cononiic sense, i.e. all food is procured by hunting and gathering. It must be made clear from the outset that the present boundaries of thc political cntitv known as Afghanistan have no special relevance t o the distribution of l'alacolithic ~ ~ o p u l a t i o nIts .is the case that portions of South\\rest Asia, Central Asia, and South Asia meet in modern-day Afghanistan, and the prehistorian, therefore, should bc a\varc of Palacv)lithic dc\~eloprnentsin all three areas. In this discussion of the Afghan Palaeolithic it \\,ill bc necessary, therefore, t o refer t o archaeological discoveries \\.hich have hcen made outside thc boundaries of Afghanistan. poses several ~ ~ r o b l c nareas i and the solution of thcsc Currently, Afghan for vcars t o conic. It shoulcl IIC. renicmhcrcd I ~ n ' b l e m s\ \ s i l l continuc t o occupy that Palaeolithic studies in Afghanistan are at a very early stage, and future research cff;)rt> should Ile organized and coordinated \r-it11 some purpose in niinrl in ordcr t o a\oid tilling c.\-en 11101-c s t o r c ~ r o ~ n \i ~ s . i t hthe I-emains of dcsultorv csca\.ations.

37

Brief Historv of Palaeolithic Research in Afghanistan 'rlic- 111-st( l i s c ~ o \ . c ~ o~ ti '(l~ s~ i l , i c ~ o l i t Ir ici,c~~~ i , i ii~t ii sAt'gI~,itiist~i~i \ \ ~ c ~ t -t ci i~, ~ ( I c , i t i 1'15 I ( A l l ~ ~ l i i1953) ~i, ,11ic1 it1 ,Al)1.il 01' 1 9 5 4 C',it-lc,to~~ S. C'ooti, t l i c ~ ol'tlic~ ~i l l t i i \ ~ c r s i t \o~f l ' c ~ ~ i ~ i s \ ~ l \ . , A ~ ~~l,it.~.,itivc~ ii'i.

,ir.c.outlt ol'his t ~.,i\.c\ls,inti e ~ ~ c . , i \ . ~ ~i ltli ,4l'gl1,itlist,i11 on is I-c,c~ot-tlctlin his I)ook, S c ~ , c('trt.cs r~ (C'ooli, 1 9 5 7 ) . C'oon tnotol-c>tl~ i o r t l t'l.om i K.il>t~Io \ . c , ~ . t h ( >I Iintlu Kusli t o tl,iil>,ik, ,I pro\.inc.ial c.al)it,il. I ~ l i spc,ologist hael notc.tl ,i I,i~-gc,nr1rnhc.1. OF l i n i c s t o n c outc,~-01)sin t h i s ,irc~a,ancl it al)l)c.it.ctl to IN- a gootl sc~,i~-c~li ,i~.c,iti)r I',iI,ic~olitliic~ c,,~\.c, s i t c s . C'ootl sooll loc.,itcxl ,I r o c ~ k s l i c l t etiamc~el ~ K,II.J Kt1t11.i1- ;11i(I I)c,g,ln cbsc.,i\.,ilio~is. ( ' o o t i ~.,il,itll\-c~onll)lc~tc~tl his \\.ot.k at K,it-.i K,illiar ,inti ~.c'trtl.nc'cI t o K ~ l ) t ~\\'Iic'~.(' l liis I',il,ic~olitliic. c.ollc~c.tioli\\..is tli\,iclcvl \\,it11 t l l c . K,il)r~lM t ~ s c w ~ i i . 111 t l ~ c , ,irtturnn 01' 1 9 5 9 I o u i s 13. I)ul)~.c,(., a m.ijol. I ; ~ L I I - ( ' i l l :\Igll,i~~sti~(lie's1'1.01il th(' l ' , i l t i c ~ o l i ~ l ~tioc ~ the* l>t-c-sc~~lt, ~ i i , ~ ( l,Ic ~gc~tic~t-'il, i ~ - c ~ I ~ , i c ~ o I o p~i c- ~( ,~~cI ~ o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~01'i i s~le)t.tllcr~i s , i ~ ~ ( ~ c ~ Alkli.inist,ll~,,i1ic1Ire, \\.,IS sr~c.c.c~sslitl i l l i(l(,ntil'\.i~~cr s c \ ~ ( ~ ~l',il,ic~olitliic~ .,il Ioc.alit it-s \ \ , l i i c . l l hex 1ate.1. 3 (~se.,i\~atc.el(I)i~l)rc'c' ,inel lIo\\,c., IC)h3). 111 Hatl,iklisli,i~i I ' ~ - o \ . i n c ~ cl i e~, Ioc.,it(~l ,I Mitlcllc l ) t i l c i ( ~ o l i t l1.oe.k ~ i ~ ~ slic~lt(,I. ( ~ , i l l c ~l )l , i r , i - i - K i ~\~\ ,.l l i ( , l ~I)(, e ~ ~ c ~ ~ i vi l i~ Ii t c ~ l111 l3,1lkl1 l ) t . o \ ~ i ~ i c x ~ clisc,o\c.~x-cltI11.c>(' I ~ l ~ i - l ' , ~ l , i c ~ o l iIoc.,ilit t I ~ i c ic.s trc..rl- I I I ( ~ t o \ \ n 01' :\(IK u l ) ~ . t ~ 'I'hc~ k . sitc%sc,otlsistc-el 01' ~ ~ o c ~ k s l i e ~(Acl l t c ~K~t t~ps~ . r ~I k,iti(l 11) , i ~ l ( Ia11o p c \ ~ i - ~ isitei ~ - loc~,itc~cl 011 ,I lo\\, t - i \ , e > t . t e ~ ~ * ~01'- , ~ c ~ c ~ t l l c . l3.1lkl1 (:I(I K ~ I I M I Ill). I ~ I'lic~sc~ sitc's \\.cst-c, c~sc.,l\.,lt('clin I ')(,? ,in(l l 9 ( 3 5 . 5. M . I'r~glisi,I ) i ~ . c ~ c . toI'tIl(\ o ~ . I n s ~ i t r ~ cll oi I ) . i l ( ~ o ~ i t o l oI~l ni i~\ ,c , ~ . s i ( o\ l ' l < o m c ~,111(1 , l)d1.1 01' t11c. I t . ~ l i . r ~Gi~.(.ll,rc'ologie,~I i I I I ~ S S ~t ~o I: I\ I ~ l i , i ~ l i s t ,c ~ ~ o~1 1~( ,I t 1 c . t c ~,I1 lS I I I . \ ( \ \ it] t11c' \ i c . i l i i t \ 0 1 ' 1 I,iil)s~k. , ~ \ ~ ) ~ ~ ~ ~ o2 0s klil i ~ ~s o~~~t t il ~t \c\ ~01'cl ~\K'II.,I s~t K , I I ~ ~I,(> < ~ lIo- c ~ , i t ~,I~~( .lo c . k s l l c ~ l ti cl l~t~l l -c , ( I t - \ . \\,,i(li I),lrGi-

l%5 , 1967).

i - K , i l o l l , ,III(IIlk* I ~ I J ( I C CI ,S I I I J I Itt-st t - s c ~ ~ ~ vill ~ ~ t i o t'1.0111 ~ ~

\ \ , I ~ i li c Ilk. rt-t o g l ~ i ~ (t-w ( Io ( I ~ \ t i r l ct

t i i s s ~ ~ i g sc s s i 1 I 1 )LII)I.(Y> ancl 1 ~-c.\,isitcvlt l i c I4aihak I-csgion in t h t - si1111111t.r01 I %Y \vitJI 1' I[(.c~logist, 1 ,1111.k~11(.(~ 1 att111a11ol'tlic' I l l i i \ c-l.sitv o t ' C ' i ~ l t . i ~ ~ ~ Ui .) lc t- i Ioc,atc.cl . on(. I - l ~ iI'al,ic.olitl~ic s i ~ r t , l cc. ,it,. ( K o k J a r ) al)out 3 k ~ l lI'IXJIII I ' u g l i s i ' s t t b s t . 1 ) u r i n g tilt. S.III~(. ~ I I I I I I I I ~ .lllcl ~ I . 111 1 1 1 ~ -I c ~ l l o \ s i ~ l ~ ~ L I I I ~ I I Ias C ~\f,t'II, I. I \.isite-cl ,111 01' tI1(' . ~ I ) o \ . t -d ~ . ( ~ l i . ~ ~ ~ o l osgi ti(c- s~, ~ I 111.1(1(. 1urt1lt.r ~ . ~ ~ c ~ o l ~ ~ i . i i sill s , is~i il lc-~r o v ~ l l ~ ( l i l.irt-ah. lg S ~ I ~ S I~\ . , ~I C studic-cl ~ U ~ ~ otI ~t lit-~ I . I I ~ . IJ.ll,~c~olitllic , 1 1 . C . l l , i ( ~ o l o ~ i~~S. ;SI(I ~ I I I I ) I ~ I 611(1 ~ ~ ~ S si~l)j~'c.tc*(l t Ii(~111t o J I I t ' s t t - l l > i \ c b ,i~i,il\his ( I ).I\ is, 1974 1 . I dl30 ]

-1

opportunity to study Late Palarolithic collections in Saniarkand, Tashkent and had Dushanbe in So\.iet Central Asia. In 1969 and 1970 Philippe Gouin of the Delegation Archeologique Franqaise en f g h a n i s t a n made archaeological surveys north of the Hindu Kush on the very arid steppe north o f t h e Tashkurghan Oasis. He located one Epi-Palaeolithic site which he has reported in preliminary form (Gouin, 1972). The most recent archaeological discoveries were made by Dupree south of the Hindu Kush in the Dasht-i-Nauar region. There, on ancient lake beaches he collected surface concentrations of Middle and possiblv Lo\ver Palaeolithic artifacts (Dupree, 1974). The approximate locations of all the above sites are indicated in Fig. 2.1. O n e m a y summarize this prolegomenon by stating that practically no one w h o has actually looked for Palaeolithic sites in Afghanistan has failed t o find t h e m , but with n o exception has there been anything other than preliminary survev and excavation. W e can hope that in the near future the necessary combination of expertise, governmental permission, and funding can come together t o make possible some long-term and intensive Palaeolithic research programmes.

Initial Occupation of AfghanistanThe Lower Palaeolithic At present, the evidence for occupation of Afghanistan prior t o t h e Middle Palaeolithic rests on the discoveries made by Dupree in the summer of 1974 on t h e ancient shores of the Dashti-Nawar, a large and shallow brackish lake in the margins of t h e Hindu Kush in Ghazni province (Dupree, 1974). In a brief survey of the beaches t o the east and north of the lake, Dupree found concentrations of quartzite tools from which h e identified t h e following implement types: cleavers, large scrapers, choppers, chopping tools, and ~ e b b l etools. According t o Dupree, these finds represent a Lower Palaeolithic industry. T o be sure, it is essential that careful geological work must be done in this area, and also it is hoped that further reconnaissance will reveal Lo\ver Palaeolithic tools in association w-ith a faunal assemblage. Nevertheless, D u ~ r e e ' discovery s and tvpological assessment is exciting, and it is reasonable t o suppose that the Dasht-i-Na\\.ar area ~ v i l lreveal m o r e evidence for Lo\f-er Palatwlithic occupation. The ncarcst reported manifestations of the Lolver Palaeolithic t o Afghanistan are the Soan of Pakistan (Allchin and Allchin, 1968: 59), the pebble tool and flake industries of Soviet Central Asia (Lazarenko and Kanov, 1977) and the Ladizian of Iranian Baluchistan (Hume, 1976). A11 of these finds are relatively close t o the Afghan border, and m o r e significantly, in several areas there seems t o have been a reasonable continuity of habitat into Afghan territor!.. It jvon't be very surprising, therefore, if Afghanistan someday. vields good evidence for Lo\\-er , Palaelothic occupation. Exactly \vhat kind of stone tool industries eventuallv \\-ill be found is another question. Industries with o r \vithout handaxes are certainly but it \\.ill be e\.cn more interesting t o learn OM- these suspected Lower Palaeolithic hunters and gatherers actuall~,adapted and respontletl t o the range of conditions in Afghanistan.

Middle Palaeolithic Sites Dara-i-Kur Ghar-i-Mordeh Gusfand Hazar Sum valley Kara Kamar 11, IV Dasht-i-Nawar

Carbon- 14 Determinations Dara-i-Kur (Dupree, 1968) GX 1122 30,300 1900, - 1200 b.p. Although several localities in Afghanistan have been classified as Mousterian o r Middle Palaeolithic, only one, Dara-i-Kur can confidentlv be called Middle Palaeolithic. Mv recommendation is the t e r m "Mousterian" should be avoided in Afghanistan unless it can bc demonstrated that there is some direct relation t o the type site in southern France. The term Middle Palaeolithic is less evocative and certainly makes fewer assumptions about the nature of Palaeolithic culture groupings. The provisional definition for the Middle Palaeolithic in Afghanistan is: early Wiirm flake industries with discoidal and/or Levalloisian flaking technique. Dara-i-Kur is a stratified rock shelter site located near the \-illage of Chanar-i-Gunjus Khan in Badakhshan Province. T h e shelter is located high up on the side of a \.allev and commands an excellent view of the surrounding countrvside. There n.ere major ancient rockfalls in the shelter which made excavation difficult. The Middle Palaeolithic implements (Figs 2.2, 2.3) were found in overbank deposits of silt and clay, which Lvere laid down b\. an ancient stream which ran close t o the shelter. The C- 14 determination given above \\-as made on several small fragments of charcoal from a hearth disturbed bv Ivater action. It is stronglv suspected that some post-Middle Palaeolithic charcoal \\-as mixed in the dated sample, thus rendering the determination too young. Undisturbed hearths and Middle Palaeolithic deposits probably exist buried beneath the massive roof fall. Dupree and I have alreadv published a preliminary description of the lithic material (Dupree and Davis, 1972), but several general observations can be made in addition. The Middle Palaeolithic laver produced approximatelv 800 lithic specimens. There is definite evidence of Levalloisian technique in the form of Levallois Blade cores (Fig. 2.2, No. 4), but the predominant flaking technique \\-as discoidal. Discoidal cores w e r e numerous, and the majority of them were small in size and were \\-ell struck (Fig. 2.2, No. 2). Multiple platform cores were also found (Fig. 2.2, No. 1 ). A striking feature of this industry \\-as the relatively high incidence of blades (Fig. 2.2, No. 3 1. Irregularlv o r retouched artifacts were by far the most frequent implements. There appeared t o be only rare side scrapers, no hand-axes, and re\\- "Upper Palaeolithic" tvpes.

+

42

K. S . DAVIS

The material used was a variety of basalt which does not fracture well conchoidally. The ]ithic collection has not been completely analysetl, and it is, therefore, impossible t o quantify tl,, above observations. A holninid incomplete right temporal bone was found associatcd with t h e lithic material. This specimen has been analysed by J . Law-rcnce Angel at the Smithsonian Institution (Angr],

Fig. 2.2:

Dara-i-Kur, Mitltlle Palaeolithic. 1 . Flakc col-c. 2 . Discoitla1 core. 3. Retouched blade. 4. Lcvallois blade c o r c .

Fig. 2.3: Dara-i-Kur, Middle Palaeolithic. I . Levallois point. 2 . Triangular

point.

1972). It represents the only known hominid material found in Palaeolithic contcxt in Afghanistan. Angel compared the specimen t o both Neanderthal material and modcrn Homo sapiens sapiens, and he concluded that it is nearer t o modern man than Neanderthal in terms of the morphology of the tympanic bone, but that it would fit into a "partly" Neanderthal population like the Es-Skhul cave specimens from Mt Carmel in Israel as well as into a modern population (Angel, 1972, p. 56). The Middle Palaeolithic laver revealed some faunal material which has been identified b\. Dexter Perkins as sheep, goat, and possibly a large bovid. This is a significant discovcrv because all known later Palaeolithic hunting and gathering groups also hunted these animals. particularlv sheep and goat. It is possible, therefore, that a basic hunting adaptation t o particular species existed in the Middle Palaeolithic, and it continued on until the end of thc. Palaeolithic. It is interesting t o note in this regard that at the Middle Palaeolithic site of Tcshik Tash in Uzbekistan S.S. R . , Siberian Mountain Goat (Copra srberica) accounted for 96",, of the identified large mamnial bone (Movius, 1953, p. 399). A verv different situation was found at a large rockshelter locally called Ghar-i-Mordch Gusfand (Cave of the Dead Sheep) in northlvest Afghanistan. Here, preliminary excavations b y Dupree in 1969 re\-ealed lvliat appeared t o be a Middle Palaeolithic industry niade out of a 11oorlv silicified limestone (Dupree er a]., 1970). The rockshelter itself \!-as enormous. measuring approximately 300 m across the dripline and approximatel\. 100 m deep. There n.as a tremendous rockfall at the front of the shelte-~resumablv the one responsible for all the dead sheep! After the preliminary report \vas ~ u b l i s h e d a, large trench \vas excavated in the summer of 1970 in the rear of the shelter. The results of that exca\.ation cast considerable doubt on the original interpretation of the lithic tools as belonging t o a Middle Palaeolithic industry. Although the tools )#,ereartifacts, their stratigraphic position does not indicate

for an earl? Wiirm occupation. For the prescnt w e can rule out Char-i. .4ufficit.nt Mordch C;usfand as a confirmed Middle Palaeolithic locality. In Balkh Province near A q Kupruk, C. B. M. McBurney of Cambridge Universitj has recently reported the prescnce of Middle Palaeolithic material. H e made a trial excavation in a deposit of "red cave earth" which revealed a "middle Muustrrian" type of industry (McBurney, 1972, p. 25). T h e material has not yet been described in any detail, and it cannot be commented on further here. Further to the east, in the Hazar Sum valley near the town of Haibak, S. M . Puglisi has notea the presence of surface material which he has described as Mousterian (Puglisi, 1963, p. 3). He found stone tools made from the locally abundant nodular flint which h e interpreted as being manufactured according t o Clactonian, Levalloisian, and Mousterian techniques. None of the implements illustrated in his report, however, w e r e necessarily manufactured by any of the above techniques, and my own surveys in this area revealed no certain indications of Middle Palaeolithic industries. T h e r e was, however, a tremendous amount of chipped flint along several wadi terraces in t h e Hazar Sum valley. It consisted of t h e chipping debris of both Palaeolithic and post Palacolithic peoples who utilized t h e nodular flint outcrops on the sides of the wadi channels. No doubt Palacolithic hunters and gatherers, Neolithic farmers, and recent nomadic pastoralists have all made use of t h e excellent nodular flint from this area.

Fig. 2.4: Kara Kamar. Arrc~winclicatrs looatinn of the shelter.

Adjoining the Hazar Sum valley is the site of Kara Kamar (Figs 2.4 2.X), exca\attvl by Coon in 1954. Kara Kamar is a small rockshclter located about I 3 5 m abovc the vallc-y floor (See Fig. 2.4). The first and third cultural layers have been assigned t o the Late Palacolithic and will be described in some detail in a later portion of this chapter. The second and fourth layers have been identified by some prehistorians as Middle Palacolithic. Coon, however, Icft the identity of the flint knappers of these t w o layers an opcn question. In an article o n Upper Palaeolithic origins, Louis Pradel ( 1 966) cites Kara Kamar for possible rvidcnce of temporal overlap between Middle Palaeolithic and Upper Palacolithic: At Kara Kamar (Afghanistan) Upper Palaeolithic material mav also cxist, situated bct\vcc.n two Mousterian layers. . . . This information, however, lacks precision. After an examination of the available material from layers two and four at the Kabul Museum, it is clear t o m e that Pradel's last sentence is quite an understatement. There simply is no good evidence that this material should be described as Middle Palaeolithic. The inventor" of the existing components of the industries in question are given in Table 1, and Fig. 2.5 shows several implements from Level 11. The cores from Level 11 were multi-platformed flake cores, and none of them could even remotely be described as discoidal o r Levalloisian. There were no Levallois points, flakes o r blades in the collection. T h e collection was too small and the modified pieces too undiagnostic for any definitive classification. The single Carbon-14 determination made from a contaminated sample has such a great standard deviation that it is of no use in the chronological placement of this industry. Only ten flints were recovered from Level IV. There \vas one edge retouched flake, one use retouched flake, t w o blades, five flakes, and one core fragment in the collection. Coon (1957: 249) has observed that Levels II and IV are similar in flint lithology and in debitage techniques, and my own inspection of the materials in the Kabul Museum yielded a similar conclusion. It is evident that the collection from Level IV cannot be assigned t o the Middle Palaeolithic with any degree of certainty. It simply remains an unkow-n. In addition t o the Lower Palaeolithic finds already mentioned at Dasht-i-Nalr-ar, Dupree also discovered some Middle Palaeolithic concentrations of tools on the ancient beaches of the lake. He noted similarities between the typology of the Dasht-i-Na\r-ar material ~ r i t hthe industry from Dara-i-Kur (Dupree, 1974). Further survey and excavation is definitely extremel) important region. indicated in this

Discussion The above descriptions of the various alleged Afghan Middle Palaeolithic sites must inevitably leavc the reader with the inlpression that there is a high degree of uncertainty and lack of knowledcje about this Palaeolithic phase. We may be quite certain, however, that the prcsence of Middle Palacolithic populations is established; the materials from Dara-i-Kur irrefutably demonstrate that. Of the other sites mentioned above, it is apparent that they are either definitely not Middle Palaeolithic (Kara Kamar, Ghar-i-Mordeh Gusfand), o r need

Table I: -

Late Palaeolithic flint industries of n o r t h e r n Afghanistan -- ---

--

--

-- -

-

-

-

.

- .

Flakc and Hlatl~sC o m l ~ o ~ ~ c n l

Industrial divisions - -

1. 11.

-

-- --

-

-

.

Nodules Cores flake bladelet

111.

Waste core frag. chunks spalls ret. flakes '' scrap"

IV.

Blanks flakes broken flakes burnt flakes blades broken blades burnt blades

V.

.-

Modified pieces edge retouched burins Endscrapers notched pieces denticula tes percoir/drill carinated scrapers/ bladelet cores use retouched TOTALS

Microblade Component

--.--

-

-

-- -

--

- -

- --

.

7

MB cores MB Ret. .MB

18 489 31

88 II

TOTALS

538

106

MB Cores = micro' ade cores MB = microblades Rct. MB = retouched microblades

-

1 -

-

2 ? -

--

1

2

-

-

1

-

-

43

-

-

0

0

AK = Aq Kupruk K K = Kara Kamar KJ = Kok Jar

44

2.

T H F I'Al.A)..OI~ITHIC

47

Fig. 2.5: Kara Kamar, Le\el 11, Late Palaeolithic (Scale 1 1 ). 1 and 2 . Flake corrc. 3. Core I C J U ! enation flake. 4. Edge retouched primary flake. 5 . Edge retouched broken blade. 6. Trang~erw l-ojcctilcs ~ s t c m P('l-ha~)s , s c w i n g as b a r l ~ so n a shalt. Both t h c mieroc.ol-c~s all;l I>]a(lc,s a r c foullcl in shcltcrs as \\'ell as in t h c t w o known opc.11 sitcs of thc. Alihan k- ,i

I

Fig. 2.14: Aq Kup~.r~k, nlic,~.olitllic.c.olnllo~~c,nt, I:l>i-l',ll,lc~olitllic~. 1

(3.

Mdrgill,illy rctoi~c.I~c-[I niicrol~laclcs. 10 1 5 . Il111-c.tour.hc~c1 ~nir.rol~latlcs.

-

Mic.l.ol>l,~clc,c~)l.c.s.7 '1.

~'~lac-olithic. It may inlibrrc.tl I'ronl this contc.xtual inl;)rlnation that mic,rc)lllaclc.s wc-rv nor Ut iliy,cs(l 0111y i l l I)ilsc' c'allll)S, all(l that tllcbv arc. rcblatc.(] t o somc. (*x[rac,tivc.ac.tivily. *l.hc. (linovrr\l OI'J inic~roblaclrc,orcb~t t h Kok ~ J a r surlbct- sit(. is (lillicult t o intrrl)r(.l, I ~ . ; ~ i~t ~

(.

,rouIcI s r e n l r r r y unlikcly t l ~ mic~rol)la(lrs t \ v r r r bring manulicturc.(l at i(*nll)(,rary c~'illl])s. TI,(*nlicroblaclr c.0nbs and mic.rohlaclrs o l t h e tl~i-l'alarolitllic. rigllihc,allt in man\ r c s l ~ ~ c . t sFirst, . t1lr.y a r c s Ii)untl in all 01' t h r lll~i-l'alac.olitllic assc.nll>lag(-s 01' nortllc.rn A l ~ h a n i s t a ~ lSinlilar . n ~ i c r o h l a d ccorc-s a r c h)und in soutli\r.cstcrn Iran I'rom thc. t-arlv Ncolitllic (Holv ct d l . , 19691, ant1 ncbar Korrnan (Huckric.dc, 1961 1, hut no\vhc.rc. arc. the-v li)u~lcli l l I.atc, I'alac.olithic Zarxian contcbxts (klolr and Flanrlc-rv, 1 9 6 7 ) o r in rht. I.atc. 1)~Iac~olitliic Caspian sitchs(I)ul)rcc, 1952; Coon, 1952; McHurnc-v, 19h4 aritl 1 9 6 8 ) . In So\-it.1 ~'cmtralAsia similar microlithie tcc.liniquc.s a r c kno\rn hut onlv in J \.c-r\, Iatc. "Mc~solitllic." c-ontext such as in t h c castcrn fringes 01' t h e Urals from t h c sc~vc-lltht o 1;)urth nlillc-nnia n . ( . . (Ratlc~i., 1970, 1). 9 6 ) alitl in Nc.olitliic. sitcs I'roln Kazakhihtan (Vinogradov, 1 9 7 0 ) . .4 scc.ontl 'aturc of t h e niic.rolithic. industry at A q Kupruk I1 as wcll as all the. ot1ic.r Al'gllall I-.pi I)alac~olitliicsitcs is that tlicrc arc. n o gconlc~tric.niicroliths ol'any kind, I>ackcd nlicrohlaclcs not- c,vcn obliqiic.ly truncatc.d niicrol)ladcs. 0 1 ' the 520 niicrohladcs in t h e Acl K u l ~ r u kI I s,inll)lc, o n l y 3 I (5-'i'oO) wtcrc ~ n o t l i fc.d Ijy scconclary o r use rctouc.h. The- scc~ondarvrc-touc.11 c,onsistcd in all but o n e case, ot'an c x t r c m c l ~tinc lnargilial retouch. The* 1ac.k of'gcomt.t ric.s ancl t ~ . u ~ ~ c a ct lcc~mdc n t s is unusual in any microhlatlc industry, and it ~)crhal)srcprc.scnts an c.arl\. ~)li,isc,in microhladc tcc.hnological evolution. In t h c 1 (*\,ant,1;)r c.samplc, ()l;-r B a r - ~ ' o s c l ' h a s r.ll,11.ac.tcrizcc1tlic evolution o f the. niicrohladc tcclinoloqv in t h c Kcl),~~-ari as:

earl!.

C .

. . . J continuous dcvciol)mcllt l'rom simplts niic.roliths to i11dustric.s inc.luclillg ol~liquc*-trunc.atc.roductionol' 1unatc.s (Hat.-Yost't', 1970, 1). 54 5 5 ) .

'I'his scqucwcc in t h c l . c ~ . ~originates ~it in t h c I'alcstinian 1 ~ t c '.4urignac.iall ancl c.onti~luc.s r 111-ought h c Gcornc~tric.Kcl>aran, a span 01' a l ) l ) r o s i ~ i i a t c ~1l0~, 0 0 0 \oars. It is tcnil,ting t o suggrst a similar scquc~iic-cin A f g l l a n i s t ~ ~hc.ginning l \\.it11 t h c small I,l,~(lc~lcts s t ~ - i l c kIi-o~~i c.arinatcbcl cndsc~ral)c~r~l)I,~clcI~~t c.ort,s o f Kara K,illlar Ill ,111d csnding \ \ i th thv Afghan Epi-Palacolitliic microl>ladcsand col-cs 01' l'asl~kurgliarl40. Thti3. ol'e.oursc, that the- chronologicaI hiatus discussccl carlicr I>ct\\.ccntlit-ni is quite, large.. ant! it is c . o n ~ t . ~ ~ u cdif1icult ntl~ t o dclnonstl-atc all\; c1ircc.t technological cxrlltini~itvI>ct\vcc~nt h e m . Sniall m i c r o h l a d c c-ores and microhladcs a r c found in Mc.Hurncry1s site at A1i Tal)l)c-li o n 1 I l e , southt.rn s h o ~ - ol'thtx c Caspian sca (McHurnc.y, 1968). T h c ~ n i c r o l > l a t corc3s l t ~ at .4li Tal)pch. I~o\\.(>\,c.r,arcx quite ({istillct f r o m tlic ones o f n o r t h e r n Afghanistan. At Ali T a l ) l > ~ h 111c' ~ i i i c r o l > l d (~l ~ O ~I - \\.eXrC ~ S nladc o n the‘ ni;lrgi~lsoI' thic.k I1akt.s and gcnc-rallv (lid not ll.31.c

~~~~~~~~~~m

~ i ~ i c ~ r o l > ~l ~- ci ~ c l~~i i~o v, ai l~s- o i ~tlic ~ ~ cc,~ltirc, l pcrinivtcr. Anothcr m a j o r c.onll,onc.llt of tllc- .4q KuI,l-uk I1 too1 kit \vas t h c steel>-c.ndcclsc.ral)c-r (Fig. .'. 1 5). Unlikc t h e Kdl-a Kanl,ir Ill carinatcd end s c r a l ) c ~ r s / l ~ l a c lc.o~-cs, ~ ~ I ~ ~the‘ t t'sarnl3lc's froni .4c1 Kul)t-uk I1 ha\.c short I>ladclc,t rcniov,~lseal-s and a stccl>cr mean cdgc angle. T h e r e is sonlc ( 1 0 o c l c \ . i ( l c ~ ~ cth,it x , tlic, l ) r c f ~ ) r ~I ~l i) I -tlitx stc,c,p c,~i(isc.ra~>cr \v,is higlily sinlilar t o t h e l)rc,1i)r1ll 3

for thc microblade cores. In addition t o the steep-ended scrapers, several standard cndscrapers w e r e present, and four examples are illustrated in Fig. 2.16. Dihedral burins, burins on retouched truncations and burins on snapped truncations formed the second largest group of retouched stone artifacts. T h r e e dihedral burins and one

Fig. 2.15: A q Kupruk, Epi-Palacolithic. 1 , 3. Stecp cndscrapcrs. 2 , 4. Microblade core preparation fc~rms/stccpendscrapers.

burin on a snapped truncation are shown in Fig. 2.17. Edgr rctouchctl blanks a ( - r e the most frequent major tool class. This category consisted of laterallv and tlistallv trimmccl flakcs ancl blades exclusive of endscrapers. O n e of the most significant aspects of the discoverv at Aq Kupruk I1 was the analysis o f t h e faunal remains associated with the Palaeolithic deposit. Dexter Pcrkins ( 1972) itlcntitietl the bone as t o species with the following results.

Table I1 Species --

Percent

-. - -

-

O11rs orrentalis ycloceroc Capra hrrcus aegagrus Ovrs/Capra Cerl us elaphus sp. Bos/ Cer r us Equus Canrs aureus sp. I'ulpes --

-

-

-.

-.-

... .

TOTALS

90

Clearly, the overwhelming species represented \\.ere sheep and goat (89'" of the identifiable bones). It seems evident that these t w o species were the predominant meat resources for the Late Palaeolithic peoples in northern Afghanistan. At Aq Kupruk 111 there are t w o distinct strata which have \ielded Epi-Palaeolithic assemblages. T h e upper one (AKIII-A) is nearly identical typologically and dimensionallv \r.ith the A q Kupruk I1 industry and it is inferred that they are roughlv contemporary. The lo\\ e r \tratum (AKIII-B) however, presents a different picture. There, the microblade technique is not represented nor are the steep-ended scrapers. The length and bvidth dimensions of the retouched artifacts from AKIII-B are significantly larqer than either AKIII-A o r AK 11. Aq Kupruk III-B is as yet undated bv Carbon-14. In the Haibak region the Epi-Palaeolithic is represented bv the Kara Kamar I, Kok Jar, and Ilara-i-Kalon sites (See Fig. 2.18). Technologicallv and chronologicallv all of these sites are erv close t o t h e assemblages from Aq Kupruk with some slight ~ a r i a t i o n s None . of them are 50 strikingly different in technolog). o r tvpology that thev should be included in a separate archaeological ''culture' ' . Haibak is approximately 100 km from Aq Kupruk, is located in the same foothill zone, and is not isolated bv any geographic barriers from A q Kupruk. The location of the sites gives some indication of the settlement pattern. The Kok Jar surface site (Fig. 2.19) consisted of a single concentration of artifacts which \\-ere being exposed from a t h ~ nlaycr of soil on a mesa top. The mesa was an erosional remnant preserved by a freshxater limestone caprock \vhlch was approximately 30 nl above the \alley floor. Figure 2.19 sho\vs the mcsa and the arrow indicates the location o f t h e site. A large area of the \alley floor can be

Fig. 2.16: A q Kupruk, Epi-Palaeolithic. 1-4. Endscrapers. sur\-c\cd from this vantage point. It would havc made an ideal observation post for a hunting party. The Dara-i-Kalon rockshelter, test excavatcd by Puglisi in 1965, is located in a dry wadi channel which has cut into the limestone bedrock t o a depth of approximatelv 30 m . The shelter is narrow and long and probably was only used as a transitory station by small hunting groups. Puglisi has noted the presence of an earlier industry at the shelter which may correspond t o the Aq Kupruk III-B manifestation. Several artifacts from Kara Kamar, Level I are illustrated in Fig. 2 . 2 0 . The microblade cores are similar t o thosc from Kok Jar, Dara-i-Kalon and A q Kupruk. Likc Kok Jar, Kara

Kamar is a good observation post and may havc been frc.qucntc.d by small hunting partic-s. ~t seems clear that groups of hunters ant1 gatherers cxploitc.cl thc broad intc*rlluvc.\ t o the Samangan river (luring the period of climatic. amelioration at thc. h c ~ ~ i n n i nofg Holocene t i m e s . C o o n ' s preliminary faunal analysis of thc Kara Kamar I Icbvc-l inclicatcvl that

Fig. 2.17: Aq

Kupl-uk, El>i-Palacolitl~ic.I . Hurin on a mapprd truncation.

3 . kntlscrapcr-hurin.

2, 4 . l)ihr(lral

~UI-ill*.

Fig. 2.18:

Plan of Haibak vicinity showing t h e location of the Palaeolithic sites.

Fig. 2.19: Kok J a r Epi-Palacolithic surface site.

Fig. 2.20: Kara Kamar, Level I , Epi-Palaeolithic (Scale

1 1 ). 1-2. Microblade cores. 3 . Endscrapcr. 5 . Sidc scrapcr.

-F 5 . Retouched broken blades. 6. Notched flake. 7. Carinatcd scraper bladelct core. cvazclle '

was the primary species hunted along with wild sheep. The lack of hunted gazelle at ,4q Kupruk mav be explained bv the qualitativel~different terrain described carlicr. It is simplv unknown whether anv riverine resources w e r e utilized in the Haibak region, o r \vhcther the llunting and gathering groups seasonallv moved further into the Hindu Kush during the \ummer and out t o the Turkestan plains during the \r inter. T h e most recent EPi-Palaeolithic site is kno\vn through the work of P. Gouin ( 1972) of the Dblkgation Archkologique Franqaise en Afghanistan. His site is located o n the flat deltaic plain just north of Tashkurghan and is designated Tashkurghan 40. It is a deflation site where the artifacts are being exposed 011 top of a stabilized dune. Flint artifacts n-ere collcctcd offthc

sul-facc over an area of m o r e than several thousand square metres. No concentrations ,f artifacts were reported, and Gouin has interpreted t h e widely dispersed artifacts t o have bern locally transported by flooding of t h e Samangan River. T h e lithic industry from Tashkurghan 40 consists of over 3000 pieces of flint of which about four hundred w e r e tools. They all s h o ~ e dweathering from both wind and water transport. This industry is quite distinct from the Epi-Palaeolithic of A q Kupruk and Haibak and is probably from a later time period. This conclusion is based on t h e following points. First, t h e microblade component included backed elements, triangles, rectangles and lunates. Microburins w e r e also present which is also indicative of microlith manufacture. Second, the microblades w e r e produced by a different method than at A q Kupruk o r Haibak. At Tashkurghan, the microcores were made on a variety of forms, some of which w e r e similar t o t h e microcores at Ali Tappeh, Iran. None of the bullet shaped microblade cores, however, were found. Third, t r u e burins are almost entirely lacking from this industry. Gouin has interpreted this site t o be representative of a seasonal campsite, and he predicts o t h e r manifestations of this culture will be found in the northernmost foothills of the Hindu Kush.

Summary The above review of the Afghan Palaeolithic is m o r e tantalizing than satisfying for a number of reasons which should be obvious t o the reader. Clearly, Afghanistan is an important Palaeolithic area, and continued research there will be significant for prehistoric studies. To date, however, t h e work has only been preliminary and has indicated fewer conclusions than unresolved problems. During the Lower Palaeolithic Afghanistan south of t h e Hindu Kush may have been part of the South Asian world. T o thc north, it certainly would have fallen into t h e orbit of Central Asia. No well tlocumentcd Lower Palaeolithic remains have yet been found in Afghanistan, but thcre has bccn little concentrated effort t o find them. Search is made difficult because of the rapid alluviation and erosion caused by tectonic uplift and also bv thick accumulation of loess in the north. Despite thcsc ol~staclcs,Afghanistan is a promising source for thc ,441an Lower Palaeolithic record in both cultural-historical and atlaptational terms. By Middle Palacolithic timcs t h c r e is no question that Atghan~stanwas inhabited. During this period there was a world wide expansion of human populations, and the movement into the continental interiors of Asia is well documentcd. W h e t h e r Afghanistan received populations from South Asia o r Southwestern Asia during this period is unknown, and the typology of the Dara-i-Kur artifacts in northern Afghanistan give no definite indications either way. T h e important fact is, however, that a sapienized p ~ p ~ u l a t i owas n hunting sheep in the north during thc Middle Palaeolithic, and this hunting adaptation continued in importance all the way into thc Holocene. T h e r e is no evidence f;)r a "smooth" typological transition from the Middle Palaeolithic asseml)lagc of Dara-i-Kur t o the early Upper Palaeolithic Kara Kamar 111 lithics. The distinctiveness of t h e t w o assemblages, howcvcr, is not adequate ground t o conclude that there was no continuity in occupation tluring this time o r that Afghanistan I~lavcdno role in

Ii~und.The\ ivcre essentially lag deposits on a deflation surface. This is thc first known occurrence of obsidian in Afghanistan in either a prchistoric o r historic context. The source, of thc obsidian is definitelv local; trace element analysis at thc Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, I,v F. Asaro, H , Michel, F. Stross and N . Hammond has conf rmcd its distinctive compositio~. The southern and eastern borders of the Dasht are formetl b\. several volcanic cones. French geologists havc already reported obsidian in this area. The D a s h t - i - N a ~ . a rtherefore, , should be addcd t o the short list of obsidian sources in Southwest Asia. T o the west, the nearest k n o \ ~ . nobsidian area is Lake Van in Turkey. The t w o sites w e r e designated G . P . 2 and G . P . 4 (Ghazni Province). O n the basis of technology and tvpology, they should be assigned t o t h e Epi-Palaeolithic. T h e collection can be described as a bladelet and microblade industry with rare backed elements, geometries, and burins. Slightly over 980/;, of the entire industry is obsidian, and t h e remaining fraction is flint. The microblades w e r e produced from small cylindrical microblade cores (pencil or bullet cores), and only T,, of them w e r e retouched o r backed. G . P . 2 and G . P . 4 are the first Palaeolithic sites found south of the main divide of the Hindu Kush. Future survey and cxcavation in this area will undoubtedly reveal several m o r e . The Dasht-i-Nawar survey revealed n o further traces of the Lower Palaeolithic industry earlier reported by Dupree (1974). It should, therfore, be regarded as still unsubstantiated. Recent work by Soviet investigators has demonstrated bonafide Lower Palaeolithic sites dated t o the end of the Middle Pleistocene in southern Tadjikistan only 100 km from the Afghan border (Lazarenko and Ranov, 1977). Ranov's excavations at t h e sites of Karakau I and Lakhuti 1 have revealed a pebble tool ancl flake industry with choppers, chopping tools and irregularlv retouched flakes. The sites were found deeplv stratified in thick loess deposits. This kind of deposit is lvell knobvn in northern Afghanistan and thus provides an excellent opportunity t o search for Lower Palaeolithic remains on Afghan soil. In 1976 A . V . Vinogradov of the Soviet-Afghan Archaeological Expedition located a large number of surface EPi-Palaeolithic sites, Mesolithic in t h e Soviet terminology, between Tashkurghan and Andkhoi on t h e lowland and arid Turkestan plain. T h e \.ast majority of these sites lvere discovered near the contact of the sandy desert and the alluvium deposited by the streams emanating from t h c Hindu Kush. T h e sites contain many geometric microliths and small blade tools.

The Later Prehistoric Periods Introduction Like the Palaeolithic the later prehistoric periods of Afhanistan w r r c csscntiallv unkno\r.n until the French initiated excavations at Mundigak in the late 1950s. The importancc of Afghanistan in later prehistoric times had been clcarlv demonstrated bv the intchnsi\.c. prehistoric research conducted in Soviet Central Asia, Haluchistan and the lndus vall(z\. However, it has only been within the last tu.ent\.-fi\-e vcars that kno\vledgc about thc'sc periods in Afghanistan has transcended the realm of mere speculation. F.\,c.n so, our knowledge t o date hardly amounts t o more than a thumbnail sketch of what occurrcd at a 1;.w sites (Fig. 3.1). Although limited, the available information clearlv indicates that the prehistoric cultures which inhabited Afghanistan undcr\vent fundamental socio-cultural changes and ecological adjustments that permitted thc two most important transformations in e of an economv based upon domcsticatcd ~ ~ l a n t s later prehistory t o o c c u ~ t h development and animals; and the development of stratificd societies. These t\vo important transformations, then, will be the focus of this discussion. It is necessary, however, t o preface the discussion of the later prchistoric pcriods b\- rc.emphasizing a f e ~ vof the general, but verv important, aspects of the Palaeolithic presented Da\-is (Chapter 2 ) . First, that human occupation of the modern arca of Afghanistan ha3 a considerable antiquity. Second, that these indigenous hunters and gatherers \vcrc constantl\undergoing socio-cultural changes in response t o their ecological contingencies. Finall\., that a n essential part of their ecological adaptation \vas the exploitation of domesticable animals, and quite possibly plants. These are fundamental background factors \\.hich must be taken into consideration i f the later prehistoric cultural developments are t o be explained in terms of indigenous processes rather than simplv attributed t o the mo\.ement of peoples and traits fronl areas in the West t o Afghanistan. It is o n .l ~ bv. attempting t o understand prehistoric cultural clc,velopments in Afghanistan as resulting from indigenous processes and circumstances that a h~llappreciation of its general theoretical significance for understanding human behaviour as \\-ell as its on-n unique characteristics can be obtained.

Development of Domesticates l'hc lxocess of domesticating plants and animals is considered t o be one of the most important al As such, it is comparable t o transitions in human technological and c ~ ~ l t u r development.

71

Fig. 3.1: Neolithic and Bronze Age sites. 1 . Ghar-i-Mar and Char-i-asp. 2 . Dara-i-Kur. 3. Tashkurgan. 4. Full01 (hoard). 5. Mundigak. 6. Said Qala. 7. Deh Morasi Chundai. 8. Nad-i-Ali. 9. Shahr-i Sokhta. 10. Helmand river sites. 1 1 . Dashli sites. only three other such transitions: initial tool use by t h e earliest hominids; development of an urban way of life; and, development of an industrial economy. Each of thcse transitions represents fundamental alterations both in man's relationship with the physical environment and in his relationship with fellow m e n . A detailed discussion of t h e theoretical and methodological issues surrounding thc dt~velopmrntof domesticates is tangential to this summary of Afghan prehistory (see Wright, 1971 and Harriss, 1971 for important summaries). However, the Afghan material docs have some important theoretical implications which will be discussed in t h e final scction. Attempts t o summarize the prehistory of Afghanistan and neighbo~ .ng arcas (Allchin and

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C"S, limestone blade and bead (cylindrical), steatite spindle whorl, obsidian bracelet 1 1 agment (?),basaltic hammerstones, and a series of quartzite pebble tools. Bone implements .(

included: awls, needles, gouges, spatula, polishers, polished sheep astragali (gaming pieces?) and one perfc)rated long bone which may have been either an ornament o r amulet. There was also located one shell o r "limestone" ~ e r f o r a t e ddisc bead. This inventory seems t o represent a rather generalized collection of tools not very different from those delineated for the NonCeramic and Ceramic Neolithic described earlier. T h e r e are, however, three new categories of' artifacts associated with the "Goat Cult" Neolithic that d o make it very distinctive from thc earlier material. T h e first category is metal objects. T h r e e fragments of a low-tin bronze artifact were associated with this assemblage (Caley, 1972: 45-6). T w o of these fragments appear to be part of a pin while the third is a ' ' . . . tapered rectangular rod broken off at one end and having a conical tip at the othcr" (Caley, 1972: 45). After making a component analysis Caley came to the conclusion that these items are ~ r o b a b of l ~a local (i.e. Afghanistan) manufacture. The second major distinctive category of artifacts is the presence of architectural remains in the form of postholes which w e r e described as: A wries of at least 80 post molds 2-4 cm in diameter was noted just under the lip of the cave, and may indicate the use of culinary racks, windbreaks, other shelters, tethering posts, ctc. (Duprce ant1 Kolb 1972: 35).

Presence of such post molds is highly suggestive of the possible presence of tents, especiall! in light of the pastoral nomadic interpretation of this material presented here. The final tlistinctive category of artifacts are t h e "goat burials" from which t h e assemblage got its designation as the ''Goat Cult" Ncolithic. Unfortunately d u e t o t h e preliminary nature of the available report the description of these burials is very brief: Tlirre intentional pit burials of tlomcsticated goats werr uncovered. Two skeletons had been tlccapitatctl; one had the skull articulated. . . . Directly underneath and possibly in association with Hurial 3, skull fragments and scvcral long bones of one or two children were discovered (Duprec and Kolb, 1972: 34- 5). W h e t h e r the context of these burials warrants interpretation as a "cult" is dcbatablc. However, the articulated burial of domesticated goats certainly indicates the important roles these animals held within the social group involved. It is extremely clifficult t o utilize Kolb's analysis of the ceramics, which are neither adequately described nor illustrated. T h c following description is given of the ceramics from the "Goat Cult" Neolithic: The Neolithic ceramics of Darra-i-Kur arc totally different from those found at A q Kupruk. The niost clistinctivc ware, callrd Haba Darwcsh Black by Kolb, is a crude calcite-tenipercd type which occurrcd in globular jar forms with medium necks and either slightly flaring or erect rims. Man>-oE thc shrrtls arc rrtltlish grey in colour, probably becausc of differential f ring. Simple striated, inciscd, punctatcd, and channelrd geometric decorations, such as chevrons, n~ultipleparallel lines, outlined triangles, cross hatching, zig-zags, and latlclcr motit:.; arc common. . . . Srvc'ral sherds had tingcr-inipl.cssion tlcsigns; somc interior bases had tcxtilr or baskctry impressions (Duprcc and Kolb, 1972: 34). In addition t o t h r ahovc, I h p r e c (1972: 79) mentions the prrsence of

perforated

shcrds.

pottery discs and abundant pottery wastrrs. As described cxcept for the adclition of simplr geometric decorations there is not much difference between the pottery o f t h e ~ ~ l t " ~ e o l i t h i cand that of the Ceramic Neolithic: they arc both apparmtlv hanclmadr warcs with coarsr tempering and manufactured in thc same basic globular-jar vrssrl f c ~ r m .T h r basic continuity demonstrated by these ceramics might well be due t o the fact that they fulfill a basic requirement in a nomadic toolkit, an easily manufactured, all purpose utilitarian (Shaffer, 1974a: 1 53-6). The above brief description of the "Goat Cult" Neolithic of Dara-i-Kur includes all currently available data. T h e existence of this late prehistoric possibly pastoral nomadic c.omplex demonstrates the plausibilitv of a long continuity for such a specialized ecological a(lal,tation. Furthermore, the similarity in material culture (goat burials) and possible chronological contemporancity with the more culturallv complcx and sctlentary sites of Dash11 makes it likely that significant intcraction occurred bctwcen nomadic pastoralists and scdcntar!; agriculturists.

The Sedentary Agriculturists Up to this point the discussion here has centred upon the description of archaeological assemblages which appear t o represent groups of specialized pastoral nomads. k.lhnographical1~it is known, however, that specialized pastoral nomads maintain multiple s\.stcmic interactions with specialized sedentary agriculturists resulting in development of s\,ml>ioticrelationships bet\~.eenthe t w o groups (Barth, 1961 ). Therefore, it is postulated I~CI-(\ that the domestication of plants and animals rcsulted in an initial stage of mixed farming \\-hic.hin t u r n , due t o ecological and demographic circumstances, resulted in the c-onremporaq. d ~ ~ ~ ~ . l o p mof c n rspecialized subsistence economies based upon sedcmtar~agricultural and 1).14toraInomadisni (Shaffer, 1974b, n . d . ) . At this point then it \vould be logical t o present the itl(,ncc for the cxistcnce of such agriculturists. Archaeologically such sedentary farmers \ \ oul(l be difkrcntiated from pastoral nomads by the contemporary existence of s c d e n t a r ~ \ iIlagcs ~ v i t h substantial architecture and associated artifacts. T o date in Afghanistan not one c.,l(.ntary farmine \,illagc has been located which is contemporary w-ith the archaeological .~\v~nlblages previouslv discussed. This lack of evidence is not unexpected considering the l i ~ j ~ i t (sample >d size, and the current state of prehistoric research in Afghanistan suggests that 4111 ~1 s i t ~ arc s yet t o be discovered. In this respect a series of low mounds located immediatclv ~lol-thof' the Hindu Kush in the Tashkurghan region \'vhich are covered with microliths and 0 1 I l r \ l - artifacts is \.cry suggestive of the existence of such early farmers (Dupree, 1967: 1 2 and p,'~-")~nal communication). No doubt future research \vill reveal such mounds in other areas, < l ~ i (testing I the lowest Icvcls ofsomt, of t h r thousands of mounds dotting the Afghan landscape ~ l ( , l - t and h south of the Hindu Kush \\rill eventually define such earl!. sedentarv agriculturists. IIon.cj.r.r, it is ncccssary at present t o look beyond t h c boundaries of Afghanistan for examples ( 1 1 (-arI\. farmrrs \\.hich may provide an analogous picture of such groups. I'crhaps the most analogous cultural manifestation comes from Soviet Central Asia and the ultural cc)mplcs rcfcl-reel t o as Djeitun (Masson and Sarianidi, 1972: 33-46). T h e Djeitun C

84

J I M ti. S H A F F F H

cu Iturc. W'IS s c ~ l ~ c t cOII ~ d t llc' Imsis of gcogral)hic.al proximity , and ht.c.ausc of tile. wrll r-(.c.ognilcd similarity in cultural rnatcrial and d c v c l o t ~ i i ~ e11otcd ~ ~ l t in latcr prehistoric, (Hiscionc, 1973; 1,anll)crg-Karlovsky and Tosi, 1973; Mcadow, 1973; I ' i g o t t , 1947, 1950 *rosi, 1969, 1973; Whcc.lcr, 1968). Givcw the. assumption ht.1-c that such latcr cultural ~i111ilaritic.sa r c 3' result of indigenous cultural I>I.OCCSSCS i~lvol\,ing this arcd a i d AIih,lnistan, it is equally valid t o assunlcb that a ccrtain clcgrcc o f similarity cxistcd in carlictr pc,rio(is. ~ 1 t;)llowing hricf description o t ' t h c Iljcitun culture' is prc.sc~~ltc~d t o help till an i~lfornlatioll I 8P crcatc-d hy lack ot' rcsc~arc.11o n c o n t c ~ ~ n p o r a rculturcs y in Afghanistan. T h e IIjcitun c u l t u r e (surnmarizcd f r o m Masson and Sarianidi, 1972) has 1)c.t.n idcntificd at scvcxral southern Turkmenia sitcs. Scvcral 1)hasc.s ol'dcvclopmcnt have. bc3c.n dctincd the latc>st dating t o 5050 I1.c. and thcrcforc. roughly contemporary w i t h t h c Afghan Noll-C'c.ranlic and C'cral~lieNeolithic. Grains of domc.sticattd harlcy and \vhcat as well as domcsticatcd sheep an(l goat r c r t i a i ~ ~ s l ~ abc~cn v c idcntitictl at 1)jcitun sitcs. H o ~ ! c v c ~in, t h e early t)llasc clc~vc~lol)mc~~t hiintirlg continiic~dt o havc an i n l p o r t < ~ nrolc t as inelicatcd 1)):t h e idcntitic,~tion sc~vc.ral spc,cics of \\.il(l animals (gazc.llc, onagc,r, wild pig and shec~p,t;)x dnd n.olt). IIjcitun houses \vcrc r a t h c r stantl,~rdizcdin proportions, dimc.nsio~ls,construction allel l a ~ o u t .C'onstruction was of mud brick and the' ovc'rall shape. was basically rc~ctangul,~r or sq11.11-c.Intc'l-nal hearth s t r u c t u r c ~ \vexre s 1ocatc.d just t o t h c right ot'thc d o o r w a ~ Oftcn . houscs h,xl interior partitions, storage, bins and s i i b t c r r a n c ~ ~storage. n pits. In the, c;lrlicr phasc~shouse, tloors and ~ ~ i ~w le rl es s o ~ i l e ' t i ~ n plastcrc(l c~s w i t h a limc~mixture., o r a tine clay, and occasiotlaIIy I ) , ~ i ~ ~ tTchde. avc,ragc size, ol' thcsc t1al)itations M~CIS2 0 30 squart' nlc\t~-c's.F.v~Y-YIIOUS~> h,ld a c~ourtyarcl c.ontaining out-housc, striicturcs. These, courtvards varic~tl in sizc and \$.cxrc o c ~ c ~ a ~ i o i lsll,~rc(l a l l ~ b y two-dwc.llings. Hcsic1c.s hal)itatio~ls t r u c t u r c . ~anel c o u r t ~ a r c l sanother t \ p c of struc.ture w ~ ,s~ l s otlc\scril>ctl 1)). M;lssor~ant1 S.II-i;lnitli: pcbrio(l!,

, ~

various pirts 01' the%v i l l , ~ ~ cs ,t r i ~ c ~ t i ~ rwe-re, c ~ s c~xe~,iv,itcxiwl~icli 111ost Iikcl! r c p ~ x ~ s c ~ tlic, ~it Ii)i~nelationsot' ~ ) l , ~ t t ; ) r(;)I. ~ n sgr.iin stot-'igc.. Tllc! consist 01' t ~ v or,itlic~rsclil,~t~ . i ~ ~ , i l\valls, l c ~ l high e~11011gIi l i o n the. gl-oun(l to cxnsurc ,~c\l.,ltionOF grain ( 1972 : 3 8 ) . 111

L.oc.,~trdoil the' cclgcs ol'sc.ttlcmc~nts~ve'rc\v,~llswhic.11 \ ~ e , ~t.hci c k c r than those constructed (or llc~l)itc~tioii o r cx)i~rty,~r(l t~sc,. 1-Iowc*vc~r,110 d c t i i ~ i t cc~1~circIc111c~i1t p ~ t t c r11~1s ~ ~'1s yet l > c ~ \ ~ l tlc~linc~,ltc~d. A I m i c 1i~;ltiirc01' the. toolkit w,ls ~ n i c ~ r o l i t h sI)otll , I)laclc,s ant1 vdrioiis g~o111c~tl.ic.s (trc~l)czcs,Ii~n.~tc's ,In(] 11-i.lnglcs). I m p o r t a ~ ~tools t rna~li~thc-tu~.c'd I'rom such mic~.oliths\vc,rc si(lc sc.~-~l)c-rs, s~)okc~-slldve~s, grdvc~rs,111tl sic,klc 1)lacic.s. In l,ltc,~-p l ~ , ~ s c ~tllc1-c s, is ,I notal)lc, tlc-c~.c,~sc of s11c.h mic~rolitllsin fClvour01' I~rgc'r i ~ l l p l c ~ ~ ~ lpartici~ldrly c~lts (lc~lticl~l'~tc'-c~(igc~cl sic,klc I)l~~elcs. Ii1.onl ,~il,~lvsis o f wc~,~r-tr,ic.cs it ,ll)l)c>~rs t h ~ ,It I c ~ ~ -ii~1111l)cr gc of sc.r,~l)c'rs\\.ebrc' ut ilixc-(I i l l .l~li~llal skill pl.oc(~ssi~lg. 1 .(-ss I ' r ~ c ~ il y~ (c' ~ ~ c~.to ~ ~ i ~\vc'rct c ~ r egro~11(1 ~(l and/ol- 1)olishctl sto~lc,i n l p l c m c ~ l t ssi1c.h '1s: tlat clisc.s, ~)c,stlcsanel ~ l ~ o r t a rcluc~.rls, s, , ~ x c ~ / , ~ t l,111tl z c s c~lliscls.Hone* tools usu.illy c.o~lsistcxlol'awls, g o i ~ g e ~~s ,l e ~ c ~ l lpco~is~, l t s ,sI)~tlildsa11(1 ,111 oce,~siotl,~l sI10111c1cr I)l,~elc)sc.r.11~-I-.0 t h c 1 lion-c.c*ranlic. ,~rtiIhctsinc~luclcd various I)c.acls ( I ) o ~ l c ,shc,ll .~ntlscnlil)l-cx.ious sto~lc,ssuc.h CIS tut.(liioisc') ,111(l ,I I;'\\. sto~le-,111i1ll~lligiii.i~ics. I)jc,itun c.c,~.amic.s,II-~,cxtrc~nlc~l\i m l , o ~ * t , ~ .nI tI I ~ clc\~no~lstratc 1 ' 1-,lt11~1.\\.c11 t l c ~ \ ~ c l ~ l ~ c ( l i ~ l ( l ~ ~ s All t ~ . yol'thc. . e.c~ra~llic.s CII-~, c,itllc,r Il,~~l(l~lldelc~ o r ~ ~ l . l ~ ~ t ~ l ; l c O. tI Il ~J r\c. c~'cr ~?;lo\\. \\.I1c'c'1 ~ l l ( 1

lllr(lrli.om a c h a f l ~ - t e ~ n i l ~ c])art(,. ~ r c ( ~Vcbss(*ls h r p r s inclu(l(.cl g l o l ~ u l a rjars, I)owls rn(l evrll smnll . ~ ) ~ \ ~ k c111c' r s . (Iceoration c.011sist~dmainly 01' rvd gvo~rlc-tric.nic,tils 011 v c . l ~ ( ) \ ~ - h l l t l . I ) ~ ~ . ~ ~ - (I)cc~oratc.d ) u ~ ( I s su~-t'acc>s wcbrc oltcn polishc.cl. Initiallv most clc'c.oratiol~consistccl o f

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) a ~ l l r rl o w s of'wlavy linrs and vertical brackrt-lik(- linrs, \vitll trianplar pattrrlis I>eillgr a r r . In t b c latcr phasrs t h r s r m o t i f s rlrclinr in l i r o u r o f inc,rvasrd u n p o t ' r c . ( ~ t a ~ , ~ u l a r (]csiq~ls,d o t t e d pat tc'rnsand triangles. Finally t lic p ~ t t c ~(lc-cor,~tio~~ y l ) c x ~ o ~~i ~ i i eo ~r cc~issc~ctc~cl allel ( l i ~ l i i ~ ~ u itlil vt11c t ~ ttlircl l~c*ri~)ci wllcrl ( l c b b i g ~ l b \I.cI.c. OI'IC-II p ~ i ~ i ~ (also ' ( l on tlir inner surlhcc trl'tllc pots. Tllc. tlc~rc)rationis in tllc Iijrrn c,I'unelulatillg lillc's, \.cl.tical zigzags, a n d trcc-likc ~)attc.r~ls (Masson ancl Sarianidi, 1972 : 40). . .

,

O t h r r artclhkts w h i c h u r r c madc horn clay includcd: conical, disc and square l)ra(~s; p n l i n g - ~ i c ' ~ c ' ~l ); r a c c I ~ t s , a ~ i d t i g u r i ~ ~ c s Figurirlcs . wc-rc I>otll . ~ l l t l l r o ~ o m ( , r ~ , hancl ic z o o m o r l ~ h i c .Z o o n ~ o r ~ ) h hi c) r m s includcd slic.c.p/goat and hovids. Hulnan figurinrs consistc.(l ot'hunlan 1ace.s modcllcd in t h c flat and scatcd f g u r i n c s (fcnialc?). Thcsc fieurincs \,,ill he- an i ~ l ~ l ) o ~ - tpoint a n t 01' discussion in t h c latcr prc~historicpc.riods. 'l'hc ovc,rall impression ot' t h c Iljcitun c.ulturc is on(. o f a ~ ) r o s p c r o u sagricultural dcvclopnlCnt adjusting t o local ecological contingcncics. Thc. prcbscncc of semi-l,rcc.ious stollc\s such as turquoise indicatc~sthe. ~)ossihilit\;ol' interaction with outside arcas. Altllough ,111 i c l c ~ ~ t i cc~rchac~ologic;lI al c u l t u r e mav not h c iclcntiticd in A t h a n i s t a n , it is suLqc~stcd that a .si~nil.l~one. will h c c.ventually. 71'llc~.ca r c a t ; ' ~o' t h c r culturcs which nlight h c utilizc~dt;)r c~onip,irisonand analogv like [ I I ~ . I)jcitun. Pcriod VI at T e p c Yahya (Lanlhcrc-Karlo\rskv, 1970; 1-anihcrg-K,~rlovskyand 'I'osi, 1973) is a n o t h c r gc~ogral)llicall~ proximate ~nanit'cstationot' suc.11 an c - a r l ~~ g r i c u l t u r a l ( I I ~ I ~ (I 4I5~0 0 ~ 3800 I).'..). H O M ' C Y Cit~ ,is ncitht'r CIS early a?; I)jcitun, n o r docbs this arca 01' ~ o t ~ ~ l l c a s tIran t ~ r nd c m o n s t r a t c t h c closc cultural at'tinitics in the. latcr prehistoric pc-riods \vith (I('\ c~lopnlrntsin Afghanist,~nas d o t h c prcxhistoric culturcs ol' Sovict C'emtral ,4si.1. Analogies I)c*~\\.c.c~n Tcptx Yahva t'c.riod V1 'lnd possil)lc. dcvc.Iopnicnts in Atkhanistan night I)c 111 i,Ic>,~(ling;tlic~rc~ is, l ~ ~ ) \ + ~ ( ~anotllc~r \ , c ~ r , e.i11t~lr'll c.onipIc~x that is p o s s i h l ~~ I I , I ~ O ~ O L It So tl(.\c.lop~ncntsin A t h a n i s t a n , that 01' Kilc Gul Moh,~mniad1-11 (Fairsc-rvis, 1956). Kilc G u l Mohanlmad (hcrc.at'tcr aI)I>rcviatcdas KGM) 1-11 \\as dctincd in the- Quc.tta \.allcv 0 1 I'.>kistani Haluchistan just across t h c l>ordc.r I'rom t h c prc.historic.all~ i11il)ortant Ka~iclalla~. I lion. L.ikc Sovic-t C'c'ntral Asia, t h c Quc'ttd vallcy dc11lonstratc.s a cIosc cultur.ll atfiliation \ \ 1 1 11 c . o ~ ~ t c , ~ ~ l p o ~ rC , \~. r~y~ I O ~ ) I in I ~ A~ l~ ~~hI a~nSi s t , ~dnu r i n g latcr prc.historic periods, and t h c r c is .I J ) I . O I I O U I I C . ( silllilarity ~~ I ) c ~ \ v c c ~ Quctta ~ vallcy nl,~tc.rialand that ol'Sovirt C'cntral Asia itst.ll'. 1 1 1 1;)1.tull,1tcIyInorc, than ;I little colltro\'c'rsv has cc.ntrc.d upon t h c intcrprc-tat ion ot' this ~ l l . i t ( x ~ . i dI>oth l, \,,it11r ( , g ~ r dt o 111~tli0dof ~ s c a v d t i o n.lnd t1ic' fdct that C ) I I ~ Yan cxtrc.me.lv small ..1111~>lc o f n l , ~ t c r i a is l ;1v,liltll,lc,. Origi~l,lllyFairsc.rvis ( 1 9 5 6 , 1959) d i s t i n ~ u i s h c dK G M I h011iI1 the prcscllcc o f pottc.ry. T h c r c w,ls a c.onll)lc~tc~l>sc11c-c.01' ~ ) o t t c ' rin ~ KGM I and A ~ l ~ ~ , ~ ~ t i t , l illc.rc-,lsinq ti\.cly .lmoullt 01' various pottex~-\. typcs in K G M 11. S ~ I ~ S ~ Y di\,isio~ls ~.I~.II~ . . i h;\ ; M 11, 111 anti 1 ~ ()(tl1is ) c.ultlll-,ll conll>lc>x\.vc-r(. likc\visc. I>asc.d upon ccxramic- distinctions. L

1111

L

I '.II(>S( 19h5: 2hO I ) and MutIhal ( 1970: 2bI 8) \vhilc acx,cl)ting tlic \.'~licIitvot' KGM 1 as a I i., i~lc,ti\,cc.llltlll-dl pll,l~c~ 01 ( ~ l - \ ( ~ l o l ) l l l c ~ h,l\c>, lt o n t b c o t h ~ II.IILI. r r ~ j c ~ c . tthet c ~ is u l ~ s r q u r ~ l t Iw~~.iotlizatioll 01' K(;M 11 .I\. H()th I),llcs ,llltl M i ~ ~ lIl,~\,r i ~ l ol>jc'c.t~dnot o11lv t o Fairscr\.is9s

t

I,,13ii e,(sl.,lllliet\.l")logic,h I N I ~ Ircl\c, ,i1so cli~c'stionc-(1\\hc~thcs~. t h e . tli\ixions I ) , l x t > t l "I)()" ( l ~ ~ c l ~]list~)l-ic,s l t i ~ ~~ l '~t l ii c ~ ,t\,pc,s ~ ~ i~ivol\.cvl ~ arc j~~stilic~(l: 1)oth ~1.g11c' for a rc~tc~ntion oI'KGM 1 a Iceitinlatc c.ultuml t~ntityI>ut intc'rl)rct KGM 11 1V as rcbl)rc~scntinga singlc c u I t u r ~ Ipllasc of ( ] c \ ~ ~ ] o l ) I ~More l ~ n t rrcc\ntl\ . Fail-sc,rvis ( 1971 : 1 37, 110. 29) has s l i g h t l ~re\.inb(lhis original intcl-l)rctation.and tluc to the, \.cry small saml>lc of matcrial in\-olvctl no\r- consitlcl-s KC;M 1 anel 11 to I,(* a singlr I>hasc*r c p r c ~ w t i ~ icgs s c n t i a l l ~the same c.i~lturalasscml>lagc, \\-hiltretaining tlistinctions I>ct\\.ccn KGM 111 ant1 IV. TIic only resolution t o t l i ~ s ctliffcrcllt ~ i n t c r p r c t a t i o ~ ~iss aclditional cxc-a\,ations of similar material. Until f ~ ~ r t l i ccxcC1\'ations r arc c.()ll(Iuctc,d, it is a moot point \\.hie11 illtcrprctation one accc~pts, 'ln(1 a Y C ~difi'crcllt intcrprctation is I ~ r c ~ s c ~ nIic~rc~: t c ~ d Fairscr\.is's rcxcc~ntcombining of KGM I and I1 into a single cultul-al I)liasc is a c c c ~ p t c ~\\,hilt, l, agrc,c.ing \\.it11 Ilalcs and Muglial that ~)crIiapsKGM I11 and I\! sIioul(1 bc, colisitlcrcd as a singlc cultural pliasc~.Givcn thc \.el-\. small sample of material in\.ol\.ctl i t is agl-cc,d \\it11 Fairscr\,is that the prcxscncc o r abscncc of ceramics in facc of tlic sinlil,ll-it\ in all other artifact catc>gorics is not sufficient for tlcxsignating a separate cultural cntitv; tlic important aspcXctof KGM 1 and 11 is tliat they represent a group of scdcntary agriculturists tlcI~cndcntupon domc~sticatcs. Combining KGM I and 11 enipliasiscs thc iml~ortancc usually plactd upon the' tlichotomy of handmade 1,s w l ~ ~ e l n i a dpottery. c Tratlitional assumptions lia\.c, hcCn that liandmadc pottc'rv is chronologically earlier and ,' rc'l)rcscnts a m o r c si~iiplc , technologically speaking, culture. Recent studies (DcCardi, 1970; Sliaftc,~., 1972, 1974a to citc a t;.\\.) increasingly indicated that handmatic \\-arcs, cvcn haskCt-iniprc~sscdp o t t c r ~ have , an cxtl-emcly long chronological pcrsistencc and occur simultant~ously\\.it11 \vhc~clmadcwares. Handniadc pottery apllcars t o be related more to functional/cc01io11iic factors than \vith tliosc of cl~ronologicalitecli~iological sophistication. Finally, \vc, have sexparated KGM 11 from 111 p r i i ~ ~ a r i lon \ . the occurrcncc of metal artifacts in thc latter; tlic importance of these \\.ill be discussed latcr. A summary of tlie KGM 1-11 rlvcn. asscmblagc can now he, L' ThC excavations of KGM 1-11 \vere so limited (a 1.75 ni square bv 7 ni deep) tliat it is difficult t o clo niorc than note tlic presence of \,arious cultural items. Initial occupation structurcs \\.crc constructed horn p i s i and ~ . a t t l cand dauh ~ l l i i l elater in KGM 11 structurcs \2.crc of mud brick and p i s i . Scveral structurcs \$.ere encountcrcd but tlie limited size of the, excavations 111-c,vcntcd dc,lincation of details. Stone tools consisted of ground stonc (milling ston's and pestles) as wc~IIas cliipptd stone blades, sickle blades, cores, scrapcrs and clioppcrs matlc from tlint/clicrt, jaspcr o r clialcctlon>~.Hone implcmc~nts\vcrc limited t o tlic usual simple, aw.ls, points and spatulac. Faunal analysis indicatetl the prcscncc of not only domc~sticatc~t1 slic~c~p/goat but also cattlc. H \ far thc~most important artifact category is ccramics. Potter\, was confined t o KGM 11 Ic\-cls, in an c\.cxn marc limited sample (a 1 a 7 5 m square, I>\. 2 m dcc,p). An c~xtcnsi\.ctlc~scril)tionand cliscussion ofFairscr\.is's c~eramicanalysis is not I-clcx\.antt o o u r purposes Iicrc,. It \ \ - i l l suffice t o mention tliat twelve diffcrcnt types arc' listcd for KGM I1 \\,it11 tliosc q u a n t i t a t i ~ c ldominant ~ hcing handmatlc. O n c of thcsc typcs \\,as a 1)askct-iml~rcssedfabric. ant1 another a smootlicd;l~olisl~cd s u r h c c \\.it11al~l>lic(l I-cd paint and a clominant \.csscl form of a11 open I,o\\.l. Almost all of tlicsc. types I~crsistctlinto thc Iatclr KGM Ill -lV l>c~.iods tlcnionstl-ating a high rlcgrcc of cultul-a1 continuity. 9 )

~ ' h r o t ~ o l o g i c a l KGM ly 1-11 is n1uc.h later than IIic-itu~l,but t h r n a l l oI'our c*l,iclc.ne c c.t,nlcSs }rom a single sitcb. T h r e e c - 1 4 dates arc. availal,le li,r K(;M I (I-.airsc.rvis, 1971 : 396, \%hich ~1hc.ncorrcctc.cl f o r t h e ncw hall'-lift* arc, 34611, 361111 ant] 371 2 11 the 1lt.w M A ~ ( . A cc,rrrction h c t o r is takcn into ronsidcration thcn t h r (late. f;)r K(;M I t.xt(-ncltrlas i b r back as t h e niitltllc of t h c fifth millennium 1 r . c . . (1.. 4500 H . C . I)alc.s, 1973: 1 5 9 ) . ~ l t l i o u g ht h r data 11-omPakistani h l u c h i s t a n is litnitcd and I'ragnic.ntarr, it (lors inclicatc., \vhrn takcn into consideration with Sovict Central Asian m a ~ c r i a l tliat , tllrrc was ~ . i ( j c . r ~ , ~ d . ~ l l occurrcncc of scdrntar!. ngric.ultura1 groups along tlir i)orclers 0 1 Afghanistan. .I.hert. is n o rcason t o doubt that with h t u r r research similar, i f not clirc.ctlr rcIatr(I, cultural l,Iicnonit.na will be defined within n ~ o ( l e r nAfghanistan. W i d c r , m o r e encompassing, cultural c.orrelatior~s and affinities have been developed tor both t h e 1)jc.itun (Masson and Sarianicli, 1972: 45 6 , and KGM 1-11 (Dales, 1965; Mughal, 1970: 26 I - 92) cultures, hut tlirsc rclationshil~sa r c not rclcvant h e r e . T h e r e is, ho\vc\.cr, o n e additional site loc.atccl in I'akistali \r.llic-I1 nlight c~,c.ntuallyprove t o relate t o cleve1c)pmcnts in Afghanistan: Gurnla, (Ilani, 1970 71) Ioc.atc-cl in the Goma1 valley, o n e o f t h e main routes b c t \ ~ r e r nthc. Indus \,allc\ and Afgharlistan in latcr and historic times. Gunila is included h e r e because t h e extensive collcction of fcnialc tigurincs and some o f the ceramics f r o m t h e later periods (11--111) at this site have dircct parallels, if'not imports, in Afghanistan. H o w e v e r , at this point in the discussion onlv Pcriod I, which has 1,cc.n c o n ~ p a r c ( l t o KGM 1 by Dani (197Cb71: 168), need concern us. N o structures a r c associated with this pc~-iodbut several large circular ovens, o r roasting pits, ha1.c bccn dctinctl. Faunal rcXmains f;,und in association with these pits appear t o be those of d ~ n i c ~ s t i c a shccp,goat t~d and cattlc ( 1 9 7 G 7 1 : 41 ) . N o ceramics have been found from this period. T h e major catcgorv ofartifact. that of lithic tools, includes cores, parallel sided blades, burins, Ilakes, awls and scrapers. Sct\pcral examples of such tools have been identiticd bv llani as being microlithic. Ground stone tools included: saddle querns, rubbing stones, stone balls and pc.stlcs. llani ( 1 9 7 0 71 : 41 2 ) suggests that this period represents an extremely mobile population, a notion relevant t o the discussion earlier in this chapter. Unfortunately, t h e r e are n o C'- 14 dctcrminations 101this c o n ~ p l e x . This brief summary of t h e Djeitun, KGM 1-11 and Gunila I culturcs provides a possible ~>ic.turc of early sedentary agriculturists in Afghanistan, although \vhen contcmporarv cultural ( oniplexcs a r e defined in Afghanistan, they will doubless present ditTc~rcnccs from as \\-ell as hin~ilaritiesw i t h those groups. T h e transition t o a subsistence dependent upon utilization of tlomc,sticated plants and animals resulted in t h e development of specialized nomadic and < I ~ I - i c u l t u rgroups. al However, this transition sti~iiulatedadditional proccsst.s of' cultural, r~cononiicand ecological change which resulted in even niorc complex ecological and cultural .~(ljustments,which in t u r n resulted in another cquallv important transitiom---the transition 1 0 a sociall\: stratified \vay of life.

Development of Stratified Society 'I

cultural phcnonlcna \vliich Lvill be discussed under the rubric of "stratified socictv" h c r r C I I - ~ . c-quivalcnt t o hat \vould bc tl-aditionall\ discussed under t h c category of civilization, Ii(x

l)rillliti\~cstatcbs, o r c ~ o ~ l l l ) SOC.IO~Y. l ( ~ ~ I4h('s(' l ~ ~ ( ~ i t i Oc l' al ta~~- g o r i ( - ~ lll.~,,,llsoe.i(bt i(,s, 1)ristillcb att(.nll)leb(ll o ( l ( - l i n r a l ( , than* a r t i b c . t s , o r artrl.lc~t-c.orn~)Ic~x(~s w h i c h inclic.rt(- that tllir iml)or"llt tnnsitic)n llas ()c~rurrc.(I.I'Iiis artilBc.tuaI a l y ) r o a c h " has l ~ r r o m ( -inc.r(asillb , unsrtislic~tc)l.y as a n t h r o l ) ( , l ( t g i s t ~h a v e r(~alixrclI h r o u g h c.onll)aralivr stuclirs t h a t th(.s(*artilh(,ls all(l/Or lIl(.il- ass()c,iatc.(l s o c i o - c ~ u l t i ~ r ai nl s t i t i ~ito n s " . . . have- c~onlhincs(lin (liIh-~-(,ntways i l l tlill;tr-canl c,ultur(,s ant1 at tlilli.rc.nt timcbs" (Whc.atlc~y, 1 9 7 2 : 6 2 3 ) t o protluccn st~.atiIicb(l sc)c.i(-lic.s.M o ~ - e ~ o v ct ~h re, c,nll,hasis u p o n itlcantifying t r a i t s has cl(,lrac.tcb(lI'I-OITI thc. 1ac.t that this tl.allsition c.c-ntrc-s u p o n c,hangc,s in m a n ' s soc,io-c.ultural r c ~ l a t i o n s l i i l )w~i t h i n a givc>rl c,ontcbxt (1i)r tlisc~llssic)n see- Scbr-vic.c-,1 9 7 5 : xi 2 0 ) . An cxtc.nsivc~tlisc.ussion ol'thc*th(.orc,tical issucbs anti (Iebl);lte'SSUrl.oull(ling th(' (leiillition ol', a n d ~>~-occ-ssc,s rc.slx)nsihlc- fi)r the- tle.vc*lol)rnc-nt 01' ' 4

stl.a~itic*(l soc.ic*tic.sa]-(, I)c>yontl thc. purl)osc- 01' t h i s chaptc.r ( b u t sccs Scrvic.c., 1975). It will suflic.c. 10 w h a t is nlcsant h Y a stratific-(1 soc.ic-ty ancl h o w it will 11c. i(lcntifir(l in the, arc,ha(.ologi(;II c.ontc,xt. A s~ratilic\(lsoc.ic,ty is tlc*linc.tl horc., a l t e r t;ric.tl ( 1 9 6 7 : 1 8 6 ) , a s ". . . onc. in which mc-mI)c,rs 01' thc, sameb sox ant1 c*quivalont agc. s t a t u s (lo n o t have, c.qual acccbss t o the- I)asic rcssourc.c~st h a t s u s t a i ~ llit;,." Fricbtl, basic rcsoul-cc.s hc*~-c,mc,ans c a p i t a l , n o t consurnebr goo(ls. 'T'li(-r(~li)r(-, w ( *arcBc.onc.c.rnc,(l n o t w i t h l a r g e cluantitic,~ol'fi)otls o r t o o l s b u t r a t h r r \\.it11 thc.ir ultimate, sourc~cs( a g r i c u l t u r a l lantl a n t l / o r a n i m a l s ant1 source-s 01' r a w m a t o r i a 1: 4 I'o r too! I ) r o t l u c t i o n ) . I-Iowc-vor, it m u s t be* assurnc~tlt h a t in a n arc,liac~ologicaIc.ontc-xt thcb al)ilit\. t o a c , c ~ ~ m u l a t cx>rtain ctypcbs 01' ol)jc,c~ts is rc.llcctivc~ 01' th(. tlcgrc,c, of' access t o suc.h Ijasicr(~sourc'css. T a k i n g i n t o ac,cx)unt t l i r lirnitctl (lata f r o m Al'ghanistan, the, prebsctncc-o f mc.tal a r t i l a c t s \!.ill I)(- inte~rl)rc*tc(lhcbr(- as intlicaling t h a t a t r a n s i t i o n t o a stratilic.cl s o c i c t y i s taking or ha.$rclkerl , ~ l r r c . c 'I'hc. utilization 01' mc-tal a r t i f a c t s as a n in(lic.ation of' stratilicvl socicsty niay rouses ac.c.usat ions 01' "tc~c~linologic;11tl(,tc.rminism", anel t h a t metal a r t i f a c t s have. I3cc.n ti)untl in assoc.i;ltion w i t h w h a t al)pcbart o I>(, ctgalitarian Ncv)lithic, soc,ic-tics in arc,as s u c h a s tlic A(,gc,an an(l I.;astc*l-~l I!uropc~. N o onebwill tlcny, liowc.vc~r,t h a t mc,tallurgy tloc,s rc.prcBsc.nta n i m p o r t a n t tc*c~hl~ologic.~iI ac.hic.vc.mc~lltin itsc.ll', ancl t h a t a s a tcbc,hnology it hat1 r c ~ l ~ c ~ r c ~ u s sin i o nrc,latc(l s ,in(I unr('late*cl tc'c.ll~lologic~,il, soc.ial an(I ('c.onomic. I>c~haviours.It also r c l ~ r c ~ s c ~ n tac n~ et lw li)rni oI'\\.c.altll. The- o l ~ t a i n i n g ,smcblting ant1 c a s t i n g ol'mc,tal 01-cbs ropr-ctscbntsa c*onc.crtc~cl cl'Ii)rt 0 1 ' orga11izatio11unl)arall(~l(-tl in the. protluc,tion o f a n y lithie. artithc,t. The, 1)rotluc~tionol'sul~c-rior t o o l s , in tc.rrns 01' st]-c-ngtli ant1 c*flic,ic-nc.y, cast f'ronl m e t a l c*nablc-tl th(, n i a n u l a c t u r c ~ 01' S L I ~ ) S ~ ~ ( ~ I I Iinc'r ~ ~ I I ~ oI)jc~c.ts I~ nia(lc~l'ronl stonc. wliic~li wc.rcb utilizc-(I in sul~sistonc.c~ ancl n o n sul)sislc~nc~c~ ac.tivitic-s. 7'hc manul'ac~turc~ of' nic~tal artil'ac.ts rc~I)rc~scntc~tl a n e w love-1 in l h ( > ( I ( ~ \ ~ e ~ l o l 1 1 i l ( - 01' 1 1 1th(, c.onc.c'pt o f wc-alth a s c-xprcbsscvl in ol~jc-c'tsotlic-r t h a n c,onsunlal,l(- Ii)o(l ol)jc*c,tsw11ic.h spin ha(I ~ ~ r o n o i ~ n cc~fli~c,ts ~ c ~ ( I i11)on all scsc-tors01' soc,ial lilib ( I < c n l r c ~ w ,1 9 7 2 : 483). Finally, tlc~vclol~rnc-nt ol' t h ( * alloying I)roccbss 01' c.ol~l)c.r ant1 t i n ( o r o t h c r rnc,tals) , I I ~ O W . (1i)r > ( ~the* , first tin)(-, a signilic,ant ant1 rlualitativc* inc,rc,asc, in the- rangc. o1'artifac.t~\~,llic.h c.oi11(1 ~ ) r o t l u c , c ~i l ll tcrrrls o l ' u t i l i t a r i a n t o o l s , wc.al)ons an(l l u x u r y itc-nis, w h o s c ~1)ossc.ssion t 11e'11 I ) ( * s t o w c ~11('w I Iebvc'Is 01' stat CIS,l)r('st i g c an(l c-l'lic~ic*nc.yu p o n the, ~ ) o s s c s s o r .M o I - ~ Y ) \ . ~ . I - , 111(-tal a r t i l i c . 1 ~ c.an I o c . a t ( ~ lin a witlc. varicxty 01' c.uItural c~irc~urilstanc~e~s, arc' c,asiI\. i(l(wtifial>l(% in the* nrc,liac*ologicnl r(~c.or(I, ,inti c*an I)(, sul)je~c~tc~(l t o cluantit;lti\cs , ~ n ( l clistril~utionalstu(lic.s. ll(s~.(,

I . i k c b

,A rc,l~ac-oI~gic,aI restlarch in Alghanistan c.oncc-rnc-tl with hlralilic.(l soc ic.tics has

in n-gions, n o r t h and south ol'tllc Hinclu Kush. In north(.ro Alghanistan t l ~ t - ~arc. c . lilur or groul)s 01' sitcbs, rcslrvant t o this cliscussion: ( 1 ) t h r (:halrolithic o r Hrclnzr ~ g ( i4.rt.lr . at (;bar-iMar ( I ) u l ) r r r , 1 9 7 2 ) ; ( 2 ) th(. "Goat C:ult" Nc-olithic oI'1)ara-i-Kur tl)uprc*c, 1972,; (3, l ) o ~ s i l ) l ysomc* matc.rial li-om t h e Tashkurghan arcaa ( ( ; o u i ~ l , 1972,; and, ( 4 ) tl~c.I)ashli sctl-ic-sol'.sitcbs (Sarianicli 1971 a ) . In southc.rn Alkhanistan rc.sc.arc.h has c,c.ntrc.(l o n the. Kanclahar rc*gion anel c.xc.avations at t h e sit(-s 01': ( 1 ) Muncligak (C'asal, 1961 ); ( 2 ) I)(-11 Morasi (jhunclai ( ~ > u l x c ~1*9 ,6 3 ) ; a n d , ( 4 ) Said Qala 'Tcpc (Shaflkr, 1971 , 1972). l'hc. mat(-rial from (ihar-iMar is c41ronologically t h c earliest and will I>(. disc~usscclfirst. 7'hc.n t h e c.xtc.nsivc- rvrnains at ~ u n t l i g a kant] t h c c o n t e m p o r a r y materials from 1)c.h Morasi and Said Qala will fi)rm t h e I ~ u l k ol'thc- tliscussion about this latcsr prc.historic. pcriotl. Finally, the. rc.maining sit(-s in thc. n o r t h will he, cbxamincd t o complctc- t h e archacologic~alpicture..

Although I h p r c c (1 9 7 2 : 2 5, 1967: 2 5) rclkrs t o the* liniit(.d arc-hac-ological assc.1nh1a~c.sa t (;liar-i-Mar fi)r this pcriod as Chalcolithic:, a pc-riod c,haractcrizc-d by prcscncc. o l ~ c o p p c rbut 1101 I ~ r o n z c ,t h e analysis of t h e associated mc-tal artilacts I),, Calcv ( 1 9 7 2 : 44 5) c.lcarlv in(lic.atc*sthat its composition was a low-tin bronze.. The. important aspc.c,ts ol'this asscmblagc. arc*t h c itlcntification of thcsc bronzc artifac,ts and t h e t w o C- 14 clctc.rminations 01' 5487 ant1 529 1 b . c . These a r c t h e earliest datcs f;)r bronzc artifacts pc.1 rc.cordc.cl, I)ut arcbslightly olclc.r than those* associated w i t h t h e stratigraphic.ally car1ic.r Ceramic Nc.olithic.. 7'hc c1atc.s arc. intc-rprctcd h c r c as indicating that both asscnil)lagc~sarcbchronologic,all\. closc. in thc- last half 01' tlic sixth millcnniuni I3.c. 1)uprc.c. has sc.paratcd these assc-nlblagcs o n t h e basis 0 1 ' ht~-,ltigral~hy, p o t t c r y ant1 t h e presence o f metallurgy, but tile. material c.ulturc' 01' t h c t\vo c ~ s s c ~ m l ~ l a(C'cramic gcs Neolithic ant1 Chalcolithic.) is not o t h c r w i s c significantly tliIh.rc.nt. 'l'l~isis n o t unc.xpcctcd for t w o re-asons. First, as has hcchn dcnionstratcd in o t h e r arcbassuc.h as t 11,. Acgc,an ( K c n f r c w , 1972), t h c introcluction of'mc.tallurgy oficn takes a long t i m e hct0rc~its 1i111 c.ultural- social---cconomicc1'f'cc.t~a r c manili~stcd and dc~tcctablc-in tht. arc.hacologie~a1 I . ( , ( orcl. Second, il' t h e assrmblagc~associatctl with t h c mctal artifac.ts rcI1c.c.t~a spc~cializcd ,r(lqrl)tation t o pastoral nomadism as is hcsrc (as it was li)r t h e C'craniic. Nc-olithic.)then ,i11111 similarity can I,c attril,utcd t o this spt-cializc.tl adaptation anrl the, niatc.rial c.ulturcr~c~c.c~ssitatcd i t . 'The metal artifacts (Calry, 1972: 4 3 5 ) Iocatc,d at G h a r - i - M a r consisted 01. thrc-(. 1 1 . ~ q m c n t ol'shc,ct s metal w i t h an cnil,osscd motif, t w o h a g m c n t s ol'a rectangular r o d , an(! o n e l i t l~c.rshc,(-t fragmc.llt. c a l r y ( 1972: 4 5 ) maintains that the> coml,osition 01' t h c metal \\.as o f t ~ . ~ ~ of o~r the' g I ic~ml>ossrcl clcsign t o hc I,rotluc~rlby hammetring o n a soft substance (\vood \r.hcn t II(. ~iic.tal hcatc(l. Tllc rrconstructc.tl original composition of' these artilacts incjicatc. a \ , * I - \ . high pel-ccntagr o f ~ o ~ ~w~ i t h~ allout c - r 7',,tin and traccs o f iron and nickcl, a composition ,\I~ic,h,accorcling t o C a l r y , is characteristic o l the, early stages o f bronzc mctallurgv. I.ithic a r t i h c . t s arc. sunini;\rily (jrsc,riI)cclI,\ 1)uprec- ( 1972: 7 5 ) as consisting ol'llint corc-s, i c , k l c hlatlc\s, I)latlrs, possible, hurins, I)crtOl-ators ant1 end-scral)c,rs o n blades; n o g r o m r t r i c s

lllic,l-o-]>ladcs \\-c~rc~ ~ l s oassociat~~tl \\.it11 this lc,\.cl. This is identical t o thc lithic Duprcc for the Crramic Ncolitbic. &)nt, artifacts inclndrd poillts, Illdtrrial'~cscril>lr onagcr (Duprec, 1967: 26, 1972: 75), hut a dctailrd discussion has yet to I>uhlis]lrdDupl-ee ( 1 967: 26) also notcs the possibilit~that I I ~ ~ I I U S might ~S havc been ofsomc lllallv

dictarj. importancrX. .jvailablc c-eramic descriptions (Dupree and Kolb, 1972 : 33--4; Duprec, 1967: 25, 1972: 75) arc incomplete. O n e pottcrv. type , is described as being a soft \\.arc similar to that thC Ct-ramic Neolithic, and the other as a hard ere\.\\-are much better fired than that of the Cc>ramicNeolithic \vith incised illotifs (zigzags) under the rim (Dupree, 1967: 2 5, 1972: 75 1. Both types are characterized by coarse tempering materials including limestone, crushed rock or chaff and crushed sherds. Vessels lvere made bv coiling, slab-building and modelling \\.hich utilized either a do\\- \{-heel (tournette) o r an unpivoted turning slab. Rims \\-c,~-emanufacturetl separate]\. and then joined t o t h e \,essel body. T h e vessels had \\.ell smootl~edsurfaces but no evidence of a slip, self-slip, \\-ash, paint o r polish \\-ere found. Besides the incised motifs the onlv other decoration occurred on a single sherd as a " . . button-node appliqued . . . (Dupree and Kolb, 1972 : 34). Dupree (1 972: 75) notes that a few sherds have basket-in~pressions,but these are probably related t o techniques of manufacture rather than decoration. The major vessel form \vas a globular jar \\-ith a Hat o r rounded base, but basin forms \\-ere also recorded. Much of the importance of this site lies in the late sixth millennium b . c . date for bronze technology, one of the earliest dates for such technolog\ recorded, and should the identification of domesticated cattle and onager be substantiated the site \vill be of even qreater importance; until further comparative o r contemporary material in either northern o r southern Afghanistan is forthcoming, though, the fact that bronze does not appear at any other site in Afqhanistan o r its hinterland until one-and-a-half millennia later, and the nondiagnostic character of the ceramics make it impossible at this time t o create any specific cultural perspective for the Char-i-Mar material. L

O

"

Southern Afghanistan At present our information for this area comcs from excavations at three sites-Mundigak (Casal, 1961 ), Deh Morasi Ghundai (Dupree, 1963), and Said Qala Tepe (Fairservis, 1952; Shaffer, 197 1, 1 9 7 2 F a n d three site surveys of the Seistan area (Fairservis, 1956; H a m n ~ o n d , 1970; Dales, 1972). While limited the sample size is sufticient t o indicate that souther11 i\fqhanistan is an important '1tit.a for understanding the transition t o stratitied societies and for comprehending the cultural processes which affected ncighbouring arcas. T h e Muntligak scquence has for long been crucial to the entire area bet\\.cen the \vestern Iranian plateau and the Inclus v a l l c ~ .More recent excavations at Tepe Yahya (Lalnherg-Karlo\.sk!., 1970) and Shahi--i-Sokhta (Tosi, 1969) have greatly contributed t o our kno\\-ledge of this vast area, hut thev too derive some of their importance from relationships estal>lisl~ed\\.ith Muncligak. Mundigak and the supplenit.ntar~ information from Dell Moi-asi Ghunclai (hci-caftcr Dch

Mcll-jri)a ~ a Said I Qala T r p c (hcrral'trr Saicl Qala 1, pro\ i(lr inlc~rnlnuontor untlc.r\tallcl~nethte I x o c c s s e d i n k i n g t h c areas o f Haluchistan and thtb In(lus \aIIc\ t o So\ ict Cc.lltraI ,4s1a an(l castern Iran.

G ~ . o ~ r a p h i c aFactors l

Thr site of Mundigak is a series of mounds situatc~lin a nlountainous rc.gic,n al)pr(Jxinlatrlr 5 5 km west b\. n o r t h of' m o d e r n Kandahar, located in the upper tlraillage ( , f t h c ~ ~ r h k - ~ - ~ ~ L ; h ~ u \r.hich d roughly ~ ~ a r a l l et lhse Arghandab river as it flows \vest past Kandahar. Tht. Kuhhk-iNakliud Rud flo\trs s o u t h ~ t ~ e s eventuallv t, joining the Arglia~ldal)al)l,roxin~atc.lv 1 1 0 krll south\vest of Kandahar. Likc, most arcas of Al'ghanistan this rvpiorl i h arid. ,4rphanclab t1o1j.s h o r n n o r t h t o south until it passcs Kandahar ~ v h c r cit turns w c . a t ~ ~ a rand d joins tht. elma and approximatelv 130 k m south\vest of' Kandahar at Hust. T h c Hclnland t h ~ nIlc,\r-s south and west t h e n n o r t h until it reaches t h c largc. niarshv, but todav cxtrcmc~lvarid, arc-a ot' Scistan o n t h e Iranian b o r d e r which has in Af hanistan onlv had surface survcv for prc.historic. sites, and limited excavations. Before the Arghandab-Hcln~andstreams t u r n t o the south\\.cst t h c ~ form . t h e n o r t h e r n boundarv separating t h c cultivable lands t o t h e north I'ronl the. arid Rcgistan desert. O n c e t h e Helmand begins its soutn.rst\vard coursc. it passes through somc ol' thC most arid regions in t h e ivorld. T h e Helniand is actuallv t h e onl\. major pcrcnnial ri\.c.r located between Mesopotamia and t h e Indus vallcv, and its irnportanc.~in prehistoric. cultural de\.elopments throughout this vast area cannot be ovcrcmphasizcd ( f o r a good cn\,ironnlcntal summary of this region see Fairservis, 1961 ; Iluprec, 1973: 1 54). T h e loc.ation of Mundigak \\.ithin t h e drainage of o n e of t h e major tributaries of this svstCm is a major factor in understanding t h e cultural processes and phenomena \vhich a r c rctlt,ctcd at this sitIan of structul-c\, 11,.

Fig. 3.6(c): Mundigak .4, plan of structurrs, II,,.

Ot particular interest a r c t h e presence of t\\-o large mud bric-k and pli; (,\-a101- U-shal>ctlo \ t b n \ in a n c x t c r i o r o p c n area. ,Anal\-sis of these o\-ens indic-atcs that e x t r c ~ n ~. chiqh l\ tcmpcraturc~.\ ! 6 0 0 - 1 100') \\.ere produced in t h e m . T h e i r location in a large opcn space, cstcl-ior but ,~(l~ac.cnt t o habitations, might indicate t h e I~cginningoffunctionall\- sl~ecihcareas \I-ithin the .it(%. F r o m t h e limited sample it \\.auld appt.ar that t h c r c i 5 a hignihcant incrt,asc of' ha\ic i ~ - u c t u r size c 1)-iththose of Phase 5 being almost t h r e e times larger ( 9 m 171 6 n l ) . Pha5e 5 , an(l 111c.1-cforc Period I, is strati graphic all^ sealed b\. a deposit of \-ar\-ingt\.prs of clel>ri5 5 u g c s t i n g i j l ~ tthis particular area of t h e site \\.as not occupied for s o m c t i m e . T h e ti-pc of. habitation .i.i-utturcs dcsc-ribed f o r Period I+ ;seem t o establish a pattcrn \\-hich, a> \\-ill bc ~ * h o \ \ - ni , \-c,r\ 1114istcntuntil Pcriod Ir.. It should be noted hel-t. that Casal has heen criticized for not lN~.lking a sharper distinction, if not l ~ e r i o d i z a t i o nbet\\.c.cn , Pcriod I , ,and 1, ; ( c . g . Fairsrr\ i \ . 1 -'7 1 : 1 2 7 ) because ofdificrences c\.idcnt in t h e a r c h i t c c t u r c and ceramics. T h e ceramics a r e '!.t.usscd bclo\\- but on t h e arc11itcctu1-a1 c\.idcnce, Casal's clcsignation of a single pcriocl r>msc o r r c c t . Gi\.cn t h c cxtrenicl\. small sample and exposure of Period I , ;as c o r n p a r ~ ~ d it11 I, i, o r o t h c ~ periods, it \\.auld ha\-c bt,cn p r e m a t u r e t o make a major ~trati_gral~hic. ! I \ ision mcrc\l\- on t h e basis o f tht. prescncc o r absence of substantial architee-turc. t'criod II is (]i\-i(]cd i n t o tl1rc.e l)l~ast,s(11 ,) t h e last o n e of \\-hich i h suhdij-itlcd into units a II (big. 3 . 6 b - c ) . M'alls \I-crc of m u d bricks, fc>undcd in d e e p \\-all trc>nchc\hllcd \\.it11 P I , ; , , I - using \\.all rc,mnants ot'p1-c\-ious structures (Pcric>tl 1 ; ) as atltlitional rcinforcc~nlt~nt. C>nl\c tangulal- struc.turt.s \\-cl-c idcntihed h u t unlike Per-iod 1 the\- \\-ere di\-idcc1into t\\.o r o o m \ . L

I . ,

.z

;

1 1 t I

1.1

ol,c, rnmallrr than the othcr (2 nl X 4.4 m 1 . 415 m X 6 m ) , connected by doorways. During Phases 1-2 most rooms had an exterior entrance whereas in Phase 3 only one such entrance \,.as found. Interior and exterior wall buttresses w e r e frequently encountered along with a ft.,,. exanmples of small windows and n.all niches. A very marked characteristic of this Prriotl \\.as a much greater density in the disposition of structures. Five structures in Period 11, continued t o have a centrally located interior rectangular hearth set into the floor and constructed of pis;. However, these hearths now have a centrally located firepit which will continue t o characterize such -features throughout the remaining occupations at the site. A single structure was found with an interior rectangular pit constructed with pis; and filled with ash and debris which occupied most of t h e floor area. The existence of such a pit is suggestive of some specialized function for this structure (cooking?). A large open area \vas interpreted as a possible cattle pen. Finally, another room had a small semicircular pi& structure attached t o one wall which is referred t o as a seed box (?). The total number of structures increased during Period 11, although the large open area remained free of structures. However, it is doubtful that this area u-as used as an animal pen since it now had a dividing wall and a substantial rectangular oven with t w o U-shaped chambers. A northern cluster of structures was distinguished by the construction of a well (1 nl in diameter by 8 m deep) excavated into virgin soil Figs 3 . 6 b , 3.8a). T h e upper part of the \\-ell was enclosed by an octagonal mud brick structure c. 1 m high while the well interior was pis;-lined. An area which separated the well from nearby structures was linedlpaved with stone boulders. Immediately south of the well was a small open space with a centrally located rectrangular oven suggesting a possible functional correlation between the t w o features. Another interesting correlation with these features is that every surrounding structure had an interior hearth which again suggests that this area was functionally distinct. Period underwent a decrease in the number of structures and an increase in the open areas. Only one definite and one possible external entrance w e r e located in Phase 3a and none in 3b. Absence of such entrances led Casal t o speculate that structure walls functioned as supports for a wooden superstructure o r an upper living structure, but t h e interior hearths and mud floors might indicate that entrance was via the roof. A factor which has not received adequate attention is that of the frequency and location of interior hearths: in Phase 3a the only room with an interior hearth also is the only one with a possible external entrance. O f the three rooms with hearths in 3b onlv one can definitely be said t o lack an external entrance (and this hearth lacks an internal firepit). O n the other hand, t h e other structures with hearths are incompletely excavated and, therefore, an external entrance cannot be ruled out. Another important point is that only rarely in the subsequent periods are rooms that lack an external entrance found with an internal hearth. Cumulatively these factors suggest that rooms without an external entrance had a non-habitation functional specialization, such as storage, for which an external entrance was not necessary and/or desirable. Another large rectangular mud brick oven with tw-o U-shaped chambers was constructed in an open area during Phase 3a. This oven continued in use through 3b with the addition of a third U-shaped chamber. An additional assymetrical mud-brick three-chambered oven was constructed in a different open area during 3b. Finally, a unique circular prci basin was constructed inside one 3b structure.

3.

THF LATER PREHISTORIC. P I - R I 0 I ) S

97

There is no rcason t o question Casal's stratigraphic clcsignations for I'criotl 11. A markc.rl seems t o persist for the architectural devc~lopmcntsrcprcsmtccI in I1rrio(Is I II which corresponds t o a similar continuity in most categories of matc*rialculturr. ~h~ ovc.rall ~ i c t u r eis one of continuous rebuilding reflecting internal population growth *hifir within a village settlement pattern. A significant development for Periocl 11, howrvrr, is thr poSsihll. existence of functionally distinct areas and structures within the scttlcmc.nt. The remains of Period 111 in general are usually contrasted against those of Prricxl l l .n(l depicted as representing a period of "vitality and expansion" as opposrd to the "stagnation' ' of period 11. Although Period I l l witnessed some significant changes in material culturr it also demonstrated a stratigraphical and architectural continuity \vith Period 11. Casal cliviclccl period I11 into six phases (Ill,.-,) ~ v i t hthe last phase (Ill,) subdividecl into units a, 1) ancl c . Period 111 mud brick structures are essentially similar t o those founcl in Pcriotls I I I . However, the previously typical structure with one large and onc s ~ n d lroom bccomcs extremely rare (one example in I l l l and During Period 111 an incrcasctl density in thc number of structures per excavated area was determinable. This increasctl density is often interpreted as representing population growth but this fails t o take into consideration the possibility that all structures were not habitations. Period 111, structures demonstrate \.arious types of rebuildings such as additional walls, interior features, and repairs (Fig. 3.7). Walls are not, however, as firmly founded in as in previous occupations. Throughout Period I11 several structures are found with common, o r c l o s e l ~abutted, walls which might indicate that such structures represent a socio-cultural unit. Open spaces bet\vc.cn thc.sc. structural clusters is very irregular giving the impression that if such socio-cultural units arc represented then they took shape rather haphazardl\. o r according t o some a=lutinati\.e cultural process. Entrance t o structures \vas either by a small lateral doonvav o r via the roof. I t is interesting t o note that almost every structure \vith an interior hearth \\-as pro\-ided \vith a lateral doorway. Structures without such hearths were far more variable in this rcspect. The large rectangular multichambered mud brick ovens are identified for the last time in Pcriod 111,. If these large possiblv domed o\:ens are potter's kilns, as Casal suggests, then their hnal appearance in this period might be related t o tw-o important factors. First, the increased \.ariety and sophistication of the ceramic industrv in Period I V combined \vith the clisappearance of "kilns" in habitation areas might represent an intensified industrializatio~~ of this item. Second, their disappearance in Period I V might be related t o the special functional 5t1-ucturesrecorded for that period. A square structure in Period I l l , _ ? ~ r o v i d e sinformation on ho\v roofs \vme supportetl. Along one Wall at the top \yere located a series of \\-all niches in the shape of a stepped triangle 1,-ith fraenlents of wooden beams in place. I t is possible that the main beams \vertB laced in the lo\\-est step and then sealed in place by the placing of a small beam in the upper step ~'('rpendiculart o the end of the main beam. Should these niches represent beam supports, then the corresponding functionaljroom height \+.asless than 1.75 nl, hardl! enough room t o stand. Small windows \\.ere recorded throughout Period 111, and in one instance a mud brick "shutter" was found in place. Three \veils, o r three building phases of a single \\ell, n e r e found in Period 111: (Fig. 3 . 7 a ) . Unlike the \+-ellof Period I1 these \veils \+-eresinlple circular pits escavatcd into virgin

--

,.,mq,.nwrm

Lig.

3.7(13):

A I L I I ~ ( I ~ ~4, ~ I ~L ~ I J 01I I

Ill,,

\~I.~I(I~II-~,\,

.'-

"'

Fig. 3.7(c):Muntlig,ik .A, plan o f strirc.tu~.c%\, Ill,,,,

tlicsc~\\cxIls \ \ . t \ l - c % loc~atcxli l l a c o u r t \ a r ( I , ~ I I - I - o u I ~ ( I ~ ~ ( I . the,~l u d b r i c k 01-en \\.as also Iocatccl i l l the, c o u l - t \ a ~ - e lO 5t1.ur.ti11-cs.,4 ~ n u l t i c . l i a m l > c r c t m i ~ i t c , ~ - c s t i ns tgr u c t u r a l tc'aturcs fi)uncl in I'criocl 111 \I-(.I-c:,I c-cmtl-al I>iIla~01 h r - c ~ lI > l - i ( k \ \ i t h i n a I-oonl o f Ill1, ant1 a l3cnc.h c x t c n t l i n g a r o u n t l t l i r c ~ c\\.ails ~ 01' a I-oom in I l l , . .-\ \ . ~ ) I - Ji.n i l x ) ~ - t a f tl c a t u ~ - co f Pel-iod 111, \\-as t h e c . o n ~ t r u c . t i o nof a I-c,t,iiningtc.~.rac all t o \oil.

Ho\\ c\.cl-, like, t h e e a r l i e r

\\-t-ll

( %

I I I , , > o ~ l t l i \ \ . c s tT. h e \\.all \\-as constl.uc.tec1 f r o m large I>loc-kso l ' h l - c ~ c.l'i\ l a11tl the, ,i1-c,.1I>c,hincl 1111

\\-all \\-as t h c n fillc~tl.C'asal m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h i s \ \ - , ~(sl o n e \ \ it11 the* ~)ul-l>ose~ o I incl-~,,i\in: the, c.xpansc a \ - a i l a h l c t'01- t h e c.onstruction ot' s t r u c t u ~ - a unit,. 1 H o \ \ c.\ (.I-,rhr, < . \ a (t Iunc t i o n tllis \\.all r e m a i n s t o I>c tlctc.rminctl a l t h o u g h i t s ~>l-c~se~nc-c~ m u s t h a \ c , ha(l a ~ i g n i h c a I>(\al-il~; ~~t \ i ~ I > s c ~ c ~ (i ~l ct ~ ~ \ .ict l o I ~ ~ ~ini c I'c.1-iod ~its I\'. c>llin; ol.th(, \ul-lac-~. I(*tt t'criotl 111, \\.as s t ~ - a c't i o l - a ~ h i c adistinguishcc! lI~ \ > Y the. i n t t a n t i o n ~ l

, I I r,11 111

OII

I , \ ~ t ~ - i t c . t i ~ lof - c sIll5. Similal-11- t h e c.ntl of Ill,, \\.as i n t e n t i o n a l l \ Ics\c,llctl t o tarilitatc. the. ( , ~ ~ \ t l - u c , t ioofn Pc1-iotl IV s t r u c t i ~ l . c ~The' . initial oc.r.ul> l ( *t>ntranc t(~

..

t~)1111(1

\III ot'\\-llic-ll\\.cl-c \ - ( ) I - \ - s m a l l : less t h a n 1 .Om in h c i g l l t . .-\nothc*l-stl-ur t111.ci l l Ill,,,, I1,1(1 IJI-(:(' ])it \ ( , l \ ~ t c > ci ln t o tllc illtc,1-ior surt'acc. Loc.atctl t o thet \\-(.st 01. t h i s st~.Uc.tllI-(',d l l ( l ~ O l l ~ t l . l l < l ~ . ~ I \ \ it11 lil-c\rl l>l-ic.k.;, \\-a a s m a l l t ~ m l ,c.~nt.iinin; a s i n c l c intli\itlu.il. T\\.o \\,i11s 0 1 th(. t ~ m l ) i

L

, ~ I , r ~ t tcicraillst c3~ l tl1is ~ t ] ~ cs t. l~- ~- ~ ~ . t lalltl l ~ . (a'n ahsoc.iatcttl c ~ n t ~ - a n hc ac(~] I?cl>uildingphases. There is little evidence t o definitely indicate that this structure represents a but there can be no doubt that it was "monumental", significantly different from prc\.ious and contemporarv structures, and culturally important. How-ever, t o designate it as ,, a palace" implies a degree and level of political organization which cannot be presently establishctl. This important structure \vas located at the highest point of t h e s i t e M o u n d A. When this building \\.as constructed Mound A must have been an imposing edifice with its 1 1 metres of cle\.ation resulting from previous occupations ancl its surrounding(?) terrace \vall \j.hich \\.as constructed in Period 111. From the t o p of the mound it was possible t o see not only the othcr structures at the site but also the surrouncling countryside. T h e initial structure plan unclcr\vcnt at least three rcbuildings of which only the last was a significant alteration. Until thc last rebuilding the area north of the colonnaded wall was kept free of other structures so that this building \t.as e q u a l l ~\.isible in arcas abvay from the mound. Although only the northern wall Lvith its east-\vest colonnades remains (Figs 3 . 9 , 3 . 1 3 b ) it is possible that such colonnades existed on all building faces. Similarly the only remaining entrance was through the north wall, but it is impossible t o rule out the existence ofothers. T h e structure's s t o be aligned with the cardinal points of the compass, but such is not the exterior ~ . a l lappear case for interior walls. A similar alignment can be defined for o t h e r monumental structures of Period IV except for one portion of a large enclosing wall which goes off at a slight northeast angle. This building orientation results in Casal's "Palace" and "Temple" structures being locatetl in the same east-west line lvhich is parallel t o onc formed by the enclosing walls. It is cloubtful that such alignment was the result of chance. The primary focus of construction appears t o have been the large exterior walls faced with partial colonnades of which only the north wall remains. T h e colonnades, like the wall, w.ere constructecl ~ v i t hfired brick; however, t h c colonnades' exterior was plastered, painted white ant1 toppctl with a brick frieze of opposing stcppcd triangles (Fig. 3.9a). T h e \\-all remnant was 2 . 3 nl high and originally was taller. North of the wall was a broad brick walkway. South of the all, and sometimes attached t o the wall, \\.ere sevt,ral small rectangular habitation (?) structures similar t o those described for earlier periods. Access t o thesc structures was eithcr through a stepped entrance that opened onto a large "courtvard" o r through another entrance that led directly into one of these small interior rooms. These interior habitations wcre not significantlv different from those found in III,, and cxcept for the organization i n ~ p o s t don them by the colonnaded wall and " c o u r t ~ a r t l " , thcv \j.erc haphazardlv arranged. Thc first t\vo rcbuildings (IV,,,,) arc, almost c.xclusi\.c~l\~ c.onccrne(l \\.it11 thesc interior

Successive rebuildings resulted primarily in a proliferation i n th(. numtrar o ~ roonls and a thickening of walls (Fig. 3.10a). The north rncl of'the la%(. courtvarcI t)(.comc.s

'

di\idetI into a series of rooms distinguishcrl by the construction two sul;stantial \s-alls pcrPendicular t o the colonnaded wall. Thcse new structures continue to habitation activities indicated by the presence of interior ovens, drains, wall-lamp at least one kitchen area. In contrast the third rebuilding, I V , c , represents significant arc.hitrc.tural functional changes for this complex of structures. and, During Period IVlc major new structures are constructctl north o f thc colonnadc(1 \\.all. These elongated rectangular structures would have completely obscured the colonnadccl \,.all from view at the time of their habitation. Moreover, structures on both sidcs of' thc. colonnaded wall n o longer appear concerned with habitation acti\.itics. Thcsc. new structurcbs are generally lacking the interior features which characterized the ~ ~ r c v i o oncs, us and in one instance a room contained an unusual quantity of alabaster bowls and bronze points. Stairwavs located in some structures indicate the presence of an upper store,\, o r at least reflect the importance of having access to o r from the roof. The previous colonnaded wall continuetl t o bc used but many of the structures south of it were filled with fired brick in the construction of a large platform which was made accessible by a series of stainvavs added onto thc oltl entrance. Five metres behind and parallel t o the old wall a new colonnaded wall \vas built. The construction of a new and taller colonnaded wall must have added significantl\- to the o\,erall terraced effect of Mound A. The platform had received several coatings of \t.hitc and,'or red plaster. A wall trench had been excavated for the foundation of this new wall (it cut through IV,a-,) and then filled with large stones after construction of the \\-all. Structures located south of this new wall w-ere no longer haphazardly arranged but were organized along a grid pattern with varying sized rooms (Fig. 3.10a). These rooms n.ere extremelv small and \.oicl of any internal features. Wall remnants indicate that the \valls \vere never verv high and it is cloul>tfulthat they w e r e used as habitations. The floors of these units had been verv carcfullv hllc~land levelled. Unfortunately this last rebuilding \vas hea\-ilv eroded making it difficult t o assvmble an overall plan. West of Mound A, Mounds Band D produced remains of an enclosing \$-allconipletc \\-ith "l~.;tions" (Figs 3 . l o b , 3.1 l a , b ) . These structures \\.ere erected directly on 1-irgin soil and collsisted of t\vo thick parallel \valls of fired brick resting on foundations of stone and clav. Iclucncyof stair~.a\:sassociated \$-it11these rooms indicate that access to either the roof o r an ~ \ ) p c \ i - stor\. was of some importance. Tn-o completely separate examples of such enclosing II-JI Is \Yere defined \\.est of Mound A . The nearest, and most extensivelv excavated example, is a l > o u t 100 nl a\+-ay\~.hilesecond example \\-as 150 n~awav parallel t o the first. Both e x a n ~ ~ ~ l e s 11 ('1-c constructed north-south and \\-ere orientated in the same cardinal directions as the "palace" and the terrace 11-allsof Mound .4. Thc \\.all nearest Mound .4 11 tllc \valls 11.11

(%

\\ J 5

located on a natural elevation significantl\. higher than the second \\.all \vhich \I-ould contributc,d grcatlv to the o\.el-all twraced, o r stcpl)ed, profile that the entire settlement 110\\- assuming.

Fig. 3.1 l(a): Mundigak D , Bastion ant1 adjacent s t r u c t u r e s , I V ,

Fig. 3.1 l (b): Muntligak G , I'lan and

arctlon

of tc.n~pl(,,IV , .

enclosing wall which presumably extencls westward until it joins th(. most wcst(.rn n o r t h - s ~ ~ twall. h Excavations in areas adjacent t o these walls and bastions clisclosed a rnYriacl of the mr,rr typical house-like structures. There was no apparent organization to thc-sr structures othcbr than that dictated by t h e proximity of the large walls. These structures w r r c rharacterize(l hv numerous habitation type features such as interior hearths. In the area of the northwc~stcornc.; bastions several different styles of ovens (oval, circular, rectangular,

and

multichambered) w e r e found suggesting that this might have been an industrial area. In the same area were also several examples of drains. The limited excavations on Mound C , between Mounds A and B, suggest that the area enclosed by these large walls was densrIY occupied. East of Mound A is Mound G and excavations here rcvealed a large monummtal structurr referred t o by Casal as a "temple" (Figs 3.11 b, 3.13b). This structure had an orientation parallel t o that of t h e "palace" and was in a direct west-east line with it. The structure was built mostly o n virgin soil and in a technique similar t o that of the enclosing walls. Unfortunately the southern part of this structure was heavily eroded, but there is no reason t o believe that it differed significantly from that which was excavated. T w o massive parallel external walls formed t h e structure's perimeter. The internal area between these walls was divided into small rooms which were not used for habitation. Massive triangular partial colonnades were constructed from fired brick along the external face of the perimeter walls. Only one construction phase could be determined, and it, like the last rebuilding phase of the ' palace'' demonstrates a high degree of organization. No entrance was located, but it might have been in the eroded south wall. A large rectangular structure with its eastern two-thirds di\.ided into small rooms dominates the centre of the "temple". The western part of this building consists of a large open area o r courtyard. Centrally located at the north end of this courtyard was a large basin considerably elevated above the surrounding living surface. The immediate area was ash covered and located directly behind the basin was a ceramic drain which extended east-west between the main wall and smaller L-shaped wall associated with the interior building. This smaller wall formed the western boundary of a little chamber intcrpreted as representing a shrine complex. In the southeast corner was a large square rectangular masonry structure with white plastered benches. A similar bench was found along t h t cast wall. In the centre of the chamber was a large rectangular hearth ~ a i n t e dred with a sm;ill step on the west side. The rooms t o the east were of various sizes and a few of them had intcrior hearths and other small features. Although there is nothing t o indicate that this \vas a rt,ligious structure it certainly was not a habitation either. Whatever the function it presents an interesting contrast t o the rest of the site. Period IV, demonstrates both continuitjr and change with the preceding Periods at Muncligak. Perhaps the most distinctive change was in the appearance of special function al-c llitecture (Figs 3.12, 3.13). Exactly what this difference means in terms of overall cultural d ~ ~ ~ - c ~ l o premains m e n t t o be determined. Casal maintains that the Period IV, occupation met 11i t l l a violent end resulting in partial abandonment of the site. The scattered examples of hul-i-icd buildings and other evidence cited by Casal as indicating a conflagration, 1

] ~ ~ , \ \ c * vare e r , not convincing, although the "palace" and "temple" d o appear t o have fallen

1 10

J I M G. SHAFFER

Fig. 3.12: Muntligak A , Gcncral v i t , ~ o- f palace, I'criotl I V , into disuse and did n o t regain prominence- again (luring Pcriotl 1V. Contrastinglv, sr\.cral ot t h e structurcs associated w i t h t h e cnclosing walls apbc>art o have IJcrn continuously inhabitctl throughout t h e e n t i r e pc,riod. Indcc~d,given t h e p r o b l e m s c r e a t e d by large a m o u n t s ofcrosion ant1 t h e lack of adequatc stratigraphic data, t h e thrcc-phasc division of this pcriod can be cliallcngcd. Until atltlitional excavations a r c m a d e , t h e divisions will rcmain problcmatic. W h c r c v c r Period IV, Lvas found (mainlv M o u n d H) it was of shallo\v d e p t h and thc s t r u c t u r c s demonstrated continuous occupation f r o m I V , . T h c f c ~ vnc\v s t r u c t u r e s ~\.hich \\,crc located continuctl t o utilize oltl walls inclutling those, ot'thc' c,nclosing walls. Foundations \$-hen present w c r c slight and t h e basic preparation Lvas a simple levelling o f t h c soil. Small soridages awav f r o m t h e enclosing \valls indicatccl that there' \vas somex expansion into previously uninhabited areas. T h e ceramics shocf- a continuation ofprc\pious motifs and 1-csscl forms w i t h s o m c changes and alterations, ant1 metal artifacts clc~monstratc'a m a r k e d f;c~quc~nc\increase. This phase seems t o b e tlistinguishablc m o r e o n t h e basis of ceramics than o n stratigraphic data. Casal proposcs that t h c c'ncl o f l V , \vas c.ausc(l 1 , ~a lx)ssihlc earthquake \\.it11 t h e sitc being al>antloncct f o r a short p c r i o d . Suc,h an earthquake coultl also account for thc c\.iclc'ncc of clcstruc,tion n o t e d a t t h e cntl of l'criotl IV . l'criod I V , is also kno\vn mainly h-om Mountl 13. Kno~1.ns t r u c t u r c ~ sarc' c.oncc'ntratc(1 a]-ound previous \\-alls, hut a ne\\- cnclosing \\-all is c.onstruc.tctl parallel ant1 a little north otthr. oltlcr oncs. T h c ncn- \vall has t h r c c m a j o r 11arallcl \valls. 'The t \ \ . o c x t ( ~ r i o or n e s ha\.c' a small ~-ul,blc-hllctlc o r e t h c r c l ~ \ -forming a single n l a s s i ~ c\\-all. As in tllc, prc\-ious ~,Iiascs,the remaining intr.1-ior space \\.as di\.idctl i n t o small r o o m s uscxl I;)]- I~al,itation. Interior stair\\.a\.s again indicate that access t o an u p p e r store>- o r t h e root' \\.as an i m p o r t a n t as11~c.to f thcsc (I\\-cllings. N o r t h of t h e \\-all is a large o p e n sl)x.c>01' u n k n o n - n f~inc.tion.Most s t ~ - u c ~ t i ~arc rc's

,

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1 12

J I M G . SHAFFER

dzscriht\d as being much more carelessly constructed when compared with the l ~ r ~ ~ ~ ( l g o1,cs but othern.ist, very similar. Again the major distinction for this phase is t o be found in the ceramic artifacts and the disappearance of previous forms and motifs (most notably allimal Structures from this phase have been located on other mounds but these arc usually ShallOwand highly eroded. The single piece of stone sculpture was found in the upper 15 Clil c)'l, d ~ ~ oattributable ~ t s t o Period IV]. This final phase of Period IV did rlot come t o any violcllt end, and the difference between it and Period V again seems based mainly upon ceramic traits and the reoccupation of Mound A by another monumental structure. Up t o this point the Mundigak sequence has basically demonstrated a record of continuous cultural development, albeit beset with sampling and stratigraphic problems. Ho\j,cver, Period V presents many important problems of interpretation affecting the later prehistory of Afghanistan while at the same time offering no hints as t o their solution. Almost all charts and discussions of prehistoric cultural development in Afghanistan terminate with the end of Period 1V3 (e.g. Dales, 1965, 1973: 160) although t h e sequence continues for three mure major periods. The interpretation that a major abandonment occurred after Period I V 3 has been reinforced by the excavations at Said Qala, Deh Morasi, Shahr-i Sokhta and the Quetta valley which failed t o define a sequel t o Mundigak 1V type material. Moreover, this hiatus in cultural development seems t o be contemporary with the development of the Maturc Harappan culture in the Indus valley. T h e apparent absence of any interaction between the Harappan and later prehistoric cultures in Afghanistan is surprising since such contact had been noted for eastern Iran (Lamberg-Karlo\;sky and Tosi, 1973) and Soviet Central Asia (Masson and Sarianidi, 1972: 124-8). Throughout Mundigak IIIklV there was evidence of some cultural interaction \vith the Indus vallcv, and t o further c o n ~ p l i c a t ethe situation therc is a pronounced dissimilaritv between the material culture of Mundigak 1V and V o r , for that matter, bctwecn V and an): other prehistoric culture yet defined in t h e area. Therefore, the culture sequence at Mundigak following Period 1V is extremely problematical. No doubt many of the interpretative problems can bc attributed t o the heavv erosion \vitnesscd by the upper levels of the site in conjunction with what appears t o be disturbed stratigraphv (Casal refers t o the possibilitv of earthquakes, a not uncommon phenomenon in this area). Mound A was reoccupied ant1 utilized for the construction of a large monumental building directly atop remains of Period I V I C(Fig. 3.14). Construction involved the use of fired bricks placed atop a stone foundation. Previous structures w e r e filled in with debris or co\.ci-cd with brick t o form a level surface. T h c old colonnatlcd structures were complctcl! coveretl with bricks in the construction of a large massive platform on the northern part ot'tlic mound. O n the top of this platform were t w o small rooms occupying t h e highest c.lt,vation a t the site. Directly south of these rooms, and at a 1ou.cr clc\.ation, w c r c t w o long and narron. r e c t a n p l a r rooms cncompassing almost the 'ntirc~ c,ast--wcst distance o f t h c n ~ o u n d ' summit. s South of thcsc rooms was another scrics of small rectangular rooms which could hc dividrd into t w o groups: small rooms on the wcst and slightly 1argc.r rooms o n thC east. Indeed, the plan for this southern sector is strikingly similar t o that of thc last rebuilding in IV,'. The, inlmcdiate summit area of the mound was terracc,d and it appcars that the perimeter of this M-holcbuilding complex was defined bv thcsc terrace walls. Unfortunatclv thcsc upper Ic\.cls arc, very heavily eroded preventing a full structural plan from bcinYdclineatcd. Thcre can bc

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* t ( ~ l ) l ) ( ~ ( l1- ~l ~ 1 ~ 1 1 l i (*11e Cardi, 1965). Identification of animal motifs in this early phase has caused consitlcrablc. comparative problems (Mughal, 1970: 301 ) in assessing the Mundigak materials, ant1 the correlation of Mundigak 1 with Anjira-Siah 1-11 (Dales, 1965: 262). However, Mughal (1970: 282-7) and Meadow (1 973: 191) have seriously questioned the validity of the Togau scqucnccb at the type sites. Furthermore, these sherds have assumed an importance out of all proportion in relation t o their context at Mundigak. These sherds will not be ascribed their usual importance here because: (I ) they are unique examples ( t w o sherds); ( 2 ) thev are made from a distinct buff paste in an otherwise buff-red paste ceramic assemblage; and, (3) they come from a stratigraphic unit which received onlv limited testing and which might have been mixed with other units. It has been argued (e.g. Fairservis, 1971 : 127) that Period I,5 is ceramicall! difrcrent and therefore stratigraphically distinct from 12-3.This distinction is based upon initial appearance of jar and cup(?) forms and a distinctively different design repertoire incorporating bichrome motifs. Given the small sample of Period IzP3 it seems premature t o rule out the existence of jar o r cup forms in those phases. The argument for a significantl~different design repertoire is simply not convincing on the basis of published data. The predominant motifs in I, \vere all h u n d in the earlier phases. Strikingly newr motifs, including bichromes, are all listed as unique examples and total eleven sherds. Although the total ceramic sample size is unkno~l-n, if one takes into consideration the area excavated for 14-, and sherd counts from comparable material (Shaffer, 1972, 1974a) the sample size must have been into the thousands. Therefore, how does one weight the significance of eleven sherds as indicating a ne\v design repertoire, rspecially in view of the continuity demonstrated by other motifs and vessel forms? Such sllcrds are certainly important as ~ o s s i b l eindicators of communication with groups having clifferent ceramic stylistic traditions, o r a locally ~ r o d u c e dvessel \vith a special function , ~ n d / o limited r market, but by themselves are not sufficient indicators of significant cultural cIiangcs. The ceramics of Mundigak 12-, then seem t o represent a single cultural development rlvrnonstrating a limited degree of internal change with a wide range of variation. All discussion of Period I1 ceramics (Fig. 3.16) have centred upon the seemingly abrupt c lrange in the relative percentages of handmade 1,s. \vheelmade pottery. Handmade potter! in 11, increases t o 979, of the total vs. 3O3, for wheelmade. These percentages are in marked ontrast t o those noted for I, above. Casal interpreted this change as representing a phase of lrltural stagnation and every discussion since has done likewise. There are many ~ r o b l e m s \I ith this interpretation of the data. First, what is the sample size? 9 7 , of what? This inlormation is not given. Are the sample sizes from Period I , - , \vith its greatly reduced c,xca\.ation area, and presumedly reduced sample, comparable t o the larger sampling of I'c.riod 11? Data from Period 1,5alrcady indicate that the ratio of handmade vs wheelmade was (

(

1 18

J I M G . SHAFFER

Fig. 3.16: Mundigak, pottery from Period II: (1-4) handmade pottery; (5-7) decorated wheelmadc vessels; ( 8 ) shcrd showing "Kana Ghundai" style.

variable. Second, Casal notes that decorated wheclmade pottery is replaced almost entirely by crude handmade undecorated pottery. Therefore, do these fi-equency variations reflect a shift in ceramic technology o r a change in the relative frequency of undecoratetl cJs decorated pottery? Ifthe latter is the case then such variation might be related t o shifts in areal functional activities as is partially suggested by the architecture. Thcsc handmade ceramics are \cry similar on Casal's description and my examination t o Said Qala Coarse (Fairst.1-\.is, 1956; I>uprcc, 1963) and Quctta Slate Tempcr (Fairscrvis, 1956), pottery types which are known to persist into a Mundigak 1V context. At Said Qala (Shaffer, 1972) it was demonstrated that thcsc types were very consistcmt in vcsscl form (similar t o ones at Mundigak) but that their I-clativc frcqucncy Huctuatetl significantly within any givcn occupation horizon (Shafl'er, 1972: 2 5 1--2). Similar fluctuation can bc found in Period 11 where by 11, hantlmadc pottery has a frcqucncy of only 6?;,,. Morcovc,r, continuity in architecture ant1 other a r t i f a c t - t y 1 ~ ~ ,

inclu(ling an increased frequency in metal and luxury objrcts, hardly rc.flects cultural &'stagnation". Therefore, the changed frequency of handmade vr wheclmaclc pclttery may reflect important cultural factors but it does not indicate a well defined cultural change from period I and certainly not a period of cultural "stagnationm o r < ' devolution". ~ l pottery l in Period I1 was manufactured from a buff-red paste, however, the handmade pottery had coarse tempering materials (chaff and/or crushed rock) added. Among the handmade pottery the predominant vessel forms are the simple angular-walled bowls, and a large, wide-mouthed straight-sided jar with a pinched rim (Fig. 3.16 nos 1-21 which appears for the first time in 11, and continues through Period IV. A shallow flat bottomed bowl with vertical walls (Fig. 3.16 no. 3) appears in ]I2, and another bowl with sharply incurving walls (Fig. 3.16 no. 4 ) appears in ]I3. Both these handmade vessel forms continue though Period IV. A single example of a handmade pedestal vessel was found in this period. Casal mentions that a few handmade examples were decorated but the overwhelming majority were undecorated. Both decorated and undecorated examples of wheelmade pottery were found, and by 11, the frequency of wheelmade pottery had reached 4%. The most common vessel forms were the angular-walled bowls and the globular collared jars recorded for Period 1. Ring bases were common on bowls and a single pedestalled vessel was found. Decoration was found mainly on bowls whose surface had been treated with a thin white o r buff coloured wash. Motifs were confined by black geometrics the most common of which included: festoons below the rim (found in I&; undulating horizontal lines interspaced with horizontal lines (Fig. 3.16 no. 6) (frequent in II11~3); and, an undulating line bordered by a lower horizontal line and filled with hatches (Fig. 3.16 no. 5) (also frequent in later periods). A unique sherd with a motif having a straight line with opposing ~ e r p e n d i c u l a rlines at opposite ends (Fig. 3.16 no. 7) was found in I13. This particular motif became increasingly popular in later periods. A single buff paste sherd with a "grey slipped" exterior (burned?) and light red interior n.as found in 11,. It was decorated with a brown motif of parallel horizontal lines bordering a ~ ) a i c Icharacterized by a central undulating line offset on both sides by opposing hatch marks (big. 3.16 no. 8). This sherd, like the eleven unique sherds from Period I, is significantlv tliff'erent from t h e rest of the ceramics. Casal notes its strong resemblance to pottery from Pc.riod I1 at Rana-ghundai (Ross 1946; Fairservis 1959) in northern Baluchistan. However, the 1ic.rd is even m o r e similar (Mughal, 1970: 302) t o De Cardi's (1965: 133) "loop-and-tassel" I-\. Iiom

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Fig. 3.22: Muntligak,

I\

heclmatlc and tlecoratctl pottcrv from Pcriotl I V ,

li)rms, m o t i b , a new red paste and the clisappcarancc. c)I'(>uettaWar(.. ~ ~ti,(. whc.(.lmaclr ~ ~ 1x)ttc-r~a "Uc red paste increases in frequency at the rxpcnse the prcvic)ur l)uil-r(.clpastr. This transistion in ceramic paste colours is probably n.latrcl t o thr n(.w types large ,,vc.nr ("kilns") also associated with Period I V . The red past(, pottery is cyharactc.rirrcl t,! an increasing utilization of a red slip decorated with distinctive, but rc.latccl, t)lac.k nlotifi. Thcarcis aIx) an incrcased frequency and variety of limitecl o r special function potttmry. Period l V , Handmade Pottery. Casal comments that this bccomcs rarcb during I'criorl I V . However, my examination of Mundigak pottery at the Kabul Museum indicatc.d that it \\.as still present in some frequency. M o r e o w r , Casal's frcqurncv chart ( 1 961 : Fig. 48) inclicatc-s that the major jar vessel form which characterized this pottc-ry in carlicr periods maintain(-cl the same frequency level as at the end of Period 111. Thcsc factors, in the abscnc.c. 01' bettc-r data, suggest that handmade pottery continued to be manufactured, albchit at a retluc.c.(l frequency (less than I%?), and utilized as utility vcssels. Period 1 V , Wheelmade Pottery, Undecorated. Besides the introduction of red paste this pottc.rv underwent significant vessel form changes. It is important to note that thesc vessc.l form changes are equally as applicable t o wheelmade decorated pottery. A major change occurs among bowl forms in that the previous angular-wall form is essentially replaced bv thc Sshaped wall form encountered first in Ill,.,. Recorded for the first time in 1V is a simple hemispherical form which increases in frequencv, and more rarelv a sharply carinatthd form. Except for a large relatively straight sided variety jar forms are almost exclusivclv globular n.ith collars having straight o r everted lips. Beakers are now predominantly manufacturcd with an S-shaped wall profile. Some of the smaller beakers ma\. have pedestal bases with flaring o r carinated walls. Period 1 V, Wheelmade Pottery, Decorated. The most striking feature of this pottery was the signficant frequency increase of stemmed goblets (Fig. 3.24) nrith incurving sidcs (first identified in IIIJ in IV, and its equally significant decrease in IV2-3.These vessels \vcre decorated with an extremely high frequency of zoomorphic motifs which are themsel\.es a significant addition t o the Mundigak motif repertoire. Horned caprids (ibex?), felines, birds and fish were depicted in a solid o r hatched style in a \vide horizontal band. Equally frequent \\-eresolid o r hatched floral motifs, especially the pipal leaf. Geometric motif combinations of parallel zigzag and tight undulating lines executed diagonally \vere also recorded on these 1,essels. A related vessel form which had the same frequency pattern as the above form is a short stemmed goblet with an S-shaped wall sometimes marked bv a sharp carination. This form is usuaIly decorated with geometrics particularly a band of ~ a r a l l e lzigzag lines. Another important change is the decreased frequency of Quetta Ware in IV, (Fig. 3.26) and its total absence from IV2-3.Those examples which are found lack the characteristic solid geometric motifs so common previously. Even the linear style of Quetta Ware lacks the usual geometric elements such as stepped triangles, crosses, etc. Motifs on the few examples found are mostly curvilinear o r quasi-floral (termed bucranium bv some). Interestingly a certain degree of stylistic similarity can be distilled bet\reen the previous Quetta style and the motif combinations found on the remaining decorated pottery of IV. The remaining decorated pottery of Period IV, especiallv IV, demonstrates a generic continuity with that in previous periods (Figs 3.22, 3.2 3, 3.2 5). There is a detinite tendcnc!

,

lltiIizc ,I mor-cxopaque‘ \\.hitc or- cr-cam colourcd \vash and thc nlotiti arc ~ > r c t I o n l i ~ ~ ~ ~ l , I,lac.k. In gcnc,r-aI thcr-c is a much gr-catrr-usc of hatching t o fill-in largc opcn archascliminatin' g somr of the m o r r "oprnncss of thc prcccding period. T h r r r is a much greater usagr par-dIt,l ziqzaq lincs 130th h o ~ - i z o n t a land l ~ \.crtically. Tightly undulating lines are uscd as frc,r motifs in place, ot'simple solid lincs, and also as a sort of hatching. New geometric motils arc limited and include circles \\.ithin circ.lcs and more rarely i n t c r s ~ c t i n gcircles. The prcviuusly 9 1

L

L

IYig.3.24: M u n ~ l i ~ a \kr,h r r l ~ n a d rand clrcoratc(1 pottcrv l'ro~riPrriod I \ ' ,

.

~ ) ~ c \ n t i o n ranimal (l an(l plant m o t i h a r e signihc ant a l l i t i o ~1,111 t h c aninral motil'r arc, liih-vqucnt in I\., and disappear b \ 1 . Plant motit's, rsl,c.ciall\ t h r p i l ~ a l lt,al. c o n t i n u c I Irroughout tlIc perio(-l in c l e ~ r r a s i n i ~ - r ~ u c n cSolid \. g c o n i r t r i c l l ~ o t i i s31.1. ral-c .11r(I UIUIII\ ontined t o b e a k e r s .

,,

T h e l a t e r phases, IV, a r c ciisti~,guinht.(lh~ a n incrrasing q u a n t i t \ ot rcd rlipl~c*(l rccl \ \ ~lc~col-atct] \\.it], /,lack nlotif's. These motit's a r e n o t raclicall\~dill.c>rrnt i r o m thosc alr-c,.r(l\. ~ ~ . c o r d rand c l \\auld if anything appeal- t o h e g c n c r i c t o t h r pre\,ious o n c s . P r r h a l v one. 0 1 t h e 1 i o r C d i s t i l l g ~ i s h i l ls~ t of this d e c o r a t r d l > o t t c r \ is its c o ~ - ~ l a t i\I oith ~ sII.~IIo\\ l ~ c ~ l n i s ~ > l l cho\\.ls l - i ~ ~\\-ith l cvrl-tcd r i m s and a s h a l l o \ \ sharpl\-angular \I-aIIc(I !)()\\I (Fig. 3 . 30.

nos 2 , 3,. rIlc co-\-al-iancc I,ct\vccw this black- r c ~ lslippcd r c d 1vat-c ant1 Q u e t t a Ware llas nc.\-cl.I-c.cci\-edatlcquatc attcntioll, hut it is intcl-csting t o n o t c that in the samc phases ot'thcl o s l - intrrcsting l>ossiblc intrusi\.c ] ~ o t t r l . i r sa r c c o l-c.gi011s t o tIlc sout l i ~ ~ a s t .

Fig. 3.25: M u ~ l ~ l i g a \\II('c'II~~'I(I(' k, d l l ( l O ( ' ~ ~ o ~ . a t ( '1)0t1~1.\. (l 11.0111

l'('l-io(l I \ ' ,

PCI.IOL/I I . . I l ' h c L - l ~ ~ ~port^^:, l ~ ~ ~.c I I I ~ ~ [ I XoIr~ L\ r-~ c . ~ l ~ / I - ~ I I~ II ~O I I . Tlli3 c , ~ t c ' g o ~ - \ot ~ ) o t t c ~ - \ , o~itinilc\clt o inclic,atc. t h r l , o s \ i h i l i t \ o f i ~ l t c ~ - a < t i oi)ct\\-c>c.n n h!l~ll(ligdl\ all(l i - c * ~ i o l l h10 111~. , , , ~ ~ t h c , a s~~, c.) l - t I , c ~ -HaIuc.llistd~r n ancl the. I n ( l i ~ r\ a l l r \ . 1 l 1 - 0 1 g I o 1 tl o I \hrlxl\ LOLII(I I I 1 I I oI t i c s I (t i 3.27. 3 . 32 ) . ~,II.\ \ 1111 c,rtcsc1 1.i11l ( L . ' I ~ ~ >1 '~) (.3 ? : c ~ ~ , l l l l l ) l c 01' ~ \ a lc>l.gc> c l ' c ~ l - i ( ) ( l I \ - , 11,1[]

ti

132

JIhf G . S H A F F E H

Fig. 3.27: Mundigak, special function and/or intrusive pottcry, Pcriotl 1V2: (1-5) Faiz Mohanimad stjle; (6- 9 ) Amri and Kot Diji stvle; ( 1 C k 1 3 ) Hichromc st!.lc.

Fig. 75, no. 249) similar t o potterv found at Kot Diji. Twforim sherds from ~ : l i a appear t to bc S-shaped bcakers kvith a sharply carinated double-rim and fish scale motif (I 961 : Fig. 83, nos 306, 306a) are very different from anything else found at Mundigak, but similar in style and d \trarcs form t o Aniri and Kot I l i j i potteries. Sevcral cxamplcs o f t h e Faiz M o l i a m ~ ~ i cPainted \ \ . c ~ -also c found in I V , ? . Also located in I V , was a rctl ant1 black bicliromc potterv which \\-as similar in manufacture ant1 style t o the potterv definitclv indigenous t o Mundigak. Faiz Moharnmad Painted potter), was also found in Pcriod I V , as was a complctc vcsscl (Fig. 3.32, n o . 3) of Quctta W e t type potter\ (fountl in Raluchistan and the lndus \ ~ ~ l l cinva IXV-Harappanrontcxt). Also fountl in IV ( 1 961 : Fig. 120, n o . 485) \vas an isolated example of a ~ ~ i llcaf ~ a lmotif cxccutctl in black \\it11 red infilling similar t o the Sothi Warcs of t h r central

ln(lus \,allc.v at Kalil)angan (scbc.M u g h a l , 1970: 3 1 3 8 IOr 1hi5 ,in(l ott1c.r c o n ~ p a r i s c , n s , .'l'ht.rc. J1.ca150 c.xatiil~lc'soI'an i n t c r s c - c t i n k c.irclc. n~otil'infillc-el \\ it11 hate I , i l l g ( ( ' ~ 3 ~ 1 19hl , : I.ig. 1 0 3 , 496) \~.liic,liis \,c.r\. s i m i l a r t o late. Anir-i ancl Kot I )ijiarb c (-1-anlie4. It i h c l ( . n ~I-r o l n tI~(.\c. s I , c ~ i h cc x a n i l ~ l r s .a n ( ] o t h t - r s , t h a t (luririg I'cl-iod I V , , nt Mun(lipik c o111111ur1ie.1t101-1i\it11 ~ ~ l ~ ~ h iasn dt athe. n 111cIus \.all(*\ \\.ah taking I,lac,c-. The. ceramics f r o m Pcriocl V arc. c.xtrcnic.l\. I)r.ol)lc.matica ] . 'Thi5 \ituatic,ri is

I ) ~ l . t i . ~ l l \c l i ~ c '

tlisturl,ecl nature of t h e clcposits atid a m o r c limitccl sample six(,. t l o w t ~ v c r ,tile. I)asit. l ~ ~ ~ l ~ l isc lth,lt l l most of l'c.riotl V cc~ramic~s arcxsignificantly cliffc'rcnt f r o m those, t;)untl in I I \ (big. 3 . 3 3 ) . True, s o m c continuity c,xists in that t h e ])otter), is a ~ - c > t \varc l tlrcorat(,(l \t'itll I,l,lck \.iolc,t o n a r c ~ 1slip ant1 s o m c \~c~sscl forms pcbrsist ( c ~ s l ~ c c i a ltlhy c h c m i s l > h c r i ~ ~I,(,\,.l al \\.it11 c.\.crtc(I lip ant1 some3 jar t h r m s ) . O n t h e o t h e r hantl t h c r c is a l ~ r o n o u n c ~ crcbsurgcbnc(b tl (,I. Ilan(]nlatlc. p o t t e r y couplctl u.ith a cliffcrc-nt stvlistic tradition of tlccoration, ant1 nc,\r \rc.sa(tl t;)rms. Ilnlikc, prc,\.ious fluctuations in hantltnatlc ~>ottc\ry( I Ill) which \vct-c confinc)tl to ill(. c.~,ll-sctc.ml>c'l-c'clutilitarian \.c~ssc,ls(also persisting in V ) hantlmatlc ~ ~ o t t c in ~ r I'c,rio(l y V lla(l lic\f. \.c,sscl forms, black o n I-cd slipped tlccoration, and \\as matlc f r o m a finer pastc.. ~t is tlifficult t o c\.aIuatc t h c significance of this change, since, n o relative frcqucncy clata is a\.aiIaI,l(.. Most of t h e li;uitlmatlc cc\ramics apl>car t o Ilc bowls, but not all bowls wc,rc hantlmatlc. O\.c.rall, rcgartIlcss of mruiufacturing nicthotl, t h c s c n e w forms bvcrc t1ccpc.r ant1 mol-c cur\.ilincar, Among t h e \.arious \-at-ictics thrc,c basic Iwwl f o r m s can b c tlcfincbtl: ( I ) sinlplc Iic.misPhc~-icnl;( 2 ) a f o r m w i t h t h e 1owc.r three,-quartcrs ]wing a straight-angular wall \\-it11a slight con\-c.x c u ~ - v cc,ntling ~ in an S-shapctl, straight o r incut-1-inglip; a n d , ( 3 ) a m o r c globular I>o\\-l\\.it11 an S-shaped profile. Simple circ,ular 11antllc.s a r c a c o m m o n f'caturc o n many \-c)sscls pal-tic.ularl\. the last \.cssrl f o r m ( 3 ) . In contrast jar \.csscl f o r m s , b o t h tlcc,oratc,tl ant1 ~rntlccol-atvtl,, arc. prc,tlominantl\. \\.hc.c.lmatlc. Hoth collared ant1 uncollarc.tl globular jars \r.crc t o the,

Fig. 3.3 1 : M u n d i g a k ,

\\

h ( ~ r l r n a t l cant1 ~ tlcc oratc*tl pottctry f r o m Pc.1-iotl IV

,.

Fig. 3.32: Mundipk, special function andjor intrusi\-c stvlr pottery from Period I\',: \(\

( 1 - 2 ) Qucatta Ic; ( 3 ) Qurtta "Wet" ware stylc; (4) Faiz Mohammad stylc; ( 5 6 )Late Amri stvlc; ( 7 )Bic.hrornc.

~\~~~IC. lound with cither evcrted o r simplc rims. Judging from the illustrations jars appcar t o 111~)inlv largc in size and sometimes manufactured \r.ith spouts. Thc almost completely geometric black o r violet motifs arc excbcuted on a red slip which 01) some examples is cxtremelv thin being almost a \\,ash. A fc\v highly . stvlized . "stick" figure' /oomorphic motifs u.erc found, and, m o r e rarely, a horizontal fricze of horns. T h e ba.sic 6lcc.oration stvlc is highly conventionalized, consisting of a single horizontal band of crossh

c

b

Fig. 3 . 3 3 :

Mutltlig,1l\: t l t , ~ . t ) l - , ~ r c p . to l t t t > ~ -tr-om \ I't,t.iotl

\.

3.

T H E LATER IJHF.HISTORIancls, and dividing t h e vessel surface into panels, a r e a s r r i r s of %,lid o r multiplr-linrfl i s o s c c l ~ striangles o r , m o r e rarely, diamond motifs. Sornctimc.~these clcmrnts a r c joinrrl at the t o p by a festooned band. Thcsc motif combinations are found on hoth bowls and jars. However, o n jar forms a m o r e simple pattern of cross-hatchrrl triangles can br founcl as well as cordons emphasizing t h e motifs. T h e ceramics o f Period V a r c not only distinct from those of' previous at Muncligak but also from those located in any immediately surroun(1ing region. Unlike previous pcrio(l5 Period V [lid not have any intrusive o r special funtion ceramics. T h e interactions with Raluchistan and t h e lndus valley recorded earlier appcar to cease with Pcriocl V . T h c r c arc., however, some stylistic comparisons with o t h e r regions which can bc made which provi(le a comparative c o n t e x t for this interesting and problcmatical pc.riot1.

Lithic Artfacts Artifacts which will be discusscd here a r e artifacts which because of the nature of the c t c . ) , stone of manufacture (semi-precious intlicate a non-utilitarian function will bc (11. 144).

those which have a utilitarian function. Those objcct procluced (beads, amulets, small vc.sscls, o r precious), and c o m p a r a t i v c l ~small quantit\. discussctl untlcr Small Miscc~llancousArtifact5

Rccordetl in all occupational periods at Mundigak \vcrc rectangular milling stoncs ant1 ahsociated rectangular t o ()\,a1 handstoncs (Fig. 3.37b). Milling stoncs \verc manufacturctl I;.om a medium t o coarse grain basaltic boulder. They had a singlc Icvrl Lvorking surface ( o r :.o~ica\~e depending upon dcgrcc of use) sometimtxswith o n e raiscd e n d . Many of thcsc stoncs ha(1 their un\vorked surface smoothed bv water action. Hantlstoncs wcrc manufacturctl from a mc.tlium to fine grain basaltic cobble and had grinding scars on o n c o r both surfaces. Hcsitlcs tl~c>sc milling and handstones some crude mortars and I ~ e s t l e w s c r c idc~~tificcl for Pcriocj I (Fig. 3 . 3 7 ~ ) Anothcr . typc of groundstone artifact found in I'eriods 1;--111, \\,as a f~crforate-d,large \\.liitc limestone eight". Stc)ni>s with a long axis groove appc%arin 111, ant1 increase ignificantlv in rcmaining occupations ( "counter-\vcights9'?) (Figs 3 . 3 4 , n o . 5 ) . 1-argc tr-;11xzoidal hovs rctouchctl for hafting and lia\.ing a polish resulting from use n . c r r loc.atcd 11-omthe cntl of Pcriotl I until t h c hnal occupation. Beginning in Pc*riotlI 4 and pcrsisting throughout the entire scqucncc at Mundigak is a t\.pcx 01' knifc-scrapc~rnianufacturcd from large cortex flakcs (Fig. 3.34, nos 1L2). Thest, flakcs II c.rc, usuall\. r c t o u c l ~ c dalong o n e edgc and \vt7rc occasionall! l~olishcdthrough usage. Flint a~.tithctsappcar for t h e first timc, in Pcriotl 11, in t h c form of blatlcs ant1 points. Initiall\ t h c - 5 ~ I)IJ(ICS a r c large anti h a \ c trianqular (11) (Fig. 3 . 3 4 , n o . 3 and trapczoitlal (111) (Fig. 3 . 3 1 , n o . -1.) (,I-oss-scctiolis,but arc. vcr\, rarc. Howc\,cr, in Pcriocl 111 , microlithic ( 2 5 e m ) bladcs a r c ~~rtro(luc.ccl in cluantit,. and a r c locatcd throughout the rcmaining pcriods of occupation. Hitiic-iall\. Hakcd lancc,olatc Hint pointh \\.c,re tound first in Pcriotl I l , and continue throughout 1 s c . c l ~ a i c c(Fig. 3 . 34, nos S 10 ) . T\\o t\.pc*sarc distinguislial~lcon the basis of size, l a r p ,111cI small, \\-it11sc\.c.~-aI c.sarnl,lc~~ ot ( . s t ~ - c m clarge l ~ Ix)intsIlocatctl in Ill,. In Pc~riotlIV a new

140

J lhl G . S H A F F E K

t\p' ()t'Ix'int is introduced \vhich is triangular w i t h a rounded base and persists through Period 1 . 3.34, I 1 1 3 ) . It is i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e that points of all types a r e found in $om,. Period 1V is also distinguished by several c.xamples o f a small concave si(lcd c\.lindrical ohjccts \ ~ . i t h central perforation, and Q u e t t a W a r e style g e o m e t r i c motifs cngra\-cd o n t h e i r sides (Fig. 3 . 3 4 , nos. 6-7). T h e s e objects a r e manufactured from alabastrr and o t h e r hard stones. A f e ~ vpicces of u n w o r k e d galena a r e also found in Period IV, but their p u r p s c is u n k n o ~ v n .

Fig. 3.34: Mundigak, miscellaneous objccts: (1-2) retouched flakes; (3-4) chert blades; (5) grooved stone; (67 ) engravrd stone objects; (8-10) chert points, Periods I -VI; ( I 1 1 3) chrrt points, Periods 111,VI; (14) bone point; ( 1 5-17) conical ceramic spindles; (18- 19) disc-shaped ccramic and stonc spindles.

Bone Artfacts Bone artifacts are limited in variety and are located in frequency only in Pericnls l 111. C a u l (1961 : 230) maintains that the distribution of bone artifacts, particularly pc)intrd objects, c . o varies with increased utilization of bronze points. The most numerous bone artifacts arc hundreds of pointed awl o r punch fragments (Fig. 3.34, no. 14). Thesr awls, o r punches, were manufactured from the long bones of various animals (shcep/gc)ati) and were polished from use. The first example is recorded in Period I reaches its greatest frequency of cornplctc examples in 113(881, progressively declines throughout III and becomes rare bv IV. Another bone artifact found only in Period I (three examples) was a small polished rectangular piece of bone with several perforations whose function is unknown. Bone spatulas are frquently fount1 in Period 111 and, unlike the awls o r punches, is encountered throughout Period IV. Rare examples of bone tubes were also found in Periods III-IV.

Metal Artfacts Metal artifacts w e r e first found in Period I 2 and increase in frequency and variety throughout the sequence. The earliest example was a flat blade like instrument which might have had a hafting tang (Fig. 3.35, no. 10). However, the most frequent metal artifact of the entire ~ u n d i g a ksequence was a simple type of bronze point o r punch with a circular cross-section (Fig. 3.35, no. 1 1 ). It was first identified in I, and is so easily available that it replaces the bone awllpunch in Period IV. A single example of this pointjpunch was found in Period IV3 still hafted into a bone handle confirming its functional designation as a punch. The first example of a true projectile point was identified in Period 113 being lanceolate in shape with an elliptical cross-section and the type became increasingly frequent in later periods. (Fig. 3.35, nos 12-1 3). In Period 111 a tanged lozenge shaped point was introduced, and in Period IV a tanged o\al shaped point. O t h e r possible weapons found in Period IV were a large lance head (Fig. 3.35, no. 16) and knife (sword) (Fig. 3.36, no. 14), but these artifact types were very rare. The first examples of "luxury" typemetal artifacts were located in Period 11,. These t w o artifacts were pins one with a double-volute end while the other had a flattened and perforated end (Fig. 3.36, nos 6-7). Similar pins with flat ends and t\\-isted shafts were also tound in Period 111 (Fig. 3.36, no. 8). However, the greatest number and variety of "luxurv" t \ p e objects was found in Period IV,. Among such objects identified were: concave discs (mirrors) (Fig. 3.36, no. 13); double-volute, lozenge, and broad-flat headed pins (Fig. 3.36, nos 18-20): handles for discs (mirrors); and a buckle. It is important t o note that in at least t \ \ o instances smelted (?) Iron decorative buttons were found on objects in Period IV. Frequently encountered utilitarian objects in Period III-IV were small curved knives o r uckles (Fig. 3.36, nos 1-2) and chisels, and, only in Period IV, a few barbed hooks. Three Important metal artifacts located in Period 111, u-ere the only examples of socket-hole axes I t1j.o) and an adze (Figs 3.36, nos 3-5; 3.38a). Most of the more common utilitarian and 'luxury" metal artifacts were also identified in Period V. Elemental anal\.sis of some of these artifacts indicated some interesting aspects of the mr.tallurgical sophistication represented by these objects. Analysis of one artifact from Period

14-

--

I1

.,I

13

Fig. 3.35:

I 2 ) stone, Ilo\\.ls 01' common ti)l-IN.I'cI-iotls 1 \'I; ( 1 C)) aclclirion.ll I01.1ns01 h t o n c \.cssc.1. I'c,~.iotlI \ ' ; ( I 0 I I \ cx)ppc,r 01. I ) ~ O I I Y , ~ > o h j ~ ~ , tl'c,~.io(l s, I ; I.?\ I)I.oII/~\ l ) o i ~ l tl'c-~.iocl , Ill; ( 1 3 ) / ) I - O I I Y V l > o i l ~ tl'c,rio(l , I\;, ( 14 I 5 ) l ) r o ~ l ~poi11t5, c~ l ) ~ ~ . i e ) e \'; l \ 10) l)ro~l/,c.I,IIIL.~> l~c,.~cl, l ' c ~ ~ . i oI \~' . l Illuntlig,lk:

(

Fig. 3.36: M i ~ n d i ~ mctal ~ k , ol)jcc.ts: ( I 2 ) l>ro11n,sicklc l>ladc>s;( 3 5 ) hronzc a s c s and adz(*, Prriod 111; ((>. 7) I ) ~ O I I W p i ~ ~ l'crio(1 s, 11; ( S ) I>rol~zcp i 1 1 , I'criod I l l ; (9 1 2 ) bronze ~ I I I S Period , I\'; ( I 3 ) l w o 1 1 ~ c ~ n i r r o r ,Pcrioti IV; (14)

I ) ~ O I I X S~IOI-t s \ ~ , o r d( ? ) , l ' c ~ ~ . i o ( IV. i

I , clc~riionstratctIthat it was a vc'ry low-ti11 bronze. Ti11ac~coii~itctl for only dl,out Ilk,, ir(),, 0. I 5(j0 anti tllc. rc.n~ainingmatcrial was cqol)pc.r.Such a cornl)osition is a striking c30ritrastto ,lie. hig]) tin contc,nt ol'thc chronologically c~arlic.rmate-rial loc.atc(l at G h a r - i - M a r . (Il'thc*artilbc,ts suI,jc~ctcdt o ' ~ n a l ~ sI'rom i s t'criotl Ill only t h e a x r s ant1 aclxc hat1 a composition al)proac.hing llldl ilsually associatc.tl with I~ronzc*. Thcsc artifacts hat1 a tin c o n t c n t ol' almost 5'%,, the, higllcahr rc.c,ordccl at Muntligak. This contrasts with t h c composition of'othcsr artifacts l'rom this ~ ) ( s ~ . i ~ ~ ( l which is similar t o that of'Pcriotl I. Axcs ant1 atlzcs rcly o n webight, l'orcc ant1 hartlnc.ss Ii)r c.fkc.i(-ncy as a tool. Such characteristics a r c maximixc~tlby a high tin c o n t c n t . O t h e r itc,ms such as points, pins o r knives have. diffcrcnt usages requiring clif'fc~rcntcharacteristics an(l this is rcflccstctl in their lower tin c o n t c n t . Thcrc4'orc, by Pcriotl 111 t h c diff'crcntial charactc*ristic-s 01' various alloying compositions had been rc.cognizctl ant1 metallurgy was entering, o r ha(] cntcrctl, into a new of' sophistication ant1 presumably spccialixation. Iluring Pcriotl 1V t h e tin c o n t c n t of such itcms as pins inc.rcascs slightly (I .5'%,) ant1 traces of lcatl (1.6(%,)an(] o t h c r elements a r c found.

Spindle W h o r l s . During Pcriocls l4 11 t w o typcs of ceramic spintllc whorls w c r c 1i)untl. Thc

most frcqucnt typc was a c o n e shapc (Fig. 3 . 3 4 , n o . 1 5) ant1 t h e o t h c r was a truncatrtl C O I I ~ shalw (Fig. 3 . 3 4 , nos 16- 17). Hoth typcs had a central pcrf'oration. In Pcriotl Ill l,oth ol'thc-scs conical typcs tlccrcasc in frequency ant1 From Ill5- V thcy a r c rcplacctl by c e r a m i c ant1 stor~c. (stc>atitc)tlisc shapctl whorls (Fig. 3.34, nos 1 8 19). Stone Vc,s.scl,s.T h c prctlominant typc of stone vcsscl is t h e simple I ~ o w w l i t h straight-angular walls manufacturctl from alabaster (Figs. 3 . 3 5, nos 1 2 ; 3.36a). It was first rccordctl in I], incrcasccl in frcqucmcy in Ill,, ancl was locatctl in cbvcn greater quantity (luring I'criotl IV. T h c r c was also (luring Pcriotl IV a significant incrc,asc in t h e varic-ty o f vcsscl forms (Fig. 3.3 5 , nos 3 9) inc.lutling: small bcakcrs with straight ant1 carinatctl sitlcs; bowls with curving sitlrs; ~ ~ ( l c s t howls/goI~lcts; al bowls w i t h short vcrtical sides; pcntagonal canisters, ant1 stc.mmctl gohlcts. Many examples w c r c li)untl with gc.omc,tric m o t i t i similar t o that f;)untl on the, pottc-ry c.ngravc)tl on t h e si(lcs. W h i t o vc,inc~tlmarhlc. was also u s c ~ in l t h e manufacture ofthcsc latcr varictic-s. Bcuds-PcnJonts. O n l y a limitc~clnuml3c.r ol'bcatls w c r c fi)untl in I'criotls I I 11. Most o f thc shapcbs itlcntifictl I;)r thcsr c,arly pcxriotls will pc,rsist throughout the, scc1uc.nc.c ant1 inc*lutlrtl: simple t1isc.s; tubular; trapc~zoitlal; cylintlrical; biconical; ant1 Iozcmgc*. T h c matc*rial ol' r-nanulbcturc. inclutlccl the, f;)llowing typos 01' stones: various tyl)c,s 01' siliceous white. limc-stone,; shrll; lapis lazuli (3); jatlc* (?); blue stone, (turcluoisc~?);I>lack o r gt-csy stoneb (stc,atitc?); c.a~-nclian( 2 ) ; quartzite; ant1 pottc,ry. I'c,riotl Ill witnc~ssc~tl a significant quantitativeincrcasc, in such beatls half'of' which w r r c in assoc,iation with the, I,urials o f I'c.riotl Ill,, ant1 most o f the- re*maining cxample~swc-re, also locate-(1 in a Ill, provcbnanc~c*. I'rc-tlon~inantlythe I,c*a(ls of this pcriocl wereB manulacturc*cl troni stcatitcs ( I I ) , cluartzitc- (I 3), silicc~ous lirncbstonc, ant1 a fkw o f lapis lazuli (4). The- most prolific I , c , ~ - i o ( l fi)r I-)catls was IV, ant1 1)articularly I V , . Hc,sitlc*salrc-atly-(,xisting shapc,s tht*li)llowing ncawon(-swc.rcs i(l(,ntilic'(l:small I,iconic,al, rnultilbcctctl bicx)nical, (sight-point star, truncatctl con(-, I-c*c,tangular wit11

Fig. 3.37: Mundigak: (a) alabaster bowls; (b) stone saddle querns; (c) pestles

and mortars.

Fig. 3.38: Mundigak, objects ofcoppa or bronze: (a) axes and a& of bmnsc; copprr or bmue knife with bone handle.

elliptical

cross-section, oval with star cross-section, and irregular. Among materials of ~ ~ ~ a n u f a c tsignificant ure quantitative increases could be determined for lapis lazuli, carnelian and shell. Inlaid beads occur for the first time, represented by a single rcctangular carnelian bead with a figure 8 in white. Bronze beads are also encountercd for the first time in the form o f a simple tube and one small bell with an iron ball in the centre. Similar beads (except lapis lazuli) can be identified for Period V but in less quantities. Seals (Fig. 3.40a1 b). A single example of a compartmented seal with geometric motifs made from steatite was found in Period ]I2. Such seals underwent a dramatic frequency increase in 111, (30) although infrequently found in t h e earlier phases of that period (Ill4 = 2, Ills = 3). The majority of these seals w e r e rectangular with t w o central perforations. Identical seals made from bone w e r e also found in 1115(1) and Ill6 (3). Yet another significant increase in seals occurs in Period IV which is also distinguished by the introduction several new- geometric shapes of seals. T h e most noticeable addition is of notched edges encompassing the seal circumference. Metal seals w e r e found in the last phases of Period IV but were rare, and one had a zoomorphic motif. Only a single comparmented seal was identified as belonging t o Period V. Ceramic Figurines (Fig. 3.39). Only four figurines of humped bulls were found in Period I ) 5 . Casal states that such figurines increase in frequency during Period I1 but no quantification is given. A single example of an anthropomorphic figurine was found in Period 11. This is a crudely modelled human torso of indeterminate sex. Both zoomorphic and anthropomorphic figurines are numerously represented in Period 111. Bull figurines are particularly numerous in the early phases of this period (IllI = 71) but then,progressively decline in the later phases (111, = 30). Also found in Ill1 were t w o figurines resembling goats. A similar increase can be defined for the anthropomorphic figurines. Unfortunately, Casal gives no actual counts but refers t o their frequency as being abundant (HII = 15). These figurines w e r e predominantly females with prominent breasts. All figurines are highly stylized in a standing position. Arms are represented by m e r e wing-like projections while the lower portions are distinguished by broad flat hips. T h e body below the hips was not modelled at all. A single figurine had some punctated motifs in the neck region which presumably represented a necklace. Period IV was the final occurrence of figurines in any significant quantity. T w o important points need t o be made about Period IV figurines. First, considering the horizontal area of excavations in contrast t o that of prcvious periods the quantity of figurincs seems very small. It appears that such figurines w e r e actually less frequently made than in earlier periods. Second, according t o available information, these figurines w e r e conspicuously absent from both the " palace" and "temple" structurcs. Figurines w e r e confinetl t o the habitation areas surrounding the cnclosure walls, o r in the same contexts as they wcre located in thc previous periods. Most zoomorphic figurines w e r e highly stylized representations of the humpcd bull/cow. Scveral wcre found with painted decorations, including polychrome, o r an applique collar. A few figurincs represent caprids such as shcep/goat o r ibex and a singlc figurine of a pig. Anthropomorphic figurines w e r e predominantly female. A notable exception is a scuptured in the round male figurine decorated with polvchrome paint. Most female figurines arc highly stylized with pinched faces, prominrnt brcasts, appliquc c . ~ r . s , winged arms, broad hips, and otherwise a rather flat profile. AppliquC and paintctl necklaces

Fig.

3.40(a): Mundigak, stonc. b u t t o n sctals

-

Fig. 3.40(b): Mundigak, c-oly)c.r h u t t o n sc.al5.

Fig. 3.40(c): Mundigak, Hratl

of \r h ~ t cl~mcstonc,P(,rlotl I \ 3 .

ant1 coiffures a r c rc,cordcd o n man\- cxamplcs. All figurines arc. standing \\-it11 o n c c.xc c*ption \\-hich has its legs crossed and e x t e n d e d o u t in front apparcntl\ t o act as a 4uppo1-t. -1-n-o\ - c r \ . ~ I I Ccxamplcs o f fcmalc figurinc.~modt,llcd in t h e rountl in a stvlc' usuall\. rc*krrctl t o as " % h o b 1 ' figurines \ \ - e r r located in Pcriotl IV. O n l y t h c u p p e r t o r s o \\.as f;)un(l I ~ u t< u c h f ~ g u r i n c arc, s usually rlepictcd as seated Ivhcn found at o t h e r sites. In contrast t o Pc,riocl I\: o n l \ . a singlc fcmalc figurint, \vas found in Period V .

Faunal and Floral Remains I)omesticatc~danimals \verc idcntificd initiall\. in Period I and included: sheep, g o a t , cattle‘, ass, h o r s c and d o g . Wild animals \ $ e r r r c p r e s r r ~ t r db y : gazcllc, ibex and I\-nx. P c r i c d I1 hat1 t11c same c o m p l t ~ xo f domesticated and n-ild animals \f.ith t h c addition of a \\-ilcl bircl of prcl\. h l o r c i m p o r t a n t , t h c first cercdl remains idcntihctl at Muntligak c o m e f r o m this pel-iod ant1 they includctl clomcsticatcd \vhcat (7rrtlcurn cornpac-turn). T h c faunal rcmains in latclr p c r i o d s i~rc.luclct h e same animals but n o plant rcmains identifccl for t h e l a t e r periotls, it is I ~ o \ \ . ( \ \ . cc,lcalr that th(, in11abil.ants o f Mundigak \I-crcxc>xploiting domcsticatcd plants and ~ l ~ i m a fl rso m t h e initial o c c u p ~ t i o nof t h e s i t c .

Said Qala Tepe Saitl Qala T c l ~ cis - located a p l ~ r o x i m a t c l v60 miles southeast ot Muntligak n e a r Kandahar C:it\-. 'I'his sitc is not c-ornl~arahlc t o Mundigak i n t e r m s of its aI>solutr size ( S m ofcltt\atic)n ant1 200

m in cliamc~tc~r), arc,al c x t c n t 01' cxcavat ions (t\vo 10 m scluarcs and a 6 X 2 nl sonrlagcb), c.xtclisivc%nc-ss o f t h c cultural scclucnc.c- (all occupations corrcbsl~ontlt o Muntligak I l l 5 1 ~ ~l)llt) . the c,xc.avations at Said QaI'i utilized n i o r c carc'fuI ~ i i c t h o ( l ol'art s ifbct rc'tricval an(! c~ml)hasize.(l i i v allaIjsis of tliosc artitacts t o a m u c h g r e a t e r clegrcr than t h e Moncligak c.xc.a\fations. T h e site was first tcbstc(l I,Y Fairsc,rvis (1 9 5 2 ) , Iiowc.vc>r, t h e major cxc.avations \r.c.1-cbconductctl by tlic a u t h o r almost 20 y e w s latcbr (Sliaffc.r, 1971 , 1972); this c l i s c ~ ~ s s i ~ ) ~ (liffc%rsI ' r ~ l i i~,rc,vious r-c>l~ortso n these. cxcavatiolls, principally in that ~>rc,viousl-c>l,()rts rctainctl t h e fic,ltl tlcsignations 1;)r m a j o r oc.c.upations w h i c h wereb numbcrctl (1-oln tol) to I ~ o t t o r n ,\vlicrcas hcrc. m a j o r occupations wlill I)e nuni1)crc~tlhorn t h c I)ottom to rcllcct thC site sc~c~uc'nc.c.. T1irc.c~C- 14 clatcs anel four yebarso f hilitlsight have, also signiticantlv altc~rc~tl my original i n t c r p r c t a t i o n .

Stratigraphy and Architecture T h e initial occupation a t t h r site,, 1'c.riocl I, is k n o w n only I'rom t h c Io\vcst 3 m oI'tlcl,osits in t h e sontlagc. (Fig. 3 . 4 1 ) . T h c s c tlcl)osits arc, chal-actcrizc~elI l v scvcral lajc,rs ant1 1cnsc.s 01' t l i h r c n t i a l soil clcl,ositions which can b e tlistinguislictl o n t h e hasis of ditYcrc1it colours, t c x t u r c s an(] cultural csontcnt. Although tlifii,rcnt thcsc tlc,positions intlicatc, contiliuous occul)ation t h r o u g h o u t this pcriotl, and analysis of t h c associate artifacts atltls validity to gl-ouping thvsc tlcposits i n t o a singlc o c c u l ~ a t i o n .The, litnitc(1 arcal c x t c n t of t h c sontlagc. prc~clutlc~s any clc~finitivcstatc,mcnts I ~ c i n gmatlc about architectural c~harac~tc~ristics 01' this ~)c-rio(l.H o w e v e r , it tlocs appear that siml>lc rectangular struc.tu~.cs o f mutl bric.k ~.c,rc, constructc(1. I'c>l-iotl II is likcwiscx 111-imarily k n o w n only f r o m t h e sontlagc, although a final ocr,i~l,ation,il ~ ~ l i a Mias s c tlc~lincatc~tl in the' o t h c ~ rexcavations. T h c outstantling f i ~ a t u r cof~ this l)c\riotl \\'as the constl.uction of a large mutl brick wall of u n k n o w n I'ullction. 1'1-c\,ioils(I(-posits 01' I'c%riotlI we]-c, Icvcllctl in prcl>aring t h e arca 1;)r constl-uc.tion 01' t h e wall. 7'hcb \,\,all was c.otistr~lc.tc(l c . n t i ~ - ( ,oI ~ f m u t l I ~ r i c kant1 clay till. AAcr Ic~vcllinga vc%ry\t.itle ~va11( 3 . 3 In atitl cstimatctl 111' t o 6 m ) was c~onstructc~(l ofsolicl mutl brick 111,t o a hc,igIit of 80 c n i . At this hc~iglitt\vo seb~>,i1-.ltc' \\.all faces \vc'rc' c o ~ ~ s t r i ~ c tof c (m I u d hrick ( 1 . 5 m t h i c k ) u p t o a Ilc~iglitol'at Ic,ast 3 m. The area I>c,twecn tlic~sct w o walls was f llctl w i t h untlitfc~t-c%ntiatc(l c.lay 1'1-c,cof any c.ultu~-altlcl,l-is. O n l y t h e south fac,c, ol'this wall was rcc~ovc~rctl in t h e c,xcavations anti t h c ~ r cis 1 1 0 ilitlic~ationas t o its tltnction o r ovcrall shalx,. Scvc,ral layers ant1 Ic,nsc-s 01' tlift'c~rcntiatc.tl (.lay soils al)ut against t h c south l'ac,c-,an(] t h e rc,lnains oi' at Ic,ast o n e tnucl I>ric,ks t ~ - u c ~ t ucan ~ - cI>c clc~tc~~-minc~tl. 1'11csc~ (Ic~l>osits a r c t1ic.n sc*alcel IIY a sigliitic,ant a m o u n t 01' wall fall 1'1-omthis wall ~,t-o\,itlinga stratigl-aphic.I)ountlary I)c>twc.cnI'c-riotls I1 ant1 111. Atltlitional st]-uc.turc~s I'roln this pel-iotI \vcSrc Ioc.atc.(l i l l tlic otlic.r c'xcavatc(l area. T w o Ial-gcb t1-al)c\zoitlalmutl I)]-ic,ks t r u c ~ t u r c ~\vitll s Iatc~ral cntralic~cswc.1-c, sc~l>aratc~tl I>y a large, o p e n sl,ac,c, I'roni sc,~-ic,sof' sniall ~-c~c~tangul,l~room s t r u c t u r c ~ s(Fig. 3 . 4 2 ) . TIicsc~small r o o m s hat1 sc~vc~~-al cx)rnmon \I-alls ant1 a r,itlic*r I i ~ ~ ) h a ~ a l - ( l a l - r a ~ i g c ~ i i c ~Th(, n t . Inost tlistinc~tivcIi.aturc Ioc.atc(l in tIi(~sc~ r o o m s \rcis a la]-gc, ~-cc~tangulalintc-I-iol-ovc\li c.olist~-uctc(lFI-om niu(l I)]-ic.ksant1 al>uttc~tl against the. \\-,ill. 'l'l~isI;~,itir~-c~ lititl a n intest-ior clay-linctl t i r c l ~ i t\vith a long narro\v trc,nch 111-ovitling ~lc,c.csst o the, intc-I-iol-fire-l~it I'rom outsi(l(b the, o\,c>n.Suc,h a 11-cwch might lia\:c, lunctionctl as a I>c~llo\\,s I)l-o\'i(litigoxvgc3li10

+

+

Burned O r o m Clay

Ash

Grey Clay

I

Floor

2

Fig. 1.4 1:

Saitl Oala, ( a ) cxanlplc 01' 2rchitc.c-turc, I'criod Q u c t t ~1)Iac.k.on-I>ut't' slicrtl).

' ' I I I I c . ~ ~styI(*''

I l l ; ( h ) oven from ahovc struc.turr (note*

1 54 tllc'

JIM G . SHAFFEK

fil-(\. Jutlqincr fi-om tlic stratigraphic position ol'thcsc, structurcs they must represent a final b L

oc-c.ulxtional phase of Pcriotl 11. The hnal major prehistoric occupation at the site, Period 111, was locatetl in l>oth cxcal-ation units. In the sondage it consisted of a series of differentiatetl cleposits sandwic,hct] I>ct\\.ct,n the bvall fall and a depositional layer which contained Kushano-Sasanian pottery and correlated \q.ith the large cemetery of that period located in the other excavations (Shaffer Hoffman, 1971 ; n . d . ) . Excavations outside of the sondagc indicated that at least four phases of occupation could be determined for this period (IIIA-D). T h e first three phases reprcsentetl continuous building and rebuilding of small rectangular mud brick structures similar to those found at Mundigak 111 (Fig. 3.43). Walls were constructed with both single and double coursed mud brick and onlv rarelv w e r e entrances definable. Several structures had interior ovens similar t o those found at Mundigak while others only had a simple clay-lined firepit. A single structure in IIIA had t w o milling stone fragments set into the floor with a centrally located groove on the upper edge. Between these t w o stones w e r e extensive ash and bone deposits suggesting that it represents a spit-roast. In IIIC some of these structures had their ~ . a l l founded s in a trench with the first few wall courses being headers with the remaining ~ v a l l constructet-l of stretchers. The final occupation, IIID, was represented by a series of small mud brick and p ~ s l .structures which appeared t o function as storage bins o r work areas but were not related to any habitation structurcs. Also located in this final phase were several extremely large rubbish pits. The areas of the site tested w e r e not occupied after this period until utilization as a cemetery by a much later Kushano-Sasanian group. However, it is possible that other areas of the site, o r around the site, continued t o be occupied as the cemetery cuts through a deposition layer that contains extensive prehistoric ceramics but no occupational features. The ceramics from this level have been analysed under the designation of Period IV whilc the cemetery constitutes Period V and the modern surface of the mound Period VI.

Chronology Thrce C-14 dates have been processed from the site, each from a different period. The MASCA corrected dates are: Period I = 2 1 10 B . C . ; Period I1 = 2 160 B . C . ; and, Period 111 = 2 2 3 0 R . C . A possibility of ground water contamination was noted by the processing laboratory making the absolutc dates somebvhat suspect. However, it is important t o note that all t l ~ r c c dates arc basicallv contemporary, i . e . end of the third millennium B . C . Such contemporancity corresponds M ith the tvpc of cultural material recovered which indicates that all occupations at Said Qala are essentially equatable with those of Mundigak Periotl 111, ,IV,.

Ceramics Periocl I ccramics are known only from the sondage. Hcrc, as at Mundigak, the useful tlichotomv of handmade and wheelmacle potteries is made t o facilitate description and analysis. The paste for all thc ccramics at Said QaIa is essentially the same as was cncountcrcd at Muntligak, being a buff-rcd in colour ant1 self- o r sand-tcnipcrcd with a fe\\ noted

c . x ( . c - ~ ) t i oI'M'o ~ i ~ . varicstic's 01'hali(l1lia(l~'j)ottc.rj. (.an I N - clistinguisllc~cl ~ J I I1111. O,ISI\ 01 \ur-(.I(1. tl-caatlnc'nt, a l t h o u g h I)oth hay(* c.liatl' tc.rnpc.ril~gancl tI1c. satlie. \c.ssc,I 1or111s;14 tI~o,c. (11.41riI)c.cI 1;,1- Muritligak h a l l d m a ( l r j ~ o t t c - r y . rnoht Irc.cluc.nt t\.pcb hael a l ) , i s k c ~ t - i l ~ ~ ~ ) ~ ~\ tc~~rsI \. ~ e1 ~ .e c l \ \ . l i i l c * t h r o t h r r M ' ~ Ssiniplt. s m ~ o t h c , ( ll'ogc-11ic.r . thc.sc lianclmatlc. ~)c~ttc.~.ic.s ~ 3 c . ci~ur~tc.cl tor- I ( , \ \ tllan 2",, ol' I'criotl I j ) o t t r r ) . . Whcsc*lmatlc*l>ottc-rv \\.as i(lc.ntic.,~l,in tc.1-rns 01 \;~~-ic,tic., .11rc1 \,('ss~'I f o r m s , to t h a t d e s c r i h c ~ t l 101-Mun(ligak I I I . T l ~ c .clc.cor-atc.(l \aric.tic.\ t~acl a rc.lati\c. ~ ~ r ~ c l u c n c ~ ~ ~ 3'),, o I ' w-ith a I ~ othc, ~ t s a r n r , b u t riiorca l i ~ ~ i i t c *\(~l a, ~ . i c * t \ ~ o I ' r i ~ e011l\ ~ t i l i .r a ~ - c , l\\\ ( . I . I , ,I I ' ~ \rhvl-cls \ o f Q u r t t a W a r r li)uncl. A l i . rhvrcls ~ o t a l)latk-e)n-r;.(l sliI)p(-cll r ~ ) t t c : r \ cajlc.cl , K11cn C;ul M o h a m m a c l a f t e r a t y p e in thct Qucstta v a l l r y (I-airsc,r\ is, 19561, dn(l I-,ii/ M O ~ I , I I ~ I I T I A ~ ~ C;l-c\,\varr ( F i g . 3.46, n o . 1 ) l'rom thcs sanlcn arc.a \\.c.rcs also l o u ~ ~ ( l . I'c.1-iotl I I is kno\t.n f'rom b o t h c x c a \ . a t i o n al-(*as,as arc. all s i ~ l ~ s c ~ ~I u ) cc . r -. i ~ i ~~ ( l 'tr . U a j o r 1 1 x 3

(, ~ l o t t ~ Amonq y. the whcelmade potteries there was little noticeable change. The tIrroratr(] of the total pottery, a frequency which remains varieties now represented about L

rclati\rely constant throughout the rest of thc sequence. The larger sample from the habitation arcs intlicates that most of the motifs clescribctl for Mundigak 111 pottery are present at Said Qala. Quetta Ware reaches a frequency of about 1% which will also remain constant throughout the sequence. Scvcral new types of special function o r intrusive pottery can I,? added t o the tu:o already listed in Period I . These new types (Figs 3.44-3.46) come primarily from the habitation arca and include: Quctta W e t Variants; Kechi Reg white-on-dark slip (Fairscrvis, 1956: 2 57-~9);Kechi Beg Polychrome/Bichrome (1 956: 2 59); Amri Polychrome (C'asal, 1964: 85); Nal black-on-buff (Hargrea\,es, 1929: 35); and a fcw sherds resembling the

Red

0W h ~ t e Block

Buff ( p a s t e )

MOTIFS EXTREMELY VAGUE

Fig. 3.45: Said Qala, intrusirr or special function \herds; ( I ) Amri stylr pol!-chrome; ( 3 ) Amri ( ? ) st!,lc polyc.hromc pot lid.

( 2 ) ~ u m l astylf'

l

'

V

Red

Fig. 3.46: Said Qala, intrusive or special function potterv: ( 1 ) Faiz Moharnrnad red

or black o n

arevware; ( 2 ) Kechi Beg or Gurnla (?) st!.le bichrorne ware.

t?

2

polychromes from Gumla 111 (Dani, 1970-71). Each variety was represented onlv. by, a ver\few sherds. T h e last prehistoric occupations, Periods III-IV, will be discussed together since the t-lctectable changes represent a continuum between the t\s.o. Handmade pottery decreases in the frequency of the crushed rock tempered \,ariety. It is interesting t o note that this latter \.ariety was never identified in the sondage. Among ~vheelmadepotteries vessel form changes occur which parallel those of Mundigak IlI,IV,. Ban-1s change from anplar-\vall to an Sglobular \rith collars. Beakers change from a shaped wall form. Jars are parallel wall t o an S-shaped wall profile. A fe\v stemmed vessel forms are recorded but n v e r the small pedestal-based beaker with flaring o r carinated ivalls that was found in Mundigak I V , . Similar geometric motifs are identifiable on Said Qala Ill-lV and Mundigak Illj-I\-, pottery. Although floral motifs are found on Said Qala pottery zoomorphic motifs \verta completely absent. Likexvisc the Quetta Ware motifs arc more similar t o those identitied in a

Mundigak Ill5 , conrcxt than in l V I . These latter factors argue for a m o r c close correlation I,ct\\.cc,n thc cc,ramics of Said Qala Ill--IV and Mundigak I l l 5 than I V I , but thcse boundaries arc \,cry s i . The only significant addition t o the special function o r intrusive type catc.eory is a sinqle sherd of Nal Polychrome (Fig. 3.44, 110.3). Overall the ceramics at Said QaIa support the ascription of all prehistoric occupations at the site as being contcmporarv

,

\\.it11 thosc of Mundigak 111 ,IV,.

Lithic Artlfocts Thc lithics at Said Q a l a are not verv different from those identified at Mundigak excel,t I)erhal)s in the m o r c limited naturc of the types of artifact found. Milling and handston& similar in all respccts t o thosc at Mundigak w e r e found throughout the sequence. Likewise large cortex flakes with onc o r m o r e retouched edges and demonstrating extensive use as kni1.e~o r scrapers were found in all occupations. It is interesting t o note, however, that these lithic artifacts begin t o co-vary with similarly retouched and utilized pottery sherds in the last occupations (Pel-iocts IIILtlV). Flint artifacts Miere noticeable by their absence. Only a few \j.astc flakes were found in the lower sondage levels and seven blade fragments from the habitation areas (Periods 11-IV). Except for one trapezoidal example they were all triangular in cross-section. All specimens were fragments of whole blades so it is impossible to determine the presence of microblades. T h e complete absence of any flint points is an interesting contrast t o the situation recorded at Mundigak. O t h e r intercsting lithic artifacts found throughout the Said Qala sequence included the ti)llo\ving: a large trapezoidal-triangular hoe (Fig. 3.47) was manufactured from extremely largc cortex flakes of basaltic material. Extensive retouching could be located on all edges but mostly along the base (butt area), and the upper sides where concave t o facilitate hafting.

Fig. 3.47: Said Qala: cxaniplrs o f stonc hoes.

3.

T H E L A T t R P H I - H I S T O R I C 1'tHIOI)S

1 59

()lien thc basal cclge was well polished through use. Although infirqurnt, th(*v.artifacts w(.rt. from all prehistoric periods at the site. Anothrr interesting artifbct locat(.(l onlv in thc habitation areas was a large "cleaver" typcb object mad(. t'rom basaltic roc-ks. 7 ' h c . ~ infrequrnt artifacts were hifacially retouched t o a blunt cutting crushing ellk- ancl w(*r(.not haftrd. Finally, there occurred at Said Qala in the habitation areas s(.vc.ral rxampl(.s (29, of small hammerstones (never greatcr than 10 cm in anv rlimcbnsion) mad(*from lumps otnatural iron ore.

Bone Artfacts Bone artifacts are limited in variety and located in a rather constant frequrncv throughout Periods I-IV. As at Mundigak the most numerous types of artifacts arc. simple point ancl a ~ v l fragments with complete examples being rather rare. A few other types of bonc artifacts arcb noted under various small miscellaneous artifact categories.

Metal Artfacts Bronze artifacts are confined t o the latest prehistoric occupations (end o f Periotl I1 IV) and were located predominantly in the habitation areas. Identifiable functional artifacts inclu(lctl: sickles (Fig. 3.48, nos 1-2), blade fragments ( l ) , a lanceolate o r lozenge tanged point, and a point o r punch with circular cross-section. "Luxury" items in the form of pins were found in Periods 11-IV. Although most examples were fragmentary the following stvles could bc identified: double volute head (Fig. 3.48, no. 5); flattened with forked end (Fig. 3.48, no. 6 ) ; and a simple forked end with twisted haft (Fig. 3.48, no. 4 ) . A single example of a bronze handle (?)fragment with a rounded and perforated distal end was found (Fig. 3.48, no. 3 ). In general the artifacts are very similar t o those found in Mundigak Ill.

Small Miscellaneous Artfacts Spindle u~horls.A truncated cone-shaped ceramic spindle-M-horlwith central perforation \\.as found throughout the prehistoric periods. Rarely, these had an incised o r painted motif. Perhaps somewhat more frequent were simple disc shaped whorls made from pottery o r stone (steatite and m o r e rarely alabaster). Stone Vesselr. Several fragments of straight-angular \valled bo\vls made from alabaster \\.ere lound in the final occupation of Period I1 through t o Period IV. Only t ~ v oI-ariants\\-ere found: one was a small shallow oval b o ~ r made l from M-hitelimestone; and a rectangular vessel leg ( ? ) \\.ith square cross-section also made from limestone. Beads-Pendants. Only a limited number of beads were found and these were only in the habitation areas (11-IV). The only shapes identified were: simple discs; cvlindrical; biconical; and circular. Materials of manufacture included: steatite, alabaster, marble, amber ( I ) , carnelian, rock crystal, lapis lazuli (two examples); and ceramic. Pendants \vert. \.erv rare. Two rectangular pendants were found (alabaster and bone); and one oval \vith serrated et1gt.s made from turquoise.

Fig. 3.48: Said Qala, metal objects: (1-2) bronze sickle blades; ( 3 ) bronze handle; (4-7) bronze pins. Seals. Several examples of compartmented geometric seals w e r e found all within the habitation area. Only three examples were not made from steatite and these were manufactured from bone and a grey-brown silicious stone. All had t w o central perforations and were predominantly 'rectangular o r square. O t h e r shapes identified were: circular, triangular, lozenge and oval. O n e example had deeply serrated edges. Several examples of worked steatite were found which must have represented blanks for the manufacture of such seals. Cerarnlc Flgurlnes. Bull o r cow figurines are found throughout Periods I t o IV with the majority of examples coming from the habitation areas (Fig. 3 . 4 9 , no. 4). These figurines arc similar t o the same types located at Mundigak. O n e fragmentary example is of particular note because of its size. Only the forward half was found but this fragment was 13 c m long and stood 13 c m high and had faint red painted motifs. In its complete form this figurine Lvas approximately four times larger than the usual bull typc. A single example of a possible bird figurine was also found (Fig. 3.49, no. 3).

3.

T H F LATER PREHISTORIC' I'F.RIOI)S

16 1

t x c c p t for o n e questionable examplc from Period I I in the. sondagc. all thcal,thropomorphic figurines w e r e f;)untl in t h c habitation arca. M o r c o ~ ~out r , of t h c twel\c. cqamples all except t h r e e ( t w o : Period IV; one: Period I l l ) wcBrc.absociatcd with thc. final occupation phase determined for Period 11. All examples w r r c f'ragmcntarv ant1 confinc-d t o the lower torso. Even w i t h such a limited sample it is obvious that the Said Qala figurines arc* rnarkcdly dissimilar t o those found at Mundigak. T h e most common figurine tvpc- had thc.

Fig. 3.49: Said Qala, terracotta fiprines: tigurine; (4) Bovines.

( 1 ) Femalr figurines; ( 2 ) Standing h ~ r i n e ;( 3 1 ~ i r d

I()\\

torso stylized as a trapezoidal cone which also functioned as base. O n e example had an incisctl p b i c area. More rarely found w e r e examples of seated figurines with bent legs extentled out t o the front (Fig. 3.49, n o . 1). A single example of a standing figurineine with outstrt,tched arms was also found (Fig. 3.49, no. 2). With the possible exception of the standing example all figurines represented females. These figurines are very similar to those found at Gunlla I1 in northern Baluchistan and Namazga 111 in Soviet Central Asia. c.1-

Faunal and Floral Remains Samples of these remain unanalysed as yet but there is n o reason t o doubt that the occupants of Said Qala were exploiting domesticated sheep, goat and cattle as well as wheat and barley.

Deh Morasi Ghundai Dch Morasi (Duprec, 1963) is located only ten miles southwest of Said Qala. It is only about r Said Qala, and the excavations were very limited. Besides a sondage (6 x 2 m ) half the s i ~ of' thrcc othcr small test pits w're opened but incompletely excavated. Dupree was able to tlcfine four major occupational periods of which Periods I--111 are of major concern here. Like Saitl Qala it is felt here that all the prehistoric occupations are essentially of a single major I>criod. However, Deh Morasi is later than Said Qala and represents a Mundigak IV, type occupation.

Stratigraphy and Architecture The limitctl nature of'the excavations prevented the delineation of any structures, and most stratigraphic observations arc based on artifact content and soil depositional levels. Period I is characterized by laminated silt-clay layers of soil which contained a few artifacts but othcrivisc tlevoid of k a t u r e s . T h e major occupation at Deh Morasi was Period I1 which is dii,itletl into three phases, Ila-c. Dupree ( 1 963: 1 19) originally proposed a "gap" in the oc.cupation of the sitc 1)etwecn Periods I and I1 on the basis of the associated ceramics. IHoivc~vc~r, thc Said Qala excavations have sho\,vn that such a gap is not warranted on the basis of th(. c c r a n ~ i c .antl ~ , stratigraphically the t w o periods are superimposed atop one another. The onlJ. architectural fc,aturc of signihcancc, found in the excavations was recorded in Period Ila. This ivas a sinall (45 x 28 c m ) ~-nudbric.k structure (Fig. 3.50a) trapezoidal in shape with thc fi)llowing artifacts in direct association: ccramic female figurine, copper tube and seal, goat I>onct ant1 horn, utilized magnctitc notlulc (Fig. 3.50b), and pottery. Dupree interprets this st]-uctui-csas a "housc.holtl shrinct" as ivcll it might be. The entire fcaturc was surrounded b ~a . 1"-cparccl clay floor. Morasi 111) \\.as tlistinguishcd by a semicircular mud brick oven associated ~ j i t l ia p~-cl,a~-cd floor antl the only sc,ction of mud brick wall defined at the sitc. Period Ilc \\as rcl)rcscllte(l oi11\. - I>\., a sc'ric's of' succcssii~c~ li\.ing surfaccs and cultural f i l l . Pel-iod 111 \\.as

Fig. 3.50: I k h Morasi Ghunclai: (a) Shrinc cornplcx, Pcriod I ctl as a unit of unstratiti ed niound till t h e major ftxaturt\s o f 11-hic.11\\.crt. t h r e e burials. 1 I o \ \ - ~ \ . c ra11 , t h r e e burials sccln t o he intrusi\-e and of a much latcr datt,. Indct.d, these burial^ .~r.c.a11 similar t o those of t h e Kushano-Sasanian c - c m r t c , r ~found at Said Qala 1I.hic.h \\-ould also .ic.coc~ntfor t h r prcscncc of tht, I-cds l i p l ~ c dp o t t r r \ - found in this l x r i o d . T h e tinal Periotl \\-as a ,c,l-ic\s o f highl\. disturl,ctl tlcl,osits containing Earl\ Islamic G1ai.c.d ~ I o t t c r y and sc)111c 1)1.c.l1isto1-ic. ol,jcc.ts.

Chronology A single C-14 date of 3200 B . C . (corrected for MASCA factor, Dales, 1973: 159) is available for Period Ilb. This single carly date is difficult t o cvaluate without m o r e corroborative data.

Ceramics Period I contained only the crude handmade chaff tempered pottery referred t o as Said Qala Coarse. This pottery was also found at both Mundigak and Said Qala throughout most occupations. Dupree originally interpreted this pottery as representing a chronologically early phase of ccramic technology based on its lack of technological sophistication, but the stratigraphic associations of this type at the other sites indicates that this is no longer tenable. There is no reason t o suppose that Period I is not essentially contemporary with the rest of the occupation periods at Deh Morasi. The prehistoric pottery found in all subsequent occupations at the site is comparable to that identified in Mundigak IVI. W i t h the exception of the Said Qala Coarse pottery it is all wheelmade and a buff-red paste with sand- o r self-temper. Decorated motifs are almost entirely confined t o geornetrics which are very similar in their overall style t o those of Mundigak II15_cIVl. T h e motifs are black and executed either directly on the red surface or on a thin buff-white wash. However, a m o r e definite association with Mundigak IVI is based upon the predominance of bowl and beaker vessel forms. Both bowl and beaker vessel forms were confined primarily t o vessels with S-shaped walls, and some beakers had pedestal bases. Thcse vessel forms had their highest relative frequency during Mundigak IVI. Equally convincing of a Mundigak IV, association is the low relative frequency of Quetta Ware which is confined t o the "linear style" of decoration and a few examples of the curvilinear o r floral (bucranium) style. Comparable Quetta W a r e was not found earlier than Period IVI at Mundigak. In addition, a zoomorphic motif was found on Quetta W a r e in Morasi IIb. Such motifs d o not appear before Mundigak IVI and were completely absent at Said Qala. Unfortunately n o special function o r intrusive types of pottery w e r e located at Deh Morasi.

Lithic Artlfocts Lithic artifacts were few in number and found only in Periods 1-11. Milling stones and pestles were found as were a few examples of stone hoes. Also recorded were examples of stone cclts and retouched flakes. In addition there was the single utilized magnetite nodule found in the " shrine complex" which is comparable t o the iron o r c hammerstones located at Said Qala.

Bone Artlfocts Only a very few bonc artifacts were found in Periods I l l ~ cThese . were the simple punches or awls encountered in the other sequences as well as a similar artifact Duprcc rcfers to as a scrapcr.

Metal Arttfacts All the mctaj artifacts wcrc copper according to 1)uprc.c (1963: 98) an(l wcrc conhnc-cl t o 11c.riods I I a c and IV. Asbociatcd with thc "shrinr complcx" ~ r Ila l ~ ( * r two ( ' Iragmt-nth 0 1 a ( l Ilb c , hollow tube and a hantilc fragmcbnt.Scvcral fragments ol simple* l,ln\ were l O ~ , 3 t ~~n a single fragment of a compartmc.ntcd seal was found in IV.

Small Miscellaneous Artifacts Spindle Whorls. Only disc shapcd spindle whorls were found manut'acturccl from c.cramics and steatite. Stone C'essels. T w o fragnic.nts of simplc angular-wallcd a1abastc.r bowls wfcxrc.t;)und in Period 11. Beads-Pendants. A elongated bonc pcndant and a disc bonc bc~adwcrc Ii)und in I'criotl 11. Seals. Three fragments of compartmentecl scals \t.ith geometric motirs werc founcl. T k v o were made from steatite, Period 11, and one from copper, Pcriod IV. Ceramic Figurines. Zoomorphic figurines werc confi ncd t o a leg fragmcnt in Pcriod Ilb and a bird figurine in 1Ic. The fcmale f i p r i n c found in association with the "shrine complex" of t'criod IIa was a classic example of the "Zhob" style figurine found in a l'c.riod IV context at Mundigak. Another possible "Zhob" figurine was found in Period IV and a fragmcnt of a seated -figurine was located in Ilc

Faunal and Floral Remains The faunal remains from Deh Morasi have never received adequate analysis, although 1)uprcc. reports sheeplgoat and large bovid bones from Period IIa and there is no reason not t o assume that they w e r e not domesticated. More important are the plant rcnlains ~ , h i c hhave been studied by Chowdhurv (Dupree, 1963: 126-31). A brick from the "shrine complex" of Pcriod IIa was found t o contain seed remains of a fodder grass (Aegllopc tauschlr s!m. .1. cquarrosa) related t o wheat, and domesticated six-row barlev (Hordeurn 1 ulgare kar. a j g h a n a ) . It uould seem that the occupants of Deh Morasi were exploiting both domesticated plants and animals from throughout the occupation.

The Helmand-Seistan Sites llrilike the Kandahar region the prehistoric remains identified in the Seistan Basin in .outheastern Afghanistan are known primarily from surface collections. Due t o the nature of the resultant information the discussion for this region must centre almost exclusivel~upon ccramic data. Therefore, the previous format for presenting the data \\.ill be dropped in I v o u r of a more generalized discussion. Sir Aurel Stein (1928) n a s the first t o locate ~)rchistoricremains in this region, and his \vork has been follo\red more recentlv, bv. Fairser1.i~ ( 1961 ), Hammond (1 970) and Dales (1 972). Fairsen is was able t o identify several prehistoric sites located ~ r i n l a r i in l ~the "Southern

1)clta" associatecl \r it11 the Kud-i-Biyaban River. Most sites appear t o rcprrscnt small \illagrs although some are of considerable size such as Shahr-i Sokhta (Tosi, 1969) in Iranian Scistan, O n the basis of surfacr collections only, Fairscrvis (1961 : 97) found a great homogmcity persisting betn.een various sites. This homogeneity led Fairservis t o speculate that thr prt.historic occupation of the Seistan was rather short. O f the many ceramic types definctj b >' F a i r s e r ~ i s for this area t w o are of particular importance here. The first, and most characteristic pottery, is that of Gardan Keg Decorated (1961 : 87-8, 104-1 2). Basically this a buff-red ware with black t o reddish-brown motifs applied directly t o the surface, o r more ral-clv t o a buff slip. In vcssel form and motif stylc this ware is similar t o that found a t Mundigak IIlcIVI, Said Qala 11--IV, and Deh Morasi. T h e second type was that of' "Emir Gray" (1 961 : 86-7, 1 1 1-4). This finely made grey ware with black geometric designs is not found at the sites t o the east. T h e geometric motifs are not much different from that of Garclan Keg Decorated and would appear t o be a local development of this m o r e broadly distributed buff-red ware. Also identified on these sites w e r e examples of Faiz Mohammad Painted Wares and Quetta W e t Wares similar t o those from Mundigak and northern Baluchistan. North of Sri\tan near the city of Farah a singlc site was fountl with a similar black-on-buff t\pe of pottery at Tepe Barangtud (De Cardi, 1950: 56; Fairscrvis, 1952: 3 1 ; 196 1 : 98). Resides the lx)ttcr\ large quantitiesof cuprous slag ( I 961 : 74) was found on the surface of prehistoric sitcs \I hich might indicate that copper was locally available and exploited. Fairserv~s also locatcd a scries of graves at the site of Gardan Keg which bv their ceramics and associatctl metal artifacts suggest a prehistoric aftiliation. More r e c e n t l j Dales (1 972) has attempted additional work in Scistan. Excavations at the sitc of Nadi-i Ali (Sorkh Dagh) failed t o produce any evidence of prehistoric occupation. This sitc, once thought t o ha\.e prehistoric occupations, was apparently occupied initially tlurinq the, Achaemenid Period (sixth t o fourth centuries B . c . ) . T h e last t w o scasons of Dales' \vork in Scistan u.ere spcnt surveying the southcrn areas of Afghan Scistan. From the southwestern corner of Afghanistan, on the Shela Rud, Dales identified some decorated wares and baskctiml>ress"eclpottcry which almost certainly indicates the presence of prehistoric remains in this rclnotc region. T h e surIrey by Hammond ( 1 970) in northeastern Seistan along the Heln~and Kutl locatcd a single site with possible prehistoric occupation near Darweshan. Until further \ ~ . o r kis carrietl o u t , the prehistoric occupations in Afghan Seistan remain vcrv much a problematical factor. Although tc-chnically outsitlc thc modern bountlarv of Afghanistan n o discussion of thc Sc.istan Basin is complctc \vithout some mention of thc cxtrc,mclv important prehistoric sitr ot' Shahr-i Sokhta (Tosi, 1969; Lambcrg-Karlovskv and Tosi, 1973; Hiscionc, 1973; Piperno ant1 Tosi, 1975; Hiscionc ct a ] . , 1974). This huge url>an site has produced a matcrial culturc (k'ctriotls 11~--111) \vhich is so I-emarkablv similar t o that fountl at Mundiqak 111; ,IV,, Said Qala I-I\, Dch Morasi I-IV, and in the Quctta Valley that it has been idcntificcl as I-cprcscnting a "Hcln~antl Ci\.ilization" (Lamberg-Karlovskv and Tosi, 1973: 26). C'c~ramically,thc \-c.sscI t ; ) ~ - n ~motifs s, and stvlr of' exc~.utionarc nearly identical among the above, mc-ntiont.cl sitcs. The, same similarity can bc fount1 in metal artifacts, lithic artifacts, c.cramic. fgurincs, coml~artrnc.ntc(lscxals ant1 architectural fcaturc:~.Thc similarit\. is so I>rono~~nc-c~(l as t o in(lic.atc that cxtcnsi\-c interaction ant1 comnlunication \\as maintainctl bc.t\\-ccn thc,sc sitcs.

Tllr n1c)st cxtcnsive rrmains harr bcrn fiuncl in I1crio(ls 11 111. H(*sicl(.r t h ( . *trikinglV similal- examples of Quetta Ware and t h r more common black-~n-l,uff'~ reel pott(.r!,, smrII(.r of a black-on-grey p o t t y similar to Emir (;ray I'rom Afghan Scirtrn w.(.rta Iocatctl. During Periotl 111 the black-on-buff pottery motifs 1,ccomc so highlv stantlartlize.cl as to br monotonous by their repetition. Also (luring Period Ill t h r black-on-grrv I,ottesrv increases in quantity. Besides pottery, Shahr-i Sokhta 11 111 viclclcel many othcar nonpc.risIlaI)l(. and items such as: objects of wood; basketry; tvxtilcs; ant1 larg(. quar~titic~s of' alabaster, carnelian, chalcedony, lapis lazuli and turquoise, objects. h o t only \vcrcbfinish(.cl artifacts of semi-precious stoncs found, e.g. bcads, but also Lvastc. f1akc.s and tools ot' manufacture, suggesting that the site was a manufacturing ccbntrrIbr such o1,jr~c.t~ ~ , h i c \t,c.rc h exported t o markets elsewhere. Alabaster was available locally as wcrcbprol,al>lv chalcc.elon\, and steatite; carnelian has a variety of sources which might have bcbcn local as could have. 1,c.c.n the jasper drillheads for working such material (Piperno, 1973) . Turquoise is also kno\i.n from several localities in Iran. The lapis lazuli came from Badakhshan Provincc in northeastern Afghanistan, the major, if not the onlv, source for this blue stone throughout th(. I~rehistoric Middle East (Herrmann, 1968; Sarianidi, 1971b) with signilicant quantities being imported into Mesopotamia during Jemdet Nasr times. The Jemdet Nasr context is cspcciallv sealings of this pried \vere found in Period I at Shahr-i Sokhta. intcresting since cla\l , cylinder , It has been suggested that Sharh-i Sokhta acted as a major centrc of manufacture and distribution for lapis lazuli t o the western markets (Tosi, 1969; Lamberg-Karlo\.sky, 1972a; Laniberg-Karlovsky and Tosi, 1973). Kelevant t o the possibility of such an cxtc~nsivctradc in lapis lazuli, is the recent discovery of the Fullol o r Khosh Tcpc Hoard (Fig. 3 . 5 1 ) irom northern Afghanistan (Duprec et a ] . , 1971 ; Tosi and Wardak, 1972 ) . Although thc. cultural contcxt is at present unknow-n and the actual location is somc\t.hat in doubt, except that it comcs from the southwestern border area of Badakhshan, it is cxtremelv important. The hoard consists of a series of gold and silver vessels, both plain and dt.c.orated, \ ~ . i t hniotifs suggcsti1.e of extensi1.e foreign contacts, including geometric niotifs rescmhling those founcl on ~ u c t t aW a r e , a bearded bull resembling Earlv. D~mastic , Mesopotamian motif's, anrl a scrpent and vulture motif similar t o those found at Sialk 111 (castern Iran). \+'hate.\-cr tlic nltimatc. context niav be for this hoard, it indicates tlic far-flung influcncc. that thc lapis lazuli ti-adc niight have brought t o bear on Afghan prehistoric de\-elopments. Examples of a more local product exchange system can also he detincd at Shahr-i Sokhta I 1 111. Excavations at Kud-i-Biyaban 2-30 km south, re\.ealed \\.hat appeared to bc a potters' \-illage with numerous Period II-III ceramics and 50 kilns. PI similar specialized sitc c,sl>lanation has been proposed (Laniberg-Karlovskv and Tosi, 1973 : 27 for the conc.(3ntrationsof copper slag at sites in Afghan Seistan. Kud-i-Hivaban 2 had tu.0 corrcctc.d C-14 tl~~tc~rminations bet\t.ccn 3000 and 2400 B . C . (Meadou., 1973: 198). Siniilar dates come from Shahr-i Sokhta II-III. A series of seven C-14 dates have bracketed the tinir period for t h e w asscm1~la~c.s as being bet\\-cen c-. 2900 and 2200 B . C . (Meado\$., 1973: 20 1 ; Piperno and Tosi, 1975: 1 8 7 ) . Shalir-i Sokhta IV, the final occupation, \$,as dominated by the construction of a largc I,uiltling of 01-er 650 sq. ni. \+'ell it appcars t o bc a complex of t h r w conncctcd I~uiltlingsaround a central court\.ard. O n the \\.cst the construction is strengthcncd by a largc.

Fig. 3.51(a):

Fullol hoard, gold vessels.

Fig. 3.51(b):

Fullol hoard, small silver \cssels.

3.

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169

Fig. 3.51(c): Full01 hoard, silver bo\vls rampart. This large building appears t o have been destroyed b\- fire and the burned skelcton of a young boy gripping a stone pestle \\-as found in o n e rooni. During this pcriod painted potter\almost completely disappears. Vessel shapes a r e distinguished b\. sharp carinations probabl\due t o t h e use of a p o t t e r ' s \\.heel. T h e paste is a buff-red colour and surfaces a r e often slipped o r burnished-techniques absent in pre\.ious periods. Among the limited examples of decorated pottery some parallels may be seen \\.ith the potter\- of late Mundigak IV, 3 .

External Relationships Ha\.ing described t h c prt>historicde\.elopmcntb in sr)uthern Afghanistan it is no\\-ncccssarv t o clclineate \\.hat o t h c r cultures, and areas, \\-ere exerting an iniluence on o r \\.ere being influenced b\. these Afghan developnients. Because of t h e nature of arcliaeological data such relationships a r e difficult t o establish \\.ith an\. hieh degree of certainty. Gcnerallv such t,sternal relationships a r e determined b\- similarities in ceramic industries bet\veen gcograpliicallv disparate sites, o r t h e occasional intrusi\-e sherd \I-hich indicates that sonic form of interaction \\.as taking place. More rarelv such relationships can I>eestablislied bv the idcntitication of ol,jccts nianufacturcd from a material \\.hich had a limited source of origin such ah lapis lazuli o r marine sea shells. Idcntif cation of such objects at sites geographic.all~ tlihtant horn the source areas clearl\ indicatcs that sonic form of dit-cct o r indirect interaction L

bcxt\vVcnthe t w o arcas M.as taking place. Hoth types of relationships will be cliscusscd herc. The cultural and chronological boundaries for these external relationshi]>s will be based on tlic Mundigak scqucnce.

Mundigak: Periods I-II Thcsc t w o periods are combined because: (1 ) the limited and similar data concerning external relationships defined for both periods; (2) the chronological and cultural continuum represented by the t w o periods; (3) although the distinction between Periods I and 11 wcrc useful in understanding the developmental sequence at Mundigak it is doubtful that a similar uscful distinction can be defined for external relationships; and (4) the external relationships defi nable for Periods I-II provides a .significant contrast for those definable in subsequent periods. However, even by combining the evidence from these t w o periods the only significant external relationships appear t o be with t h e cultures of Northern Baluchistan in the Quetta valley. Traditionally, comparativc studies have correlated the KGM 11-IV material (Fig. 3. 52a) with that of Mundigak I-II (Casal, 1961 ; Dales, 1965: Mughal, 1970). Here, however, the correlation is made between Mundigak I-II and only KGM 111-IV. T h e elimination of KGM I1 is based primarily upon the identification of a metal dagger blade in KGM 111, but also on the occurrences of alabaster bowl fragments and ceramic characteristics. KGM IllbIV is distinguished by a black-on-red slipped pottery with a preponderance of thc same triangular motif recorded in Mundigak I,_,. This pottery madc an initial appearance in KGM 11, reached its maximum frequency in KGM 111, and persisted into KGM IV. KGM 111-IV are also characterized by an overwhelming number of handmade ceramics, a situation somebvhat analogous t o Mundigak 1-11. However, this correlation is complicated by Fairservis' (1956) emphasis upon distinguishing aspects of the ceramics from KGM IV and their equation with the Damb Sadaat (hereafter DS) I material (Fig. 3.52a). Fairservis based his argument for the KGM IV-DS (Damb Sadaat) I correlation on thc persistence of similar pottery types at both sites. O t h e r authors (Mughal, 1970: 264-~6)fccl that the frequency of these tvpes is so lo\v in DS 1 t o argue that the DS I assemblage represents a distinct ant1 perhaps significantly later cultural de\.elopment. Moreover, there are significant additions of various new types during DS I which also reinforce its distinctivcncss from KGM IV. It would seem that on thc basis of available evitlcnce that DS I is distinct from KGM IV particularly in the present context. KGM IV is, on the other hand, distinguished by the presence of a ~ o l ~ c h r o r noer, bichrome, type of pottery. This fine wheelmade buff pottery with well executed geometric motifs in ])lack and red, called Kechi Beg Polychrome (Fairservis, 1956: 259), is an e x t r c m e l ~striking and important pottery type. Several of the Kcchi Beg type motifs are similar t o the ones identified on the bichrome sherds located in Mundigak Is. Likewise there is a basic similarity betw:een this material and the bichrome pottery identified at Amri IA--C (Casal, 1964) in the lower Indus valley. T h e decorative style of Kechi Beg is similar t o that of Amri, but is at the same time distinctive in its own right. The possibilities cannot be ruled out that the bichromcs found in Mundigak I 5 might actually be Kechi Reg rathcr than Amri, o r that Kcchi Rcg itself

Fig. 3.52(a): (

C'haractt.ristic a r t i t j e t st\.lc~\ot' t h e Q u c t t a \-allc\-: r 1

K i l ( s

L u l Mohanimatl I an11 11;

7 ) K ~ l cG u l Moharnmatl 111; ( 3 ) l)an~l-,\a(latt I .

Fig. 3.52(b): C ' h ; l ~ - ~ c t -lc t o that c,l Fail h!oliani~iia(l Paintecl in tl1c Q u c t t a \ a l l r \ - ( L a m h c r e !\,11-1o\-*k\and T o s i , 1 9 7 3 : 40). South of Sllahr-i Sokhta, in 11-anianSalucllistan, i* t h c Hanipur L I L C a r d i . 1 9 7 0 ) . T h c small mioullt u t inatrrial 1 - t c o r ~ I 1 - t h r carlic,st i o I 11) inrlicatch sonic p.~rallcl\\\-it11h l u n ~ l i ~ a111 k rnatcl-ial. H o \ \ t - \ r l - . the, saml)lt, is \I) small ant1 tht. I l a r ~ ~ l l cso l s gcncral as t o m a k c all\. i-orrrlation prcmaturc,. Foi-tllrl- \\-t,st at T c p c J.ali\a t h r c c ~ r a m i c ~ colltinut, s t o ilidicatc a rat1it~1u n r c l a t t ~ dC L I I ~ U I - A I

.::I-(.\ .

7

8

9 --

I0

If

-

A

Fig. 3.55(a): Comparison of dccoratrd pottery of Namazga IlI(1-6) anti Mundigak lII(7-12)

Fig. 3.55(b): Comparison of decorated pottery, seals ant1 fgurinrs of Damb Sadatt 11 (1-7, and 1 5- 2 1 ) and Namazga 111 (8-14 and 22-28).

tradition. T h e few limited parallels w h i c h a r e definable a r e in Periods VA and IVC. Pcriod VA witnessetl t h e tlcvt~lopmentof n e w c e r a m i c styles a m o n g w h i c h w e r e a redlblack-on-grey ware and a black-on-cream I-ctl slipped p o t t e r y s o m e w h a t similar t o Hampur 1-11 (Meado\\., 1973: 195) and by a very tenuous analogy t o Mundigak Ill. Period IVC, while equallv distinct, (lid ha\.e a fe\\- m o r e convincing parallels. A small quantity of p o t t e r y f r o m this period hat1 g e o m r t r i c tlcsigns in black o n a r e d , buff o r grey surface similar t o Bampur I 1 111. Some of the black-on-buff potteries w e r e similar t o those of Shahr-i Sokhta I a n d , therefore, also Mundigak 111. Rcttcr parallels may bc seen a m o n g a dccoratctl greyu-are \l.hich is similar to that of Faiz Mohammatl Paintctl p o t t c r v in Haluchistan. This g r c v w a r c becomes increasinglv m o r e frequent in P r r i o d IVH. Anothcr intcrcsting i t e m fountl in IVC was a straight-sidcd bichrome 1x)t resembling those f;)untl at S o h r - D a m b in central Haluchistan and Iwlonging t o t h c Nal stylistic tradition ( D c Cat-tli, 1965). It shoultl also be m c n t i o n c d that a shcrd rcscnihling Amri ID type of pottery was fountl o n t h c s u r f i c e oFTt,pr, Yahva. Period IV at Ya1ij.a can be clatcd t o t h e end of t h e fourth millcnnium n . c . on t h C basis of associatctl artifacts (Proto-Elamite tablets, cvlin(lcr seals, J e m d a t Nasr l ~ o l y c l ~ r o mancl t ~ , l > c \ ~ t ~ l l cr idm bo\vls). Although these is s o m e intlication of limitctl interaction \\.it11 t h e soutlicrn Afghanistan c.ulturcs it clocs not appear t o have I>ec,n cxtcnsivc. T c p c Yahva, \vIiilc impel-tant, sccms t o ha\.(' br>c~io n t h e \\.estern fringe of Muntligak rrxlatctl c u l t u r c . ~ .

In contrast t o the previous periods some very significant similar dcvrlopmrnts can bc. delineated between southern Turkmenistan cultures grouped unrlrr the hearling of Namazga 111 and ~ u n d i g a k111. Indeed, accounting for these similarities is becoming a fcjcal point for explanatory models encompassing this vast area (e.g. Tosi, 1973; Lamberg-Karlovsky ant1 Tosi, 1973). Previously it was thought that Namazga I11 represented a distinct break with the cultural traditions found in Namazga 1-11. However, the most recent evidence indicates a continuity of development with these preceding periods (Masson and Sarianidi, ( 1 972; 75-96). O n the basis of ceramics a division is usually made into a western group, represented by the Kara-depe material, and an eastern group, the Geoksyurian sites. The western Turkmenistan sites are characterized by a brown-on-buff o r red pottery and more rarely a red slipped o r polychrome decorated pottery. The major aspect of these ceramics was utilization of zoomorphic motifs which were absent among ceramics from the eastern sites. Zoomorphic motifs were, however, rare and could occur alone o r in combination wich geometric motifs. Actually the geometric style of decoration is not dissimilar t o that of Quetta W a r e but the presence of zoomorphic motifs has resulted in comparisions with the Hissar and Siyalk sequences of eastern and western Iran. The red slipped pottery and polychromes were limited t o only geometric decorations. Geometric compartmented seals appear for the first time in the Turkmenistan sequence, and there is a significant increase in the use of alabaster for bowls, beads, figurines, and other artifacts. Female figurines were rare but provide an important comparison with the Afghan ones. They are seated with the head having "pinched" features including large eves and noses. Some figurines were found without heads, arms o r breasts: those with heads often had elaborate coiffures. Only rarely were male figurines found. Eastern, o r Geoksyur, sites are usually represented as distinct from western sites and more directly comparable t o the material in Afghanistan. Its major characteristic is a buff pottery with buff-pinkish slip decorated with black and red polychrome geometric motifs (Figs 3.54, 3.55). Zoomorphic motifs are not unknown but are extremely rare and highly stvlized. T h e most common motif was a bright red cross of several different styles surrounded b\ solid geometric elements of black. Motifs are large and usually incorporate most of the decorated surface. These motifs, although distinguished by their polvchrome execution, are strikingly similar t o those found on Quetta Ware. Undecorated red slipped buff pottery and a polished greyware are also found in small quantities. O n e such grev vessel was a stemmed cup \irnilar t o those found at Mundigak and Damb Sadaat. In both eastern and western sites the most common form of decorated vessel was a simple l ~ c m i s ~ h e r i c bowl, al sometimes carinated. A few beakers were also found. In both areas a ( rude handmade utility ware persisted. An interesting contrast t o Mundigak ceramics is that o~ilvduring Namazga III are the first indications of wheelmade pottery identified, a marked contrast t o the high frequency of wheelmade pottery in Afghanistan. in Among the eastern sites were located several examples of burials which were cil-cular tombs constructed of mud brick. Simple pit burials were also located inside the ,t,ttlernent area in contrast t o the tombs which were located away from the main mound (Mundigak Mound C?). The tombs were semi-subterranean with vaulted rooms and multiple l~urials.These were successive burials the remains of previous interments being ~ u s h e dt o one

laced

As the cham1,crs became filled othcrs wcre built superimposed on the earlier oncs. Gra\te goods were present but not very elaborate, usually consisting of a few vessels and ornaments. Female figurines are found in great frequency (300 at Geoksyur I) and are highly stylized (similar figurines occur in Namazga 11). They are all seated with elongated heads, large noses and long necks. Short stubby arms are at the sides and the narrow waist merges into a broad hip area marked by steatopygia. Many have paintcd features and ornaments, and onc even had a baby painted on her stomach with its hands clutching the breasts. Another group of large seated figurines with "bird-like" heads and long necks was manufactured from a finer clay. They have no arms or breasts, and their narrow waists and fat hips taper into long legs. Sometimes the head had an elaborate coiffure. Yet another figurine style had ". . . square shoulders decorated with applied strips of clay o r little round protuberances. Their arms are either held at the side or are folded on the stomach. The torso of one such figurine is decorated with numerous little applied bosses while the breasts are in the shape of animal heads" (Masson and Sarianidi, 1972: 87). The figurines from both eastern and western sites are very similar to those found at Said Qala and Gumla 11-111. The Quetta style pottery, compartmented geometric seals, female figurines, burials and other artifacts certainly argue for some form of regular interaction/communication between Turkmenistan and southern Afghanistan. However, the three available C-14 dates, when corrected (see Dales, 1973: 159), date somewhat earlier than expected. These dates place Namazga 111 between 3500 and 3200 B . C . Unfortunately some have used this very fragmentary chronological information to postulate a priority, o r origin, for Quetta Ware using cultures in the Namazga 111 material (e.g. Tosi, 1973; Biscione, 1973). However, until more C-14 dates are available, and until more information is known about northern Afghanistan such assumptions are premature.

Mundigak : Period IV The continuity and overlap defined between late Period II15_, and IV at the site of Mundigak and Said Qala make it equally difficult t o determine two distinct and separate sets of external relationships for these two periods. Therefore, many of the observations regarding external relationships for Period I11 can also be applied to Period IV, and by analogy Deh Morasi I-IV. Here, as in previous periods, very parallel developments were taking place in the Quetta valley. Mundigak 1V is best compared t o DS 11-111 in the Quetta sequence (Figs 3.52b, 3.53) although DS I also has many characteristics of this period. Perhaps the most convincing correlation is provided by the introduction of zoomorphic motifs in DS 11-111 which are similar t o those at Mundigak. As at Mundigak, DS 111 (Alcock in Fairservis, 1956) Quetta Ware demonstrated a marked decline in the solid geometric elements and an increased usage of simple horizontal lines and bucranium motifs. Overall the ccramics of DS 11-111 are very similar to those of Mundigak IV, and especially IV,, in vessel forms, styles of decoration, and variety of ceramics located. It should be noted that the zoomorphic motifs at both Mundigak and DS 11-111 are similar to the so-called "Kulli" pottery found in southern Raluchistan

particularly the site of Nindowari C a s a l , 1966). Unfortunately, however, the cultural affiliations of this "Kulli" style pottery are very problematic at present. not her important parallel with Mundigak IV, is the presence of architecture. At DS, as at Mundigak, the previous areas of occupation were levcllcd for tht: construction of a large brick platform. Associated with the platform were rough limrstc,nr block stone drains and a bench against the southern wall. There is some evidence that spur walls (3 m thick) connected the platform with lower portions of the mound. The main wall of this $atform was resting upon a small hollow constructed from stones and containing a human. skull minus the lower jaw. In the immediate vicinity of this structure were located eitht female figurines among which some were in the "Zhob" style. Found for the first time in 1)s Ill levels were cattle figurines, one of which had a "yoni" motif painted on its forehead. Other artifacts included: model houses (also found in Mundigak IV, and Said Qala Ill); clay rattles; small metal artifacts; alabaster bowls; compartmented seals; and, beads (lapis lazuli, carnelian and turquoise). DS 111 appears t o be the last major period of prehistoric occupation in the Quetta valley. A single corrected C-14 date of 2652 B . C . is now available for DS 111. At Gumla many of the similarities noted between Gumla I1 and Mundigak 111 could apply equally t o Mundigak IV ,. Certainly some degree of interaction/communication was taking place between these t w o cultures. Although there is similarity in the female figurines found in later Gumla I11 the previous ceramic parallels cease. During Gumla 111 the similarity provided by Quetta W a r e style motifs is absent. In its place is a predominance of blackibrown and red-' on-white motifs applied t o a red slipped pottery. The most distinctive aspect of this decorated pottery is the use of intersecting circles and cross-hatching. Such motifs are extremely rare in southern Afghanistan, and, when identified, appear t o be intrusive. Most bowl and jar \,essel forms recorded at Gumla are likewise not found in Afghanistan and have much more in common with those identified in the Kot Dijian and Amrian potteries of the lndus valley. Of particular note in this respect is the presence of flanged rims (double rims) on manv of the tlecorated jars at Gumla. This form is extremely rare in Afghanistan and would appear intrusive. The existence of interaction/communication b e t ~ v e e nsouthern Afghanistan and the Indus \.alley proper is very limited. Indeed, most of the evidence comes from Mundigak itself and thc identification of infrequent examples of Kot Dijian and Amrian type potteries. At the Intlus valley sites evidence of contact is limited t o the rare identification of lapis lazuli. .41-tifactsat these sites are beginning t o acquire the characteristics commonlv associated \vith thc. cultural designation of ''Harappan" (see Mughal, 1970, 1973). Indeed, the black-on-red hliI~pedpottery found in Mundigak IV2_3is somewhat reminiscent of Harappan potteries in tc.1-rns of vessel forms but not in its decorative stvle. In light of the poor chronological control f i ) ~the - Afghan sites it is impossible t o dismiss o r propose t o \vhat extent these t\vo areas \\.ere interacting. West of Mundigak the major site is Shahr-i Sokhta. Periods 11-Ill at this site are almost iclcntical in material culture t o Mundigak IV. Certainly this site, discussed pre\.iously, rcprescnts a major urban centre for the Mundigak IV type culture. Ho\vever, Period IV at Shahr-i Sokhta cannot be as convincingly correlated \vith devcloprnents at Mundigak although limited motif parallels can be found among later Mundigak IV, potter!. Like\vise the

180

J I M G . SHAFFER

Hampur srqut,ncc of southeastc.rn Iran has numerous parallels with Mundigak IV, *, Shahr-i Sokhta 11 III and its own periods of 111- V ,. These parallels have been summarized by Ijc Car(ji (1970: Table 5). Many of the ceramic characteristics of Shahr-i Sokhta IV can bc also paralleled at Hampur V-VI. Of particular importance here is a black-on-grey canister jar found in Shahr-i Sokhta IV with horizontal friezes of stylized animals and geometric motifs which is strikingly similar t o vessels found in Bampur VI and sites on the Oman Peninsula in the Persian Gulf. Shahr-i Sokhta and Bampur also provide some parallels with late Period IVB at Tepe Yahya. Although many of the ceramics found at Yahya IVB and Shahr-i Sokhta are mutually exclusive an important link between the t w o sites is provided by the black-on-grey ware. These black-on-grey wares are not generally found west of Yahya but have, on the other hand, a very wide distribution t o the east incorporating Baluchistan and south t o the Persian Gulf. This potter\ provides a basic, but tenuous, correlation between Yahya IVB, Shahr-i Sokhta 111-IV, and the southern Afghanistan sites. Also found in Yahya IVB is a great proliferation of incised steatite vessels in various stages of manufacture. Similar steatite vessels have been found in Mesopotamia during Early Dynastic 11-IIIa times. Lamberg-Karlovsky (1 970, 1972a, b) has suggested that Tepe Yahya was a centre for the production of these steatite vessels which were seemingly directly traded with Mesopotamia. Yahya IVB then might have been a production centre for such steatite artifacts in the same manner as has been suggested for Shahr-i Sokhta and lapis lazuli. A similar argument has been proposed for the more western site of Tal-i-Iblis (Caldwell, 1967) with its large quantity of copper and apparent smelting furnaces. In Turkmenistan there must have been considerable interaction/communication between the late Namazga Ill, Geoksyur Period, cultural developments and those represented by Mundigak IV. However, at the end of Namazga 111, the sites of the Tedzen Delta in eastern Turkmenistan were abandoned and, with this, t h e close cultural similarity between these areas ceases. Somewhat comparable material can be identified in Namzga IV sites in central Turkmenistan (Masson and Sarianidi, 1972: 97-1 1 I ) . Both large and small sites have been found during this pcriod several of which are resting directly on virgin soil, a factor which has caused speculation that they were settled by people from the Tedzen area. Ceramically this period is marked by a black-on-red slipped pottery decorated with geometric motifs. Motifs and some vessel forms are similar t o those found at Mundigak IV2-3, but t h e degree of similarity is not nearly as pronounced as in Namazga 111. A light coloured slip is also found at some sites suggesting a continuity with the previous ccramics. A partially burnished grey pottery with incised decorations and sharply carinated vessel forms also occurs in small quantities, particularly in thc westcrn sites. However, n o painted grey wares have been found. Large and small seated female figurines with incised and exciscd patterns were found in Namazga 1V. Figurines with coiffures of plaits falling on the breasts ant1 down the back become common. In the later phases of Namazga 1V a flattened figurine style occurs which becomes lncrcasingly important during Period V. C:ompartmented geometric seals made from stone and clay were also associated with Period IV. Finally, it is interesting t o note that small traces of iron were found amit1 the copper slag at foundries associated with Period IV sites. This

3.

THI- l.AT1-H I ' H I - I ~ I S T O H I C . I ' I - H I O I ~ S

18 1

prcscncr of iron is m o r e intcrrsting w h r n t h r prcssc.nc,c-()l'iron parts ol'c)tht.rwisc hronzc is rccallctl f'rom Mundigak IV. T h r c c corrccteci 1 4 tlates (llales, 1973: 1 59) Namazga IV Iletwc.c.n ( . 2900 2600 H . C . Although t h c close similarity in material culture which had rnarkrcl Namazga I l l and ~ u n d i ~ aIllk IV, disappears in this pcbriod, thcrc. arc- indications that at least limit(-cl interactions w e r e maintained. T h e black-on-red slipped pottcBrybe-ars somcb rcbsc-mb1anc.c.t o that of Mundigak IV2 3 , as d o t h e figurines and compartment(-tl sc.als. I-towc-vcr, it is dif'fic.ult t o evaluate this similarity given t h e chronological problems and lack of data from north(-rn Afghanistan.

c-

Mundigak : Period V There is nothing archaeologically c o m p a r ~ b l et o Mundigak V anvn.hcrc in Afghanistan o r t h c immediately surrounding areas. Resides Mundigak n o other prehistoric sitc. in southern Afghanistan which has been excavated appears t o have been occupied aftcr Pcriod I V . Casal refers t o s o m e parallels w i t h t h e Chust culture of the Fcrgana valley (Uzbekistan) in Soviet Central Asia dating from t h e first millennium B . C . (Masson and Sarianidi, 1972: 1 6 4 - 5 ) . T h c pottery of this early Iron Age culture does have some parallcls with that of Pcriod V at Mundigak. T h e r e a r e also parallels with t h e Yaz I pottery of southcastcrn Turkmenistan (Masson and Sarianidi, 1972: 158-63). This Yaz I pottery, in t u r n , dcmonstratcs similaritic*~ \vith t h e Late Bronze Age pottery of Namazga V1 which includcd grevn.arcs. Indeed, explicit resemblances have been noted (Masson and Sarianidi, 1972: 161 ) bct\rcen Yaz I and Mundigak VI pottery. This later correlation is very interesting since the p o t t e r s of Mundigak V appears t o have m o r e relationships with that of Mundigak V1, associated \\-ith an iron technology, than \vith M u n d i p k IV. Therefore, it is quite possible that Pcriod V ma\ bc assigned t o t h e Early Iron Age r a t h e r than Late Bronze Age. At present this is all quite problematical until furthcr cxcavations a r e conducted at Mundigak o r o t h e r sites in Afghanistan, particularlv in t h e northern areas.

Northern Afghanistan Akchanian Sites .4 series of sites w e r e located near Akcha City in northern Afghanistan by t h e Soviet 4rc hacolngical Mission t o Afghanistan. Unfortunatelv, t o date, onlv a prrliminarv report has h c r n ~ ~ u h l i s h eon d this material (Sarianidi, 1971a). T h e sites \ r e r e designated by t h e name I k s h l i and assigned numbers (1-10). All t h e sites had extensive surface remains. but onlv t\r,o \\-c,rr excavated. T h e follo\ving is a brief summary of available data (Fig. 3.56).

182

J I M G . SHAFFER

Fig. 3.56: I)asl~li sitc ncar

A k c h a City: summar\- of availal,lc. data. ( A f t c . ~Sal-ianicli, 1971a).

Architecture Dosllll I . T h c m a j o r I'catul-c, at this sitc was a large lnutl h r i c k rectangular li)rt ( 1 00 m o n a

siclc and \valls 3G4 m t h i c k ) ant1 associatctl scttlcrncnt . At t h e col-ncl-s and along t h c mitl\\-ails ~ i ' t h fort c \ v r r c lot-atctl circulal- ant1 sc~~nicil-culalt o \ \ c r s . T h i s is o n e of t h e c'al-lic'st cx,lrnl)lcs

of this particular type of fort architecture for this part ol'the worltl. The fort intc-rior was filled with a maze of small rooms lacking any overall planning. A series of small rooms wcre located immediately against the fort walls which might have been drfcnsivc in flnc.tion judging from the large quantity of sling balls fount1 in them. Habitation structures wcrc. plastered with a yellow clay, and were characterized by wall niches and intcrior hearths. Only two major building levels were identified and both appearctl t o be basically contemporary. This association of a fort and settlement was repeated at several other Ilashli sites. At Dashli 1 were found t w o ritual burials of rams. Thesc were complete articulatetl skeletons of adult rams placed in pits and accompanied by several ceramic vessels. Dashli 3. Excavations at this site again revealed a basic site plan consisting of a fort and adjacent settlement area. However, in the centre of the settlement area was located a large circular (36 m in diameter) building. Connected t o , but extending out from, thc outcr circumferencial wall were nine rectangular towers. Two meters away from the outer circular wall an inner circular wall was constructed. The space between the two walls was divided into compartments some of which had access t o the interior area and all had access t o the towers. Only a single external entrance t o the structure was definable. Abutting against the interior wall were a series of small rectangular rooms. In the centre of the enclosure is a large rectangular building. This building was divided into rooms one of which had opposing decorative wall niches while the other walls had large niches with traces of burning. It would appear that this circular building had some sort of special function as yet unknown, but quite ~ o s s i b l yreligious in nature. Cemeteries were found both at the edge of the site and within the structures themselves. Burials on the edge of the site were simple pits covered with bricks. The bodies were flexed and oriented t o t h e north and accompanied only by ceramic vessels. Burials located within the circular building were significantly different. The method of burial was the same but these individuals w e r e accompanied by not only ceramic vessels but also metal pins, mirrors, bracelets, rings and stone vessels. Also located inside the circular building were what are described as tombs which lacked bodies but had a high number of ceramic vessels.

Ceramics The excavators made three major divisions among the ceramics-wheelmade, handmade and greyware. Wheelmade pottery was a light coloured clav (buff?) and had vessel forms which ~ncludedseveral sharpljl carinated pedestal forms. Handmade pottery seems t o have consisted of the common types of general purpose utilitarian pottery encountered throughout the prehistoric period in Afghanistan. A small but important number of vessels were made from a grey paste, manufactured in the form of hemispherical cups and spouted bokvls, and had incised decorations.

Other Arttfacts Lithic artifacts included various sizes and projectile points and blades. A \\-ide variety of metal artifacts were found including: razors, bracelets, mirrors, pins, knives, d a g e r s , serrated

sic.kl(* bla(l(-s, axes ant1 a silvc-r ring. Geometric. c.ompartmc~ntc~tl sc,als \vcs1.ebidc.ntilica(l an(l 01' st()ncb,c,c.ramic and mc,tal materials. T w o stonc, seals w e r e h ~ u n t lwhic.h clcpictc.(l soc)nlorl,hic motifs (a sc.orpion ant1 wingc.tl lion). Ceramic. anti stone, spintllcs and I,unc.]lr.swc,rc, also I;)untl. Heads of'scmi-precious stones w c r c fount1 on t h e surfaco of I)ash]i I along with the, only zoomorphic figurine fragmc~nt.

External Relationships From t h r limitctl amount ofavailahlc clata, it is clifficult t o makc comparisons with o t h c r sitcs. Sarianitli ( 1971 a: 34) thinks that the, Akchanian sitcbs a r c rcl~rcscntativcfor most of northern Al'ghanistan. Howcvcr, t h c samplo size is so small that such conclusions arc, premature.. The only comparable matc,rial from within Akhanistan comes f;om t h e limitccl remains of the "(;oat Cult Ncolithic" fount1 at 1)ara-i-Kur (Iluprc-c, 1972). Moreover, it is postulatccl hcrc that the "Goat Cult Ncolithic" is actually contc%mporarywith t h e Dashli matcrial. The 1"-inla-y point o f comparison is t h e ceremonial burials of tlomc.sticatccl capritls at both sitcts. The, paucity of I-(,mains at Ilara-i-Kur prcvcbnts o t h e r analogies among t h c material cultural remains from being matlc at this timc.. T w o corrcctccl C - 1 4 tlatcs arcbavailable for t h e Ilara-iKur matvrial of' 1880 ant1 2 190 n . c . a r c available. Such clatcs place t h e Dara-i-Kur material n.c-ll within t h e acceptable- range for t h c Late Hronzc Age. M o r c importantly, if t h e Ilara-iKur material wc,rc acc.cptablc as contcml)orary with t h e Ilashli sites, it might well represent a c.ontcblnporarynoma(lic culture- (luring this pcriotl. A slight comparativc rescmblancc can he clisc,carnc*tlI,c~twccn the, Dashli mat(-rial and t h e Hronzc/lron Age remains rccorcled From thc \,ic,initv ol'Tash (Jurghan (Gouin 1972). Howcwcr, until m o r e is rc,portctl about t h e ceramic rc~l~iains, it is impossible t o make any meaningful correlations. Morc, mc.aningful cc,ramic similarities may be scbcn bctwc.cn 1)ashli and northcastc,rn Iran (Sarianitli, 1971 a: 34)---Shah T c p c 11, Turcmg T c p c Ill ant1 T c p c Hissar Ill. Accortling to Sarianitli ( I 971 a: 3 5) cvc-n more- generic relationships can bc clctc~rmincdhctwccan Ilasl~liancl Narnazga VI again on t h e hascs of c:c,ramics. Thcsc c,omparisons appear t o be basc>tl upon similarity in vcsscl forms, particularly pctlc~stalvarieties, arltl t h e prcscncc ol'grc~ywarc~s. That similar vc~ssc~l forms exist can bc rcaclily seen (Masson and Sarianitli, 1972: 137 4 6 ; Hlopina, 1972) hut noticeably al>sc.ncc in thcx Ilashli sitcbs is tho rctl slippctl ant1 polishctl 11ottc-ry li)untl in Turkmenistan. Similaritic.~c3anI,c tlclinctl anlong o t h c r catcgorics of'artithc,ts I>ut givc,n the ovcsrall I,ric,l' ant1 preliminary nature of' t h e ~,uhlishc~(l matc,rial definite correlations arc, tlil'fic*ult.l.ikc~wisc~ cc~ramiccomparisons c3an be matlc, with t h e Late Bronze Age culturc o f ' 'I-imargarlla I I1 in the Swat vallcby of' northcrn Pakistan ( I h n i , 1967, 1974; Stacal, 1 9 6 9 ) . rc-mains from northctrn Afghanistan arc, tlil'ficult t o c~valuatc~ Although the late ~,rc*historie~ an(l c~orrc~latc~ a Ii-\z, important points may clistillc.cl. (I ) Cor-rc~latiorisintlic.atc- that the I Iashli rncltc.riaI ~)l-ol,al)l~ c1atc.s t o tIl(. micl o r last hall'ot'thc- sc,contl millrnnium I{.(..( 2 ) The- c~xistcbncc~ oI'sc'ttlc~lagric.ultu1-a1c.ornmunitic~s,sl~cc-ialI'unc.tion c.cntrc.s (I;)rts), an(l I,astoral nomacls may IN, c1c.l-ilicvl 1;)r this I~cbrio(l.( 3 ) Cultural c.omnlunic.ation pc~rsistc~cl I>c~twc~c~~l northcbastc*rn Iran, sorlthe~1.nTurknic~nistan,n o r t h c ~ ~ Pakistan -n ant1 nc)rthc,rn Afghanistan (luring this Iwrio(l ancl is ~-c%ll(.c.tc~l in tl~c-c,c-l-arnic.s. (4) I)c,sl~itc. similaritic-s in cc-ramic.s ancl othcb~-artif'ac,ts the, I ) e b

Iwcviouslyl ~ r o n o u n c ( ~similaritirs (l in li*mal(-hgurinc-s clisapp(bars. 13cyon(l thc.s(- basic points it is tliflicult t o assc,ss t h e late ~ ) r c h i s t o r i cpcariod in Afghanistan b(.(,ausc ()('thr tr(*mc.nrlousarea] an(l chronologic,al gaps in basic data. Certainly lull pul,lication 01' the- Ilashli mat(-rial will a beginning in t h e (-limination 01' this gap but i t will I,(- only that a btSginning.

Later Afghan Prehistory: A Reflection Wli(,n t h e Afghan material is contrastcxd with available information I;om other arcbas the Oltl Worlcl, t h e very Iimitctl naturc. o f t h e sample size I)c.c:omc.s strikinglv apl>arcunt.Hesi(l(.s tht* ~ u n t l i g a kexcavations, o u r total knowledge about thesc* later p r c ~ h i ~ t o r iPec r i o ( l ~comcbs f'l-orn l i n ~ i t e dtcstings at about a half-dozen sites. Furthcarmore, most o f thcs(. arc. 1c)c.atc.d in southcrn Afghanistan. Evcw a casual revicw o f t h c archac-ological litcraturc. tl(-nlonstratc.s that thc arcba of Afghanistan is th(1 least known rcgion I ~ c t w r c nlntfia ancl thc. Mc(litc.rrancan Sc-a. T h c r c f h r c , any conclusion o r c.xplanation ol' Afhan prc.historv I ~ r c s c n t s t h c archac.ologists w i t h a p r o b l c m . T w o r a t h e r broad basic categories of' problems cmcrgcs l r o m t h c a r c . h a c o l o g ~o f Alkhanistan. T h e first category is concerned with mc.thodological and chronological c,onsiclcrations which a h c t all aspects of prc,historic investigations. T h c sc~contlc a t c g o r ~ c,onsists of those problems relatcd t o spc.cific cultural proccsscs. Sincc. t h e first c.atcgor\ is gvncric t o t h e successful rcsolution of t h e sc.cond it will he discussc-d first. A m a j o r intcrprctativc problcm of Afhan prc.histor~ is th(. almost total lack 01' intornlation (cxccpt f o r L3uprcc's w o r k ) about central and northern Afghanistan. W i t h o u t suc,h information it is impossiblc t o place t h r data from southcrn Afghanistan in a p r o p e r c.uItural pe~rsj)cctivc. M o r e o \ f c r , even t h e data from southern Afghanistan is linlitcd and 1'1-agnicmtary.Mundigak, w i t h all its methodological limitations, remains t h e primary cultural scaclucnw with Said Qala ant1 I l c h Morasi providing important additional scqucntial inli)rmation. Tlicrcfijrc, a basic scqucncc is available but since excavations have addrcsscd ht~.atigraphicand pragmatic thcrt, is n o c o m p l c m t ~ n t a r yinfOrmation concerning sc,ttlcnicnt pattcrns. T h c r c has been n o a t t e m p t (cxcc.l>t for t h e lattrr historic periods in 5c.istan) t o systc~maticallysurvey and test sitcs t o d c t c r m i n c changcxs in sc*ttlcmcntpatterns o r sitc clc.nsitics. A related is a lack o f infbrmation about subsistc.ncc pattcrns and h o w I I ~ A I I aclal>tetl t o t h e c.cological contingcnrirs 01' Afghanistan. T h c r c is, n o grcatc,r

II(>O(I in Alghanistan prchistorv than that f;)r s o m e systematic arcal intbrmation rcgardlcss of t h c . specific region. If an adcquatc understanding of ASghan prchistor). is t o he forthcoming, thcn t h c I x - c ~ v i o ~ u r c h a c . o l o g i c aattitudc l ol' "pick a sitc and dig" must bc rc*placc.d bv h\.stcmatic. areal investigations focused o n intra- an(] intcr-sitc. scttlcmc.nt ant1 sul)sistcncc~ ~ > a t t w n s ( o what r has bccn rcfc~rrcdt o as ' ' palcorcononiv' ' H i g s and Jarman, 1975 ). Aliotlicr vcbr)' pressing I ~ r o l > l c mis t h c nccd Sor manv m o r e ('-14 dates from all pcriotfs. W i t h o u t a nlor(, precisc%r.hronological I ' r a m c ~ o r kit is c x t r c m c l ~tlif'ficult t o addrcss thc. m o r e sl)(*cifir ~ ~ r o b l c mof's cultul-a1 proccsscs. Fulitlamc~ntalt o atltll-cssing t h c morc. sl>ccific~ > r o h l c mol'cultural s ~ > r o c c sis s a sc~~l>ticisn~ AS t o tlic* usc~tulncss01' ''clil'fusion ' ' aa an c~xplanatol-y cc.)nccl>t ( Shaffcbr, 19741)). T o apprcciatc.

and llnclL~l.st,lncl tlic cultural clc~vclopnlcnts\~itnc~ssc,cl in Afghanistan tlicn such clcvclol)~llc~l~ts \.it'\\.c'(l ;IS l~o~siI>Iv rc~si~lting fro111 indigc\nous procc~sscsrather than axiomatically atrl.il>lltingtllc,m t o c,~ltsi(Icintlucnccs (Mesopotamia, Turkmc.nista~i01. the Indus valley). A l)l.illll' ( * x d ~ i ~ lof ~ ltliis c , is the do~ii(~stication of plants ant1 ani~ilals.Not o~il!. docs it no\$. sc,c,m possil>lCto I1\.I)otll~~~iz(~ that an indig(~noi~s process o f d o l l i ~ s t i c a t i o o~ ci c l ~ r r c i~l lI Al'qliciliistdll, l-,llt tllat nc\v tlicorctical insights into thcsc I)roccssc,s arc still clistillal)lc from thc Afghan &td. TI-a(]itionnllytlic proccsscs of domc,stication has l>c-c,n t-n\.isagc>d as witnessing a graclual tr,lnst;)rmatio~ifrom hunting and gatliering to mixed agriculture and finallv t o spc,ciaIizc,(l agricllltu~-c\\-it11 pastoral noniadism clcvcloping mii~~cli later (c.g. Spoonel-, 1972; Sniitli and Young, 1972; L c ~ and s Hates, 1974). In contrast the Afghan data indicatc.~a strong probability that spcc~ializcc1agriculturc and spc\cializcd pastoral noniadisni dt~vc~lopcd as contt,mporarv rc~inforcingatiaptCltionsallowing m a x i m u n ~use of resources (see Shaffer n . d . for ~ ~ t c n s i \ , r discussion), The, rxistc,nc.t, of suc.h a bidimensiond adaptation and the associated s\~nibiotic rclationsIiips \\.IiicIi rcsultc~tlarc vital in untlt.rstantling the‘ cultural similarities pcrceivc~d through space and tilnc ant] thc distribution of itcnis with liniitcd sourcc~sof origin. It is quitc possil,lc~ that pastoral nomads wcrc a sourcc of cultural communicatioli and interaction bc>t\vc.cn\t.idcl\. disparate sedentary groups. Mortwver, the cxarly cxistcncc of such pastoral nomads might significantly alter current explanations concerning the cultural and ecological contingc~icit~s surrounding tlic devclopmcnt of stratified societies. More specificallv the cxistcncc, o f pastoral nomads viclds new insights into the understanding of tlic nature and extent of the intcraction/coniniunicatio~it~vliichexisted betwc.cn cultural developments in Afghanistan and those in Balucliistan, the Indus \iallt,y and Turkmenistan throughout the ~>rcIiistoricperiod. Anothcr iniportant problem which lias not rccc>i\lcdadequate attention is what happend to the prt~liistoricoccupations following Mundigak I V ? N o satisfactory c,xplanation lias been prop~)w"dwhicli accounts for thC apparent abandonment of the sites between Shahr-i Sokhta ant1 13cIi Morasi. The cntirc, area of southern Afghanistan sccmingly \ras abancioncd until the late Hronzc Aqc, o r Earl! Iron Agc. 11' abandoned whcrc did these populations go and \ ~ h y ? C'onsidcring that the so-called "Hclmantl Civilization" cmconipasscd one of the' largest areal tlistl-il>utions of an\! prc~liistoric culturc~, it is cxtrcrnelv difficult to cnvisagc a sct of circumstances \\.hicli would result in its total disappcal-ancc. Tlicsc~arc ,I f c . ~of the, major problcnis appal-cnt in the Afghan pl-cliistoric record. TIicrc arc sc\.ct.al more spc,cific ones such as: Wliat was the role and nature of the, lapis lazuli trade? Why is t1ic.r~n o c.vit1cnc.c of contact w.it11 the Harappan culturc despite, the, cvitiencc of such contacts in Turkmc~nistanant1 castcrn Iran? L3id tlic Hclmand Civilizatio~iincorporate areas of c.cntral and northern Afghanistan? Wliat is tlic signiticancc~of tho \~.idclvdistributccl knialc tigut-incs? Future investigations into the 1atc.r prc~liistoricpcriotls of Afghanistan \vill p~-o\.idc not only an undcrstandingiiig of arc,al cultural d c ~ ~ t ~ l o ~ ~hut m c also n t s provide thr, opportunitv for t h e . construction of ncw c>xplanatory rnodt,ls concc\rning some of thc major cultural tlcvclol,mc~nts in man's past. llltlsl

1 3 ~

The Early Historic Period: Achaemenids and Greeks D . 1.1.'

.j,!uc-

Do~i,clllc l n d .ti.

'l'clJcfc~~

Historical Background The Achaemenid Empire C'\.I-LIS the, GI-c.at (559--529 e . c . 1 the, L)untlct- 01' tl~c. .4c.hac-riic-1li(lI'c.r,i,in c r n p i ~ - c *a. I t ( * ~ dc.fcciting Cro(\suh of' 1 - ~ d i aatid conclucr-ing Asia Mi11o1-, g a i ~ l c . ~c.011tt.oI l ot all 1ll(. .4lgll.l~i p1atc.a~ in a s e r i e s o f c a m p a i g n s t o tllc, n o r t h ,inti c.ast 01' 11-,ln. M'c. sc.cs the. c ' ~ t ( ~ 1 01' 1 t tlic. .4c,hacmanitl cmpircx in t h e thrc%c'lists o f t h e satral)ics o f 1)ariuh I ( 52 I 486 1i.c.. 1 I'rot~it l ~ t , 13cliistutl i n s c r i p t i o n c.. 5 1 h H . c . . , a n d l a t c r 11-om l).~r-iu>'pa1ac.c. a t I ' c * ~ - h c ~ l ~, o~ltil.d0 1 1 I l i \ t o 1 1 1 I j nctal-I)\. a t N a q s h - i K u s t a m - a11 in n i o d c r n I r a n . l'hc. c ~ c ~ s t ctcbrl-itorics.; ~rn 01' the. .4c I ~ , i ~ ~ ~ n c ~ ~ l i c l i ~ i c . I i ~ d cmodcr-n ~d Afghanistan (Fig. 4. 1 ) \\.as o t p d n i ~ c ditito the. h,~tr,ll)ic\\0 1 ' the. 1;1llo\\i 1 1 c>1 .' ( a ) A r i a , modern Hexrat \\.hich \\.as the, inil,ortant c.c~~ltrc, 01' castcbr-n I r a n . It hat1 I)I-oILII)I\. I ~ c c n as , E ' t - ~ suggests, c t h c m a i n sc,paration p o i n t 01't11c, .41-vans\\.ho ri~icr,itc>clt o In(lia I r o n i those, \\.ho mo\.cc1 t o t h c \vest, a n d i t s n,lmc \\.as sul>scclue.ntl\.al)l>licbclt o t h c h o u t h c r n ( : r o u l ~ o f cxastc,~-nI r a n i a n tcrr-itol-it's as f a r as t h c l n d u s ; (I,) Hactl-ia, tlic I;.I-tile, countr-Yo f Alglian T u r C c s t a n s o u t h o l ' t l i ~~-i\.c,r~ ( ) x u > \\ 1111 it.; c.al)ital at Hactl-a, c o t i i r i i a t i i ~ the, i r o u t c ~ s11-om M e n nncl HCI-at in the' \\csst. t o ScycIial~ai l l the' not-tli, C h i n a in t h c cast ant1 a c r o s s t h c ~ > . ~ s s c01's t h c H i n d u Kusli m o u n t a i t i > t o tlic K d l ) i ~ l \ . a l I c , ~a n d India in t l i c s o u t h ; c l l r a n g i a n a , the, s t c l > p c c o u n t r \ . o f t h c Io\\.u,r H c l r n a n d ri\,c>r-,inti H'111iut1 lakes mc)clc~-n Scistan (i.c,. S a k a s t c n c ) \\.liic.li d c r i \ c s i t s nalnc' f r o m the, Saka t r i l ~ e s\ ~ . l i o \\.c'rc' hc'ttlccl t l i c ~ r c ~ ,ittc\r t l i c ~ i ri ~ i \ . a s i o ~it1i tlic, s c c o ~ i ( ic c ~ ~ i t uNr. C ~. ((1) A r a c l i o s i ' ~ , t h e cast o f 1)r-angiina--- t h c \,allc\. ot' the. 111>1>cr Hclni'mel, moclc,rn Farah ,inti Kanda1ia1- a n d t h e c c n t l - c o f Ac~hac.mcni(lI-uling o \ , c - r - t h c tril)cs as t a r as t h e Illelus in thc. c',ist ancl t h c sca t o t h e s o u t h ; ( c ) Satta2\.(lia, the, n i o u ~ i t , i i t i o u s,irca oI'c.c~ntralAtkhanistan i n c l u d i n g the, k a l ) u l , 13,irni\.,in alltl I'anjsliit- \-,illc*\.slatc,~-kno\\.li as I'ar-ol)atiiisntl~, t h e land "aho\.c> the* c~aglc. ; (1) C;andh,it-a, the, al-c3,i 01' m o t l c t . t ~ Jalalal~acl. I'c-sh,i\\.,ir a 1 ~ 1t h e n o r t h \\.(.st l'rotitic~~. ~)ro\.inc.c,.. L

..

L .

187

Med~teronean

Afghanistan and adjacent areas In the early hlstorlc per~od + ~ l e x a n d e r ' sroute Nearchus and the Fleet .....-.....

---- -

lndtan Ocean

Fig. 4.1: Afghanistan and adjacent areas in the early historic period. T o the north of Afghanistan the Achaemenid empire included Choresmia (Khwarizm) and Sogdiana, and later in his reign Darius 1 added the Punjab and Sind t o constitute the satrapy of the Indus. The whole of the empire was divided into provinces governed by satraps. Its economy was soundly based, trade was encouraged, and an effective road system was established. Aramaic was the language used for official business and it is from Aramaic script that the local Kharoshthi script was subsequently developed in Afghanistan and the Punjab.

Alexander the Great and his Successors It laas the defeat of the last Achaemenid king, Darius 111, at the battle of Gaugamela in thc plains of Mesopotamia in 331 B . C . that made Alexander the Great the ncw ruler of the Achaemenid Empire, including its satrapies in Afghanistan. After capturing the Persian capitals in the west, seizing their treasures and symbolically burning Persepolis, r2lexande1 marched into Afghanistan and crossed the Hindu Kush mountains t o conquer the satrapies of Bactria and Sogdiana (33&327 B . c . ) . T o secure his lines of communication he establishcd permanent posts at Alexandria in Aria (Hcrat), Alexandria in Arachosia (Kandahar) and

Alexandria sub Caucasum (Regram o r a site nearby in the north of' thc. Kohistan o f Kal~ul,. Kcturning t o Begram he marched cast to conquer Swat and the Punjab (327 3 2 5 H . c . ) . On t h ~ banks of the Bcas, his arm!. 1-c.fuset1t o go further. Alexander built a flcct, saile(1 clown thtlndus t o the sea and returnrd t o Persia in 324 after a (langerous land march through Baluchistan. He left behind him satraps and governors, but his administration di(l not long outlast his early death in 323. Although his campaigns and short rule have lcft no direct traccBs in Afghanistan, his conquests had far reaching consequences and mark a watershed in thchistory of western Asia. In the north the old Achaemenid satrapies of Parthia and Hactria became provinces of the Hellenistic Seleucid kings; whilc the vacuum crcatcd by Al(.xandcr's withdrawal from the Punjab enabletl ChandraPpta, the ncw Maurvan King of Pataliputra (Patna), t o extend his kingdom t o northwest India and eastern Afghanistan. After Alexander's death, Seleucus 1 Nicator emerged from the war of succession as King of Syria and most of western Asia; but when he tried t o recover the territories of southeast Afghanistan and the Indus, he was forced t o make peace, acknowledge the sovereigntv of' Chandragupta Maurya, and cede Gandhara, Arachosia and Paropamisadac in return for 500 elephants and a matrimonial alliance (c. 304 B . c . ) . These satrapies remained under Mauryan rule during the third century B . C . in the reigns of Bindusara (298-273) and Asoka (273--232 ), until the Mauryan empire began t o break up with disputes over the roval succession and its great provinces established their independence.

The Graeco-Bactrians Bactria had been an important base for Alexander's campaign against Sogdiana; and presumably retained an important military role under the Seleucids with a strong Greek garrison. During the reign of Seleucus 11, probably during the Third Syrian War ( 2 4 6 2 4 1 ) lvhen Ptolemy 111 of Egypt invaded Syria, the t w o northwestern satrapies of the Seleucid empire, Parthia and Bactria, revolted and became independent kingdoms-Parthia under Arsaces and Bactria under Diodotus. Antiochus 111, the Seleucid king tried t o take punitive action against Bactria in 208 B . C . and besieged King Euthydemus in Bactria; but he Mas obligcd to withdraw and formally recognized Bactrian independence. Before returning t o the \vest, Antiochus crossed the Hindu Kush, and renewed his ancestral friendship with the ruling king, S u b h a g a s e n e a reference t o the alliance that Seleucus Nicator had made a century previouslv with Chandragupta Maurya. But the visit was hardly friendly. Antiochus re\ ictualled his army at Subhagasena's expense, robbed him of all his elephants and imposed an indemnit\. T h e consequences were far reaching. It was clear that a resolute invader mould meet little opposition from the remnants of the Mauryan empire. Euthydemus annexcd Seistan and Arachosia. His son Demetrius pushed his conquests further. There \vas subsequently a period of civil war. Eucratides took Bactria and other territories from the house of Demetrius ( c . 170 B . c . ) and afterwards we see t w o rival lines of princes. Under Apollodotus I and Menander the Graeco-Bactrians conquered a w.ide territory in eastern Afghanistan, the Punjab and Indus \alley, governed by satraps and strategoi (c. 155 B . c . ) . Subsequently the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom becomes divided by ci\ril \var and lost most of its \vestern territories t o the

wc see

l~ar-tllialls,

se\lcral scrics of more local Grcck rulers, until their kingdoms arc, l)rOgI.C~Sbi\.CIy o w r t l ~ r o w nby the invasions of the Yueh-chi, and Sakas from the north and Pahlavas from the west.

Yueh-chi and Saka invaders From Chinese sources we know that the Yueh-chi migrated westward into the Ili region c. 160 H . C . and displaced the Sakas, who migratec&some into the Pamirs, Kashgar, Khotan and some \vest\vard t o the l>rovincesof Herat and Scistan. The Yueh-chi themselves moved soutl~ ~ C - ~ O the S S OXUS c. 12&100 u . c . , occupying the Graeco-Bactrian territory north of the Hindu Kush mountains. About 8 0 B . C . \ye find the first Saka king Maues ruling at Taxila and controlling the pro\.inces of the Punjab. He is succeeded by other Sakas who are King of Kings--Azes I, Azilises and Azcs 11. The end of the Greek rule in the Paropamisadae is much less clear. The last known king was Hermaeus, but his coinage is extensively copied, and it is not clcal- who thC issuers were. In Arachosia, after the rule of Azes I and Axilises, we find a line of Kings with Pahlava names, Spaliris, Spalagadama, Spalahores, the latter owing allegiance to Vononcs as King of Kings who is sometimes identifi ed with Vonones I of Parthia (A.1). 10-12). Mt,an\vhilc the Parthian dynasty of' Arsaces had maintained its independence from the Sc.lcucids, and unt1cr.r Mithradatcs 1 had become a nlajor power. After the conquest of Media c. 1 5 5 B . C . Mithradates I campaigned in Arachosia and took some border provinces from Eucratides. At this time the Parthians probably ruled Hcrat and Seistan. The Pal-thians had serious problems with thc Saka migrations but Mithradates I1 (1 23-88 B . c . ) was successful in settling thcm, receiving allegiance f;om them and cstablishing Parthian rule generally in the east. Isidore of Charax, who died c. A . D .2 5 describes Arachosia and Kanclahar as the easternmost ],art of the Parthian empire.

The Indo-Parthians About A .I,. 2 5 wrc scc the cmcrgcncc of a major new power in southern Afgl~anistan,the lndus vallc,v and tlic Panja\~--cstablishcdby the Indo-Parthian King Gondopharcs. This dynasty is quitc distinct from thc Parthian kingdom and therc is much t o commend Herzfeld's h\~l~othcsis that the Parthian SUI-enin Seistan broke away t o establish an indepcndcnt empire. C;ondopha~-c,s controlletl Seistan, Arachosia, and the Paropamisatlae in Afghanistan, as well as c x t c n s i ~ territories :~ in thc Indus \~allcythat he captured from the Sakas and thc East Grcck kingtlom that he conqucrctl from the successors of Strato 11. His nephew Abdagases continued to rule most of this cxtcnsive empire, but their successors lost the I'aropainisadac, Arachosia, C;andlia~-aant1 the Indus territories t o thc Kushans about A . D . 78. A much attcnuatctl IndoPal-tliiarl Kingtlom, I-cprescntctl In. Orthagnes, Pacorcs, Gondopharcs 11, Sanaharcs 1 and 11, continuc(l t o rule in Scistan throughout thc sc~con(lcentury A . D . and seems t o ha\.c controlled at times I,oth Hc.1-at ant1 Mcrv.

Epigraphy The Achaemenids The Behistun Inscription Epigraphic material for t h e history of t h e Achaemcnid periotl comes not Sroni Afghanistan but from Behistun, Persepolis and Naqsh-i Rustam. T h e Bchistun inscription (Kcnt, 1950)and t h c rcliefof Darius 1 that accompanies i t , a r c cut on a cliff rising high above. tht* main road I'rom Mesopotamia t o Media. Darius had the steps up t o t h e rc1ic.f snioothed away so that n o onc. could approach i t . T h e relief shows Darius seated with t h c rcbcls hc had put d o w n bound in front of h i m . T h e inscription is in t h r e e languages, O l d Persian, Akkadian ( t h e languagr of' Babylon) and Neo-Elamite. It sets o u t t h e deeds of Darius aftcr hi, bccamc king and tht- battlcs he fought t o subdue his enemies, listing the 2 3 countries of his empirc. Thcsc* include Aria, Bactria, Drangiana, Arachosia, S a t t a u d i a and G a n d h a r e s a t r a p i e s that are now part of'

Culdara~[Shswakl

Dash1 Nowor I

0

Fig, 4.2: Epigrapllir and pcriods.

100

200 krn

lind sites of t h r Acharmenid, Hrllmistic and Indo-Crc~k

192

11. W . M A C DOWALL A N D M . TADDEl

Afyhanistan. A fragment of this tcxt in Aramaic has bccn discovered in Egypt (Cowley, 192 3 : 248-271) giving crcdt.ncc t o Darius' claim that he matlc many copies and sent them c\.er\.\vhcre among thc provinces.

The Role

O J

Aramaic

Aramaic had become the common language of the Near East under the Assyrians. The Achaemenids used it as the official language of their administration, and presumably introduced it t o their satrapies in Afghanistan and the Indus valley. T h e Aramaic inscription discovered on an octagonal pillar during excavations at Taxila in Pakistan in 191 5 (Marshall, 195 1 : 164-1 66) refers t o an official, when Asoka was governor of Taxila under his father. The fi1.r Aramaic inscriptions known so far from Afghanistan, three from Laghman and two from Kandahar, also belong t o the Mauryan empire that came t o control the former Achaemenid satrapies in eastern Afghanistan in the third century B . C .

Inscriptions of Mauryan Date The Inscriptions from Laghman The first Aramaic inscription t o be discovered in Afghanistan was the fragmentary stone tablet found in the neighbourhood of Pul-i-Darunta in 1932 (Fig. 4.3). It was puzzling because it contained a number of unknown words, with S H Y T Y repeated several times. Henning (1949: 80-88) showed that it contained not only Aramaic but Middle Indian Prakrit words and that ~HYTY accompanied thcse. It seems t o be an abstract from the 5th o r 7 t h Pillar Edict of Asoka. Such abstracts were expressly authorised by Asoka in his Rock Edict XIV. W e see that it is a bilingual Indo-Aramaic inscription similar in form t o the one discovered at Kandahar in 1963. A second Aramaic inscription was discovered in the Laghman valley in 1969, 30 km from Pul-i-Darunta. It is cut on the vertical face of a rocky ridge above the river in a position that \l oultl ha\ c dominated the old road (Dupont-Sommer, 1970: 158-1 73). Dated In \ c a r 10 of Asoka, the year of his conversion t o Buddhism, it speaks of the expulsion of vanity and the king's prohibition against fishing. Dupont-Sommer's claim that it refers t o the distance to P a l m y r e " 2 0 0 arcs t o Tadmor" , cannot however be substantiated (Humbach, 1973: 161-169). A third Aramaic inscription of Asoka, dated in his 16th year, was discovered in 1973 in the Laghman valley some 12 km from its confluence with the Kabul river (Davary and Humbach, 1974: 1-1 6). It refers t o the King's religious views and sccms t o give an indication ot the tlistance to the next locality.

The Bilingual Rock Inscription at Kandahar In 1958 a fine rock inscription was discovcrcd in Old Kandahar (Schlumbergcr et a ] . , 1958). It was in cxcellent condition with a tcxt in Grcck on the upper part of thc rock and onc in

Aramaic b m c a t h it (Fig. 4 . 4 ) . T h e Greek version, heyinning with Avjka's nanlt., gi\c.\ t h c text of o n e of t h e pious proclamations of the king. It is complc.tc. in its(-ll'antl Ii)llowerl I,\ an Araniaic version of t h e same proclamation. Asoka, t h c grcbatc.st king 01 t h c Maurvan clvnastv and t h c first ruler t o unify India, had becn a hazy figure in Indian tcxts ancl Huciclhist tradition until t h e discovery of his i n s c r i p t i o n ~ p r o c l a m a t i o n sin the f;,rm of rock c-(licts insc:rit,ecl o n rock surfaces o r in pillar edicts inscribed on columns. These w c r r intcntlc.cl t o c-xplain thc. king's concept of D h a r m e n o t formal religious belief so much as attitude of ,ot ial responsibility. Asoka used t h e language and script of t h e localities in which h e set up his inscriptions middle Indian w i t h Brahmi o r Kharoshthi script in India, Aramaic in Taxila ant1 Iaghnian ant1 Greek and Aramaic h e r e at Kandahar. Although t h e Indian texts a r e clear cnough in o u t l i n r , there have been difficult problems of interpretation, which t h c versions in non-Indian language have helped t o solve. For example dharma was long translated as "law"; but th(* bilingual Kandahar inscription uses an Aramaic word that Dupont-Sommtbr translates as "truth" and a G r e e k w o r d that must be "piety".

The Greek Building Inscription from Kondahor T h e second G r e e k inscription from t h e ruins of old Kandahar (Fig. 4 . 5 ) was disc.overc.tl in 1963 by a G e r m a n physician, D r Seyring, w h o presented it t o t h e Kabul Muscum. (Schlumberger, 1964a: 126-1 4 0 ; Benveniste, 1964: 1 37- I 57). It is cut o n a block of porous limestone some 4 5 x 70 c m . Its t e x t gives t h i end of rdict XI1 and the beginning of edict Xlll of King Asoka. T h e stone is a rectangular block 1 2 c m thick which must ha1.c been part ot'a m u c h larger monument-a building of stone on which t h e fourteen major rock edicts of Asoka w e r e inscribed; and this suggests that w e should in d u e course find m o r c inscril)tions from this building in old Kandahar. Edict XI11 is about "the sects". Asoka insists they must respect each o t h e r and acc-cpt t h c lessons of others. It is interesting t o see how "the sects" a r e translated bv "schools of thought" in G r e e k . Edict XIV, as in o t h e r versions, describes his conquest of Kalinga \r-hcn 100,000 of its inhabitants w e r e killed and 150,000 deported, the king's remorse for this, his o r d e r t o abstain from eating t h e flesh of any living creatures and his zeal for pictv.

The Indo-Aromoic Inscription from Kondohor About t h e same t i m e , in t h e latter part of 1963, a fragmcntarv Aramaic inscription, now in an Italian collection, was bought in t h e bazaar at Kandahar. ( B e n ~ e n i s t eand Dupont-Sommer, 1966: 437-465). T h e stone is some 2 4 x 18 c m and contains a text of se\,en lines in .4ramaic. lcttcrs. T h e fragment has n o name but is clearly Asokati because of its contents. It contains t h c strangc word S H Y T Y which is used sevcral tinics as in t h c Araniaic insc.ription fronl Pul-iIlarunta. Each t i m e it occurs, it comes i m m c d i a t ~ bcfore l~ an Indian and aftcr an .4ramaic 11-ord. Although t h e script is Aramaic throughout, it is in fact a h i l i n p a l inscription in\.ol\ing t w o 1 a n g u a g c ~ A r a n i a i cand Prakrit. T h c t\\-o a r c n i i x c c k cac.11 group of \ \ o r d in o n c languagr is follo\z.cd by a paraphrase or translation in Araniaic o i the Indian text and thc.

cllangr is ll~arkedby SHYTY. It is an interesting prrscntation, which gives the original Indian text transliterated into Aramaic, followcd word by word with an Aramaic translation. ~t part of thc seventh Pillar Edict of Asoka. T h e end of the Kandahar inscription appl-opriatelv has in Aramaic alone "[These orders] were sct t o writing on pillars".

Historical Sign$cance Thc tliscovery of this important group of inscriptions of Asoka from Laghman and Kandahar gives us a clear picture of the western extent of thc Mauryan empire, and its control of Arachosia. The Grcek inscriptions, in form and style, belong t o thc high Hellenistic period and are the same as one would find elsewhere in the Greek world at this d a t ~ i m ~ r e s s i v e evidcncc for the unity of Greek culture in the third century B . C . Greek colonists at Kandahar still constitute an important nucleus of culture undcr the Mauryans, in touch with the main Grcek world; and it is t o them that the preaching of Asoka's edicts in Greek are directed. But particular the Kambojas there is equal interest in the Iranian population of the Mauryans-in mentioned with the Yonas (i.e. Greeks) in edict XI11 as peoples t o whom Asoka sent missionaries.

Discoveries a t Ai Khanum Greek lnscriptions i n Bactria The hrst Greck inscription (other than those on coins) from Bactria was the potshcrcl with ATPOC d i s ~ o v e r e by ~ l Schlumbcrger (1 947: 241-3) at Tcpe Nimlik-35 km west of Balkh in 1946. The subsccluent excabations at Ai Khanum have produced thrce well prcserved ~ n s c r i p t i o n . ~ i m l > o r t aejidence nt for the pure Greek character of the city in its language, culturc and systcm of education in Bactria.

The lnscriptions

of Clearchus

Insitlc the ~ a a l l of s Ai Khanum in the pronaos of the fLnerary monument of Kincas, ~ . h sccms o to have, I)cen the, founder of thc city, the base of a stclc (Fig. 4 . 6 ) was discovcrcd i n situ with t\vo texts of the third century B . C . (Bernard, 1967: 3 17-8; Robert, 1968: 42 1--457). One in cursive script describes in t w o clcgaic couplets how Clearchus had crectetl in the temcnos of Kineas a transcript of the precepts at Delphi. He had gone t o copy them carefully at 1)clphi himself. T o the right in a different hand is the text of five maxims ''As a child bc ~ n o t l r r a t cas , a young man bc self controllctl, in mitldlc, age be just, as an oltl man ofgootl counsel ant1 at death \f-ithout rcgrct"--an exhortation t o acquire the chiefqualitics of man appropriate t o each age of life. The, importance of this philosophy t o the city is sccn from thc l o c a t i o ~ t h tcmcnos c of its fountlcr. Robert comments aptly on the impressive tidelit\' t o thc most authentic form of Hcllcnism I-cprc~scntedbv the w.istlom of Dc,lphi and on the cornmunit). of race, language and culturc l'ostcrccl 1)) these rcmotc Grcck colonists in a strangc cn\.ironnicnt.

4. E A R L Y IJEHIOL). The Dedications i n the Gymnasium

ACHAI-.MENII)S A N I ) (;ItI..b.KS

199

In the n o r t h part of t h r lower t o w n a dedication t o Hrrnms anci H r r c u l r s , protectors 01 th(. L,ryn~nasium(Bernard, 1967a: 3 17--9; Iiobcrt, 1968: 41 6 42 1 ) was tliscovc.rc.cl in the. \$.all mclosing a large r o u r t - the c e n t r e of a traditional G r r c k c s t a b l i s h n ~ m tli)r l,h\,ric,nl an(l intc,IIc.ctual education. T h e dedication was made by t w o brothcrs Tril~allosant1 Strato t)otJ.l sons of Strato. Triballos is t h e name o f ' a tribe in northern Thrac,c, r u g ( - s t i n g that th(. I l n i l v had had some link with t h e Macedonian army.

Finds from the Necropolis The chance find of a fragmentary Greek inscription of funerary charactc,r Icd t o tllc c.xc.a\.atioll in 1971 of a G r e e k mausoleum in t h e necropolis outside t h c walls. In its northwest \.ault \\c.rc. three funerary jars inscribed in ink with t h c names of t h e dcceasc.(l n.hosc. remains the.\. contained (Bernard, 1972: 608-6 1 8 p a small boy ant1 small girl, Lvsanias and Isiclora, Kosmas. H e r e again w e have important cvidencc. for the ethnic character ol'thc ~ , o p u l a t i o ~ l . Lvsanias is a Macedonian name and lsidora is a theophoric name&-interesting evidcncc Ihr the. worship of Isis in t h e r e m o t e n o r t h east of t h e Greek world. O n t h e approach t o t h e mausoleum w e r e discovered fragments of t w o funcrar\, inscriptions. O n e was part of a stele containing t h e words "Kings"--presumabl\the tombstone of s o m e dignatory in t h e royal administration.

The Aramaic Ostracon kvidence f o r t h e coexistence of a m o r e local culture is t o be seen in the ostracon in Aramaic \c ript discovercd in t h e sanctury of t h e temple a redan, (see p. 2 2 5 ) in 1970 (Hcrnard 1972 : 63 1-2). It contains a n u m b e r of Iranian names, but t h e absence of any, svntax . makcs it ( I l l hcul t to dccide w h e t h e r it is Aramaic o r middle Persian. T h e central text is an economic documc,nt I-wording t h c state of a series of payments of t h e type known from t h e archi\ c.s of >\ha. It 1 9 probably n o t so m u c h Aramaic official but t h e local Iranian language- - Bactrian transliterated into Aramaic script.

Early Kharoshthi Inscriptions The Earlv Use o f Kharoshthi Hiihler (1 898: 48-100) has shown that Kharoshthi letters a r e derived from Aramaic and it4 alphabet was elaborated w i t h t h e help of Brahmi. Kharoshthi was used in t h e \crsions ol Asoka's edicts at Manschra and Shahbazgarhi in north Pakistan, \vhile Aramaic \$.as usetl t o ti-anslitel-ate Middle Indian (Prakrit) in t h e Laghinan valle\' and at Kandahar in Afghanibtan. It \vas used with G r e e k \\.idcly on t h e coins of t h e Graeco-Bactrians struck south of t h e Hindu Kush; but most of t h e carlicr Kharoshthi inscriptions belong t o t h c pcriod of the Indu-

Sc.\.t]li,lllcnlpit-c, of M a l ~ c sdn(l t h c tl!nasty of Azcs, \\.I10 mal-kcd t h e c~stahlishmcnt()t'tl,(.i,. cml,il-c' on tilt' Indus \vith 1' ncX\t.e r a -thc Ol(1 Saka c.1-a. This is 1,t-ohably t h e c1-a o f 58 I , . ( . , , although Kono\v ( 1 9 2 9 : xc- xci) attrilmtcs it t o 8413 1 3 . c . . and Van Lohuizcln ( 1 950: 1 72) t o S S 13.c.

The Inscription

of Tiravharna

the Satrap

Tllc carliest Khal-oshthi inscription from Afghanistan seems t o he that o f t h c Satrap Tiravharna in vcar 83--discovc,rcd in digging an irrigation channcl near Jalalabacl (Fussman, 1970: 4 3 - 5 5 ) . It has carlv Ictter forms (Fig. 4 . 7 ) , and I)clongs t o an Indo-Scvthian satrap--apparcntlv in . r , . 25, i . c . during the reign o f Azcs 11 as King of Kings. This inscription l x o v i d c ~ ~ r o of o f t h c \\.cstern extension of Indo-Sc!.thian rule t o Jalalabad at this timereinforcing t h c c\-itlcncc f r o m somc hoards of c.oppcr coins o f Azcs I1 discovered in tllc localit\..

Fig. 4.7: Thv Kha~-o\htil~ insc~-~l)t~oii of 'I'lrat harna of t h c ra1- 8 3 tram thc I ~ c . I ~ I I I ) o ~ I ~ I I o o ( I ot Jalalah;lcj

4.

E A R L Y P I < H I O I ) . A(:tIAI-.MI:NII)S A N I ) (;ItI..I..KS

201

The Bimaran Vase Kharoshthi inscription from Afghanistan was also li~unclncnar jalalabacl. Whcmn Masson excavated the relic chamber of Stupa N o . 2 at Himaran, 12 km wcsst-north-wc.st 01 lalalabad, he recovered a steatite vase containing pearls, brarls, a golcl caskcat l i ~ rrc-lit s ant1 four billon coins of Azes with the tamgha of Kujula. Thc vascA has two Kharosththi inscriptions, one on the lid and one round the body of'the vase rclating t o thc. rcblits ( K o n o ~ , , 1929: 50-52). T o judge by the coins, the relics were dcpositcd soon aftcr thc collapse. oI'Azc.s 11 empire, after the first invasion of Kujula, and before the Intlo-Parthian c.onqucasts;and the. i ~ > s c r i l ~ t i c ) nthen ~ i l l belong t o this period of transition.

~

1 other 1 ~ early

Numismatics Evidence for Currency and Circulation Evidence for the coinage current in different parts of Afghanistan during the Achaemenid and Greek periods comes from a variety of sources. W e must distinguish isolated coin finds, i.e. coins that have been accidentally lost and so indicate the relative frequency of coins current in that locality at the time of their loss, from hoards i.e. groups of coins that have been collectecl b y someone in antiquity, deliberately concealed and for some reason not recovcrcd bv their owncr o r his family. Some hoards may have been collected over a period of time and arc evidence for the currencv of the locality over a period rather than for current circulation at the time the hoard was secreted. This will onlv become apparent on studying the composition of the find. s There is a growing body of numismatic evidence for this period from the e x c a ~ a t i o n at sites such as Begram, Surkh Kotal, Ai Khanum, Hadda and Kandahar (Fig. 4 . 2 ) ; but for manv areas we must still rely on coins offered in the local bazaar, private collections formed in that locality and the local museum collections at Mazar-i-Sharif, Herat and Kandahar. Much of hoard material does not come from controlled excavations. The most important hoards have hecn published, but in several cases information about the discovery is incomplete and only some of the coins originally discovered may have been available for stud\..

The Achaemenids Role of the Siglos The official currency of the Achaemenid satriapies in Afghanistan consisted as one might cxpect, of the royal Achaemenid sigloi, but as in other parts of the Achaemenid empire the e a royal silver sigloi are very heavilv outnumbered bv Greek coins and their c o p i e ~ s o m of much earlier date from Athens and other Greek cities. Schlumberger (1953: 1-64) has sho\vn that prior t o the Macedonian conquest the circulation of silver throughout the Achaemenid t its rmpire depended heavily on Greek imports and \vas normally accepted as b u l l i o ~ n o at

202

11. W . M A C 1)OWAI.L AN11 M . TAI1DI'I

lionlin,ll \.,lluc. The, traditional Acliac~nic~nicl I-c,lation bctwc'cn goltl and s i l \ ~ c was ~ r 1 : 1 3.3 this \\as tllc I,asis of tlic standartl of thc gold daric, sil\I,cci~rcportc(l from Hhir C C

4.

1 - A l ~ l . P~l r H I o I ) . A C H A I . M I ; N I I ) S A N D ( ; H ~ . I . . K s

203

Mountl, ant1 a third f r o m Hajaur, also in I'akistan. From Afghanistan, in thd- clc-posit from Mir zakaIl nc,ar (;arclev thcrc* wcbrr 5 0 I>cnt I>ar silvcr c.nt Oar c,oins, all o f t h e sanic typc, was fi)und o n t h c outskirts of Jalnlabacl I>Y w.orkmc.n diginF the. f;)unclations for a building in 1970 (Fig. 4 . 9 ) . In \vc>ight bcnt I>ar coins arc. doul>lc tlic \vc-iglit o f thc. Achacmcnid royal siglos; c h r o n o l o g i c a l l ~t h c ~I>c-longt o tllc. Ii)urth ccbntur\ I,.< . , t l l c . last century of Achacmcnid I-ulc; and t h c i r prcscncc at Kabul, (;artlcz and jalalal>atl as \\(-I1 as at Taxila and Charsada suggests that thcy wtcrc made for c.urrcnc.v in the, cast(.rnmost Achacmcnid satrapics. T h c n e w typc silver punchctl coins in t h e Chaman Iloartl arc. \.csrv I>uzzling.T h c v lia\lc t h e thick roundish fabric of Greek c o i n s not t h e llat squarc o r o l ~ l o n g tlans of Indian c u r r e n c y . T h e i r gcncral al)pc.arancc, incusc punch, rc\.crsc and c.onvcBx ol>\.rrse again sccnls G r c c k although thc.1-c is little Greek ahout thcir t\.pcbs. Tlicir I'ull tlcnomination ranges in \vcight f r o m 9 t o 1 2 g and tlic\, a r c I(-ss \\.ol-n than the, I>cnt bar coins in the hoard. W c should tlic~rrforeregal-d t h e m as a local product sul>scqucnt in clatc t o t h e long I,cnt bar ~ a r i c in t ~thc. Chaman hoard, but o\ving niorc in Iabric and appcXaranc-cb t o t h c \vorn Greek sil\,cr prescwt in the, hoard. Finally t h e C'liaman hoartl contains f'ragmcnts 01' sil\.cr hrac~clctsand jc~vcllcr~--one \\.it11 t\vo cu11c~ifi)rni c1larac.tc.r~that a r c t!laniitc Icttc'rh. We. should therefore regard tlic Chaman lioartl as a trc~asurc~ \.alucd fi)r its hullion like ot1ic.1Acliac~mc~iid hoards but rcflccting also the>sil\.cr r c a t l i l ~o h t a i n a l ~ l cin south cbast .4f'ghanistan at t h e tiinc.

Fig. 4.8: (Icft) Hrnt Imi- sil\,cr coin of late .4c~hac~mcniddatc li-om tht. 19(32 Khugjani hoarel. (Kcl)roduccd, samc sizr.) Kahul Muscum.

Fig. 4.9: (riSIlt) Hrnt hal- silver coin of l a t r Achai~mn,id datr h-on1 thc 1970 Jalalrl~adhoarcl. L

( Kcl>rod~~c.ctl s'1rnt.

sizc.) I'tc. C'oll('ction. K,lhuI.

Chanqes Due to Alexander C

.4lerander 's Currencl~Reform Tllc conque,sts o f A l r r a n d r r t h r G r r a t Ice1 t o a major changr in t h c pattc%rno f t h r c u r r m c v 01. t h c ncar cast. In ,I major curl-cXnc\rcl;)rm he introduced throughout t h c cnil>irca new coinagr

204

u. w.

M A C D O W A L L A N D M . TADDEI

basc.d on the realistic \slue ofgold t o s i l ~ . cof r 1 t o 10 that Philip I1 had introduced t o Macedon instead o f t h e archaic ratio of 1 t o 1 3* retained by the Achaemenids from an earlier period. H~ struck a gold stater of Attic wcight and a silver drachm on the Attic standard that was tariffed at 20 drachms per gold stater. His purpose was clearly t o establish the use of imperial coinetl money (not bullion) through the empire and the wcight stanclard was well chosen in vie^ of the \vide popula~-itvof Athcnian silver coin as bullion through the Persian empire. The new imperial currency rapidly became the standard and was followed by the successor state of the Selcucids and later the Bactrian Greeks. In the numerous hoards of Hellenistic date coins of the period prior t o Alexander are hardly ever found. When the state issued a plentiful currency and gave a realistic value t o its own silver coinage, avoiding the overvaluation that had developed under the latcr Achaemenicls, there was no occasion to prefer old coins traded as bullion.

Later Element

6the Oxus Treasure

The later stratum of the coins of the Oxus Treasure reflect this with about 100 tetradrachms and 100 drachnis of A1exantlc.r the Great, followed by coins of Alexander's successors, Seleucus I, Antiochus I and Antiochus I1 among the Seleucid kings of Syria and Diodotus I among the first independent rulers of Bactria.

Mauryan and Graeco-Bactrian Coinage The Overall Pattern For the Mauryan and Graeco-Bactrian periods the pattern of currency reflects the successive stages of political suzerainty. Gandhara, Arachosia and the Paropamisadae were initially Mauryan provinces, and used the Mauryan silver and copper punch-marked coinage. North of the Hindu Kush mountains in Hactria we find first a Seleucid then a Bactrian currency f o l l o ~ , i n gthe Attic weight standard with fine Greek portraits and re\,erse types using Greek legends only (Fig. 4 . 1 0 ) . When the former Mauryan provinces wcrc captured by the Bactrian Greeks, we see a ncw bilingual Indo-Greek coinage with legcntls in Greek on the obverse and Kharoshthi on thc rcverse (Fig. 4 . 1 l ) , struck t o a new reduced Indian wcight standard, with c-ol>~cr coins of the square Mauryan typc (Fig. 4.12).

The Mir Z a k a h D e ~ o s i t The Mir Zakah Treasure (Curie1 and Schlumbergcr, 1953: 65-91 ) consisting of more than 1 1,000 Indian, Graeco-Bactrian, Saka and latcr coins was discovcrc,d in 1947 in a village 53 km north cast of Gardez on one of the old routcs linking Ghazni and northern Arachosia with Gandhara. Most of the coins \\.ere in silvcr. There Lvere 50 bvnt bar coins and 563 round sc\-phatc and minuscule punched coins of anc-icnt India, 4820 I>unch-n~arked sil\.er coins, 201 2 Grarco-Bactrian drachms (compared with six tctradrachms), 3 3 3 5 Saka drachms

(against I 3 tetradrachms). The find included much smallcr numhcrs of'coppcr coins of th(*sr periods and of the Indo-Parthians and Kushans. The French excavations of 1948 (Curicl ancl ~ c h l u m b e r g e r ,1953: 92-99) established that the place of discovery hat1 becn two sacrrd tanks or basins, into which offerings, notably coins, had been thrown. This explained thc prcsrncc of a variety of votive offerings and items of j e w e l l r r ~ the , enormous chronological range ot'thc. coins extending over five centuries, the excellent state of preservation of some of the oldest coins present in the hoard and the very heavy predominance of smaller silver denominations. The coins from this excavation showed the samc general pattern as the coins recovered thc previous year for the Kabul Museum. The treasure is therefore a deposit, not a currcnc!. hoard, and provides extremely important evidence for the currency of Gardez and its localitv over the whole period. W e see the substantial role played by the punch-marked silver (the silver currency of the provinces of the Mauryan empire) and its replacement by the bilingual Greek and Kharoshthi silver drachms struck on the Indian standard when the Graeco-Bactrian kings conquered the former Mauryan pro\.inces. This in turn \vas replaced by the bilingual Greek and Kharoshthi Saka coinage of Azes I , Azilises and Azes 11, as at Taxila. O n the other hand the silver drachms of the Parthian and early Indo-Parthians are conspicuouslv absentwith only three examples in all. Copper coins are less numerous than the silver, but may he an el-en better guide t o political suzerainty in the area as their circulation was much more restricted than silver. There were 78 Mauryan copper coins of the square Taxila type in the deposit and 54 bilingual square Graeco-Bactrian coins, compared with three bilingual round copper coins, and three Greek monolingual coppers from Bactria. The coppers of Apollodotus I (22) are most heavily represented, followed by Pantaleon ( 9 ) and Eucratides (10).

Finds from Begram During his residence in Afghanistan, Charles Masson disco\ ered that large numbers of coins 11 ere constantly being found on the plain of Begram near the confluence of the Ghorband and Panjshir rivers in the Kohistan 6 0 km north of Kabul. During 1833 he purchased 1879 ancient colns, mostly coppers, and in the following four vears he collected man) more. He described hi:, 1833 finds in some detail (Masson, 1834: 152-175) and gave an enumeration of the total collected from Begram in 1833, 1834 and 1835 (Masson, 1836: 537-547). This important c.\ idence is reinforced b y the much smaller number of coins from the French excavations at Hcgram in 1941, 1942 and 1946 (Ghirshman, 1946: 85-90) now in the Museum at Kabul. These excalation coins show the same basic pattern as the Masson surface finds. W e can therefore check details from the excajation coins and use its evidence in conjunction with the statistical evidence of the Masson finds. More than 800, of the Graeco-Bactrian copper coins from the French excavations prior t o thc collapse of the silver denominations under Hermaeus are square, bilingual GreekIKharoshthi copper coins. Among Masson's finds there are some 600 Graeco-Bactrian copper coins of this period. The denomination of the 78 Maurvan square copper coins is copied by the 43 square coppers of Agathocles and seven of Pantaleon, and the later stages of the samc square denomination is seen in the 268 square coins of Eucratides, 73 of Apollodotus

Fig.4.10:( I ) GoldStaterofGrarco-Ractriaok i n g D i o ~ l o t u s ( l a t tc h i n l c c n t ~ r ~ ~ Rritish c . ) . Muscum. ( 2 ) Sil1,cr Attic tctraclrachm of t h c Gracco-Bactrian king Antimachus (rarlv scconcl c c n t t ~ r yB . c . ) \vith Icvrrsc typc ofl'oscitlon holdinga t r i d e n t . H r r a t Muscurn. (3) Squarc sil\:cr coin o f t h r thrrarco-Bactrian king Antimachus (early scroncl ccntury R . c . ) from t h c M i r Zakah hoanl, w i t h t h r fieure o f a n elephant o n onvsiclc, anda thunderbolt on t h e I-cverse. Kabul Muscum. (4)Silvcr tctradl-arhm o f t h v GI-acco-Bactrian king L!,sias (sccond century R . c . ) \ritli tlir kingwearing an elephant's sralplivaclclrrss and l r i t h a stanclinp figarc o f Hcrculcs crowning himscllon t h e r r r r r s r . British M u s c u m (5) Copper coin of E u t l ~ y d r m a IIs (scconcl century H.c.) w i t h a l a u r r a t r hcad ofApollo. HritishMusrum. (All coins s I l o \ ~in ~ ~F i g s 4 10-4.1 1 arc I - Y ~ I - o d u c cactual d sizc, c,xccpt fol- Fig. 4 . 1 3 ) .

Fig. 4.1 1:

( 1 ) Squarc sil\.cl-drachni of I-c-ducvtlIndian \\.ciglit struck In . 4 1 ~ o l l o t l o tIu, ~\\.it11an c.lcpIian1

J I ~ ( I Grrc,k Icgvnd o n tht. ob\.crsc and a hunipcd bull and Kharoshthi Icgc~ndo n the. r c \ e r z c . I'tc. ~ ' o l l c c t i o n (2) . Sil\.e~bilingual Indian drachm ot'Mcnandcl- (latcr second c-entur! H . c . \\) i t h a rc\cS1-\c. I~gicl-c. of Pallas lioltling an acgis and 1hundc1-l,oll. t'tc collcr-tion. ( 3 ) Silver I>ilinzual India11 clraclim 01hl(,nantlc~-\\-it11 t h c o1j-l ~-c\c~-hc* t!-l,c. l'tc C o l l c c t i o ~ i .

I ig. 4.12: 5qual.r(

t

C U I ~ X I -U N I I

ot' 1'~111dco1i\ \ ~ t l illic ti:urc

11ti11-\H c . H ~ . i t i \ h hZu\ci1111.

01 a Icopartl

In

an inr use square (\cbcon(l

208

u. w .

M A C DOWALL A N D M . TADDEI

I and 153 of Menandcr, followed by the 37 of Antialcidas and 1 4 of Lysias. W e see how the square copper bilingual copper denomination in this period was initially derived from the Mauryan and then progressively modified. The silver currency of the Hazarajat is seen from the hoard of 120 Graeco-Bactrian silver drachms o f t h e Indian standard purchased at Charikar (Masson, 1836: 537-547). It consistet] of seven square coins of Apollodotus I, 5 round coins of Antimachus and 108 of Menander-similar in composition t o the 1926 Gang hoard and the 1942 Bajaur h o a r b b o t h from modern Pakistan. The 1942 Bajaur hoard is remarkable for the presence of some 700 bent bar and punch marked coins with 800 Indian drachms of Apollodotus I , Antimachus and M e n a n d e ~ ~ treasure in which Indian standard d r a c h n ~ are s hoarded with the Mauryan punch marked si]\fer, from which their metrology is eventually derived. A later stage in the silver currency o f t h e Upper Kabul valley is t o be seen in the 1923 hoard of 97 Graeco-Bactrian drachms of the Indian standard of later kings down t o Hermaeus (Whitehead, 1923: 325).

Excavated Coins from Ai K h a n u m The discovery of t w o non-struck coin flans of Seleucid o r early Bactrian Greek fabric in the French excavations at Ai Khanum in 1968 (Bernard, 1969: 354) suggests that there may have been a local mint for copper c o i n y e i t h e r official o r unofficial in t h e city. The series of excavation coins discovered since 1965 (Bernard et a l . , 1973: 203-5; Bernard, 1971 : 4 4 6 7 ; 1972: 63 1 ) now provide clear evidence for the currency of eastern Bactria. T h e copper coins of the Seleucid kings Seleucus and Antiochus I are succeeded by coins of the independent Graeco-Bactrian kings Diodotus, Euthydemus and Eucratides, mostly monolingual Greek coins of the AtticISeleucid system, but with occasional bilingual GreekIKharoshthi square copper coins of Eucratides amounting t o between 5 and I@/, of the Graeco-Bactrian coppers found. There is evidence of trade with provinces south of the Hindu Kush in the t w o punchmarked Mauryan silver coins found (in addition t o the Graeco-Bactrian Attic standard silver coins one would expect), in the 1970 hoard of Mauryan punch-marked silver and in the presence of three bilingual tetradrachms among the 63 silver coins in the 1973 hoard. The hoard of 679 Indian and Indo-Greek silver coins found in the 1970 excavations has been fully published by Audouin and Bernard, (1973: 238-289; 1974: 7-41). The hoard was discovered in a traveller's water flask-far too large reallv for the number of coins concealed. It had been hurriedly buried c. 130 B . C . by the latest inhabitants of Ai Khanum at the time of a nomad invasion, but the hoard itself had been assembled over a relatively short time some 40 years earlier. Punch-marked silver coins and the Indian standard bilingual Indo-Greek silver drachms were the currency not of Bactria but of the provinces of the Mauryan and former Mauryan empire. There is no doubt therefore that this treasure reprcscnted an import by 11 a? of trade from Gandhara. The 673 punch-markcd silver coins were all of Maurvan date from the mint of Taxila. As in the 1912 Taxila hoard (Walsh 1939) thcrc were no prc- o r postMauryan punch-marked coins. They all habe the hill, symbolized by three arches surmountcd with a crescent, that seems t o be the dynastic emblem of the Maurvan kingdom. The six s11\er coins of Agathocles arc of a completely new type and arc bilingual-- with a figure of the god

Fig. 4.1 3: Square sll\er b~llngualcoin ol Agathoclc.5 (carli second crntur\ n . c . ) from tht. 1970 .41 Khanurn hoard n ~ t ha figure of the god Sankarshana on the ob~c-rsc.and ol \'asudc.\a Krlshna on thc I-c.1ersc.. (Reproduced x 2 . ) Kabul Muwum

Sankarshana and Agathocles' name in Grcek on t h e obverse and the god Vasudc\.a Krishna and a Brahmi legend o n t h e re\.erse (Fig. 4.1 3 1. T h e i r square shape and method of manufacturc is clost~lvmodelled on t h e square punch-marked silver \z.ith which thcv w-ere found. T h e \ ~ . c i g h t of s t h e coins (tour of \vhich a r e struck from t h e same obvcrse and rc\.cbrscdies) rangr from 2.3 t o 3.3 g , t h e same broad \\,eight range of t h e punch-markcd sil\-erc-oins in t h e hoard. In several of his Indian c o p p e r coinages Agathocles copied t h c local denominations h e found already in circulation; and in this hoard \z,e see t h e same process and t h c origin of t h e IndoGreek bilingual d r a c h m , copving t h e denomination of t h e Maurvan punch-marked silver that thc. Graeco-Bactrians found c u r r e n t in t h e i r ne\z. territories south of t h e Hindu Kush. Al~ollodotus I , while retaining t h e square shape of t h e bilingual sill-er Indian d r a c h m , sul~sequentlvstabilized its weight at t h e b o t t o m of this jvcight range at about 2.45 g , and this \\-as acceptable f o r paritv of value lvith t h e p n c h - m a r k e d silver because of t h e consistentljIligh silver c o n t e n t of t h e Indo-Greek coins. Subsequent kings retained this standard for t h e I~ilinguald r a c h m s but re\,erted t o t h e round sil\-er flan normal for G r c e k monevers. T h c 1 9 7 3 Ai Khanum hoard, also found during t h e French exca\-ations (Bernard, 1974: 'SO 308; Bernard, 1 9 7 5 : 58- -69; Petitot-Biehler, 1975: 2 3-57) contained se\.en .+Ilcxander ~ n ( 1scven Seleucid tc,tradrachms \\.ith 4 9 Attic tetradrachms of t h e Graeco-Ractrian kings Ilo ruled n o r t h of t h e Hindu Kush u p t o Eucratides ( b u t excluding Heliocles). T h e hoard 111c-ludeda h i t h e r t o u n k n o \ ~ - nAttic T c t r a d r a c h n ~of .4pollodotus 1.

7-he Qunduz Hoard I hc Qunduj! hoard (Bi\.ar, 1955; Curie1 and Fussman, 1 9 6 5 ) \\-as disco\-ered during 1946 in i3\c.a\.atingt h c foundations for an extension of t h e barracks at Khisht T e p c on t h e south bank of 1 ~ 1 - 1ri\.er ~ O x u s 90 k n ~ \z-cst-north-\z.est of Q u n d u z , o n t h e ancient caravan route crossing t h e i-l\.cl-t o nol-thern Bactria and Sogdiana. It contained t h r e e Seleucid tetradrachms of Seleucus I. .iIcxander Hiel-ax and Antiochus 1 Bala ( 1 5 S 1 4 5 B . C . ), 6i.e magnificent double deadrachms of .jrn\-ntas, 17 dl-achms of Hclioclcs and 602 t e t r a d r a c h n ~ sot' Graeco-Bactrian kings of Bactria. 411 t h c coins \\-ere s t r u c k o n t h e .Attic standard with legends in G r c e k onlj.. Most of t h e

110

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.III(~

I I(.lic)c.le.s

(?()4). IIO,II.(Ic , o ~ i t , ~ i ~(;rc-(sk l t ~ l ~ ~ ~ I I ~ , ~ ~ I I - , ~ ~ I OI I~ I ~ t~ l~ i ~c I~Attic, I I I I s w ( - i g l ~ sta11(1,ir(I t (;I-,I(*~.o I~isi\,cq (Iisc~t~ssiotl. ' I s I i ( - j ~ i 1 - ct1si1~1IIy ~ ( ~ o ~ ~ ~ p o01's c % t w( oI 01.I I I O ~ ~(ircbebk > l ~ ~ ~ ~ e . l ~ s ( ' ~ I I I I I ~ I ~ ~A~I ~. ~, L~ II ~I Vtli,it I ~ stoo(1 li)r tile* n1i1i1 01' issi~c%, 1 ) i l t 'I.;\I-11 I I I , ~ ~ I I I , ~tll,lt ~ I I tll(.y (-[~ I ~ ~ ~ ~ ) I - (t11(* ~ S initi.ils ~ ~ I I ~ o1'11idgistl.ate~s ~ Y ~ 01.111ilit li~aslc'rsO I I 111c' S(-Ic'i~c'i(l 1),1tt('r11.I;IISSIIIJII'S ( l i e . h t l ~ ( l \ ,01' t l i c * c.oi11s i l l t l ~ c *( ) t ~ ~ i ( i lio,ir(l t ~ ~ . 11'1s S ~ O W , I I111,it s c - ~ ~ c -( r, o~i~t ~ l Ss I I - L I ~ I'ro111 .~ ~ ~ ~ 1 1 1 O I I \ ~ ~ ~ I - S ~ ~ (i.cs. l ) ~ - o ( l i ~ c ~ cin~ ( l 111c\ s;1111e>l i i i t ~ t )11~ivc~ ( I ~ ~ ' I ~ ~ I - I~ ~~ ~I >I I\ , ~ ~ I11~o11ogr;i111s -S(> SO (Ile> nlonogl..llils (.,1111101 1)e' 111i1lt I I ~ ~ I - kI sIc'. S I I ~ M I S se'vcsr,i1 l ~ l i l i t I I I ' I ~ ~ 1;)111i(I S 011 111e-sc~A t t i ( , t e ~ t ~ - . l ( l ~ - d col)viotlsIv ~ l i ~ ~ i s intc'~i(l(-(l1;)1- c.il.c.i~l;ltioni l l I(, I.itc%r-.One, ol'thc. latchst is I,rol),ll)ly the. t c ~ t r a t l r a c h n i01' I lc~l.l~iac~us, w h o is k l i o w ~ it o ha\,c- l ) c ~ > 1 1t11c' last (;1..1c'c.o-l3ac.trian k i n g t o issue* coilis i l l his o w n name. i l l the- Kal)ul \.,ilIc~y.'l'li(, (late, 01' the- heal-(1's c ~ o n c ~ c ~ a l m cml c ~ n t~ ) r o l ) a l )I)(, l ~ ~)l,ic-c~l towar-(1s th(a (late, ol'tlic in\lasion 01' Hac.tt-ia s o u t li 01' t he, ( )xus, (.. I00 H . (.. It w a s 111i(Ic'r1. I c r n ~ a o i ~that s the* (;racbc.oI3,1c.tri,ln silvc.1- c ~ ~ l - l - c * ~i lilct11c. y KaI)uI vallc-y c ~ o I l , l l ~ s ca~l ~l t lw a s ~-c~l)lac~c~tl I)y a c * o ~ ) ~ ) c3i~~-r(,~ic.y c~~rc*taini~lg the- tyl,cbs tliat Iiatl I)c-c-n usc~tlI;)r tIi(, s i l v c ~ r -I'hcb . ric.h si1vc.1-mineus a t Al-l'anjs1ii1- in theI lintlu Kush ~ n o u l ~ t a i l Ii,ltl l s no (loul)t s i ~ ~ ~ ~ , lsilvc~ri c ~ t l 1i11.t l ~ ( ,(;ra(~(.o-I3ac~trian c*oi~iagc,. 'I'his 1'ul-tlic~r, ~ n n l ~ s01' i s t h ( * (Julltluz Iioartl suggcSstst l ~ a tsonic. 01' t h ( - 1atc.r (;rat-co-Hac,tri;in kings lllay Iiavc, I)(-(,II struc*ka t a c.omnlon m i n t 1)ot11 on the*Attic, stantlal-tl f o r t h e i r I-c%n~aining I(-rritoricbs 1io1-tho l ' t h e ~I lintlu K u s h , aritl o n th(. Intlian stantlartl I;)I- th(. I'arol)amisatla(.; ant1 the, final loss 01' the* nol-th(.t-li tctrritoricbs u l ~ t l ( >IIc-~-nlac~us r 1r1aOc' i t ir~il)ossil)l(-t o (.ontinilc' wol-king the. I l i ~ i t l tKush ~ silvcs~-rni1ic.s ,inti s o Ictl t o the. tle~lmsc~n~orlt ot' the- s o u t h ( ~ r nc.oiliagc,. ' l ' l i c b

L

t l i ( b

c l i c s

CIIX-

'

1 Currency o f ' western A f j ~ h a r ~ i , s t a n

c ~ u r r c . ~ ~01'c ~wostcbrli y A l k l i , ~ ~ ~ i s ttlurilig an t h i s I)crio(l (*an I)e* rc~c~onstri~c.tc-(I I'l.orn t l ~ c c.\~itl(~nc~c~ 01' t l i c l FI',\t(-c~oll(~c.tion ol'nnc~ic~lit c,oins Ii)ul~tlin Scistali (Ital)sorl, lC)O4;i: (-173 (,SO) A I I ( I l ' r o ~ i it11cb l o c ~ ; l l I ~ ~ L I S ~ first c.c.nt111-yI ( . ( . . web lint1 I'al-tliian silvc*~cll.ac,l~r~~s '11 1 Ic\1-;1t allti K a r ~ ( l a l ~as a r at Mazal- s o m c , t i ~ ~ ~c~ountc~rninrkc.tl c-s I)y 1atc.1-rulc*rs ('.g. w i t h tlie, tanlglla 01' ( ; o I I ( I o ~ ) I ~ ~(ly1iasty I I ~ ~ ~ s ' III(- Ili(lo-I'al-tliialis 01-t l i c t sniall l ~ c ~ l r i ~ c ~lic,a(l t ( * ( llik(b tlic- l i g i ~ ~to xsc.c*n 0 1 1 th(. o~-clillal-yc.oirls 01' Sal)alc.izc*s.

'1'1ie.

Fig. 4.14 (1 $ hitation of a silver didrachm of SdwcfdKing Antiocbua I acquired by HtrdZlfusrht1w ia Seistan 1994. Brithh Museum. (2) Sllsrar obol of Gr&eco-BaoMion Hughes BYl]er in Seistan 1904, hitish Mu-.

itow Anti&

acquired by

Fig. 4.1 5: (1) Copper tetradrachm of early Yueh-chi (firat century LC.) with an obverse copying the head of Heliocles and retaining the letters of Heliocles' name to left and right of the horse. Britlah Museum. (2) Copper drachm of same types, said to have bean b u d in northern Afgbmistan. he.

Collection.

21 2

D . W . MAC DOWALL A N D M . TADDEI

Yueh-chi, Sakas and Indo-Parthians The Yueh-chi Currency

of Bactria

The currency of Bactria after the Yueh-chi conquest in t h e first century B . C . is far from clear, When the nomads issued coins they copied the denomination and types of preceding GraecoBactrian kings, though usually in a debased form. The commonest coins of the Yueh-chi i n northern Bactria during the period were the copper tetradrachms and drachlns of the barbarous Heliocles (Fig. 4 . 1 5 ) which occur in stratified finds immediately prior t o those of Soter Megas and the early Kushans (Pugachenkova, 1967: 74-88). These copper coins are also found in northern Afghanistan. T h e Kushan Heraeus who seems t o have ruled in Bactria at an early date, issued tetradrachms and obols in base silver following the denominational pattern of Eucratides and the Sakas who succeeded him. T h e later stages of the Kushan currencv are discussed in the next chapter.

Coins of the Azes Dynasty and Su Hermaeus Silver coins of Azes I are found at Mir Zakah and in the hoard from Chaman between Kandahar and Quetta (Jenkins, 1955: 25-26). The Saka empire at this period was centred on the Indus provinces of Pakistan, but during the reign of Azes I1 they extended their rule t o some parts of eastern Afghanistan. A hoard of copper coins of Azes I1 is reported from a stupa near Jalalabad (Bayley, 1861 : 72-78) and a further hoard from Jalalabad was acquired by an Afghan collector in 1970 (Fig. 4.16). Silver coins of Azes I1 are very common at Mir Zakah and a few are reported from other l o c a l i t i e ~ b u tnot from Begram. Masson explicitly states that he discovered no moneys of the genuine Azes kings at Begram, and his experience is borne out by their extreme rarity among the Begram excavation coins. The currency of Begram and Kandahar at this period (Fig. 4.17) consisted of the long series of copper tetradrachms and d r a c h m ~ c o p y i n gin copper the obverse and reverse types of the earlier silver coins of the last Graeco-Bactrian ruler Hermaeus. It is a long series that gives little clue about the identity of its issuer-but probably represents the currency of the Pahlavas who conquered Arachosia in the first century B . C . (Narain, 1957: 157-162). Arachosia is included in Isidore of Charax list of Parthian provinces at the beginning of the Christian era. There was a major debasement of the Saka silver currency at end of the reign of Azes 11, when his empire began t o break up. The old silver denominations w e r e now struck in billon instead of silver and the copper denominations proper largely disappeared; but t h e principal impact of this was in the coinages of t h e Indus valley.

The Distribution of lndo-Parthian Issues About A . D . 30 the Indo-Parthian king Gondophares established an independent empire that controlled the Punjab, much of the Indus valley, Arachosia and adjacent parts of eastern Afghan~stan.His currcncy in Arachosia consistt%tlof Nikc-tll,c coppcr tctradrach~ns(Fig.

Fig. 4.16: Copper coins of Azes I1 with a humped bull on the o and a lion on the reverse (late first century B.c.) from the 1970 Jalalabad hoard. Pte. Collection, Kabul.

Fig. 4.17: Copper tetradrachm (first century A.D.) copying the types of the siiver tetradrachms of Hermaeus. Kabul Museum.

Fig. 4.18: Copper tetradrachm of Indo-Parthian King Gondophares I (first century A.D.) with the reverse type of victory holding a wreath. Pte. Collection.

Fig. 4.19: Copper tetradrachm of Indo-Parthian King Pacores (late first century

A.D.).

ptp

Collection.

Fig. 4.20: Indo-Parthian silver drachm of Abdagases, with the reverse type of a seated archer copied from the Parthim drachm type. British Museum.

Fig. 4.21: Copper drachm of late Indo-Parthian type, retaining the seated archer reverse. British Museum.

4. I s ) , 1,asc.d o n the coppc.r tctraclrachm struck in t h c name of SU Hcrmacws, and thcsv ',(,ills at-c found at Hrgl-am, Hadda and Mir Zakah. His successors lost these territories ant1 the In(lus \.allc\. t o tht. rising p o w e r of t h e Kushans, but later c o p p e r tctratlrachms in t h e Nikc scqucncc a r c known fro111 Scistan for Orthagncs, Pacores (Fig. 4.19), a sccontl Gondopharcs Sana1,art.s (Mac I > o ~ f a l l1965: , 1 37- 148) ruling territory in t h e west during t h e periotl of main Kushan dynasty. T h e latest issue in this sequence has a Pahlaci Icgcntl which has tcntati\.cly read as Arda Mitra. It has a Sasanian fire altar of t h c type UW(I Iby Ardcshir I currency for Stxistan at t h e t i m e of his eastern campaigns. seems t o have bccn a For scvcral kings of t h e Indo-Parthian dynasty very rare silver drachms of Parthian tvpc arc kno\zn (Fig. 4 . 2 0 ) . T h c series eventually suft'cr a serious tlcbascment and later kings have clchasctl tlrachms with t h e same types struck in c o p p e r (Fig. 4 . 2 1 ) -a coinage ~ r h i c his comnlon in Mcxr\. ant1 somctimcs encountered in H e r a t .

Settlement, material culture, architecture and art T h e rc,gions that a r e includctl within t h e boundaries of m o d e r n Afghanistan w e r e invol\.etl in the ]>olitical events of Mesopotamia even before Hactria (which corresponds t o northern Afghanistan ancl part of t h e Central Asian republics of t h e USSR, n o r t h of t h e Oxus/Amuclarya) was annexed by t h c Iranian e m p i r e under t h e Achaemenian dynasty in t h c t i m e of C).rus t h e Great, along with Drangiana ( m o d e r n Seistan), Aria ( t h e region of Herat), Arachosia (the region of Kandahar), as well as t h e territories farther cast, as far as Gandhara (Fig. 4.1 ). Nevertheless archaeological documentation from Afghan t e r r i t o r y , concerning the Achacmenian period, is so scarce that t h c most useful evidcncc for that pcriod in Afghanistan is yicltled by excavations and finds in ncighbouring countries, principally Iran, I ~ u talso the Soviet Union and Pakistan. T h r e e areas may be distinguished, each with its o w n characteristic features. First, t h c Bactrian area, which covcrs parts of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan (among the most rcccnt contributions, sce Pitlaev, 1974) and t h e n o r t h c r n part of Afghanistan between the Amu-darya and t h e Hindu Kush. Remains of t h c Achaemcnian periotl w c r c recently locatcd in this area by t h c Afghan-Sovict Archaeological Mission: among t h e m , "a t o ~ v nof which the fi~rtificationsantl a citadel a r c clearly recognizable" (Kruglikova and Sarianidi, 1971 : 20). T h e rescat-ches o f t h c Afghan-Soviet Mission a r e only beginning; but thcy may bc cxpcctctl t o t h r o w light on t h c Achaemenian period in Afghanistan, a periotl in ~ v h i c ht h e contacts I>ctwecn Hactria antl t h e e m p i r c of t h e G r e a t King also involved a G r e e k component (Kuz'mina, 1974). Thcsc links betwecn t h e G r e e k world and Bactria wet-c, later t o be much strcngthcnvcl, as \,vc shall see. Some precise data havc alrcatly been acquirecl thanks t o t h e excavations at Tillya-tcpc, lvhcrc t h c upper layers which arc, as late as 500 n . c . , have yicbltlcd "Achaemrnian" pottery ancl S I I ~ M . connections also with Natl-i Ali I1 (Sarianitli, 1 9 7 2 ) . Achacmcnian layers u.crc also rccognizctl at Halkh (Gartlin, 1957a: 9 3 ) . More interesting f i o m t h e point o f \ - i c u .o f m o n u m c ~ n t aarchitccturc l is thc, Bactrian site of

4. Altin- 10, whcrc the

EARLY I'EKIOII.

AI-ghano-Soviet

A C H A E M E N I I I S A N I ) (;H)..EKS

21 5

Archaer)logical Missinn has

working s i n ( ( - 1971 ; t w o I~uildingsthe-rc* appear t o be of t h r grc-atrst importanccshow links w i t h th(. architecture of Llahan-i Ghulaman (fijr which see b r l o n ) - a rc*ctangularldsummcsrpalac,(. ( N o . I), 8 0 x 5 5 m , (livi(lcd into t w o "palaces" with a fi,urtecn-pillar portico (,n rithc*rsi(l(. (Fig. 4.22), and a square building (No. 11). 36 x 36 m, with rooms arrangrcl nluncl a c(-ntral courtrarcl from which they are scparatccl bv a c,orridor running on thrcr \idcs tSariani(li, 1953, 38-40) (Figs 4 . 2 3 , 4 . 2 4 ) . W e cannot consider thr celebrated Treasure. of the Oxus (I)a]ton, 1905; Harnc-tt,] 9 6 8 ) , nowr in the British Museum, as an Afghan f n d , since its find spot, though uncertain, is most I ~ r o l ~ a b tl oy be located near Kobadian (Mikojanabad), i.ct., north of the Amu-(larva, in territory now belonging to the Soviet licpublic of Tajikistan (Harnctt, 19611: 36 f'.n.5; Helenitski, 1968: 58-59). The Treasure oftht. Oxus is t o be \.ie\t.cd in the context ofthc- traclc activity that crossed Bactria. This was a source of gold for the Persian cmpirc., though Hac-tria (lid not actually produce any gold. Bactrian gold came mainl, fi-om Sibcria and Hactria actctl only as a cntrepot; this transit traffic apparently ceased in the Graeco-Bactrian period (Tarn, 1 9 i l : 105 ff.; Narain, 1957: esp. 25-26; Barnctt, 1968: 42 ancl 5 1 ) . A second area in which Achaemenian remains arc exccptionallv important is ancient Drangiana (Zranka of the Achaemenids), corresponding to modern Seistan; hcrc too, in spitc-ric,anMission Ic.(l W , A . kairsc.rvi3 i l l 1249 50. Thtb fi)rn1tnr cxrcute(l some small-sc,alp t.xca\fati()ns at Ali, whrrc I(, Ghirshman was ablcn t o itlcntify t w o ~)t.riocls,tht- later o1'whic.h (t'c.rioc] 1) was attrihutc.c]to th,. Achacnlrnian age (Ghirshman, 1939). An important guiclta-lint. is provicl(.tl by tht- p ) t t t a r y Ik)ni Nacl-i Ali, t o which that li)un(l tht-rt. by Fairscrvis is t o IN. arl(lC.(l t l - a i r i . r r i r , 1961,'; Scerrato recognizccl t h e homogcncity between tht. Achatbmrnian I,ott(.rv Afghan Srirtan (not only Natl-i Ali I, hut also Nad-i Ali 11) ant1 that of' Ijahan-i (;hulaman. Achaemenian pottery was also coIIc.ctccl by a British Mission in 1966 t,oth in Sc-istan further upstream in tht. Htblmantl vallt-y, though apparently in c.xtrc.mcly small quantity (Hammond, 1 970). T h e most important fact is that ana1ogit.s (which cannot surprise- us when wc. consic1c.r t h e geographic proximity of'thc t ~ v sites) o are fi)und in the most common wares, f'rom tht. point o f view of t e m p e r and shape as well as of' the few clccorativc pattt.rr~s.Among tht- 1artc.r tht. prcscnce of a characteristic incised device in t h c shape. of' an invc.rtcd tridcnt surmountt.tl bv a circlct is w o r t h notice. T h e most frequent pottcry typc,s at Natl-i Ali a r c yellow o r rcd-clay jars, Ilat-bottomccl beakers with incised decoration, small grcaywarc pots, howls, and largt. licls with inc.isc-d clccoration; at Dahan-i Ghulaman w e hnd frequent carinated bowls, flat-bottomt*tl oval jars, cvlindrical-conical beakers, and a pc.culiar type of' large basin with rounded rim and trumpet" base suitable for inserting into t h e ground: of these, tht- carinatc.(l bowls ancl tht. huge basins a r e not among the Nad-i Ali materials published by Ghirshman Imt w c r c collcctc.tl f'rom the same site by Fairservis. This Seistan material therefore shows a fair homogeneity, and tht. difTcrcnccs mav bc d u e to t h c tliffcrcnt contlitions in which t h e material was collc.ctc~d:regular cxca\fationsat [)ahan-i Ghulaman, small-scale trial-trenches o r surface collection in Afkhan Scistan. (.In the wholt., ant1 for some corrcspondcnces, the Seistan material can Ilc compared with tht. Ijactrian material of Kobadian I attributed by D'jakonov to the Achacmenian age ancl that ol' 1l1c corresponding levels of Halkh, in northern Afghanistan, and Afrasiab, Sogdiana (Sccrrato, 1966, 26--30, with bibliography; a useful synoptic table is in Vorob'eva, 1959, 7 5 ) . I'csriod I1 at Nad-i Ali also saw t h e construction of'a brick building, a corncbro f which M.as c,xc,avatctl by t h e French Mission. It was a massi\,c. construction which was probably built gain st t h c natural mount1 in o r d e r t o make available a 1argc.r arca. T h e o u t c r \calls Lvcrc o f ~ n u t bricks l ( 3 5 x 3 5 x 9 c m ) , while tht, inncr structure M,as made up of alternating unbaked ant1 baked bricks ( 5 7 x 28 x 9 c m ) , resting on a basemcnt consisting of ten laycrs ol'bakcd Ijricks. T h e Achacmcnian period is evcn lcss tlocumcntccl in t h e castcrn regions of Afghanistan. Ilc*rcw c may I-ccall t h e coirls found at Chaman-i Hazuri, Kabul: thcy a r c Achac.niCnian, Gr-cc*k ~ r l t local l (bent-bar) coins, buricd at t h c beginning ol'thcx Ii)urth century B . c . , and c ~ ~ i t l c n 01 cc~ 11.atlcin t h e Kabul (Schlumbcrger, 1953). This is trcrv littlc indcccl, iCwc comparc tht111uc.hrichcr documentation on the Achacmcnian obtained Iron1 the. sites bc!ontl the

~ ~ ( i - ~ InJm

L 6

articular

Khybcr pass, in Pakistan territory, i . c . , Charsada and Taxila. Charsatla \\.as prol)abl!. t h c tal)ital ol'thc. satrapy olTC;andhara,adtlcd t o t h c ernpirc cithcr by. Cyrus , hinlselfor in t h c hrst \,cars 01' t h e reign of IIarius I ( ~ h c c l e r ,1962); Taxila, which nic~rgcdinto t h c cnipirc at clpl~roximatclythe' same t i m c and bc1i)rc. Darius conquered t h e Inclian satrap!, including

c.'lstcrn Punjal~and Sind, thrc.~. off Achaemcnian domination probably in tllc tinlc%ol. ..\~-t'lxers~s 11 (404--359 H . c . ) . The Achacmenian town oFTaxila may br iclt'ntificcl ~ . i t ht h C c,a1-lirst Ic\.cls o f t h c Hhir Mountl excavation (Marshall, 195 1 ; Sharif, 1969), tlated by Marsha]] to tlIc sixtll to fifth centuries H . C . This \\.as a particular aspect of the to\vn, one of its richcst ~ u ~ t nnc.\.crtheless c ~ r ~ the plan is irregular, the building tcchnique poor, in comparison \l,itll the uppc-I-, post-Achaemenian layers. It is t o be observed that soak-wells existed, one. in almost el-crv house, from the Achaemenian period onwards. through new exca\.ations t o ans\j.er the question of \vhethcr the It \\,ill onlv be scal-cit). o f data for the Achaemenian period in Afghanistan is due t o the lack offield-research o r t o an actual extraneousness of the region (with the exception of some centres connectc(buried jntra rnuros, a right that in the carly Hellenistic period was granted onlv t o thc. c l r k r ~ l c r ("founder of the town"). The most surprising building at Ai Khanum is crrtainlv the 50-callctl tc*mpl(* rcdanr, southeast of the temenos of Kineas (Fig. 4.30). Its name, which wv rcstain hcrc. its military-architectural origin, meaning a triangular salient o r bastion, is due t o the triplestepping on the outer face of the walls; these define a row 0 1 false nichrs alternating \vith them. It is a mud-brick building c. 19 m square, composed of an oblong vestibule and a smallcr cella flanked by t w o narrow sacristies. In the vestibule, on both sides of thc door which I(.acls into the cella, were three mud-brick pedestals that supported clay and stucco statuc-s, fragments of which w e r e found scattered on the ground; a few fragmc~ntsof stone belonging t o the cult statue were found in the cella. Bernard has proved that this plan derives from Mesopotamian prototypes but bvas also \\,ell known in the Seleucid empire, though the Iranian link is still t o be found. Though so dc~pl! Oriental in plan and construction (the only architectural device of Greek origin seems t o be the three-stepped krepidoma), this temple housed a cult image that \\.as purelv Hellenic, at least as far as we can judge from the few existing fragments. The temple h redans underwent several stages of architectural modification: stage V is r'epresented by an earlier construction which was replaced by the temple a rcdans; stages I\', Ill and I1 cover the period in which the temple a redans was in use as a tcmple, while stage I marks a late re-employment of the building as a store-house. According t o the numismatic data and the pottery, this temple seems t o have been built in the first half of the third ccnturv (the pre-existing temple of stage V would therefore be as old as the beginning o f t h c third o r even the last quarter of the fourth century B . c . ) , M-hilethe modifications it undcrbvent in stage 11 are either contemporary with o r later than the reign of Diodotos, c. 248-2 3 5 B . C . (Bernard, 1969: 327 ff.; 1971 : 414 ff.). In this respect, one should remember that the use of ~ o t t c r vfor the purposes of dating monuments is not easy at Ai Khanum, because of thc high degree of stability of pottery, tvpes and qualitv (Bernard, 1971 : 429-30). M'e may point out that thcb pottery from Ai Khanum shows a close relationship \vith the Hellenistic pottery of the Graeco-Mediterranean world, from the point of vie\v of both technique and shapes, though some types are peculiar t o the Orient (e.g. the "pilgrim-flasks"). Among thc Hellenistic t\.pes, "fish-dishes" , hemispherical bo\vls \vith ring-foot, and "MegarianV bow.1~arc ~ l o t e w o r t h(Gardin ~ in Bernard, 1973: 1 2 1-88, for a classification). The scope of the present book does not allow us t o go into a detailed description of all the monuments that either have been o r are being brought to light at Ai Khanum. W c arc only able t o list them: a house in the residential area of thc lo\r.er to\vn, siniilar in ~ l a to n a Parthian . . in Iran (Bernard, 1968: 272-6; 1969: 32 1--6; 1970: buildinq at R h a p e , the modern Kayy, 3 1 S 6 ) ; the villa cstra mocnia already rcferred t o (Bernard, 1 974q: 281-71; a G~ninasiumin C

226

1,.

\I7. h l A C I I O W A L L A N D h l . T A D I I E I

Fig. 4.30:

A i Khanun~."Tcmple a rcdans", stagc IV.

the northern area of the lower tobvn, which has been identified as such thanks t o its peculial. architc.cture as well as to a dedication t o Hcrmcs ant1 Herakles (Bernard, 1967a: 3 i 8--9; 1968: 276-9; Robert in Bernard, 1973: 208-1 1 ; Bernard, 1975; Bernard et a]. , 1976: 4 b 4 5 ; Bernard, 1976: 292-302); another heroon (Bernard, 1975; Hcrnard et a]., 1976: 25-39); thc theatre (Bernard, 1976: 3 14-22); etc. Nevertheless a few words must be added conccrning thc necropolis, due t o the enormous importance of this rccent discovery (Bernard, 1972). So far, a mausoleum has becw I>roughtto light, at the foot of t h e northeast side of the acropolis, outside the town walls. This is a mudIjrick rectangular building, p a r t l j underground anrl with vaulted ceilings, which unclcrncnt

scvcral modifications in its structure: a door o n o n c o f t h ( . si(lc*s 1 ~ inlo ~ 1 c,c,rrilloron eithcr sicit>of which opened a crypt; both thc corritlor ant1 the. two c . r y ~ twcrc. s v a u l t c ~ lhut , the whole huilcling probably had a flat roof. The mauu)lrum housc(l'two typt.s o f burial mud-brick sarcophagi for inhumations, and funerary jars in which were collc.ct(.cl an a ot hn his head, that Bernard ( 1974a: 301, Fig. 1 3 1 qualititas as of . s ~ , ]rustiyue; E a hcadlcss lim~.stoncfemale statuette from thc sanctuar\ 1 1 1 thc tt>nlplc

Fig. 4.31 : .4i K h a l i u n ~ .k u n c . ~ - a ~ ~- \- c ~ l i c *Il r o m t I i ( , nc~c.rol,olis, ~ . c ~ ~ ) ~ - c > cJ ~\ ~01111) i t ~ ~\i\ git11 I X , ~ A W Uali(1 ' Io~ig[lo\\ i n g hail. ( t h i ~ - (cl . c ~ ~ t u l H.( - \ . 1.

c-hlam\-s,

Fig. 4.32: A i (third ccntur:

Khanum. Moulding from a tcrracotta rnoul(l r-c.l,l-c,~c.nlinga Ic.malc, I)u>t ( I )c.nic,rc.r! I 13.c.) .

Fig. 4.33: AI Khanurn. Sll\cI- mctlalllon \11th C'\hclc o n a charlot; l ~ ~ - o h a lan ~ l \Import Iron1 5!r1a

( ~ I I I I Y Ic cntur\ n . c .

very close t o Hollcnistic motlcls from a typological point of',ricbw (Hcrnartl, 1972: Fig. 1 5) but certainly provincial in stylc and pointing towartls "Gan(lharanl' solutions; t w o hcatls (a female made ofunbakcd clay, and a male of stucco) from the oCtllc tc,ml>lc.b redans (Hcrnarcl, 1969: 344, Figs 19--20), which a r c probably the most c.vi(](*nt link hctwccn the Hellenistic products ant1 t h e latcr unbaked-clay sculptures of Khalchayan Gandhara, especially Tapa Sartlar ant1 Hatltla, which w e shall tliscuss later o n . In conclusion, A i Khanum as an a r t c e n t r e appears t o be closely linkctl t o Hcllcnistic culture but not'altogethcr excluding t h e Achaemenian tratlition from its r e p e r t o i r e , chiefly in architccturc; at t h e same t i m e the excavations at Ai Khanum bear witness t o the fact that Hactria was reatlj t o accept t h e protlucts of t h e Hcllcnizctl Near East antl able t o blcnO the various trarlitions into an original style, t h e Greek character of which was its distinguishing trait in relation t o t h e o t h e r ncighbouring cultures. Bactrian art is indeetl t h e o u t c r o p of an klite culture; when t h e tradition of Grcck art fin& its way into t h e everyday figural language of larger groups of population, that will be the birth of Gantlharan a r t . It is also possible that this transformation of Graeco-Bactrian into Gandharan art cannot be lLllv untlerstootl in t h c light of t h e excavations at Ai Khanum alone, and that o t h c r sitcs in Afghanistan prcscrvc towns still awaiting excavation that flourished f r o m t h e Graeco-Bactrian pcrio(l through t h e Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian, and well into t h e Kushan period. Such seems t o be t h e case at Emshi-tepe (only 4 k m northeast of Shibarghan, north Afkhanistan), a site alreatly visitctl by Hargcr ant1 W r i g h t (1941 : 54) w h e r e t h e Afghan-Soviet Mission rcccntly brought t o the light a t o w n , round in plan, whose life probably began in thc Grac,co-Bactrian pcriotl and continued until t h e fourth t o fifth century A . D .(Kruglikova and Sarianitli, 1971 : 20--26; Kruglikova, 1973). T h c French excavations at Balkh in 1924-25 w e r c cc,rtainly disappointing; the trialtrenches of 1947 present us with firmer grountl for t h e stucly of t h e pottery in this period (Gartlin, 1957a; see also Young, 1955, on t h e Pennsylvania University w o r k at Halkh in 1953). In this connection o n e must also mention t h e excavation of Hcgram, t h e ancicnt Kapisi of \vhic.h morc. will be saitl in t h e ncxt chapter, w h e r e t h e earliest pcriotl (Regram I) has bccn clatc(l t o the sccontl century ~ . ~ . / s c c ~century ntl ~ . i ) (Ghirshman, . 1946). T h e pottcry from this carlv periocl inclutlcs a grcyware which, according t o F . K . Allchin (personal communication), sccms t o havc its clearest parallcls from t h e lowest Icvcls of Shaikhan Dhcri, Charsacla, mainly in t h e Grcck ant1 Sc:ytho-Parthian lcvcls (Ilani, 1965-66: 136 N.);antl somc large bowls of unpolishctl rctlware, with cvr.rtc(l rims, that find parallels from Sirkap (Taxila) I>c.t\~.cc.n5 0 R . C . ant1 A , ] ) .50, T c p c Zargaran (Halkh) i r n r n c t l i a t ~ bcforcl~ ant1 after the cntl of the Gracco-Bactrian kingtlom, and Kobatlian, in Sovict Tajikistan, b r t w c c n t h c thirtl antl fil-st c.cbntur!. r3.c., thus provitling links t o o t h c r sitcs tlistributetl over t h c wholc arca affcctctl I>\. t h c tlil'fusion of Gracco-Hactrian inlluencc (t;)r thew parallc.ls, t h e pottcrv from Ralkh, ant1 a cliscussion of t h c af;)rcmt~ntionctltlatings proposctl for Hcgram, Sirkap ant1 Kol>atlian, S C ~ Gartlin, 1957a: 2 3 , 8 8 ant1 thv bihliographj- quotc.tl thcrvin). T h e cxcavations rcccntlv startc,tl by a British Mission at Shahl--i Kohna, Kantlahar scrm to ;I I.C-c~oll.s, leaning 011 a

S U C C ~ ~ ~ S S ~ Ifrom II thv outscSt; thc'il- pul>lication has apl>carctl in t h e journal of the Soc,ic,t\ 101-Afghan Stutlics (Whitc,housc, 1978; Mc,Nic,oll, 1978).

I121.(~I)c('11

I ig. 4. 34: Karltl.11

rubblc-built wall footings, thc remains of what appears t o bc a working-class rcsidcntia] arcs ofto\\.n, arc datable on the of numismatic cviclence "to the late Mauryan period and to tllc floruit of' Indo-Greck power", i . e . 250-1 50 R . C . ( A . McNicoll: typewritten preliminary reports, 1975). Otllcr sites arc promising but have either not been thoroughly investigated o r only their existence has been recorded. Such is thc case, for instance, o f Shahr-i Hanu, near Tashkhurgan, \+.here in 1938-39 some French excavations showed the superposition of' several towns, yielding Kushan coins from the upper layers and coins of Euthydemus and Heliocles from the lo\ver (Carl, 1959a); and of a town in the Wardak district, betwccn Kabul and Ghazni, where surface sherd collection points t o the Kushan age but the plan suggests the existence of analogies with Ai Khanum (Fussman, 1974b). Lastly w e must mention the hypothesis, that Bactrian art was well accepted outsitle Hactria, at the Parthian court of Nisa, where the fimous rhyta found by the Soviet archaeologists (Masson and Pugachenkova, 1956-59) may be regarded as the richest group of Bactrian art objects ever found, as has been cautiously suggested by Bernard (1971 : 433; but also Barnett, 1968).

The Pre-Muslim Period D . W .Mac Dowall and M . Taddei

Historical Background The Kushans In the mid second century B . C . t h e Yuch-chi tribe had migrated wcst\vard Iiorn the borders of China into Central Asia, after being defeated by the Hiung-nu, a neighbouring t r i l x oi'Turki nomads of t h e same stock. In t h e first century B . C . the Yuch-chi had scttlcd in Hac,tria and other mountain territories of the former Indo-Greek kings. At this stage the\. w c r c ~ c . ~ a r a t c ( l into five principalities. Eventually about the beginning of the Christian cra the principality o f the Kushans attacked and destroyed the o t h e r four hsi-hou. T h e Chintbsc annals describe ho\v the Kushan king invaded An-hsi (Parthia o r Indo-Parthia) took control of Kao-fu (Kabul) and destroyed P'u-ta and Chi-pin (the Punjab and Kashmir). T h e early Kushan king Kujula Kadphises is kno\\.n from his coins t o havc rulcd in sc\,c,ral provinces, but seems t o have lost control of most of the Indus vallcj. t o the Indo-Parthian ernpire of Gondophares and Abdagases in the first half of t h c first century A . D . T h e Narnclcss King, known only from his titles on coins and inscriptions as the King of Kings, the grcat, t h c saviour (Sorer ,Megas), seems t o ha\.e heen the first Kushan rulcr of the cmpirc that strc*tc.hcd from Bactria across eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan t o the uppcr Gangcs in India. His successor Vima Kadphises consolidated t h e ernpirc; and \vas in turn succccclccl bv t h c threc great Kushan kings, Kanishka, Huvishka and Vasude\.a, \vho bet\~.ec,nthem rulcd t h e Kushan e n i p i r ~ .for about a century. Although h e \\.as not thc first Kushan king. Kanishka introduced a nc,\v era. Its reference date is disputed (see bclo\+- p . 240) but Kanishka's accession shoultl I ~ r o b a b l ybe placed early in t h e second century A . D . In a series of bold campaigns h e suc-c-ccdctl in enlarging t h e Kushan empirc; his successor Hu\,ishka lost t h c most tlistant pro\.inccs of' Chinese Turkestan and eastern India; but his successor Vasudcva still I-uled a p o ~ v e r f u lkingdom \vhich controlled major sections of important trade routcs. M'hcn ojcrland trade through Iran was interrupted by t h e Parthians, the Kushans \r-txre ahlc t o 1"-ovide a safe r o u t e from Balkh through Kabul, Peshalvar and the lndus \allc\ t o Broach on the I ~ ~ t l i aOnc e a n . From h e r e sea traders \vould c a r r j merchandise t o Alexandria and the Kornan t.rnpire. t h e r e is striking evidence of strong Gracco-Roman intlucnce in t h e During this (lc\.clopment of Gandharan sculpture and Buddhist art and in the Kushan coinages. Under t h e

233

I',ltl-()nagc 0 1 ' the Great Kushans, Hud(lhism spl-cat1 first wcstwarcls into Afghanistan ant1 tllcn across ccntl-dl Asia to China, 1c.atling t o the, cstal~lishmcnto f ' n ~ o n a s t ~ r i at c s oascs on th(>trade routc.

The Later Kushans and Kushano-Sasanians TIlc history of the later Kushan empire rcmains obscure. It came into conflict the‘ I,o~,crt'ulSasanian Empire of Iran, w.hich was establisht~dearly in thc thin1 ccntury A . D . and \vhich sccms t o have conquered some western Kushan provinces. There is late c'vicn(lant on Zal,ul, hut subsequently t h e Kabuli Shahis became the powrrful rulers of' cast Afghanistan. T h e Turki dvnasty numbered among its kings Vrahitigin, Tigin Shah, and Khinjil. T h c kings wcbrc Buddhists but t h e Hindu gods, especially Siva and Ilurga, wcrc. worshippctl. Albiruni describes t h e m as T u r k s w h o w e r e said t o b r of Tibetan origin tracing thcir dcscc.nt in 6 0 generations from Kanik ( i . e . Kanishka) and so descendents of the old Turki o r Kushan dvnastv. T h e Hindu Shahi dynasty was founded by Kallar the Brahman minister w h o overthrc\r the last T u r k i Shahi. Inevitably they came into conflict with t h c rising power of Islam. Yaqub captured Kabul in 870. T h e Shahis subsequently recoveretl the city, but transfcrrc(1 thcir capital at this period t o Hund, a town on the lndus 2 5 km above Attock in n ~ o d c r nI'akistan. Thc position of t h e Shahis \vorsened when a line of strong Islamic rulcrs became established in Ghazni, after Alptegin, a Turkish slave, became master of the fort t h c r r in 962. His general and successor Sebuktegin (977-997) annexed Kabul in 977 and repeatedly raided the territory of Jaypal the Shahi king. Finally in a pitched battle near Laghman in 990 Sebuktcgin decisively defeated Jaypal and annexed the province of Jalalabad and the remaining Afghan territories of thc Shahis.

Epigraphy The Surkh Kotal Inscriptions The French excavations at Surkh Kotal near Pul-i-Khumri (Schlumberger, 1952a, 1954, 195 5 , 1964b) have revealed an important Kushan dvnastic shrine situated o n a steep hill and ,llyxoachcd by a brick and cut-stone stairway 55 m high. T h e finds included several royal \taturs in stone, religious images in stucco and an important series of Bactrian inscriptions in c lcar Greek script but in an Iranian language that has been recognized as the middle Iranian 1,uiguage of Hartria, rather than the language of t h e Kushan invaders of Bactria.

The Great Inscription In 1957 at t h e main entrance t o t h c principal staircase, set into t h e enclosure wall, t h e ctuca\.ators disco\ercd the most important inscription at Surkh Kotal (Maricq, 1958:

Fig. 5.1: Surkh Kotal. Thc great inscr~ptiunfrom

the vntrancc to thc p r i n ~ ~ p staircase, al in Grcck

script an0 the Iranian language of Bac tria.

345-440; Bmvcniste, 1961 : 1 14-1 17; Harmatta, 1964: 373-471 ) (Fig. 5 . 1 ) . It is in excellent condition written in cursive Greek letters similar t o those used on the coins of Kanishka. Unfortunatcly the words of the text are engraved continuously and t h e r e have becn serious philological problems and disputes about its interpretation. It is now clear that the inscription, which visitors woulcl have scen at the main entry t o the staircase, describes the sanctuary as the Kanishka Oanindo (Nikator) sanctuary, t o which thc lord king gave Kanishka's name. Soon af'ter its completion t h r sanctuary became waterlrss, and the building hecame desolate. Thcn Nokonzoko, the district superintendent in year 3 1 had the building surrounded with a wall, had a wcll dug and appointed an overseer. Subsequently twro further ~ e r s i o n sof the main text w r r c rccovcrcd from fifty-thrcc blocks of stones h u n d in thc large wcll or built into the walls of thc stairs leading t o it. Ycar 31 of the Kanishka cra falls in the reign of Huvishka, the successor of Kanishka. While it is clear that thc huilcling inscription records the provision o f t h r sccui-c m.atcr suppl!, \vl~ichinadc it possihlc t o use thc building undcr Hurishka in year 3 I , it remains amhigoous whcthcr the shrinc \vas built hy Kanishka t o c o m m c n ~ o r a t ca victory soon aiicr his accession

5.

THE PKE-MUSLIM PEKIOI)

237

and was restored with a secure water supply thirty years later, o r whether it was built about the time of Kanishka's death and the well and enclosure wall were simply added a f r w years later t o provide the water supply necessary for its use.

The Monumental Wall lnscription (Curiel, 1954: 1 8 S 9 3 ; Maricq, 1958: 414-6; Benveniste, 1961 : 141- 50) carved on a series of blocks that seem originally t o have been in a line along the second terrace as one climbs the great staircase, was a monumental wall inscription of which twelve fragments were recovered, some still i n rjtu. It had large letters, between 5 and 7.5 cm high, indicating its importance. It seems t o have been the foundation inscription of the sanctuary, whereas other inscriptions refer t o later stages of construction. There are not enough word fragments t o reconstruct it with any certainty, but it does contain a date including the Bactrian numeral for one, i.e. year 1, 11, 21, 31 o r some larger number. It probably contained a traditional formula corresponding t o the framework of the Great Inscription (Harmatta, 1965: 195-205).

The Palamedes Inscription (Curiel, 1954: 194-7; 1 49- 164)

Maricq, 1958: 430-1 ; Benveniste, 1961 : 1 5&2; Harmatta, 1965:

A further fragmentary inscription contains t w o clear M-ordsthat leave us in little doubt about its contents. Henning (1966: 3 3 6 7 ) recognized one as the Sogdian ByS'n'k-temple, altar, sanctuary that still survives as the modern place name Baghlan for this locality. The second is the Greek name Palamedes in the genitive. It presumably referred t o the construction of the sanctuary "through Palamedes" the Greek who was either its architect, agent o r clerk of works.

The Unjnished lnscription (Curiel, 1954: 193-4; Maricq, 1958 : 345-440) Equally puzzling is the other inscription which has a date--the stone slab on which the cutter has sketched in the first line of an inscription but only engraved fully in its final form the first six letters . . . "in the year 2 . . ." Different readings have been given for the last tu.0 digits of the number because they are simplv sketched in roughly on the stone. Reading the third digit as eta Maricq gave 285. Harmatta (1 965: 164-195) reading them as koppa and rhcta gives 299. If as seems more likely they are ornlcron and theta the date is year 279. Bivar (1963: 498-502) has argued that an earlier era, the Old Saka era, is used because when the unfinished inscription was cut in 279 the new- era of Kanishka had not yet been introduced, I . t , . !.ear 279 must come immediatelv before year 1 of Kanishka. Fussman (1974a: 3%0) rightly points out that the inscription had been abandoned after very little work, was reused

\vIlen the level of the cella M,as raised and had no intcgral part in thc Iatcr builtling. Harmatta (1965: 164-195) has tried t o rcconstruct the scratched-in text and reads a scries of K u h h a n titles. The interpretation of these must howcver now be reviewed in the light ol' the newly discovered inscription from Dasht-i-Nawar with the same date of 279.

The Inscription at Dasht-i-Nawar The Greek and Kharoshthi Inscriptions In 1967 a French geologist first drew attention t o a series of five inscriptions cut on a rock of volcanic origin at an altitude of 4320 m on the west side of the Dasht-i-Nawar about 49 km west of Ghazni (Fussman, 1974a: 8-22). O n e of the larger inscriptions (Fig. 5.2) uses the monumental Greek script of the early Kushan period that w e know from the monumental wall inscription at Surkh Kotal and is in the Bactrian language. It has a date in the month of Gorpiaios of year 279 and includes the name of a King Ooemo. T o the right is a Middle Indian inscription in Kharoshthi script which also begins with a date 279 in the month of Gorpiaios followed by the king's name Rajatirajasa . . . Vhamakusasa . . . T h e r e were clearly two versions of the same text-one in Bactrian the other in Middle I n d i a ~ m e n t i o n i nthe ~ name and titles of the great Kushan king Vima Kadphises.

The lnscription i n an Unknown Language The third inscription, the best preserved of the series, is written in a script derived from Kharoshthi, similar t o the Kharoshthi of the Kushan coins, but it is in an unknown local Iranian language and remains undeciphered (Fussman, 1974a: 22-3 1). The script reads from right t o left, and has diacritical marks similar t o those on a painted graffito fragment discovered at Surkh Kotal (Mariq, 1958: 417) and a potsherd from Khalchayan (Pugachenkova, 1966: 59). T h e series at Dasht-i-Nawar is completed by t w o further inscriptions in poor c o n d i t i o ~ o n cin Greek and one in Kharoshthi script. The location of these five inscriptions is particularly remote and must have been equally so in antiquity. Like the introduction of a royal gold coinage, the use of rock cut trilingual inscriptions in an inaccessible place seems t o be part of the deliberate Iranism of the early Kushans who seem to have consciously adopted practices associated with the Achaemenid grcat king whose successor they claimed t o be.

The special intercst of the Dasht-i-Nawar inscriptions lies in their chronology. W e now have dates for the Kushan king Vima Kadphises in t w o numerical sequcnccs--the higher one 279 used here and in the unfinished Bactrian inscription at Surkh Kotal-the lower one of 184 or 187 found in the Kharoshthi inscription of Vima at Khalatse, a village in Ladakh 8 0 km below

1929: 79-8 1 1. This rctlr'cts thc' pattern at tlro datr' scqucncca that \I c. hnrl in thc kharoshthi inscriptions of northcrn Pakistan after the t ~ m cof Azcs 11. In the higher scrlt..* J ~ h o n i kthc a satrap, whose coin tvpcs copy Azes 11 and are copied in turn bv Kujula Kadphiscs, Ira\ a date of year 191 on the Taxila silver duck Yase (Konow , 1929: 81-83; MacUowall. 1973: 2 1 5-230) a date that g i ~ e 90 s years for the rule of Kujula Kadphiscs, Gondophares, Abdagases & ~ nthe d Nan~eIessKing Sotcr Megas beforc year 279 in the reign of Vima. In the Ion e r series ~;ondophares,whose prcdccessors Indra-\tarnla and Aspal-arma copy the coin types of Azes 11, 11~1s a dating of I03 at Takht-i-Bahi (Keno\%, 1929: 57-62) and the Nameless King Sotcr Mc'gas ha4 clatcs of' I22 011 tile Panjtar stclnc, 134 at1 thc Kala~rancopper platc an11 136 on thc Tasila I

(,I1 ( K o n o w ,

240

D . w . M A C DOWALL A N D M . TADDEI

silver

scroll t o give some 8 0 years in all befbre the Vima dating of 186 from KhalatsC (MacDo~lall1 , 9 6 8 ~ 1-2 : 1). Vima's absolute date turns on the eras t o which these sequences are attributed. Fussman links 279 t o the Graeco-Bactrian era of independence from the Seleucids in 247 B . C . t o give a date of A . D . 32 for Vima. Bivar explains 279 by the Indo-Greek era of Menander when the Bactrian Greeks conquered the Indus provinces and the 184 o r 187 of Khalatse t o the Vikrama o r Azes era of 58 B.c.-to give a date of A . D . 124 for Vima. Their interpretations are understandably influenced by their differing views on the era of Kanishka, who was Vima's direct successor.

Other Kharoshthi Inscriptions The Era

of Kanishka

From the various provinces of the Kushan empire come an important series of inscriptions dated in the era of Kanishka. Those in Brahmi from Mathura and the upper Ganges valley are dated between years 2 and 9 8 , and there is a second series with later dates from 1 to 57. Among the Bactrian inscriptions from Surkh Kotal, the Great Inscription, discussed above, has a date of 3 1 in the era of Kanishka. Most of t h e Kharoshthi inscriptions associated with this era come from the Indus v a l l e r i n particular the northern provinces of Pakistan and the western province of Afghanistan. Recorded dates range from year 2 to year 89 and this gives a firm relative chronology. Unfortunately there is a continuing dispute about the initial year to which Kanishka's era should be referred (Basham, 1965; Gafurov, 1974). Many Indian scholars continue t o assert that it is identical with the Saka era of the western satraps in A . D . 78. Most western scholars now support a date in the early second century A . D . between A . D . 120 and 144 while Gobl(1964: 137-1 51) argues for A . D . 230 and Zeymal(1974: 292-301) for A . D . 278.

Afghan Inscriptions Connected with the Kanishka Era The Afghan Kharoshthi inscriptions dated in Kanishka's era are associated with Buddhist stupa deposits. Among the antiquities sent from Kabul t o the East India Company by Charles Masson was a brass casket which had an inscription on its lic&"in year 18 . . . the Gotama's relic was enshrined. " (Konow, 1929: 1 5 1-1 52). From a stupa at Hadda, 8 km from Jalalabad, Masson recovered a jar which contained a Kharoshthi inscription "written writh a pen but very carelessly". It was published by Thomas from a copy he found among Masson's papers at the India Office in London (Konow, 1929: 157- 158). He read "in year 28 . . . a relic was deposited in the king's grove in a stupa by t h c architect Samghamitra. From a stupa near Wardak, 50 km west of Kabul, Masson recovered a bronze vase some 25 cm high and 14 cm broad, now in the British Museum, London (Konow, 1929: 165-170). The vase has a long inscription in four lines round its shoulder and circumference. It is datcd in vear 5 1 and records the establishment of t h e relic by Vagramarega in a stupa for thc Maharaja Hujrishka, and for the honour of the dedicator's relatives, friends and associates. I ,

5.

THE PRE-MUSLIM PERIOD

241

undated Kharoshthi lnscriptions From Lalpura near Jalalabad comes a small stone relief of two wrestlers now in the Prshawar Museum (Shakur, 1946: 27-29). It has a short Kharoshthi legrnd in later Kushan script: ~ l n a n d r a s a the , Greek name Menander. Also of Kushan date in the srcond o r third century A . D . because of its letter forms and the pot on which it was written, is the Kharoshthi inscription of Sihusada from Hadda, now in the Kabul Museum (Fussman, 1969: 5--9). Thc inscription is written in ink on the shoulder of a vase which was fount1 in a larger jar with earth and bones. It seems t o have been a funerary jar and inscription. Three of the small tcrracotta implements used by potters t o thin the walls of their vessels that were discovcrcd in the Begram excavations have Kharoshthi inscriptions of the Kushan p c r i o c L a name in the genitive indicating their owner (Fussman, 1970: 43-55). O n e of them refers t o a Buddhist-"he who is protected by the Samgha." Numerous sherds with inscriptions in Kharoshthi and Brahmi have been discovered at Hadda in the excavations of D r Mustamandi and D r Tarzi. The French excavations at the Buddhist monastery of Guldara 1 5 km southeast of Kabul between 1963 and 1965 produced ninc fragmentary Kharoshthi inscriptions, two fragmentary inscriptions in cursite Bactrian and one that may be in Kamboji, found on sherds from vases that had once belonged t o the Buddhist monastery in Kushan times (Fussman and LC Berre, 1976: 92-94). O t h e r fragmentary Kharoshthi inscriptions on sherds have been discovered at Basawal (Mizuno, 1971 : 41) and in southern Bactria. These sherd inscriptions in ink on vases that belonged t o monastic communities are known from a series of Buddhist sites such as Takht-i-Bahi, Palatu Dheri and Shahr-i-Bahlol in Pakistan, and Kara Tepe by Old Termez in USSR on the Oxus frontier.

Later Inscriptions The Use of Bactrian Bactrian remained in use for a very long time in Afghanistan and northern Pakistan. Under Kanishka the Kushan coinage substituted Bactrian for Greek legends and discontinued the use of Kharoshthi at its mints. In royal titulature Basileus Basileon Lvas replaced by Shaonano Shao (Giibl, 1960a: 94-96) and the names of divinities such as Helios and Selene became Mioro and Mao. Under the Great Kushans the script remains largely the monumental script of the Surkh Kotal inscriptions: but \vith the Kushano-Sasanians, Bactrian cursive was employed on the ins(Bivar, 1956: 13-42). Its use \vas continued under successive rulers of the Hunnish and Turkish periods (Hunibach, 1966: 5&69). The earliest Shahi coins in the first issue of Spalapati I)c\.a still ha\.e a cursive Bactrian leeend on the reverse transliterating the Sharada legend of thc o b ~ e r s e but , the use of Bactrian is abandoned in favour of Sharada in the later issues. Most OF the inscriptions of the Shahi period come from Pakistan and are in Indian scripts, but the Iatc use of Bactrian is attested in the inscriptions from the Tochi valley in northwest Pakistan (Humbacli, 1966: 105-1 17). T\vo of these have dates in years 632 and 635 of a Bactrian era, m provided tllc r u r r e a r v of Kahul. thc KohcLman and Lohistan districts (Hac.kin, 1935: LS7--292) (Fig. 5.2 1 ). The coppc.r coins art. comnlon at Hcgram; .lad a notc~ac,rth\hoard of silver coins ofthis t r p r \var disrovcrcd at Gardrr in 1957 (Sccrrato, 1967: 23). The. v,lric.tv ofstvlcs ,lnd scripts ustd in this coiuagc sugccsts that thcrc. IIIA\. Ilavtx I>~,CII ,I n i ~ l l l l ~ of c r ~ S S U C SI)v tiitYcr~~lt kings over a broad spread of tinle; hut tilt-re‘ is

Fig. 5.20: Silver drachm of Napki Malik type with the Sasanian reverse type of fire altar and two attendants. Pte. Collection.

Fig. 5.21: Copper coin of Napki Malik with the same obverse and reverse types. Pte. Collection.

Fig. 5.22: Base silver Gadhaiya paisa from the 1973 Kandahar hoard with a crude head on the obverse, and a stylized fire altar on the reverse ultimately derived from the standard types of the Sasanian drachm. Pte. Collection.

' I

LF

Fig. 5.23: Shahi silver coin of Samanta Deva from the 1970 Shewaki hoard with the types of a recumbent bull and a horseman. Pte. Collection.

5.

T H E P R E - M U S L I M PF.RIC)D

253

disagreement about their attribution. Earlier scholars associated them with thc. ~ q h t h a l i t e s but , there is much t o commend the view that they arc coins in the Hrphthalitr tradition but of the Turki period of the later sixth and early scvcnth ccnturies * . I , .

The lssues of Vrahitigin ~ e m o n s t r a b l ylater, because they are sometimes ovcrstruck on the drachms of Napki Malka, are the silver drachms of Vrahitigin. (Giibl, 1967, 1: 142- 145). They havc a bust t h r r c quarters frontal of the king with legends in both Bactrian and Proto-sharacla, and the facing head of a divinity crowned by flames with a Pahlavi legend on the rcvrrse. Thc king's cro\vn has a wolf's head design-the wolf being the legendary ancestor of the Turki racc. The ticity is copied from the type on coins of Khusru 11 ( A . D . 591 -628 ). Vrahitigin's coins have becn found in the Indus valley and from the stupa at Manikyala in northern Pakistan; Lord acquired 4 0 specimens from north of the Hindu Kush mountains and Cunningham rcceived about 30 from Kabul. These rare coins seem t o be issues of the Turki Shahis of thc latcr sc\ cnth century A . D . From this period is the small group of coins, buried in a cinerary urn'hclow t h r p r ~ n c e l y couple in Niche E at Fondukistan. It includes countermarked coins of Sri Sahi and t\vo silvcr drachms of Khusru 11. O n e of these was struck in year 37, i . e . A . D . 657 but the t w o countermarks can be dated t o A . D . 682 and 689 (Gdhl, 1967: 11, 31 3-3 14).

G a d h a y a Paisa The base silver Gadhaiya currency of Rajputana and Gujarat (from the eighth century A . D . (Smith, 1906: 240) derived ultimately from a Sasanian prototype, is sometimes found in Afghan collections, and a hoard discovered near Kandahar was offered for sale in the bazaar at Kabul during 1973 (Fig. 5.22).

Problem of the Shahi Coinage The Pattern of the Coinage Between A . D . 750 and 1000 the currency of eastern Afghanistan and Gandhara was provided b y the extended issues of the silver coinage of the S h a h i s a t first the kings of Kabul and subsequently the rulers of Ohind (Smith, 1906: 243-9; MacDowall, 1968: 1 8 S 2 2 4 ) . Throughout the whole of this period the Shahis used standard obverse t \ p e of a recunibmt lndian humped bull with the reverse type of a horseman. Most of the coins have an o b ~ e r s e Icgrnd in Sharada script-either Srl spa lap at^ Deva o r Srl Sarnanta Dera. hut thesc are titles not personal names, Spalapati being a Sanskritized version of a Persian title for comrnandcr in chief and Samanta having some significance in Sanskrit. Bull and horseman coins of this series in both silver and billon are all of approximately the same w e i ~ h and t \vcre clearly intended t o pass as the same denomination. W e can ho\ve\t.l- distinguish the successive issues of the

coinage I,\- the Icttcrs and other s\mhols scrving as privy marks in the revrrse field and can put then1 into their chronological sequence by a study of the developing changcs in the type and fl-om tllc sn~allbut progressi\,e reduction in the real silvcxr content of the denomination and the ncight standard t o \vhich successive issues were struck.

Silver Coins of Spalapati Deva The earliest group of the Shahi silver coins is distinguished by its obverse legcn&the titles Srr S f a I a p a t i De1.a. Coins with this legend are struck between 3.1 and 3 - 5 g with a remarkably uniform content of 700, silvcr. In the first issuc of this group the rt,verse legend repeats in c.ursi\.e Bactrian script the Sharada of the obverse. This is copied but progressi\ely misunderstood in subsequent issues. At one stage in the series a Brahmi Icgend Shah1 Dcva is substituted, but this in turn is n~isunderstoodand becomes a decorative scroll that has been mistaken for an Arabic date. In issue there is a series of small letters serving as privy marks below the horseman on the reverse.

Silver Coins of Samanta Deva The second major group of this coinage has the obverse legend Srl Samanta Deva. It is still in p o d metal, but nowr with a wider variation in silver content between 6 0 and 700/0 and is struck t o a slightly Iow~er\vt.ight range between 2.9 and 3.9 g. Again w e can distinguish a series of issues by the use of Sharada letters and o t h e r control marks. Associated chronologically with this group are t w o comparatively rare issue-one with Sri Khudavayaka Dcva struck t o the distinctly lower weight standard of the Arabic dirhem of the reformed currency introduced by 'Abd al-Malik, possibly t o be associated with the Muslim capture of Kabul in A . D . 8 7 G t l l e other with Sri Bhima Deva perhaps the King Bhim known from inscriptions t o have been the ruler in Hund about A . D . 950.

The Shahi Copper Denominations Thc copper issues constituted a complementary denomination that provided the small change for the, Bull and Horscman silver. They too suffered a progressive reduction in weight and ha1.c pri\.y n ~ a r k s ,somctimcs echoing those on the silver, that enables us t o establish their chronological sequence. Thc Hull and Horseman coppers of Spalapati, are succeeded by the Lion and Elephant coppers o f Vakka and finally the Lion and Elephant coppers of Samanta.

The Billon Currency Thc third major g r o u l ~ c o i n sin hillon with the Samanta Deva Icgend that have a silvcr content o f 2 5 t o 30',, only sho\vs a sharp reduction from the last silvcr issuc n.ith 110 p~-og~.essi\.c, tlehasemr~ltthat could bridge, the gap. The reason seems t o 11aI.c I ~ e c nthat t h ~ Shahis hat1 exhausted their rcser\.cs of bullion and \\.ere dcprivctl o f t h e important sil\.er mines

5.

T H I . I ~ I < I . - M U SIIM 1'1-HIOI)

25 5

()l'al-~anjshirwhich stem to h a w passcd permanently under Muslin, control I,, tI,(. rnicIcIICr,i thc tcnth century A . D . This was the billon currency that was copied extc.n\i\c.lv I,v th(. Islamic rulers of Ghazni, and bv the dynasties of Kanauj, Ajmir and I)cllli. 0

Hoards a n d Site Finds The principal evidence for the (listribution of Shahi coins in Afghanistan has so far h(*c.ntlram.11 from collections made in Kabul and its locality. The arrangement sct out abovc. ha5 nc.c.c.hsarilv been based on internal numismatic analysis; but thc scqurncc of the coppcr issucs has now been tested and confirmed by the stratified finds f r o n ~thc c*xcavations at Llamkot near Chakdara in Pakistan (Kahman, 1969: 143- 150). A hoard of 199 copper Shahi coins, all 01' Vakka Deva found in Jalalabad in 1971, a silver hoard all of thc last silver issuc*of Samanta I)c.va discovered at Shewaki in 1970 , a silver hoard of unknown but Afghan provenanw (big. 5 . 2 3 ) containing three worn coins of Spalapati and three issues of Sarnanta, offered for salt. in Kabul bazaar in 1972, and a silver hoard of some 50 coins of Samanta Dcva from Quncluz ot'fcbrcd for sale in Kabul bazaar in 1976 will produce important new material for study.

Settlement, Material Culture, Architecture and Art The archaeology of Afghanistan for the period following the Graeco-Bactrians and prcccding the Muslim conquest suffers from the fact that most of the held rcscarchers who have \r.orked in the area have been more interested in the discovcr~ot'n~onumc.ntalarchitccture and oblects d ' o r t than in the reconstruction of everyday life and material culture. This attitude has I>rought about a somehow misleading picture of Afghanistan in the Kushan and post-Kushan period as one of intense religious and artistic activity, but often escapes our efforts t o understand the economic and social background of that activity. Such efforts are indeed based chiefly on epigraphy, coinage (often unstratified) and literary sources; only t o a much lesser tlcgree are they based on the results of digging in habitation areas. Actually this kind of excayation, d i g i n g out a town with all its successive building horizons and its extension over a large area, calls for a greater tinancial effort and often appears Icss rewarding t o the eyes of the public, than docs the more certain succ-css o i t h e excavation o f a trpr concealing the remains of a stupa, with rich and attractive sculptural drcoration. llnfortunately even the understanding of the ideological level is difficult if not impossiblr \\.bile the socio-economic level of a civilization remains unknown. This is \vhy the many liuddhist architectural complexes that half a century of archaeological excavations hajc. I>rought t o light are mute when we try t o understand \vhich social group had them built, for \~.boseuse they w e r r intended, who was actually employed in thcir construction, what social ra11k o r status \*.as occupied by those who planned thcm and those who decorated thmm \vith sc~olpturesand paintings, who \vas rntitlrd t o accept a proicct and choose the suhiects t o be I-cpresented on a stupa o r in a chapcl, ctc.

Fig. 5.24:

Fig. 5.25.

The H(>gl-ani TI-c\asul-c.I ~ l a \ t ccml~lclna ~0 1 a n t-l)hcl>c~.

. .I(.

lS(,g~..... 1'1( > A \ ~ I Ic ' . ...~I-GI\ ('(1 c I \ \t,i.

,,I])

Among the few town sites idcntihccl and partially t P l c r t Hegram first clt.mancls attention. This site, which is about 45 km north of Kabul, was noticc.tl in 1833 anti rhcsn macl{. known t o scholars by Charles Masson (Wilson, 1841 ); A . Fc,uchcr i(lably Alcxandr~an.

Span \j,ithin \\Iiich thc iarious components of the whole hoard have 13ec.n placctl is fronI tlIc tirat ccotur\ B . c . , to the beginning of the third century A . D . , the Indian ivorirs being apparcntlv the earliest (Davidson, 1972). T h e date of concealment is also puzzling, since thr. stratigraphic data are vague and indirect. Ghirshman (I 946) tried t o establish a stratigraphic succession, including three phases: the tirat Indo-Grerk, the second corresponding t o the Great Kushan, the t h i r b b l l o w i n g a \ iolent d e s t r u c t i o ~ t o the period of the Kushano-Sasanians, up t o the Hephthalite invasion that caused the to\vn t o be abandoned. T h e building structures found by Hackin woul(l belong, according t o Ghirshman, t o the second and third phases; the "palace" would llabe been destroj ed in about the middle of the third century, when the Sasanian cmperor Shapur I conquered the Kushans. W e must confess that the whole picture is not altogether clear and several inconsistencies have been pointed out (e.g. Kuwayama, 1974a). Even if it is indisputable that the Begram hoard is a proof of the cosmopolitanism of t h e Kushan sovereigns t o be ranked along with the documents of local artistic activity which will be discussed in the following pages, Begram itself, in the words of Sir Mortimer Wheeler (1 955: 195), " W h e r e so little work has yet been done though with such dramatic results, remains a challenge t o the explorerw. An urban site the exploration of which will be certainly rewarding is the ancient t o n n (Shahr-i Kohna) of Kandahar, \\-here a British Mission is currently excavating. The importance of the site \\as emphasized as a consequence of the discovery of Asokan inscriptions and several contributions dealing with the identification of Kandahar with the metro poll^ Arochoslos of Isidorus of Charax as well as with the ancient topography of Arachosia, have added much to our knowledge (Fischer, 1958a; Sccrrato, 1964; Fussman, 1966; Fischer, 1967; Bernard, 1 974b). What is \isible on the surface is subject t o natural erosion but from the aerial ~ h o t o g r a p h s , one can still recognize several elements of the pre-Islamic town: (1) the impressively thick fortifications built with mud bricks of 4 0 x 4 0 x 1 0 c m (such large bricks are not known from the Muslim ~ e r i o d ) encompassed , by a large ditch and dominated by a citadel; (2) t w o extensions, t o the north and south, probably suburbs; (3) a Buddhist monastery with a stupa (Fussman, 1966) (Fig. 5.32). ~ more precise The diggings at Shahr-i Kohna of Kandahar are now ~ r o v i d i nsomething (Fig. 5.33). ' ' O n the evidence of the 1975 excavations, the Kushan occupation appears to be s , the late Islamic occupation. . . . The architecture of the most cxtensile, apart, ~ e r h a ~from this period differs from trench t o trench, although the large so-called Kushan brick, measuring up t o 45 X 45 x 8 cm" is found in all sites (A. McNicoll: typewritten ~ r e l i m i n a r yreport, 1975). W e should here recall that Fussman has recorded the size of 40 x 4 0 x 10 c m for bricks in the fortification walls and add that McNicoll himself, in an earlier report of 1975, referred t o bricks 43 x 4 3 x 911 0 c m in size. This means that at Kandahar there seems t o be the same variety of square bricks the Italian archaeologists havc noticcd at Tapa Sardar, Ghazni, between the Kushanand the Shahi period, the succession being43 x 43 x 9 / 1 0 (early), 46 X 4 7 x 9 c (middle), 4 0 x 4 0 x 10 o r even 38 X 38 X 10 (late). The characteristic pottery of the Kushano-Sasanian pcriod at Kandaliar is thc strcakpattern burnished mare (McNicoll's "spiral-l>urnishcd are" and "red-pattern burnished

a a r c " Hammonrl's ( 1 970: 45 1 452) "ring-I,urnishrd ware.") hut the infilrmationa,(* ha\(to now is not enough t o provide a clcarrr (lcscriptic~not'it, thc timr span sue(-stc.cl hc.inJ a\ k jvi(]c as first century H . c . , t o seventh century A . I ) . In order t o c o n ~ p l c t ethis roughly drawn sketch of'thc-rc~sulls (,l.thc British (.xca\.ntic,llsa, ~ a n d a h a r we , may also notc thc interesting circumstances that amon J the. burials t h c a r c ~\c.rc. b f(.)urin which t h skeletons ~ hat1 silver Sasanian coins (probaI>]\ lilill c-c.ntur\, , a . l , , ill tl,(.ir mouths. W e have already noticed the presence of a town site in the Wardak an(] rc.cor(l(.cl the suggestion of Fussman (19741,: 86) that somc analogies arc to IN- rcc.ognizc.(l ith the. ,)Ian of Ai Khanum. T h e pottery collected hy Fussman, nc\.c.rthcl(.ss is to I,c attri1,utc.d to thc Kushan period, most of the comparati\*c material hcing pro\,icic,d I,v Begran1 11. An important problem concerns the route connecting Arachosia (Kandahar) \c.ith Kapiha (e.g. Bombaci, 1957; Bernard, 1974b): it is not impossible that this routc o r one- ol' alternative routes passed through the town at Wardak, certainly rich and Ilourishing, as it appears from the Buddhist monasteries built in its immcdiatc 1,icinitv and the dan, that roba ably gave water t o the town b s means of a canal. Fussman ( 1974, 88) hclic\,c.s that he ha3 found traces of this canal but cannot say whether it brought water only t o thc. ditch o r also into the town. Though later, another town site mav be recorded herc, since it Lvas probablv on the samc. route connecting Arachosia t o Kapisa, but closer t o Ghazni. It is no\v a group of mounds in the, Jagatu-i Wardak, where some Irery limited trial trenches Lvcre dug bv Sccrrato in 1958, which "may probably be considered a village born as a resting placc on the caravan-road. protected by the fortress of the Bad-i Asva and dependent on the settlement of Tabak-sar" (Scerrato, 1967: 2 I ) . The importance of the site is also documented by the presence of t\vo inscriptions in Graeco-Bactrian cursive script but these, like the coins and shcrds, point t o a date after the Great Kushans: actually, sherds from big storage jars bearing the impressions of large medallions with "Hephthalite" (but probably Hindu Shahi) Graeco-Bactrian cursivc, inscriptions have accidentally been found on o r near the tepe of Dubakh Sar (Scerrato's "Tabak-sar"). The Dubakh Sar tepe is certainly an imposing fortified centre dominating \vhat \\as probably an important caravan route, and one might reasonablv expect to find morc such well as further minor centres similar t o that excavated bv the strongholds in the regio-as Italian Mission. Indeed, among the many tepe in the Ghazni region, one may recall the imposing Takht-i Jamshid, in the valley connecting Wardak with Lugar (Lohgar), where huge "Gandharan" walls of schist slabs and blocks are still standing along \vith mud-brick structures; and the many small n ~ o u n d sscattered on the plain betlveen Moqur and Dila. north of the Ab-i Estada. The study of town sites in Afghanistan is often based on criteria that are not agreed bv all scholars. Such is the case with square and round towers in the town walls; Fussman ( 1974b: 89-92), dealing with the dating of the ancient town in the Wardak valley (foundation before o r in the time of Huvishka), summarizes the problem as follo\vs, starting from the fact that the town walls of Wardak are strengthened by round towers. Central Asian town walls, at least since the Graeco-Bactrian period, have square, often

,,

t

l

~

(

b

nl,lssi\-c, to\\.c-~-s o r 1,astions: c . g . at A i Klianum (Hcrnarcl, 1970: 3 17) Halkli (Lc Hcrrc an(l Scliluml,crgc~r, 1964), Slialir-i Hanu (Carl, 1959a), Dalbcrjin Kazan Tc.pc. (Kruglikova an{l Sal.i'lnitIi, 1971 : 27-42, ],Ian Fig. 10; Kruglikova, 1974: C h . 111, Figs 3 2 - 34 and plan Fig. 1 1, in limthcl-n Hactria. South of t h e Hindu Kush, this t r c h n i q u c is k n o ~ r nat Hcgl-anl (C;hi~-shman,1946: 16- 17) and Sirkap (Marshall, 1951 : 1, 1 14; l l a r , 1973: 57--71). TIlchc square to\j.crs continued t o be in use in t h e Kushan pc.riod, cvcw when thc. s t r u c t ~ l , - ~ ~ untlc,r\\.cnt izorks of enlargcnicnt o r moclification. At Surkh Kotal, built under Kanislika, tllc o u t e r t c . l l ~ ~ l all e and t h e totvn walls ha\,t, only squarc. t o \ ~ . c ~ (Sclilumbc.rgc~r, s 1964: 1). 326; 1969, plan Fig. 26). T h c same is t r u e of t h c Gandliaran rclic\fs that rc~protlllc~c fortifcation walls, most of which a r c t o b c dated in t h e Kuslian pcriotl. That is wh!., Fussman sa!s, Schlumberger thought that Sirsukh (Taxila) w i t h its scnii-circular tou.crs (Marshall, 195 1 ; Dar, 1973: 57-72) was not a foundation of Vinia Kadphiscs o r Kanishka, as Marshall ant1 Gliirshman (1946: 39) bclicved, but belonged t o t h e post-Kushan period. Since the cxclusi\,c use of round t o w e r s in a coniplex system of fortifications is not known in Parthian Iran and first appears probably u n d e r Shapur I (for alleged Sasanian influence in Afghan fort architccturc, see also Tar-o-Sar: Hackin, 1959c), Schlumbergcr thought that Sirsukh could not bc car1ic.r than A . D . 260. If t h e Arst year of Kanishka is t o b e placed bct\\.ccn A . D . 78 and 144, both Sirsukh and t h e t o w n in t h e Wardak valley a r e necessarily m u c h later than Kanishka and his successor Huvishka. Nevertheless, as w e have already mentioned, t h e pottery shcrds collected by Fussman in t h e t o w n of Wardak a r e all Kushan, which again makes plausible thc dating of Marshall and Ghirshman. It seems therefore that northwest India and Afghanistan in t h e second century A . D . , crnployed semi-circular and roba ably also round t o w e r s in thcir fortif cations (Fussman, 1974b: 91-2). This subject is dealt w i t h also by Kuwayama (1974a), w h o begins by stating tliat the bastions in t h e Amu-darya valley a r e traditionally square, covering t h e time, span from the pt\riod of t h e G r e e k rulers t o that of t h e Sasanian hegemony. According t o him, t h e round bastion at Kohna Masjid, near Surkh Kotal (Bernard, 1964), which is a late addition (the site being contemporary w i t h t h e Sasanians and later than t h e Great Kushans), is "an exceptional intrusion and repercussion from t h e neighbouring countries". H e also adds tliat t h e homelantl of this kind of bastion is presumably t h e rcgion south of t h e Hintlu Kush. Kuwayama also suggests that t h e r e is a close inter-relation between t h e round bastions and the use of pottery with a stamped medallion decoration, peculiar t o t h c regions south of the Hindu Kush. H c rccalls that this kind of pottery was rccognizc,d as a new dc\,icc in Hcgrarii 111 by Ghirshman (1 946: 69) ant1 was fount1 at t h e Hc.gram Hazaar (Mcunit,, 1959a: 104), the Saka fort (Carl, 1959c), Tapa Maranjan (Fig. 5.34) (Meunik, 1942), all sitcs wlicrc round bastions a r c also found. In his a t t e m p t at establishing a (late for Hcgram 111, Kuwayama gives great importance t o t h e simultaneous existence of both cultural elements, t h e round bastions and the' stamp dc~corationsof t h e medallion types, at Kohna Masjid"-a simultaneity which is against thc tradition o f t l i c region". This "should be a reflection of t h e phenomena" that occurred on the south side of t h c Hindu Kush after t h e fifth century A . D .T h e cxistencc of round 1,astions ant1 of that particular type of pottery o n both sides of t h e Hintlu Kush "slioultl not Ijc rcgarclc~d as a chance cvcnt". Thcrcfore, Kohna Masjitl is taken by Kuwayama as "a counterpart of the' ' 4

' 6

nl()numents south 01' the Hindu Kush" that can gives 13c.granl III (wtlc*n r o u ~ a lI,artic,nr m a t r their appcarancc) a (late later than the on(. suggc.stc~lI,, (;llirshman.

his strict cultural relationship l ~ c t v r c nthe rouncl bastions then n l ~ ~ c l a l l i o n - r t a n l l , c . c l pottery (10~snot stem t o find further support clsc,\rhr.r(-. For instance., Fussman ( 1974: 9 1 remarks that his s u r b c c shcrding in the ancirnt town the War(lak has gi~,(.n

,

I ~ a ~ i c a no l l ysprcimrn o f t h a t kind o f p o t t r r \ , .H c thinks that thc mcclallion-stampc~(l 1)ottc.r~ makes its appcarancc some timeb af'tcr the reign of Vasudc-va, i . c . , towarcls the. 01 the. srcond o r the beginning of the third ccnturv A . I > .(same. , (latch sugt*stc.(lby Gartlill, 19571):27). he same datc is probably t o bc attributc.cl t o tllc miniatureh Ii,rtrcss u i t l i square., rouncl anel semi-octagonal bastions, found in thc Buddhist cornl,lc~x of Talla Sarclar rlcar C;hazni (Tadrlci, 1972a), which is also conncctcd with nlcadallion-stanll,c(l I,ottcbrv (l'a(ldc-i, 1968; I'ies 67-70). The same kind of pottery was also found at Gul(1ara in L.ugar (Lohgar) (Fussman, 19471): 91, f.n.4), Jagatu-i Wardak (Fig. 5.36) (Scc,rrato, 1967: 20, Figs 4 8 4 9 ) , Clian\+.ar, nc.al(en((

L

Gardcz (Fischcr, 1969: 341, 1)1.14), Chaqalaq Tcpc, near (Juntluz (Mizuno, 1970: 5 2 ) alltl clscwhcre. A placr of particular ilnportancr in the arc1lac~)logvol'thc Kushan pcriotl in Alghanistan is occupied by the roval sanctuary of Surkh Kotal, Hactriana (Schluml)crgc.r, 1952a, 1954, 1955, 1960, 1961, 1964b, 1970: 5 S 6 6 ; Ward-Pcrkins, 1965; Schippman, 1971 : 492 4 9 6 ) , set in the very centre of a fortress, that we know from clpigraphic cvidcncc to ha\,r court I)\. monumental flights of steps. Schlumbergcr obser\,cd that thc builcling technique at Surkh Kotal as well as the plan of the temple are t o be placc.tl in thc Iranian tradition as it is rclx-csented chiefly by Achaemenian architecture: mud bricks htling used along n.ith stone., thc latter for the stairways, some plinths and the column bascs; the plan o f the main building, t h c temple, being quite similar t o an Achacmenian tcmplc ncar Susa. It has been suggested that this is a fire-temple and this idcntifcation is usuallv accepted, hascd as it is on the evidence of the excavation (~latforrnin thc centre of thc cella, accc.ssiblc I)\, a flight of steps) and on the comparison with Iranian prcsunied prototypes. Nc\-c.rtht,lcss, as Ac.hlumberger himself remarks (1970: 61-62), nothing leads us to belic\.c that it \\.as a Zoroastrian fire; it is much more p o b a b l e that it ivas a "dynastic" fire, as is suggested both bv thc epigraphic evidence and by the comparison with the sanctuar!. at Mat ncar Mathura, on 1 1 1 ~Ganges plain. The sculptural decoration of the temple is an unparalleled mixture of difkrent artistic t~.c,nds.It includes stepped merlons of Oriental tradition, a Gandharan stone fritbzc, a series of r~rlhakedand painted clay fipres, a verv badly damaged stone relief \vhic-h ~ c h l u m b e r ~ c r wpgested was t o be compared \vith some of the enthroned t i p r e s of N i n ~ r u d [lag, C'omrnagene (middle of the first century B . c . , ) , and three stone statues representing Kushan kings ( o r gods?) (Fig. 5.37). These latter may be compared jvith the Kushan images of Mathura (Kosenfield, 1967), not only in some details of the dress (which has certainly nothing in

k.

Fig. 5 . 3 5 : Surkh K o t a l :

plan of site.

-

common with either Classical o r Indian costume, ant1 is rather Iranian o r "noma(lic") hut alv) stylistic and technical reasons: chiefly because they (lo not reproduc,(. tht. roIum(.s of llunlan figures but arc rathcr slabs on which folds ancl ornam(-nts arc supc.rhciallv carr(.(l. From the point of view of religious architecturr, the a r c I 1 a ~ o I 0of~ ~Afghanistan of this period shows us a picture that at first appears almost exlusivelv Huchlhist. Apart I'rom Surkh Kotal there are some interesting exceptions that will be discussccl when we tlc.al with the products of Tapa Skandar (Kuwayama, 1972a, 1974b; Kuwayama-Momono, 1976) and Khair Khana (Hackin, 1936), both near Kabul, and Chigha Sarai in the Kunar Vall(.v (Lohuizen, 1959). Afghanistan is very rich in monumental Buddhist stupas built of stone, chieflv prc.scmr\r d in the Kabul Vallcy and Kapisa. These are usually attributed to the Kushan p r r i ( d , though a chronological sequence is still t o be established, and are considered in G . bussman's work on the Monuments bouddh~quesde la ripon de Caboul, of which the first volume has recently 11c.c.n published by the DAFA (Fussman-Le Berre, 1976). For the time being we may list the groups of Jalalabad and Kabul (Wilson, 1841 ), surveyed by the Japanese Mission (Mizuno, 1971, for the stupas of Guldara, Shc\aki ant1 Topdara, see also Carl, 1959c; Lezine, 1964 for the stupa of Guldara, Fussman-Lc Bcrre, 1976, is now exhaustive), the group of Wardak (Fussman, 1974b), the stupas of Tapa Sardar (Taddci, 1968), that of Kham-i Zargar (Mustamandi, 1968), and that of Kandahar (Fussman, 1966: 37-9). Another typical monument of Buddhist Afghanistan is the cave monastery. It is hardly necessary t o recall here the world famous caves of Bamiyan with their colossal Buddhas and "Indo-Iranian" paintings (Godard, 1928; Hackin, 1933, 1959b), t o which others have been recently added in the Foladi valley (Scerrato, 1960; Dagens et a l . , 1964). For most people Hamiyan (Figs 5.38, 5.39) is somehow synonymous with Afghanistan, such is the impressiveness of its rock-cut monastic caves and the two huge Buddhas which aroused the admiration of the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen-Tsang (seventh century). He wrote about the biggcr (and later) of the two, 53 m high (Fig. 5.40): "On the declivity of the hill to the northeast of the, capital was a standing image of Buddha made of stone, 140 o r 150 feet high, of a brilliant golden colour and resplendent with ornamentation of precious substances" (translation of Wattcrs, 1 9 0 4 4 5 ) . Both the Buddhas and the caves \vere finished and coated by means of itocco and clay plaster: for instance the folds of the bigger Buddha's cloth were obtained bv nlodclling the plaster on cores of ropes which were nailed t o the image (i.e. t o the rock) b\. \\ooden pegs. This greater Buddha seems t o be assignable t o the fifth t o sixth centuries on count of both the paintings inside the niche, which reflect themes from the A~antapaintings, a ~ l t its l own style which seems rather to be reminiscent of the Gupta sculptures of Mathura. A tliscussion of the style and chronology of the Bamiyan paintings would take us bevond our ~ ~ ~ scope w n (Fig. t 5.41). Influences from several regions have been pointed out, Iranian (Sasanian), Gandharan and Indian. These provide a general picture of the art centre which t.lcarly points towards Central Asian solutions (Rowland-Coomaraswamy, 1938; Bussagli, 1963; Hallade, 1968; Rowland, 1970): a recent attempt at a classification into four styles has I1cc.n made by a team from Kyoto University (Miyaji, 1976). There are related cave groups in tlrr Hamiyan area, including those at Kakrak with the wall painting of the "hunter king" (Fig.

5 . 4 3 ) (Hackin and Carl, 1933; Ghirshman, 1 9 4 8 ) , datable t o t h e sixth t o seventh centuries. ?-]~c.brick fortress of Shahr-i Zohak nearby was probably constructed in t h e same prrio(l, though renovatctl in Muslim t i m r s (Codrington, 1944: 888) (Figs 5.44, 5.45). O t h e r ca1.e complcxcs a r c known but they show neither t h e complexity of Bamivan nor its richness in sculpture and painting tlecorations: w e may recall that of Haibak, close t o a h m o u s rock-cut stupa (Mizuno, 1962), that of Hazar Sum, near Haibak, t h e date and Cvcn function of \vhich a r c still somt,what obscure (Puglisi, 1963; Mizuno, 1967), t h e Budclhist ca\,cs of Fil Khana near Jalalabad (Mizuno, 1967) those of Basawal, between Jalalabad and the Kh\.l>c>rPass (Mizuno, 1971) ant1 thosc rccently tliscovered at Humay Qala near Qaral,agh-i (;llazni (Fig. 5.47) (Verardi, 1977) and o t h e r s in t h e same zone of t h e Ghazni pro\,incc, tliscovcrctl in 1976 I>\. the Italian Mission. T h e I~rc)I>lcms conccrning sculptural ant1 pictorial w o r k s of a r t a r c also many ant1 manysi(lctl. W c ha\-c alrcatlv briefly dcalt with t h c "dynastic" imagcxs of Surkh Kotal; thc f'raqmc)nts o f unbaked-clay sculptures a r e totally d i f k r c n t from t h e point of view of style ant1 s h ~ \ sclear influence of t h e Hc~llcnistictratlition (Schlumberger, 1960: 142--53; 196 1 : 90; 1970: 63--6). W c can also recognize a similar influence in t h e unbaked-clay sculptures from Khalchajan, Transoxiana, that Pugachcnkova (1 9 6 5 , 1966, 1971b) considers o n e of thc earliest exprc.ssions of a r t commissioned by t h e Kushans (first century H . c . ) and of t h e greatest in~l)(mtanccfor the untlcrstanding of later developments (Pugachenkova, 1969). W e arc in a phase of transition f r o m t h e G r e e k a r t of Hactria t o Gantlharan a r t , the tlocumc.nts o f which a r e neither so numerous n o r so well-known as those of Gandhara. Nc\crthclcss, cxcavations a r c n o w giving an increasingly clcar definition t o this tratlition which Hourishctl in a period whcn Afghanistan was n o t yct culturally Indianiscd. At t h e same t i m e an artistic o u t p u t o f Classical tradition is known also f r o m t h c N o r t h W e s t Frontier I'rovincc of Pakistan: h e r e t h e cxcavations of t h e University of Peshawar (Dani, 1965-66) havc shown that, with vcry few t-xceptions, this region hacl n o Hcllcniscd protlucts in t h e time o f t h e Gracco-Bactrian kingtloms but only a traditional tcrracotta a r t rcprescnted by the socallc(1 "Haroquc Latlies" (for this class of objects, scc W h c c l c r , 1962: 1 0 4 ff.) and othcr mainly female figurines o f a vcry simplified shapc. It is only during t h c following pcriotls, callc,tl "Scytho-Parthian" and "Early Kushana" by Dani that a Hcllenising taste spreads over this arcx. H e r e then is documcntcd a Hcllcnizing artistic phasc that prcccdes Gantlharan art and cliffc,~-cntiatcs itsclf from it by the' absence of Indian elcmcnts. It can well be considcrcd as the cxprcssion o f social strata broatler than thosc that commissioned t h e purcly Greek art of Ai Khanum ant1 obviously also 1)roader than t h e groups, closely connected with t h e dynasty, that caused t h e unbaked-clay sculptures t o b c made in t h e official building of Khalchayan ant1 in the sanctuary of Surkh Kotal. T h e Italian cxcavations in t h c earlier layers of Tapa Sardar a r c n o u throwing some frcsh l ~ g h ot n this period (Fig. 5.46). Thcse layers a r c simply a thick filling that derives from the clcstruction o f a rich dccorativc complcx made of unbakctl-clay sculpturcs (Figs 5.48-5.50) (most of t h c m accitlcntally burnt by t h e fire that tlcstro!,ctl t h e sanctuary) that a r c t o be connected stratigraphically with stupas similar in technique (Fig. 5.51 ) t o thosc o f t h c KabulKapisa ant1 Jalalabatl areas (Tatltlci, 1972a: 5 5 3 4 ; 19721,).

5.

THE PKE-MUSLIM PER1011

279

The clay sculpture of the earlier phase at Tapa Sardar, in its rnanifi)ltl aspects, is untloubt~dlyt o be included in the tradition of Bactrian Hellenism an(] affinities with the clay images from Surkh Kotal, with those from Tapa Maranjan, near Kabul, a Hudtlhist sanctuary of uncertain date (Carl and Hackin, 1959; but very late according t o Fussman-1.c Brrre, 1976: 95-9: sixth t o seventh ccnturies A . D . ) , and also with the sculpture of Transoxiana, later than Khalchayan, found at Dalberjin Tepe, attributed by Pugachcnkova (1971a, 1971b) t o the second century A . D . , as well as with Gantlharan art. It is therefore evident that when Gandharan art was flourishing in northern Pakistan and in thc castern region of Afghanistan, the other parts of this country had a cognate though different art of Hellenistic tradition which is nevertheless clocumented also in thc castcrn region itself, at Hadda (Fig. 5.52) as the recent Afghan excavations are showing. Anothcr promising site from this point of v-iew is Basawal (Mizuno, 1971 : 22.1 ) . Even Gandharan art proper calls for a thorough re-examination of its Afghan products. This is usually considered as characterized by the almost total absence of schist reliefs and by the predominance of stucco in an output which is placed between the third and fifth centuries A . D . The only well-known Gandharan schist reliefs from Afghanistan are those from Paitava, Shotorak, and Hegram (Kapisa) (Fig. 5.53), and arc closelv linked t o a dynastic environment (Hackin, 192 5-26; Meunii, 1942; Soper, 1 9 4 S 5 0 ; ~ u s s a g l i ,1956-57: 198-205; Rosenfield, 1967: 2 0 G l ; Taddei, 1974a). Actually the fact that the schist reliefs from Hadda were only a few ycars back (Dagens, 1964) (Fig. 5.54) is due t o the curious choicc made I>\- Harthoux ( 1 930: 1933) in publishing his excavations. New Gandharan schist material has been found at Kham-i Zargar (Mustamandi, 1968). Other, still little knoxvn, stylistic trends in the Gandharan style from Afghanistan have been located in the region of Baghlan, which yields typical limestone reliefs (Fig. 5.55) (Fischer, 19581); Mizuno, 1962: Figs 9 6 1 0 4 , 122-6). ' The Afghan exca\-ations at Tapa Shotor, Hadda (Fig. 5.56) are very promising: thev have I-c.1-calcdthe presence in the same sanctuar!. (and contemporaril!. in use if not contemporary in c.srcution) of purely Gandharan stucco sculptures (for man\- other examples in the area (Fig. 5.57):Harthoux, 1930, 1933; Mizuno, 1968) and of unbaked-clay sculptures that rather recall t h o h c of Tapa Sardar, Tapa Maranjan and Surkh Kotal (Mustamandi, 1969, 1971, 1973, 1974). .+n examination of the stratigraphic and structural connections bet\veen the stupas decorated \ \ it11 stucco images and the niches containing unbaked-clav sculptures (some of them in the 1.ount1,as in the case of the so-called "aquatic niche") is still t o be carried out; (Ku~vavarna, 1973); for the time being w.e must content ourselves with the group of much \vorn Sasanian l , l - o ~ coins ~ ~ e found in one of the latest stupas, that seem t o belong t o Shapur 111 (383-388 comparisons kvith other sculptural complexes in the area. It is I ) . ) , and \t,ith the c111it~ probable that the unbaked-clay sculptures of Tapa Shotor d o not cover a short period but < \ I - ( . thc result of additions oycr a considerable span of time; this \t.ould explain the great tlitl't.1-ences bet\\.een some of the most Hcllenising images, such as the Herakles-Vajrapani ( Llusta~mandi,1974), and the "aquatic niche" (Mustamandi, 1969) that e1.m recalls a 1-c.1ic.ffrom Pcndzhikent (Bclcnitski, 1959, pls XXVII-XXIX, XXXI-XXXII; Taddei, 1972a: 5 56). Llnfol-tunatrlYvery little o r nothing is kno\\-n of ~ i c t o r i a lart in Afghanistan during the

Fig. 5.50: Tapa Sartlar: remain&rlFa row crf standing Kushan clonrlrs in shrine 63, laclonging to carlirr ~wricttl,partially cr)vr-rcd hy thr* Parirrirvana Hutlrlha oF tlir later prric~rl(on t h r right). Un1~1kc.dclay with t1i7~c"bof"l~urliis11.

Ki151ian ~ > c r i o ( lI, ~ u t\\.c' can casilv imagine that t h e Gantlharan sc,liool of sculpture hat1 its c . o u ~ ~ t c r p ain r t painting, just as it had in C e n t r a l Asia, for instance at Kara T c p c , nc,al Tcrrncz (Sta\.iskij, 1 9 7 2 : pls IV V ) ant1 cvcn at Mil-an, in Cliine~sc~ Tul-kcstan (Hussagli, 1963: 2 1 27). O n l v a re,\- rcmains survivc h o r n Had& that may b c roughly attributctl t o t h c Kushan pcriotl (Harthoux, 1933 : 1 6 2 4; Mustaniandi, 1 9 6 9 : 2 2 3); actually t h c irnportancc of Afghanistan f'rom t h c point of view of t h c histor! of' painting rcstcd cntirclv o n t h e later Hucltlliist \\-all tlcc,orations 1'1-om Haniiyan ant1 t h c nc,arbv ca\.ct complc~xc~s o f Kakrak and F(5latli (usuall\. a t t l - i b u t c ~tl o tlic~tif'tli t o sc\-cnth c c n t u r i r ~ sA . I ) . ) and a fc-;.cv o t h e r cxamplc~shorn Ilakhtar-iNoshir\-an ( R o \ ~ , l a n t l 1, 9 4 6 , 1 9 7 0 ) , Fontlukistan ( H a c k i n , 1959a), TalmSartlar (unI>i~hlishccl) ant1 Hasa\t.al ( M i z u n o , 1971 : I ~ l a n s1 5 16), tlatc~al>let o t h c sc\-cnth t o c.ig11th cc~nturic~s :\.I). T h e n o r t h o f t h e countl-v, \vhc'rc some‘ \.el-\-rc'ccnt cxcaj-ations arc' motlil'\-ing this pic.turc', is

Pig. 5.51; 7'apa \al-rlar: Stupa

nr).

20:\\all h i n g of 4chiht

>lal>a. pila\tcr> 01 \and\tonv

I W O I ~ , ~ I J I Yt h e place f r o m \vhicli non-Buddhist paintings \vill b c found incrcasingl\- as r c w a r c h olllinucs. 1Lc.t us first r e c o r d t h e discovery of a p o l ~ c l i r o n i cpainting (homage t o a h e r o ? ) at D a l b c r j i ~ l /\.)/an T c p e , (Fig. 5 . 5 8 ) 40 kni nol-th\vcst of Balk11 (Kt-uglikova ancl Sarianidi. 1 9 7 1 ; h I - ~ ~ g l i k o ~1 :9a7,4 ; 5 9 ff., Fig. 41 a , pls 17-1 8 ) . It is t o b e c o m p a r e d \vith t h e paintings I'roni I : c ~ l a l ~Tke p e ( s o u t l i t ~ r nUzbekistan) t h a t t h e Soviet archaeologists datc, t o t h e e n d of t h e I l l t l1:heginning o f t h c sixth c e n t u r y A.11. (Al'bauni, 1 9 6 0 ) . T h e dating 111-oposed for this ~).iilltingof 1)albcrjin Kazan is first half of t h e fifth c e n t u r y , o n t h e basis of coin e\.idencc. But this painting is n o t t h e carlicst a m o n g t h o s c found a t Dalbcrjin Kazan; indcxvl it .11'1)c'.wsto h e o n c of tlic latest. Tlic t c m p l c ~of Dalbcrjin Kazan, in its tirsl f ~ h a s c - a t t r i h u t c d I)\. 1lc". T h e Japanc~sc,csca\.ations at Tapa Skandar lia\,c, l>~-ovitlcd vcBrvgootl c.hronological elata li)r I I r k . ' 'Shahi' ' nial-I,lc\ sc~uIl,turcs:a g r o u p o1'Siva and I'ar\.ati (Uma-mahcsvara) \vas founcl t h c r c ~ I L I c.,lnnot ~ I>(, assignc,tl t o ,i Ix*rioclhcli)rc the' sc>\.cntht o t h e cxighth ccntur\. o r c\'e-n later, on o s o l o l a l a c o g ~ - a l i i c aI l a r c a c o o g i c i I c\,iclcnc.c (Fig. 5.60) ( K u \ ~ . a \ . a m a1972a , ). I ~ c a

I.. 1

-9

1).

\5..

RlXC D O \ \ ' A L L

A N D M . TADL3EI

Fig. 5.63: tap‘^ Sa~,dal-..4 clctail 01' tlic unl~akc~l c . 1 ~hculptul-c ~ 111 c11,ipc.l 37: It,ft hanct nago; later II~XI-IO~,

c

.

tligh

t h c c.ntul.\ .

Both thcst. cIasses 01 ol>jccts. Hindu marl>lt s c ~ ~ l p t ~ ~and l - c i>l-on;rr s images, arc to be consi(lrrcd, along \\,it11 t h r tcngnplc of Chigha Sal-ai and some at lcast of the paintings of 13ami\.an,as documentatingg a \vidcsprrad Indianization. This phcnomcnon is to be undrrstood in terms of at least t\vo Indian trends, one ht\inglg north\restcrn (tcmplc of C1ingulia ,' Sarai and ,, Hurldliist 131-onzes), the otl1c.1- rather Gupta in tradition ( c s p c c i a l l ~the "lndiaii-style paintings of Hamiyan). W e may recall anothcr class o f objects, small in size, made of a very compact "schist" stone ( c a s h t lids. portahlc sanctuarirs, sniall imagt~s,c t c . ) that \\.crc probably produccd in tlic nortli\icst of India at the same tirnc as thc bro~ize images and were c c r t a i n l ~also introduced into Afghanistan, though tlicng-c is n o cviclcncc that tlit-y \vt,re also m,ldt- there; t h e r ol~jectsarc charactcl-izcd I>\- a I>cculiar tt~chniqur~ of 1.c1-1-tlat rrlief and a \-t7r\-c1t~a1"Sasanian" inllu~-ncc~ (c,.g., Pal, 1973- 74; Fr,~ncfol-t,1975).

I ig. 5.64: 1 al1.1 halxlal.. ..\ tlc~tclilot t h c u n l ~ . ~ kc ~la\~ dI'arinit.\a~iaHutlclha in C. t

(73;

1azc.1 pt,l-icrtl,

~ I ) t l l '-i*lItllr\ .

the. unh,ikc.cl-c~l,i\ itiicisc.> froni \trie.tl\. c.onnc~r.tcd\\-it11 all tIic~sc>c.las>c>o f >c.ulptul-c-> 1 t l ~ ~ l l r ~ k i s t(aFni g . 5 . 6 1 1 , a sanc-tuat-\. c.sc-a\.,itccl I)\- the. l3.4k.4 ant1 attl-il)utc.cl t o t h c >c.\-c.nth t ' l 1 1 1 1 1 . \ . 011 tlic, g ~ - o u n do f some, ..\r,iho-Sas,~nian c,oin> (Gliil-slinian, 1 9 4 s : 2s 9 ; H , I ~ - k i n , I ')>');I ) . lid tllosc h o n i t h c latc,r I,hasc, o f Taps S J I - ~ ~( FI i-g . 5 . b ? 5 . (34). 1)1-e~su1iia1)1\. t o I>c' 1 1 . ) 1 t , ( l t o t l i c sc\.cntli t o c~iglitli,ind c\-c-n i n t o tlic ~ i i n t l ic , c n t u ~ - \.-\ . I ) . (T,idclci. 1 9 b S ; 197?ci, -,, (30). T l i c s c ~t \ \ . o site'?; li,~\.cpro\.itlcyd r l o r . u ~ i i ~ ~ 01' l t ?c.s~.cxptional ; \aluc. il-om the, p o i n t o f , ti,\\ ol'l)otli i c o ~ i o g ~ ~ ~ a i ~n d> sl it \ ..l c , suc.11 as tlic "I-o\-al c o u p l c ( F i g . 5 . 6 1 ) nnd tht. I > c ~ i c ~ \ \ - c . I I c ~ l

-

3

?

i : ~ ~ l l t l l(~K, iO \ \ - l a n d , 1 9 6 1 ) h-on1 F o n d u k i s t a ~ i .t h c t \ \ - o N a p i > s u p l ) o ~ - t i n gthe, stc'nl o 1 ' ~Iotils o n \ ' ! ) I < 11 tllc' Hudclh,l \\-&issc%,~tcxi. a sul>jc~c.tt;)und I)otli a t F o n d u L i > r a n a n d Taps Sat-rial-, the. ~ I I O W , ~ ~ ~ I ~ I I I I I . I L I I I LHt1l.nIiinelu Kirsh mountains allout Z h O k m cbast 01' 1-lcrat ( I )uprcc., 1972 : X 9 ) , \~.Iic'rc't l i e ' ( ' I 4 cl,ltc\s 01' tl~cbc-arlic%~stratigl-apliic. I,c.riotl into the, K u s h a ~ i oSasania~i( ~ > o s s i l , latch l~ I I c * l ~ l \ t l i , i l i t c . I>c~.iotl; ) ant1 ol'tlic rcsults ol)tainc,cl I)!. I.c~slinikat Qala Ahingaran, also i l l c.c.11traI Algll.~nista~i( I .c-shnik, 1 V(77), tliat sccm t o ,ig~-ccsn.itli tlics (Iatcs I'rom (,)ala Sliaharak, < ~ I ~ I i o t ~111a1iv g h ol'tlic~I)ai~itcs(lpottc'ry niotils sul)c*~.tir.iall\~ rc-sc~ml)lcthosc 01' the, late Incii~s \ . ~ l I c , yc.craniic.s" (1)111)1-c~c~, 1972: 9 ) . 'I'llis " m i n ~ r " c.ulturcs 01' l~l-c-MuslimAl~lianistantloc5s not sc%chni t o share many 01' its c.l,,l~-,ic.tc-rs\ ~ , i t l ltlic. n1uc.h ric'llcr a n ~ l I>(-ttc-rd o c ~ u ~ i i c ~ i tno~naclic. c(l I,urial sites 01' t l i c s ' K ~ 1 ~ 1 1 , l l' l ' I>(-l.io(li l l 111c. Kalirl1ig,in \,allc%ynol-rhc,rn I3act ria (south\r.cstc.ln 'I'aiikistan) ( M , ~ ~ i ( I c ~ I ' s l l t 1966, d ~ i i , 1 9 7 5 ) . .T'hc~sc% arc. ac.tu,ill\, (cntl ol'thc. scc.oncl c.cntur\. k{.c.., t o theh I)c~ginning01' t h e lil-st c,c.ntul-v A . I ) . ) ancl sebcm t o the. remains 01' the- nomad t~-il,csthat ( I - ~ I S I I ~ Y the. I (;~-,ic~c.o-Ijactria~i kingdoms.

la11

c

o l ( l c s ~ .

I ) c b

From the Rise of Islam to the Mongol Invasion K . Fischer

Historical Background W ~ t hthe overthrow of the Sasanid empire, Khurasan and Seistan became provinces under Arab governors, but the early Muslim invasions effected no permanent control over the Kabul region, which remained semi-independent under native princes cntitled rurbll (or zunbll), c \ cn after the transfer of the Caliphate from the Umayvads t o the Abbasids in 750. In the reign of the Caliph Mamun (8 13-829) one of these local rulers accepted Islam and his territory \\.as joined to the imperial postal service (barld); but in the tenth centurv his successors appear t o havc been pagan once more. d.

The Tahirids and Saffarids hlaniun had obtained power with the aid of his lieutenant Tahir b. al-Husain, a Persian, kvhom the governorship of Khurasan and whose family continued t o rule the IN'O\ ~ n c c after his death. Under the Tahirids (82&873), Khurasan was virtually independent 01 thc ccntral authority; but a far greater threat t o the Caliphs' power arose in Seistan. Here, In 866, another native, Yaqub b. Laith, whose surname al-Saflar ("the coppersmith") betrays 1114 plebeian origins, seized the pro\-ince and began t o extend his s\vay over the neighbouring tcl-I-itories,occupying Kabulistan (871 ) and destroying the Tahirids two years later. Although I,oth Yaqub and his brother and successor Amr ( 8 7 S 9 0 0 ) extracted recognition from the C'aliph, their attempts t o establish their power in Khurasan met with constant opposition. It \ \ , I $ A n ~ r ' sefforts t o assert his authority over Transoxiana, now under the hereditary crnorship of the Samanids (864-999), ho\vever, which brought about his downfall. He was tlt.lcated and captured by the Samanid Ismail b. Ahmad (875-907), and sent a prisoner t o thghdad (900). But the Samanids, who thus acquired Khurasan, were unable t o exercise m o r e tll;ln a tenuous control over Seistan, which even during the tenth century revolted under Ions of the Saffarid dynasty and from 1002 was t o remain continuously under the rule of a Ilnc of princes who may o r may not have been of Saffarid extraction; while t o the east the 11at 11c rulers of Kabul again became independent. Under the Samanids the cities of Samarkand c ~ ~ n Bokhara tl flourished and bccame great centres of Iranian Islamic culture. 11~. ~ : c . ~ a r d eudi t h

\(

301

The Ghaznavids The Samanid epoch witnessed the beginnings of a new phenomenon, the appearance in the eastern Islamic world of dynasties of Turkish origin. T h e Caliphs themselves maintained a corps of Turkish slave guards at least as early as the ninth century, when their decline cnablec] the Turks for some decades t o exercise a stranglehold upon the government. In the east, thr was the same among the provincial governors. In 962, Alptegin, a Turkish slave general of the Samanid ruler, was ousted from the governorship of Khurasan after a p l a c e revolution, and made for Ghazni, where he defeated the native chief and established his own base. This may be regarded as the date of the definitive Muslim conquest of the region. His immediate successors were of little significance, but in the following decade power was seized by a slave of Alptegin's, Sebuktegin, who founded the dynasty properly known as the Ghaznavids (977-1 186). Initially, Sebuktegin and his still more energetic son Mahmud (997-1030) ruled Khurasan nominally as governors for t h e now moribund Samanids; but when in 999 the latter were overthrown by an invasion of Turks from Central Asia, this de lure subjection came t o an end. The Samanid territories w e r e now divided between ~ a h m u d g n d the new power, the Qarakhanids, with the Oxus as the frontier between them. Under Ghaznavid leadership there was a second burst of Muslim expansion eastwards. The Arab campaigns of t h e early eighth century had conquered Sind for Islam, but beyoncl it land of the the Punjab and the rest of the sub-continent had remained Hindusta-"the Hindus". T h e reigns of Mahmud and of his son Masud (1 0 3 G 1 0 4 1 ) witnessed the beginnings of the Muslim drive into India proper. Eken by the time that the Hindu Shahi rulers of Kabul had been finally eliminated (1019), a series of brilliant campaigns into the heart of northern India had brought great quantities of plunder back t o Ghazni, and had extended Muslim rule over the western Punjab. The achievement was all the more remarkable in that Mahmud \ras simultaneously engaged in sporadic warfare with the Qarakhanitls beyond the Oxus and in the conquest of large areas of western Iran, where he appeared as a Sunni champion of the Caliphs against the regime established in Iraq by the Shiite Buvid dynasty. In the event, however, this function was t o be appropriated, together with the Ghaznavid possessions lying cvest of Afghanistan, by the Seljuks. The Qarakhanitl in\ asion of Transoxiana had constituted m e r c l ~the 1 anguard ofa wave of inroads by free Turkish tribes into \vestern Asia that \\ crc t o be spread ovcr a hundrctl and fift~ \cars. In the first decades of the eleventh century the Scljuks, an Oghuz tribe \\ ho had been quartered on the low-er Jaxartcs, began t o press on Mahmud's pro\.incc of Khurasan. At first they xverc accepted as Ghaznavid clients, but in Masud's reign they could no longer be contained. In 1037 their leatlcrs took over jrcstern Khurasan and assumctl the insignia of so\.creignt!.. Masud took up arms against them, only t o be routed d e c i s i \ . e l ~at Dandanqan ( 1040). Within the next tcn years the Seljuks, ~ . h xvcnt o on t o conquer thc rest of Iran and to occupy Baghdad in 105 5 , e\,cn threatened Ghazni, but \\.ere rcl~ulsed.Ghaznavid pox\-er in Khurasan and Seistan \vas now a thing of the past; but the abantlonmcnt oF these \~.estern provinces at least enabled Masud's successors t o concentrate on thc reduction of Hindustan. Under Ibrahim (1059-1099) peace was made xvith the Seljuks and lasted through the reign of his son Masud I11 (1099-1 1 15), thereby affording the Ghazna\,icl empire a period of stability

6.

E R O M THI.. HISI: O F ISI.AM

303

and consolidation. Under h h r a m Shah ( 1 1 18- 1 1 57), howcvcr, who hat1 obtainc.cl the. throne with the assistance of the S c l ~ u kSultan Saniar ant1 was o11li~c.din cons(.qucBncc.t o I,ccc,mc. his tht. decline of' the dynasty scst in.

The Ghorids The chieftains of Ghor (Ghur), the mountainous region cast of Herat, had sufkrcd a number of invasions by Mahmud and had recognized Ghaznavid overlordship. With the growth of' Seljuk influence in Afghanistan Ghor became subject for a time t o Sanjar, but its rulers wcrc already powerful enough t o challenge the Chaznavids. Aftcr a series of engagements Ghazni itself was ruthlessly sacked in 1 1 5 1 by the Ghurid ruler Ala al-din Husain, who thereby earned the sobriquet ofjahan-suz ( ' 'the world-burner"). He was subsequently dcfeated in an attcmpt to throw off Seljuk suzerainty; but this proved t o be only a temporary reverse. In the period 1 1 2 5-1 140 Central Asia had been invaded by the Qarakhitai, refugees from north China who reduced the Qarakhanids t o the status of subordinate rulers. Their arrival sct in motion once m o r e the Oghuz tribes settled on the lower Jaxartes, and Khurasan was overrun a second time. Sanjar, who tried t o check them, was defeated in 1 1 53 and carried off into humiliating captivity; and in 1 163 the Oghuz occupied Ghazni. But this burst of energy soon dissipated itself, leaving the Ghorids as the more powerful element in the eastern Islamic world. Junior members of the dynasty ruled in Firuzkoh and Bamivan, but the main line was represented by t h e brothers Ghiyath al-din and Muizz al-din, who were able t o recover from the Oghuz not merely Ghazni (1 173) but Herat also (1 175), and in 1186 they finall\. extinguished the remains of the Ghaznavid principality at Lahore. Even before this, Muizz aldin had assumed direction of the Muslim drive into India and had given it fresh momentum: his campaigns and those of his generals may be regarded as the foundations of Muslim domination in the sub-continent. Nevertheless, the dynasty's military activities were not restricted t o India; and this was t o prove its undoing.

The Khwarizm-shahs Thc eclipse of Seljuk power had created a \.acuum in Khurasan which was in part tilled by thc I-ulcrs of Kh\varizm t o the north. Themselves descended from a Turkish slave of the Scljuks, thc Khwai-iznl-shahs had remained dissident vassals of Sanjar until the end. Then thev began to c s p ~ i dsouth\vards at the expense of local Oghuz leaders and so clashed \z.ith thc Ghorids. I~~itially, the balance in the conflict was against them, and b ~1200 f they had been driven out of ~nol-t.of Khurasan, but Muizz al-din, who by the death of his brother-in 1203 was t o become solc head of the dynasty, overreached himself. His invasion of Transoxiana, now under the I ~ h \ \ ~ a r i z ~ n - s l ~influence, ah's in 1202 u.as a disaster of the first magnitude; and his assassination in 1 206 \\.bile preparine t o aI7enqeit left his empire \vith no effective ruler. While his generals ill India assumcd practical indcpcndcncc, his \veak and ephemeral successors in Ghor and

C;hazni \vcrc graduallv reduced by the Khwarizm-shah, Muhammad b. Takash (1 20@ 1 2 2 1 ), \vho (>ccuPiedboth territorics in 1 2 15-6. Muhammad, whose fathcr had dc,stroyed the last the Scljuks in western Iran in 1 194, was now the master of a dominion that extcndcd fronl Hamadan t o the Indus and from western Transoxiana t o the borders of Seistan. Yet within years his ambition had led him t o challenge the new power founded in Mongolia by Chinggis Khan and his vast empire had been swept away by the Mongol invasion.

The Early Muslim Period Background The lonely deserts and mountain ranges as well as populous rural and urban settlements of present-day Afghanistan have always been famous for preserving outstanding monuments of Islamic art: either marking the final phase of an age-old civilization, as for example the shrine of Khwaja Abu Nasr Parsa (Fig. 7 . 2 8 ) near the massive ruins of ancient Balkh, o r constituting the beginning of a stylistic sequence important in the artistic ebolution of Eastern architecture, for example the minarets of Ghazni (Fig. 6.12). After the Second World War archacological surveys in Afghanistan revealed remarkable ruins contributing t o our knowledge of the development of Islamic art: the Abbasid mosque near Balkh (Figs 6.2-6.4), the tower of Jam (Figs 6.2&6.21), the fortified posts in Ghor (Figs 6.23-6.30), the abandoned city of Gol-i Safed (Fig. 7 . 8 ) , and the Timurid dome of Kohsan (Figs 7 . 2 G 7 . 2 7 ) . These discoveries led, among others, t o renewed discussion of the naming of art styles after Islamic dynasties, for instance "Seljuk" (Sourdel-Thomine, 1953; Rogers et a l . , 1974), "Ghorid" (Sourdel-Thomine, 1960; Melikian-Chirvani, 1970) o r "Timurid" (Pugachenkova, 1970; Grube, 1974). Mapping mud brick ruins and remains of burnt brick architecture of Islamic strongholds and cities in Afghan Seistan, I came across a wealth of structural and decorative forms inherited from the Parthian, Sasanian (Fig. 7.16), Scljuk (Fig. 7 . 6 ) , Ghaznavid (Fig. 7.13) and Ghorid art repertoire and heralding the subsequent evolution of Timurid times (Fischer et al., 1974-6:26); these monuments w e r e found on the easternmost border of the Ilkhanid empire and in their majority are t o bt, seen as a branch of the art flourishing in the baked brick architecture under this dynasty (Wilber, 1955; Fischcr et a]., 1974-6: 257). Twice ancient Turanian, Iranian and Indian traditions led builders in Afghanistan to creation of new national dynastic styles that in thcir part influenced artistic developments in neighbouring eastern lands, during the Ghaznavid (Rombaci, 1958; Bombaci, 1966) and Timurid (Grube, 1974) periods. When dealing with architecturc and minor arts produccd in Afghanistan under the rule of these dynasties we shall first cxaminc the main monuments, of court as well as ~ r o v i n c i a lart, and secondly try t o give an idea of thcir salient featurch. In Chapter 6 w e have the Abbasid prclude, thc spread of Ghaznavid court art acrohs Afghanistan, and the persistence of Seljuk, Kh~varazmianand northwest Indian art forms in

'Herot *Ziyorat Goh

Jam *chisht

*Lorwand

Fig. 6.1: Islamic sites in Afghanistan. thc Ghorid dominions; Chapter 7 comprises the art of eastern Iranian lands under Mongol rule, tlul-ing Kart and Ilkhanid rule, the high-watermark of architecture and minor arts in Timurid 'qkhanistan, and a few later works executed under the Mughals and Safavids, who were great patrons of culture in neighbouring India and Iran respectively.

Abbasid, Ghaznavid and Ghorid Epochs 1)11ringrecent archaeological surveys, G . A . Pugachenkova, L. Golombek and A . S. Melikian('hil.vani have found the earliest surviving Muslim religious monument in Afghanistan: an .4l>hasid mosque in the suburbs of Balkh among the remains of the earliest known Islamic l~,~l)itation in this pre-Islamic and Islamic city. In both the ground-plan and the wall decoration \ \ c have the easternmost examples of a style that originated and flourished in the Near East (1~1-ing thc ninth and tenth centuries. A full description is b\. its discoverer, Lisa Golombek,

I 2

4

6

8

lorn

I

Fig. 6.2: I'l,ln

01' thc Al)l)asitl nloscluc. ,it t3,llkh. (,.\l'tcr (;oloml>c'k.)

collcludc that tho I - ~ o I ' was con1posc.d of 1)ric.k vaults, prc.sun1ablv a ~ ~ ~ r01'i cclonlc*h. . ~ 'This arc.hitc.ctural t y 1 ~fibt*nlstOhavcb I>crn brought Ikon1 al,roacl (c;olonlhc.k, 1 96'la: I M ) . T'hc arc.hitc*cts of'Halkh re-producctl architrctural traclitions (.xisting in the. NCbar liast ,,lltl in C ~ ~ ~ r tAsia r a I l'roni the early riintll i.cXrituryonwartls. T l i ~c.olumns ~ u ~ , ~ , o r t arc%aclt*s cd \vlric.ll I.OSCinto tht' walls 01' the harrcl ~ a u l t cx)vcri~ig s t h c c.orricjors. Wt*Ilavc. also c.onsiclcr oric'ntal tradition of11ri.-Islamic origin. T h r so-c.allrd "koshk" was a snlall sclu,lrcSI)uilclinp 01'tlirnt.nsio~isconil>arat)lc t o those of t h e Ahl,asicl nlosquc.. Its interior \vas cliviclc.cl u p into ~ l i l l ( ,squares 01' cc~uals ~ % ccbac-h , c.ovc-rchdhy a c.upola. It woulcl alq)c.ar rcasonal,le t o st-c-k t h e Illodcl for t h c arc.Iiitcc.tura1 dcsign 01' t h e Halkh mosquc at tlic same. tinit. in Mesopotamia, tg!.~)t ancl North Al'ric.a, WI. liavc a tradition ol' snlall c.ul>ical buildings tlivitlccl intcr~lallyinto ninr sc*ctions; this type, of a nlosquc* ot' rlinc* donlcs, was also known t o t h c historia11 Maqrizi ( 1 3 6 4 1442). A srnall building likc tlic niosquc. at Halkh Iwlongs t o the. tvpc 01' liyl>ostylc architilcturc. on a squarc basc (Grahar, 197 3: I 1 6 ) . In t h c ahscncc 01' epigraphic material, only a stylistic. analysis 01' t h c stuc.c.o c.ar\'ings is a\.ailal)lr t o obtain a rclativc ciatc Ibr t h c mosquc. A characteristic vocal>ular, 0 1 ' nlotils illcludcs grape Icavc.s, vinc-scrolls, palnicttc-s, and tir-conchs (Fig. 6 . 4 ) , groupctl so as t o 1111 .~lniostconlplctc-ly t h c surfscc o1.cupic.d hy the. dcsign, ant1 sc-paratcd from onc. anothcr onlv, h .v Il,lrro\v, dccply cut lincs. As a rc*sult, t h c hackground against which t h c rc.lic.l' al,pcbars is ~.ccli~e.c.d t o a lincw- pattern of cic.c.p shadow, undiniinishcd in its clkctivcncss cvt-n on c.losc 1-ic\r,inq.'I'hc s u r f a c . ~o f t l i c dcsign is varied by the drilling of holcs and t h c i~le.isingofstriatc-d , ~ n dIiatclicd patterns, rings of pearls, l;.athcring and othc-r dcviccs. This tc-chniqur of stucco ~..lrvi~ig is ~ ~ c - 1known 1 from m o n u n ~ c ~ n of t s t h c ninth t o tcntli ccnturics, and thi- "dccp s l ~ ~ c l o 'wis' best rc.prcscntc~ciin t h c stylcs A and H o f Saniarra, t h e ncw c.apital o f the. Abhasid ('.iliphs, f;)uncicd north of Haghdad in 836 and scat of t h c qovcbrnnicbrituntil 890. Otlrcr parallels for t h e vinc ornamcnt at Halkh art. t o l>c found in Sasa~iianstucc.o 11-0111 Mc.sol>otaniian Kish and c.arly Ahhasid monuments ol' Ccwtral Iran at Nayin. l'axd and Huzan. I ( \ ~ ' I . ) : M I ~ ( ~O ~I IcS C ~ \ J gconic.tric ~~ grid dcsigns of the. solhts, girths and p l i ~ l t h s ,r c - p c t i t i \ ~ I'riczc-sol'tlic~impost I>loc.ksand tlic palnicttc fric%zcot'thc capitals. T h c surthc-c. is dividcd into a hc\~-ic-s o t ' c o ~ l i ~ a r t ~ i11)'~ ~a n~ic\t\vork ts of i ~ l t c r s ( * ~ t ih.111ds n g (Figs h . 3 6.4).Thc e.onil>artnlcBnts ,IIX. thcn Iillcd \\.it11 vc.gc.tal o r n a m c ~ n tTlics~, . t b r ~ n s\vchrcquit(. conlnroli in Al>hasid stuccos at (J.1~1. ,>I Hayr and in monunicrlts at Siral', Hira, Saniar1-a, Navin atid i l l the. mosquc of Ilm Tulun . ~ ct ' , I ~ I - oThe. . strap \vol-k at Halkh, like- that of Qasr al Havr, Sil-al' and I4irci, sho\vs pattc-rns ( I ~ , I . I \ ti-0111grids o l ' t o t ~ c l i i ~ai g~ i di~itc~rscx-ting circlc~s,c~irc.lc~s i~isc.ri\)~-d 111 squ,irc*s, id star.111c1 I.OSS ,~rr,i~igc~nicnts. The. arr,~ngc.mc.nt 01' niotifs \r.ithi~it h c ~ i i a i o rc.onil>art~iic~lts ot' the. , ~ I . . I I ) \\.ark dc-signs ,ire, s\~iinic.trical, t;)r cs,i~ii~,lt. in thc sotfits (Fit. 6 . 3), o r c.one.c.ntric. c ~11l1l)ositions o n the- girtlis of tlic pillars ant1 columns (Fig. 6.4). The. st\.Ic of t h c o r n a ~ i i c ~ ~ i t I I ~ , I \ 1)c. rc,ilistic-, i l l t h varic\ty ~ o f \.ill(\ orn,inic~~its, o r al>strac-t, in the palnicttc 1'1-ic.zc.s. T h c ~ ~ c l o ~ i i i ~ i , ,il~str,ic-t i ~ i t l v o ~ - ~ i , i ~ i i01'c ~Sa~iia~-~-,i ~it st\,lc-s H ancl C', Navi~i,11i(1 tlic 111osquc of llm '1'111~111, t;)rm g ~ . o u p sti-om \r.hic.h \vc ~ilightdate the, nloscluc- at H.llkli t o tlic sccond half of thv 11111111 (1'11ti1r~( G o l o ~ i i l ~ c ~ 1969a: k, 184). I ; ~ - o ~,il)out ii A . I I . 1000 o~i\vdrds\ V C e.d~ic.o~-re~Iatc Isla~ilic~ l i o ~ i i ~ ~ \\.it11 i i ~ ~ dy~iastics ~its ~ I I O \ \11 I i . o ~ ~l ~ I I c ,lsl,i~i~ic. l ~ i s t o r i ~ i ~The> l s . (i(~sig~i,itio~i ol"'C~liaz~i,~\~ici" art takc~sits origin frunl a (11 11,1,1\. 1;1t111(1\~1 I,\. t l l e ' pl-l~l.k Scl,\lktcgi~l(977 99X), rulinc .lt Ghazni, 145 km soutlin~cstol' lll,ly

~~~~~~c

(

Fig. 6.3: Balkh, Abbasid mosque, view of inrerior. Kabul, from the second half of the tenth century t o the middle of thc twclfth century (L. Dupree, 1973: 3 14). His son Mahmud (998-1 030), one of the most important rulers of the, Middle Ages, created an empire embracing, besides Afghanistan, a great part of Iran and northwest India. He became known as a great patron of t h e arts, and under his successors architecture and literature flourished, especially under Masud I (103&1041) and Masud I11 (1099-1 1 14). Then followed a slow decay of the dynasty. Bahram Shah (1 1 17-1 153) ruled under the protection of the Seljuk Sanjar. In 1149 the ruler of Ghor, Ala al-din "Jahan-suz" (i . e . "Destroyer of the World"), burnt Ghazni. T h e dynasty survived for a time in India but without political o r cultural importance.

1;.

4.4: Halkh, .4bbasid mosquc, drtail ol 4tucco dtx.orar~on.

hlajor Monuments ? I o ~ ~ u r n c nin t s Iranian, C c n t r a l Asian ancl Scljuk s t ~ l t ' s\verc c r c c t e d u n d e r Ghazna\.id rult.. '\(I\\ acla1.s the, m o s t c.xtc,nsivc and imprcssii-c ruins a r c prescrl-cd n o t in t h c tit\. bcaring t h c ot'thc d\-nast\., i . c . Gliazni, but on t h e conlluc~nct-of t h e Hclmantl ant1 .4rghandab ri\-ers, ~ I I c . nol-th OF t h c citatlcl o f Hust.

Fig. 6.5:

Lashkari Bazar, ground plan of palace. (After Schlumberger.)

Fig, 6.6: Lashkari Ha-rar, southcrn palacc, all dcct~rationant1 rfmalns

of' ~ a u l t ~ n g .

Lashkari Bazar (Schlumberger, 1952b, 1978) Sultan ah mud and his nobles built their palaces and villas along the banks of the Hrlmancl river. Most of them werc concentrated along a four-mile stretch bc.twc.cn thc. citaclcl at Bust and the present modern town of Lashkar Ghar. Thc court was accompanied by a large militarv escort who lived in barracks and cantonments near the palaces. The thrcc most important were built on a bluff overlooking the Hclmand river and of thcsc. threc the southern palace, built at the bend in thc river, is the largest and most elegant. txtcnding for half'a kilometre along the bank, the palace is built around a central court with four rvanr o r archctl doorways (Fig. 6.5). Passing through the northern lvon one enters a spacious rcctanplar aud~encchall once bordcred by columns and decorated with frescocs ant1 intricatc.1~ sculptured stucco. Large panels with epigraphic borders surrounding a wcltcr of sculpturcd stucco and interlacings of cut brick were found in the debris of the southern Ivan. Mud-brick structures still preserve architectural and decorativc features, for cxamplc large vaulted halls and the horseshoe arch (Fig. 6 . 5 ) . The geometrical decoration includes angular interlacing strapwork, radiating from six, eight, ten o r twelve-pointed stars and including polygons of ~ a r i o u stypes. Panels displayed in the Kabul Museum give an idea of the elegant ticcoration ~vhichoncc faced these barren walls. The excavation revealed also distemper paintings on the \valls depicting richly garbed guardsmen, weapons at the ready in brocaded belts, standing agalnst a background of flowers, fruit-laden trees, birds and other animals. The palace guard she\\ Central Asian features in the heads rendered in three-quarter profile (Fig. 6.7). In the ccntre of the great hall was a rose-petalled water basin fed by a canal running from east t o \\-cst, indicating that the palace had running water. T o the south of the great audience hall was discovered a small mosque elaborately decorated in sculptured stucco with borders of Koranic inscriptions, now reconstructed in the Kabul Museum. T o the east of the palace there \vas a large garden with a central ~ a v i l i o nand , a platform with an octagonal centre may still be .rcc.n. A contemporary observer, Baihaqi, mentions gazelles rounded up and herded into this and also the great outings on the plains when the Sultan crossed the river on a canopied barge hung with silks. l within the Evidence of some remodelling of the southern palace parallels ~ o l i t i c achanges cmpire: new walls are t o be observed, and then comes evidence of the great fire when the Ghorid ruler Ala al-Din burned the residence. There are, however, also archaeological traces of a re-occupation and restoration under the Ghorid Sultans. T h e final destruction came through the armies of the Khwarizm-shah around 1 2 15 o r by Chinggis Khan in 1220 ( N . H . IJupree, 1971 : 237).

Ghazni Thc Ghazni plain is full of tombstones and marble graves of Ghaznavid nobles bearing I~c~autifulinscriptions (Flur!, 1925). Italian excavators revealed the palace of Masud 111 ( 1 0 9 9 1 1 14) (Fig. 6.8). They were led t o associate a ruin field with this ruler b s an inscription

6.

F R O M 'IIII-. 1tIslr 01.I S L A M

31 3

])is ~ i , i ~ i011 i c a ])iccx, ol'st011~~ uscbd011 t1icb arc.11 of'lt.x is ,I larqc 01)c,11 rectangular c o u r t paved \rritIi marhlc, 50 x 3 I 111; rvtbn the- Ii)otl)ath arountl this courtyard is 1)wc'"'1with this prcbciousstonc. In tlic ccntrc ofcach ol'tlie I i ~ u walls r surrountling tllc c.ourt was an iron, an architcr.tural 1i)rni ~ n u c hlavourc.tl l ~ the v Ohaznavids. TIlt. 11.ono n tht. liorth, wliic-I1 inc.luclcd a large. imposing v c s t i h u l ~ ~ fu11ctionc.d , as a monumc~ntalcntranc.tBo r I)rol~vlacum.Opposite., t h c southcrn iron containctl t h c throne rooni. O n t h c cast an(! \vest tlicl-c n.c-rc small roonis, on c~ithersidc o f t l i c c.cntral rl.ons,including a l~illarcdniosquc* in tlit. north west c o r n e r . T h e \valls of tht. court wcbrc. gorgc.ouslv dccoratctl, tile u p ~ ) t ~portions r cmhcllislic~din tchrracotta and stuc.co in sculpturc~dgc*omctric patt crns \r~hicIin.cbrc l>aintctl y~,llo\r',red and hluc. T h c lon'cr sc.c-tion ot'tlic walls prcscXr\,csa spc-ctacular c.xariiplc ofcarvc.d marI>Ic (Figs 6.9---6.11 ), containinc an insc-ription 250 ni long, not in Aral)ic. as \vas usual l o r this pcxriod, but in Pcrsian, rcl)rc.si.nting o n c of tlic oldcst c-xamplcs ol' I'crsian cpigrapliv. Kcmains of niarblc dcxcoration sho\v gc-omctric I)attcrlis faniiliar t o us froni Islamic. art (l-'ig. 6 . l o ) , and furthcr rare' examples of animals and mcbn, among otlic'rs in livclv hunting sc.(,nc,s (Fig. 6 . 1 1 ) . In tlic Museums of C;Iiazni and Kabul arc. prcbscrvcd tinix spccinic~nsot' Gliaznavid handicrafts: cwc.rs, stirrups, copper dislics \\.it11 niythical l1gurc.s and Kutic. insc.riptions (Fig. 6 . 1 3 ) and glazcd bowls (Fig. 6 . 1 4 ) . In the. vicinity of this palacc is tlic minaret of Masud 111, n1c.ntionc.d abovc (Fig. 6 . I 2 Iiac.kqround), on a round soc-lc. This to\vt-r and t h c niinarct of Bahrani Shah ( 1 1 1 7 1 1 5 3 ) situated ncarbv on a m o d e r n octagonal soclc arc, conceived o n t h e plan of an cight-sid1.d star (Fig. 6 . 1 2 foreground). Today onlv tlic ground storcys rt'main, but skctc1ic.s 01' t h c carlv ~~inctc.c.ntIicc.ntur,' and older photographs slio\v that tlic prisniatic basc.nic~nts carricld c\.lindrical shafts; according t o tlic~serccords t h e third storcv of Masud's minaret hcgan with a ~ ~ l , circular ~in \r.all \vitli flat segmental p r o ~ ~ c t i o abovc, ns then carvcd niclics likc a kind of ~ l c ' p ~ t i vfor111 c of the' preceding pattern (Hill and Grabar, 1967: pl. 145). Thta tcrracotta tlc%~.oration of' t h c tolvcrs c-or~.cspondst o thcscl rich and novcl arc.1iitcc-tural invcntions. ill

kcbc-1

I'hc p a t r o ~ i s o fLaslikari Hazar o r of Gliazni, in c~itlicrc-asc the- carlv rulcrs of t h e Gliaznavid tl\.nastv and tlicir nohlcs, erected palac-cs and h o l ~slirinc~salso in t h c surroundings of Bust, \\.hic.Ii may lia\.c. been re.-uscd during tht. later Gliorid occupation. H c r c \vc. illustratc a palacc ruin at the, southcrn end of the mud hric-k buildings south of Laslikari Hazar and north of Rust (Fig. 6 . I S), an espcci,illy large. structurc~\vitli a sparsclv but c ~ s p r t . s s i v c ldccoratcd ~ facadc. I',~l,~c.cs of this type \vtXrc. t o bcco~iit.tlic niodc~lsfor lslaniic m u d hrick arcliitcc.turc in .~tljoinin ~ . asc-rihcd ,ill\. t o t h e post-Gliazna\.id pc-riod (Fig. 6 . 4 2 ) . T o this Ghorid period \ve asc-rihc .114o cc~rt,ii~i t c r r a c - o t t ~P~IIIC~IS fro111 G l i ' ~ ~ ~t ioi ,he' dca:t \\.it11 later o ~ i . C

Fig. 6.8:

Ghazni, palace of Masud 111, ground plan. (After Bombaci.)

The nortll Afghan town of Sar-i Pul contains t m xlyarats, some. of' which arc of grcat arc.hacologicaI importance. The ziuorot of' Imam-i Khurd, "Thc. lAc.ssc.r Imam1', is situate.(] allout 1 . 5 km south cast of the crntrthof t h r town, and co~isistscrl'a simple* c1omc.d c.hambc.r 4.8 metres square. Thr. outcr walls wcrc covcrrd in natural mud p1astc.r; t h r insirlc., llo~vcvcr,has walls with a spectacular dccorativc inscription in carved stucco. Its rich floral decoration belongs t o thc bcst Seljuk tradition (Schimmcl, 1970, pl. XIV,. T w o Iarg(.r inscriptions in tht. mihrab are \vrittcn in a highly dccorativc. varicstv offi)liatc-Kufic script. The. tcst of the inscription informs us that Sar-i Pul corresponds t o thc nlc.dicval town of i\nl,ir.

Baba Hatim Z y a r a t Josephine Po~velldiscovered in Northcrn .4fghanistan t h ruins ~ of a splcndidlv drcoratc.d tomb kno\vn t o the local population as Salar Chalil and dcsrrihed as a (;hamavidmauscrlrum (Mclikian-Chirvani, 1968). T h e building rises on a square plan which is transfornmd into thc oc.tagon carrying a squinch dome. This Iranian and Turanian tvpc of c.onstruction can hc compared with monuments of the tenth t o twclfth centuries from Hukhara, Termcz, Mcrv, Uzqand o r Sangbast, and the architectural decoration in baked brick links thc ruin with wellknown buildings, especially of Khurasan art of thc eleventh ccnturv. Rich stucco ornament again recalls eastern Iranian art. The calligraphy of inscriptions on the walls, recording the memory of the martyrdom of Salar Chalil Sawid * . (Fig. 6.16) belongs t o the best cxamplcs of the foliated Kufic script of the eleventh century.

Charkh-i Lohgar Another fine specimen of Ghaznavid decorative art survivcs in a rarc example of \r.tw,d c.ar~.inp;in the upper Lohgar \-alley, in a mosque named after Shah Muhvi al-Ilin, in the villagr of Charkh-i Lollgar, exists a \vooden n~ihrob \vith Koranic inscriptions in Kutic script (Fig. 6.17). This piece of \vooder~architecture is said t o ha1.c been brought from an old I I I O S ~ U Pin the village of Kachari, situated some miles t o thc north. In this pcrishablc n~atcrial \I-c obscrve architectural inno\.ations well known t o us from stone, burnt brick o r mud brick structures of the age, and can study the transfornution of thc rectangular mihrah bv traheate I)c.ams into a semi-circular base for a cupola. The latter is enibellishcd bv arabcsqucs (Fig. (3.18). The rnihrob opens in a cusped horseshoe arch (Fig. 6.17). T h e mihrah ~ v i t hconch. c.oI~umnand side panels represents a tine example of angular interlacing decoration. Furthcr studies of this extraordinar\. specinlen may also enlighten our understanding of the \voocI.ll-\.ingin the doors from the tomb of Mahmud of Ghazni (no\r preserved in the h r t at Agra) it11 their bold composition of post-Samarra pulvin leaves interlacing \vith a heart-shaped ~'c.a~-led braid. The leaves have spiral tendril tips and include onc pair of long-lobed flcurons. 'Thcsc much debated nvooden doors are of a pcriod later than Mahmud of Ghazni (Rogcrs. 1953: 238-244) as also is thc marble slab on the tomb of Mahmud in thc present city of Ghazni cFlul-~,1925: 89). (

1-ig.6.12: G l i a ~ n i ,minarc1 of

Haliran~Shah, u ith minarct

clt'

M a d 111 in hat kg,-clunrl.

Fig. 6.1 3:

Ghazni, co13pc.r dish. Kabul Muscum.

=

m

Fig. 6.14: Ghazni, gla~cclIIO\\ I w i t h Iilstl-c' clc~c.ol.ation.Kal~ulMuscum.

Daulata bad In Bactria, t o the north of Balkh, stands a minaret of purr cvlinclrical fi)rni (big, 6 . 1 9 , .Thir monument of Daulatabad carries a Kufic inscription naming the artist Muhammacl Ali anrl theyear 502 A . H . = A . D . 1 108109, and was interpreted as an important work in the Scl juk stvlc. (~ourdel-Thomine,1953: 122). The style of the brick ornanirnts brlongs, aftrr He-rztblcl ancl others (Rogers, 1973: 220), t o the so-called hazar bal' varicbtv. Its csscbncr is a highlv pronounced contrast of light and shade produced bv all-over patterning of raisccl hricks in complicated meanders, the angles mostlv being right-anglcs.

lran Outside Afghanistan w e find some buildings in eastern lran that may belong t o an extension of Ghaznavid artistic influence, like Sangbast (Bombaci, 1958: 8 ) o r thc caravanserai of Hibat Mahi (Hutt, 1970: 205), with its early Iranian vaulting system. According t o rcccnt survcvs, lio\vever, the ornaments of interlacing frame work and othcr motifs of the early t\rclfih century still lack definite proof of their connection with Ghaznavid dynastic art (Kogcrs, 1973: 223).

Summary of Ghaznavid Art The art which flourished in Zabulistan under the dynasty of the Ghaznavids collected and transmitted motifs of Sasanid and other origins and was a sourcc for Islan~icart in India. The cradle and centre of this culture was Ghazni; before Sebuktegin and his son Malinlud it \\as an insignificant place, a trading city on one of the old routes bet\veen lran and India. It becamc suddenly one of the leading centres of Asia when Mahniud made it a cultural centre usinq \ ~ . ~ a l acquired th during his Indian expeditions. Hc endon.ed a madrasa with a rich librarv attracting famous scholars and poets like Firdusi and al-Biruni. In order t o gain an overall idea of Ghaznavid art we must use the rich literary sources t o interpret the archaeological t.\,~dencecollected during recent years. Before Mahmud the historian al-Muqaddasi mentions wooden structures and mosaic art, I\ h ~ l sal-Utbi t describes various mosques; there had been great builders before the Ghaznavids ant1 Samanids on the soil of Afghanistan, as Ibn Hauqal reported. Gigantic monuments \r hich 11~1 c now disappeared once distinguished these vanished cities. The dome of tlie Naubahar at RciIkh, m o r e than a hundred cubits high, built by the Barnlakids, \\as greatcr than the very palace of Mansur at Baghdad. As for Ghazni, there can be no doubt of its splendour in thc earlv clc%\cnthcentury. Here the poets confirm tlie historians. Ho\v many a palace did great Mahniud raise, .At \\hose tall to\lrers the Moon did stand at gaze.

\Yhel-cof one hrick remainctli not on place.

Fig. 6.19: Daulatabad, minaret.

Of'somc. of Masutl's buildings morc specific accounts have. survivc(l. WhCsnhc. cam(-to the. throne he already had at his tlisposal a series of royal resic1c.ncc.s: in a(l(litic,n t o his latht.r's great cstatc, the Hagh-i Mahmud (Mahmud's Garden), and his old palacc, (iawshak-i Kullan-i ~ a h m u t l there , werch the garden 01' the Hundred Thousantl, the- Vic-tory (;arclc.n, th(. Stat(. ~ ~ a l a and c e the White Palace, but all these and more 11rsidt.s did not suftic.c-.Ant! so tllc.rc carnc. into being the Gawshak-i Masudei, dedicatetl with a fabulous Ikstival. 7-hc main ro\,al buildings formed a symmetrical group, in the centre thc auclirncc hall, on the right thesummer palace, on the left the winter palace which was dometl. Nowatlavs we may visualize in these architectural groups great ivans such as those clearc.tl by archaeologists at Ghazni (Fig. 6.8) and Lashkari Bazar (Fig. 6.5). The lattcr palace has also traces of wall paintings such as those vividly described by contemporaries in the grcat palacc paintings of Mahmud ot Ghazni. W e know that his victorious armies and his elephants were depicted and in one hall were portraits of Mahmud himself. In other apartments wcrc the combats of the Sasanian kings. Historical and literary texts attest the building activity of Mahmud, Masud I and Masud Ill; to a lesser degree w e know also of the works sponsored by Ibrahim and Bahram Shah. Ghaznavid architecture tends t o grandeur and opulence, a contrast t o the building material of mud brick-a tendency, however, visible in several Oriental cultures. O n e of the great inventions of Ghaznavid art consists of the grouping of ivans. The dome and the ivan are the two major spatial forms which give the buildings of Persia their impressive monumental character. The word ivan can be used for an enclosed hall with flat roof, but in Islamic architecture it means always a space, whether portal o r hall, which is surrounded on three sides, open t o the fourth side and covered by a barrel vault. The ;van opening on a court can be followed by a square domed room, which in turn opened into a series of porticoed courts. Archaeological work at Lashkari Bazar and Ghazni showed that compositions of four ivans on the axes o f a courtyard were a prominent feature in Ghaznavid architecture before four-lvan compositions were used in Khurasan as ground plans for mosques, rnadrasas and caravanserais. Another invention o r adaption of earlier Oriental forms, of far reaching consequence for later eastern architecture and decoration, was the use of the horseshoe arch (Figs 6.6, 7.4, 7.1 3 , 7 . 1 6 ) . The round horseshoe arch mav have bcen derived from Persia on the strength of clc.tails of construction observed at Firuzabad, built by Ardashir in the third centurv A . D . Here the arch was set back at the springing so as t o pro\.ide a support for the centring. Some belie1.e that the motif came from India, where a number of rock-cut caves o r Chaitva halls have an cntl-ancc arch of this form. In the history of Muslim architecture the horseshoe arch is first mc.1 u.ith in the great mosque at Damascus, where the arches of the transept and the lo\ver arches o f the arcades are slightlv larger than a semi-circle. In Ghazna\-id art, Near Eastern and Indlan origins may have bcen combined; thev n-ere enriched bv decorated pointed forms and Iovetlie sccond balconv is another plain area rising to thc licight o f t h c third door\\-av. O n tl~isIcvcl there is another band of Kutic inscription. The \\,ails are coniposed of intcrlockcd lavers of plain tired bricks ahout 20 cm square and 5 t.rn thick. Inside tlie base and the tirst cylindrical ticr there is a douhlc spiral staircasca.Thcsc, ~ I J ~ I - C ~one S C o\:er S , the other, terminate at the top of thc central core. Inscriptions on tlie tirst cylinder from the bottom refer t o Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad ibn h l n , \vho ruled Firuzkuh from 1 1 53 t o 1203. The style of the ~ u h is c traditional (Molinc. ! 075).

anel el

The tirst cvlinder of the niinaret utilizes arcliitecturc" (Molinc, 1975). This t(~c.liniqucis also seen in earlv lslaniic art, \vhere structural sections are emphasized bv the tic-coration. The three-dimensional ornaniental brick\vork \vithin the \\all panels crratcs a ~uttcl-nof light and shade. Decorative brick\vork technique of the same kind \\.ill be found in

Fig. 6.20: Jam, th(s mlrlarcst (;hol-itl I~uiltlings01' Hcsrat (Fig. 6. 34) ant1 C:hisht (Fig. 6. 3 1 ) . A m o n g the. motifs u s c ~ l 1)antls , 01' ~ x , a r l s(Fig. 6 . 2 1 ) arc- known I'rom t h e Sasanicl tirnc.s, an(l arc. also fountl o n thc. T o w c ~of' Hahram Shah, at (;liazni (Fig. 6 . 1 2 ) . Molinc (1 9 7 5 ) rnc~ritionsarc,hacbologic,al remains in t h e surrountlings of' Jam tlc~scril~ctl I)! I.(, Hcrrc, Hruno, Gnoli, 12c.shnik ant1 Kic*ll'c,r. IHcrl,crg (I)c,rsonal communic,ation) has ~ ) c ~ ~ - r n i trtncc (, l t o r c p o r t on his rcscc.nt cliscovc~rics01' architectural ant1 sculptural rc.mains, ~ ~ a r t c.(litc,tl ly I I him ~ ant1 Kapp, partly unpul~lishctl.O n t h e hill ol'Kush-Kak, t o t h c wc.st of'thc. Jarn-KutI, halt'way bc.twec-n t h e villag(%o13Jamant1 t h e towc.1- o n the, conflucmcc., he. tliscovcrctl I~II-tIic'r to~nI>stonoswith Hc~I>rc~w inset-ilitions in(lic.ating t l ~ cc.c~mcXtc-ry of' a large, Jcv,ish c.omtnunity in thi\ at-(%a ot'(;hor f r o m 1149 t o 1.2 1 5 (t4(.l-l,crg, 1 9 7 6 ) . TOt h e south o f ' t l i c ' llal-i-

1 : 1 1 ~ 1 ) I ( . 11141)1)(~111111~1I)l.i(.k \ \ . J ~ c . I ~ t o \ \ ( . l - s (I.ig. ( 3 . 2 2 ) c . o n 5 t i t u l i n g s I o r t i i l c , i t i o n I i r l c . 7-0 t h ( , I 1 1 01' this l - i \ c S l - 1 1 ~ .s t u ( l i c ~ 1a IO~-tl-('ss0111)ositc' t11(' t o \ \ ('1- 01 J A I I ~.1-11c. . 11ati11-;111 . o ~k \ \ a s

11, *I

t ( ~ I,\. 1 'inn(,]. ancl outc.1- \ t o n e , \\-ails t h a t ;II-(, pr-c~sc~l-\.c~tl 1111 t o a Icangth o t 2 0 0 n i . 0 1 1 t h ( , i l l t ~ ~1i t1 ti)illl(l ~ ~ a ~ - o c . k - I i c ~ \ ancl \ . ~ i s t o n ( . - l w i l t \\.at(~l.-l-c*sc~l-\.c,ir-. In ant1 dl-ountl tIlc,sca r u i n 5 ,!I(,( 01.tIiis ~ i ) ~ - t r ~111 ~ ha s a, all(,^ 01'thcb lHa~-i-l{u(l, s ~ I ( ~ I 01' - ( ~" s, i C q r ~ ~ / / ~ ~ ~ o -;\t~o~the> a r c\\,(.st ~ :l.,ll~c,(liatc% n ol \~- - t I 01't11(. i t o \ \ ( , r , solnc. I - u i n s \\.c.rc. s t i l l \ . i h i l ) l ( s a I ( > \ \ \.c.al-s a g o , h u t the.\. ha\.c,

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c . l c , a ~ - ( ~a \l \ a \ , ; loc.al 11-a(litio11c , a l l ( ~ ltlic~liia "I>aza~-". FiliaIl\.,

111

tli(, a n g l ( %

th(s I l a l - i - l i ~ l t ant1 l the. 13c.tlan-l~utltli(%~-c. , i ~ - (t, o h e . scc,n I-(.mains o t ' a small(,l- l O r t r ( ~ h ~ , 111~' I)alik 01' t11(. I3c*tla11 ri\,c\l- \\.as Ii)untl a n Islamic- I-0c.k i n s c . r i p t i o n . Th(\ t o r t \\.as : " , ~ I L I I ) I \ ~( l c , s t i ~ l (t~ol 1)1-otc*c.tt l ~ ( \.all(>\. * o l ' t l ~ ( I, ~ ( Y I ~ I I - ~ tt~i ~ ~ ~ ~ l l - l ~ o l\ i~l l ia g~ ( l* ~. i t c ~ ~ l

Fig. 6.22:

J a m , mud brick fortification.

Fig. 6.23: Aana, lines of square and round towers. We may now survey the other main archaeological sites of the Ghorid period. In the north is Ahangaran, with an old fortress in the middle of a valley on an earthen mound some 60 m trom the left bank of the Hai-i-Rud (Kohzad, 1953: 59). From a distance, the earthen ramparts, blocks of stone and fragments of wall are still impressive. The centre of the castle \ \ a \ a tower and the outer walls were reinforced by towers also. It was because of such forts t h a t Sultan Mahmud could not force a passage in spite of his great army. Isolated towers and \mallcr castles connected Ahangaran in a line of fortifications among lvhich fortresses like (;u/arpam and Chehel Gazari stand foremost. South of Jam is the vallev of Shaharak (Fischer, 1969: 376) with numerous tepes and mud brick ruins marking pre-Islamic and Islamic 4rttlrments. Pending further archaeological field survejs, we prefer t o leave open t h e cluc..~tionof whether the site of the Ghorid capital of Firuzkuh is t o be located at Taywara o r J I I \ other stronghold, rather than in the vicinity of the tower of Jam. Powell has photographed I rill>\ in this area between Hari-Rud and Rud-i Ghor, predominantly fortified sites, sometimes or ul-ljan and village-like character. W e know that in the Ghorid period the land route through 11: ,c ranges was protected bv watch towers and castles of both military function and artistic 1 1 Il,ortance. T o both sides of the vallej- of Aana, for example, lines of square o r round mud l i k tolvcrs dominate t h r crests of gently rising hills (Fig. 6.23). A cylindrical tower at Male ' i ru rises on a stonc basement (Fig. 6.24); the militarv architecture is embellished on the 1 1 , 1jc1. part of the mud and mud-brick ~vallsby simple but expressi\e geometric patterns 1 1 ; . 6.25). The mud brick fortress of Khissar is perched upon steep rocks (Fig. 6.26) in a ( 1 ~ ~ i i n aposition nt blockading a pass on one of the m c d i a e ~ a ltrade routes through the Ghorat 1 I I < . 6.27). The prcscnt village of Yahan is situated in a valley around which are rising terraces \ [ ircldcd M ith mud brick ruins (Fig. 6.28) among lvhich t*xca\ation might re\ eal du.elling 111

s '

Fig. 6.24: Male Alau, mud brick tower on stcrnc basc,

.131nl a~%u!se Xq pa[[oljuo3 aq p[no3 uo!%al u!elunom a[oyM 3yl q 3 ! y ~u o l j a l l u a 3 sno!Aqo ou yl!m 'po!.xad [eAae!pau XIlea aq3 % ~ ! l n pl o q ~ )u! l a ~ o d[e3!1![od j o uo!leluau%ey aq3 33a~a-1(62.9 ' 9 2 . 9 s % q ) sassal3loj aq3 j o suo!~!sod %u!pueuuo3 a y L 'slauos!ld [e3!lqod %u!-rnuru! ~ os ja q d palnolzej os[e alam sp[oy%uolls asayL .(g [ [ : 1961 ' q l l o ~ s o 8 )s a q a s u a q 3 puajap p[no3 a ~ d o a d%u!~o[ -ruopaay aq3 aJaqM (yysny 'rosry ' ~ 1 'rsob) ~ 6 slam03 pue s a q d p a y l l o j Xueu-ade3spuel a q j jo len!dX~lsou--pue s3uaua[uas [eln1[n3!~%eXIuo l n q ' a ~ o u j osumo3 o u peq ~ o y ley3 3 ,nbeA l a y d e ~ % o a aq3 % Xq uo!Jeuloju! a y l pue X l n ~ u aqJuaAa[a ~ XIlea a y l u! su%!eduea p!Aeuzeq3 aql jo s1uno33e [en!lols!q ay, s u r ~ y u osuo!~e3y!3loj ~ asayl j o Xpnls .(0~.9 XJ!U!~!A aq3 u! slaMo1 y33eM jo au![ e ql!m ~ 3 a u u o 3 pue (62.9 .%q) a)!s ueqln p[o ue l ~ a ~ o01 l ds~oo[[!q [[ems uodn p a q d a l e y 3 ! ~ qp n u l o ?s!d l o sJaMo3 ' ~ ! e %.seala ~ [e!luap!sal uaAa l o sasnoy

v

ssed aql u! uo!1esy!lloj 'less!q~ qz.9

'8:~

% I S6.27: . Khissar, fortress scen from above,

'The western frontier of G h o r is marked by t h e village of Chisht (Fig. 6 . 3 1 ), situated in a Ill\ valley M-ithlarge trccs and a small stream. In t h e vicinity of contemporarv buildings \ ~ . e 1111(I remains of a mosquc and a school (madrosa) built by Sultan Ghivath al-Din ibn Sam, . ) ( cordinq t o t h e traces of an inscription on t h e mosque (Maricq and W i c t , 1959: 6 9 ) . T h e ~-uc.tul-altechnique of t h e squinch d o m e as kvell as t h e delicacy of t h e \!.all decoration a r c I \ pica1 of Ghoritl a r t . Ncar the southcrn frontier of G h o r kvc find t h e ruin of Larwand that t-1irokr.s furthcr light rill mccliacval connections between t h c heart of Afghanistan and northkvestern India. \ ( (.orclinq t o rcccnt information (Scarcia and Taddei, 1973: 9 6 ) , t h e name of the locality is /'.l\.a~-at-iMalikan and I-cfcrs t o a thought t o have been customary among Gliorid \ ( I \ ('1-cigns; it is situateti about half-way along t h e track running from Larkr-and t o Parjumari.

6.

343 The building is fashioned in blocks of dark stone and square in plan (Fig. 6.32). Each sillr FROM T H E RISE OF I S L A M

measures 2.5 m in length on the inside and the height of the walls is 3 m . The front is rlrsignecl as an arched screen placed in front of an inner core, set back about 4 0 c m , and an-,especial prominence being given t o the descendants ()I'(-;IlinggisKhan's eldest son Jochi, whosc territorial base lay in Khu-arizm and the steppes of h ~ u t h e r nRussia. This army, \vhich overthre\v the Assassins in Kohistan ( 1 2 56) and sacked H;i,$ldad (1 258), extinguishing the Caliphate, never in fact operated in Afghanistan; but its i11llx)rtancefor our purposes lies in the dissensions which broke out within its ranks soon after

the Baghdad campaign. In 1261-2 Hulegu executed the Jochid princes with the army and massacred their troops. Many of the survivors fled east and joined the Jochid contingent operating in Afghanistan under a certain Neguder. T h e Neguderis, as they came t o be known, maintained their independence around Ghazni and in the Indian borderlands for some decades. Consequently, Afghanistan did not at this stage form part of t h e empire founded by Hulegu in Iran and ruled by his descendants, the "llkhans", down t o about 1350 (Aubin, 1969: 79 ff.; cf. Longworth-Dames, 227a). Even the westernmost part lay under the influence of a native Persian dynasty, the Kart rulers of Herat (c. 125&1383), who claimed descent from the Ghorids, and who behaved as highly unreliable vassals of the Ilkhan. T o the south Seistan, still ruled by the line of princes who had been in power since 1002, proved still less amenable t o the Ilkhans' control. Around the turn of the century, t h e Neguderis w e r e reduced t o obedience by the Mongols of Transoxiana, ruled by the descendants of Chinggis Khan's second son Chaghatai. Their position here was only temporarily disturbed by t w o invasions on t h e part of the Ilkhan's forces, in 13 12-3 and 1326, and when the Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta passed through Ghazni in 1333 he found t h e region securely under the sway of the Chaghatai khan's lieutenants. In 1352 even t h e Karts w e r e obliged t o become Chaghatayid vassals. But the authority of the Khan himself was already being appropriated by members of the nomad aristocracy; and in 1369 it passed t o Timur, a m e m b e r of the Turkish tribe of the Barulas, who proceeded t o nominate a puppet Chaghatai sovereign but who remained ruler of the empire in everything but name. Timur embarked on a career of conquest that destroyed the various local dynasties who had supplanted the Ilkhans, crushed the Jochids in Russia, and e j c n achieved what his Mongol predecessors had never accomplished, the sack of Delhi. In Afghanistan he captured Herat in 1380, executing the last Kart ruler a few years later: Kabul, Ghazni and Kandahar w e r e all incorporated in Timur's empire. Although after his death in 1404 they initially fell t o a grandson, Pir Muhammad, they were soon annexed by his fourth son Shah Rukh ( 1404-1 447), whose capital was Herat and who was recognized as the head of thc t l ~ n a s t y After . the brief reigns of Shah Rukh's son Ulugh Bcg (1447-1449) and grandson Abd al-Latif (1449-1450), Khurasan was disputed among various scions of the Timurid line until Husain Raiqara (1469-1 506) finally established his power in Hcrat and recreated the cmpirc. of Shah Rukh: during their reigns the city reached the zenith of its fame as a centre of culturc. Kabul, howe\ e r , now constituted a separate principality under another branch of the d\nasty, bvhilc the western provinces of Iran fell away, t o be ruled first by the Turkomans, and s u b s c q u c n t l ~by the Safarid dynasty (c. 1500). The entl of the fifteenth century witnessed further upheavals in Central Asia. Here a tlcstcntlant of Jochi, Muhammad Shaibani o r Shahi Beg, who had welded together the noniaclic conkderacy known as the Ozbegs, conquered the Timurid ~ r i n c i ~ a l i t i eof s Samarkand (1 499) and Farghana (1 504) and began t o press on Khurasan, finally wresting Herat from Husain Balqara's inefft.ctua1 sons in 1507. For a time the refugee prince of Ferghana, Babar, held out against thc~Ozbegs in the Kabul region. But he had many enemies. The fastnesses of the Hindu-Kush were held by former Timurid lieutenants, while t o the south Babar had t o maintain himself also in the face of attacks from the Arghuns. ~ h I-Nun u ~rghun hat1 been governor of Kandahar for Husain Baiqara, and had tleclared his independence. The

7.

F R O M THE M O N G O L S TO THIi M U G H A L S

359

ozbegl playccl off against Babar his son and successor; and even aftcr ShaihaniVs(lrath in i,artl(. with ~smail,foundcr of thc Safavid dynasty in Iran ( 1 510), Hahar was unable t o rnakc. any headway. At first he was distracted into an attempt to recover his patrimony north of th;. o x u s ; but when this failed, he again took up the strugglc with the ~ r g h u n s ,wh(, \r(-rc. endeavouring t o create a new dominion in Sind. Babar's capture of'Kanclahar in 1 5 2 2 was soon follo\ved by the definitive occupation of Herat by the Safavids ( 1 528), thus estal,lishing t h ( . pattern which was t o last for nearly t w o centuries and which was not materially all;.ctc(l 131. Babar's own invasion of India and conquest of Dclhi from its Afghan rulrrs, the. ~ o i l i s in , I 52 5'. His successors, t h e "Moghuls", retained their hold on Kabul f'rom their ncu. bas(. in Hindustan; though Kandahar periodically passed t o the Safavids, whosc sway cxtc.n(lc.tl ovcbr western Afghanistan until the rise of the Durranis.

Later Islamic Sites: Seistan During recent archaeological field work we have recognized in the mud brick ruins of Seistan the persistence of Ghaznavid, Seljuk and Ghorid art forms. Monuments probably erected mainly under Ilkhanid rule (Fischer et al., 1974-6: 257) contributed t o the evolution of Timurid architecture. Reliable evidence from stratigraphic excavations with associated coins and pottery is still lacking and we have also only sparse information from inscriptions and coins (Tate, 191 2: 2 14, 2 19, 224). Survey in the vast ruin fields, however, helps us t o understand the Arabic and Persian historians and geographers who describe rich settlements in the lower Helmand area. People living in semi-deserts and lands of moving sand dunes depend upon artificial irrigation: the Helmand and t o a lesser degree the Khash Rud fed an extensive canal s\.stem. According t o Islamic writers, such as al-Muqaddasi, Seistan contained few cities, but numcrous rural estates, rustaq. In antiquity Seistan was kno~r-nas a fertile land, and consrquently was a constant temptation t o conquerors. The inhabitants seem t o have 171-otccted themselves by lines of fortresses and watch towers (Figs 7 . 1 , 7.1 1 ) . After cverv d ~ ~ s r r u c t i othe n irrigation systems and settlements m.ere rebuilt. The nati1.e dynasty of the Satlarids ruled, independently o r as governors and vassals, from 867 until c. 1495, under the (;Iwnavids, Seljuks, Ghorids, Ilkhans and Timurids. In archaeological exploration, Seistan 11.i~ cvcn recently quite rightly been regarded as an almost total blank (Grabar, 1973: 38). I'ottery of all these Islamic periods lies strewn together on the desert surface due t o heavy \I i l l t i erosion; caused especially by the so-called "\r-ind of the hundrcd-and-twenty . davs" , l ~ i ~ ~ ~with ~ - igreat n g force from June t o September (Fischer et a/. , 1974-6: note 73); thus \j.e ' 1 1 i t l in the same ruin-fields side by side East Persian slip-painted wares, lustre-wares and ~i:~~~f'tiato-wares, of the tenth t o thirteenth centuries, as \r-ell as Iranian pottery of the llkhanid .111(1Timurid periods from the fourteenth t o sixteenth centuries. From the llkhanid period crll\~a~-ds throughout the fourteenth century \r-e find blue and \r-hite potterv, closelr !.vst*lnblingChinese porcelain of the fourteenth century but roba ably of independent Near ! IL1tcl-n origin. The Timurid period has well known x,ares painted in blue, greenish-black and ,:,1-(-~>11under a clral- glaze \vith floral and animal designs (Fischer et a l . , 1974-6: pl. 3 18). Early \lil~-paintvd \\-ares predominate in the Ghazna\,id ruins of Lashkari Bazar and Bust, connected

\vith later ch~vclopnicntsin Scistan, and the same holds t r u e of Ghoricl sgralfiaro pottery horn the Han~ijanvalley, Bust and o t h e r places. This early Islamic pottery is f;)und in the vast ruin field of Khwaja Siah Posh (Fig. 7 . 6 ) on the surface, while llkhanid blue and white ant1 Timurid I,lack and blue wares occur in ruins that are still standing u p t o the vaults, like Go]-i (Figs 7 . 8 7 . 1 l ) , and in the Timuritl settlements of Hcrat antl Balkh. Unclcr the Ilkhanids tvpical features of lranian baked-brick architecture wcre ( W i l b e r , 1955: 56). In Scistan buildings w e r e mainly constructed of mud brick; they displayed a great variety of vaulting techniques, some perhaps of local origin. The vaults of the I~t.riodcan be classified into major categories: barrel vaults, vaults on a square o r rectangular base, half-domes and stalactite vaults. Like the builclers of the Scljuq the masons of the llkhanitl period strove t o erect their vaults with a minimum ccntring ant1 scaffolcling. T h e key t o the builders' ability t o construct vaults rapidly ant1 with this minimum of technical means \\.as the standard use of planks made of gypsum plaster stiffenetl with rcccls. Liquid plaster ancl reeds w c r e combined in a moultl, the curvature which rcflcctctl the profile ol'thc planned vault. Several such plaster planks, placed in position upon the Ixaring vaults, clivitlecl the envclopc of the proposccl vault so that thc masons hat1 only t o hill in the segments between the planks. An important factor is the consistent use of g!,psum quick-setting I ~ l a s t c rwhich , meant that if the bed of a row of bricks in one segment of a vault was inc.linecl from the vertical the mason could hold the bricks in place until the mortar had set. In this manner the vault was completetl, segment by segment, without the ncctl for support other than the hancls of the mason. As a result of this method of construction, thcsc Iranian vaults tcntlecl t o be unitary constructions. T h e first of the major categories of vaults is the barrel vault. This was extensively cmploVctl in the Ilkhanitl period, cithcr for simple, continuous vaults, o r in m o r e elaborate variants. O n e variant form may be tlcscribcd as thc covering o f a rectangular area by a series of cross arches, with each cross arch then joined t o its neighbours by transverse filler vaults of motlifetl barrel prof le. O t h c r problems lay in the construction of the cupola, i.e. placing a dome upon a squarc plan. Ilkhanid master builders continuccl t o employ dtviccs common t o the Seljuk period. Squinch arches, spanning the corners of t h c domed chamber, establish the size o f t h e octagon upon which t h c tlomc rises. T h e r c a r e also zones of transition with squinched and shield-like pcnclcntivcs. During this period the double dome appears; its popularity in Iran from this period into Timuritl times resulted from a union of symbolic, aesthetic and ~ r a c t i c a l consitlerations. In t h i field of symbolism, research supports the theory that in the Mediterranean world the dome won high favour and monumental expression when it came t o be associated with thr sacred character of the structure it crowned (Wilber, 1955: 64). In the early Islamic. ccnturics a parallel symbolism seems t o have bccn in force, as many tlomes rose above tombs, shrines and mosques. However, while Christian literature contains numerous references to the symbolic mcaning of the tlomc, the writings of the Arab antl Persian theologians and philosophers have none, n o r , incleed, t o that of any o t h e r architectural k a t u r e ; but from the m o n u m m t s thcmselvcs, we might conclurle that under Islam the clome was a concrete syml>ol of civil and spiritual authority (Fischer, 1974: 123).

safe(]

The name Seistan, o r Sijistan, derives from Sakastan (Sakasthana) "Land ()fthc Sakas9'o r scI,thians, and was also known t o the Iranians as Nimruz, Pcrsian frjr " A Half Day, o r South7*, j.e, the land south of Khurasan. It possessecl in the coursc of time various capital cities. Extensive Islamic ruins exist at Zaranj, a town erected on earlier Sasanian sctt]cmcnts rrferretl t o frequently as simply "Shahr", "Shahr-i Sistan", i.e. the (mpin, city (,f St.istan. ~ ~ o Islamic n i sources, Seistan o r Shahr-i Sistan was well known as the home of Islamic poets and religious teachers (Stern, 1969: 9). In 1383 the city was clrstroye(l by Timur, but according t o literary sources it was rebuilt immediately after the catastrophe. zaranj was on a branch of the Helmand river, and 48 km above the city the stream was confined by a serics of dams and drawn off into five great canals which flowed towards the city. O n e ofthese irrigated thc gardens adjacent t o the town, another, the Sana Rud, ct)nstitutcd the city \vatcr supplv, while the remaining three were for farm irrigation in the vicinity. W e can compare this documentary evidence with archaeological evidence supplietl by air photographs and firltl surveys (Fischer et a ] . , 1974: pls 12 5-30). The city of Zaranj itself was built on the concentric plan with an outer and an inner town, both walled. The chief approaches were from Khurasan on the north, Nishak and Bust on the east, and Fars to the southu.est, and t o each of these corrcsponded a gate, with two t o the latter in the inner ~vall.Bct\veen the t\vo Fars gates cr,crc. thc inncr town markets, the old government house, the prison and the Friday Mosquc, the minaret of which can still be recognized in the ground plan, \vhilst the structure itself has reccnt1,- collapsed. Zaranj M.as connected with the capitals of the Islamic East by caravan tracks leading in all clircctions. An old route carried the traffic from Central Afghanistan to Seistan along thc H(,lmand rivcr. Near the fort at the present ruin site of Kordu a line of mud brick pillars (Fig. 7.1 ) marks the site of a settlement that, due t o wind erosion, has \.anished, like man\. othcr mcrlicval Islamic towns of this area. The same is true of a dilapidated castle, "Qala Hauz", still known by this name t o the Baluchi nomads, situated in the heart of the Rcgistan desert (Fig. 7 . 2 ) , reminding us of the fact that traditional land routes ~ a s s e dthrough arid countries. ,411 thcse caravan tracks that may be reconstructed from archaeological remains such as Bust, Kalir Qala, Rudbar and Qala Hauz had one common goal: the villages and towns of fertile S(,iitanon both sides of the lower Helmand, nowadays divided into Iranian and Afghan Seistan. In trying to combine historical evidence with the extant ruins of Seistan, we have the irinr.raries of Ibn Rusteh and al-Istakhri (Tate, 1912: 198). The stages from Juwayn t o Zaranj, IOI-instance, were Basher, and the site of an old fire temple, Karkuveh. Basher is a group of I u i ~ known ~ s at the present day t o villagers and nomads as Pesh~varan.At one time there was a t o ~ ~of nsome size here and part of the southwest wall and a huge fortress can still be ~ r r f o ~ n i z (Fig. e d 7.3). Semi-round towers and three-quarter-round bastions protected the L itcn. . I

7 - FROM

THE MONGOLS T O THF: MUGHAI,S

379

at ~ h c g i n iI1 (Fig. 7.16) (Fischer er a]., 1974: Map 3 ) are again rrflrctrrl architrctural decorative inventions from Sasanian Ctesiphon and Abbasid Ukhaiclir. The spacious vaultcrl ;"an, the monumental keel-arch door and the distribution of horseshoe arched blintl nichc.s in the walls, lead us t o conclude that master builders were engaged to c r r a t r rnagnihcrnt buildings for local chieftains in cheap mud brick; and that they worked on thc samc. lines as i n other centres where architecture and decoration was exccuted in burnt brick o r cut stonc.. In thc Mongol wars many stone and brick buildings in Asia pcrishecl, whilr in thc mucl brick ruins of Seistan, creations such as ivan halls o r decorative motifs- such as cross and star p a t t e r n s s ~ r ~ i v e After d. the destruction of Seistan by Timur at the cnd of the fourtc~mth century, the Timurids from the fifteenth century onwards revivecl building actiritics in n r w centres in western and northern parts of Afghanistan. After the death of Timur in 1405 the arts flourished for a ccntury under the Timurids at Sarnarkand in Central Asia and at Herat in Western Afghanistan. Shah RGkh, Timur's son, who ruled until 1447, effected this change. His wife was Gauhar Shad, whose mausoleum at Herat is one of the masterpieces of Timurid architecture. Their sons were lbrahim and Ulug ~ c g famous , for building the observatory at Samarkand, and Baysunghur, who was a great g calligraphy. A second ~ e r i o dof Timurid renaissance began in patron of miniature ~ a i n t i n and 1469, when Husain Baiqara, a descendant of Timur's son Umar Shaikh, assumed power in Khurasan and initiated a peace that lasted until his death in 1506. It was the Herat of this period which became the centre of artistic life, which Babur saw and which this founder o f t h e Mugha] dynasty described afterwards as the scene of a golden age and the source of civilization.

Herat Hci-at possesses monuments of outstanding beauty in which we can study the imperial style of the. Timurids, but monuments of equal sophistication also existed in the provinces of A fr111anistan. *

C-!i

I.

Plan and Citadel

l ' l ~ 111g ~ the Timurid period, the population increased and new problems arose. While for t ( o t l i century Zaranj w e have mainly t o rely upon sources of Arab and Persian geographers and 111 turians, the present city of Herat gives us an idea of a town of the fifteenth century. Herat 11 1. ,I perfect example of the concentric four quarters plan, with radial thoroughfares cutting 1 1 1 cnclosed city into quadrants. In the tenth century the standard arrangement already 1;' ~ i l e d a: citadel with four gates set on the main axes, which corrcsponded with the four :.it in the city wall. This had 149 towers and was surrounded by a double moat. Inside each 1 , aras a market. By the fifteenth century, although the city had in the interval been rebuilt h \ 1 1 1Karts, ~ it had essentially the same outlines. The city wall, already in disrepair by the end ( 1 1 1 1 ~fifteenth century, was still p a r d e d by towers and encircled by moats. Today, a few l ~ ~ l l l i ctowers l with much decayed tile mosaic are the only remains of a past glory (Wolfe, 1 "(h:1 1 ) . The fortresses and city walls of Herat have been frequently illustrated in surveys of %

the, t\\ cnticth ccwtury, sho\\n still in military use (Nic~tlerma\erant1 I>icz, 1924: Eig. 147) or in a ruinc\cl state (Fisclic~r,1969: pl. 2). Hcrct w c pul>lish a drawing hy Sir Edward Lait Ilurand, assistant commissioner t o the Afghan Bountlary Commission, taken in 1885: the Kuslik or nortlieastcxr~~ gate of Hcrat (Fie. 7 . 1 7 ) with traces of Tinluritl fortification and supcrimposc,(] arclies in a magnificent gateway, restored in post-Timurid times but in crumbling ruins I l v the end of the nineteenth ccntury.

Herat, the Musolla Complex ,4 grcat building project \\as ~ n i t i a t e dhy Queen Gauhar Shad in 1417 . She commissioned thc foremost architects of her (la), such as Imad al-Din of Herat, t o build for her a madraso, or place of learning, and a muvalla, o r place of orsh ship. OIICentered the matirasa through a lofty portal flanked by graceful two-balconic,d minarets t o a square courtyard, t o the right of'^ h i c h a domed chamber was built for her niausolcun~.It \\as completed in 1432. Imposing niinarrts rose o n thc corners o f t h e building project. Later, Sultan Husain Raiqara built a madrasa to thc east on the o t h e r side of'the canal. H e r e t h e r e \vcrc lofty gateways, arcadcs, domes and, again, majestic minarets. Only the minarets and mausoleum remain. T h e interior of the mausolcum is bascd on a square of 9.5 In. Four recesses are roofed by four great archcs, from the haunchcs of which spring concealed squinches (Fig. 7.18). Inside, four big iiitcrlacing arches Form elongated squinches. Above the four intersecting points of the interlacing arches, four shallow, fan-shaped squinches support an octagon (Fig. 7 . 2 0 ) above which a zone of sixtccw small stalactite niches leads t o the ceiling d o m e . T h e whole system is enriched ivith 5talactitcs, in full relief o r flattened, with fan-vaulting in the squinchrs and with a general niultiplication of the architectural pattern by polychrome painting. T h e unique, and at the same time typical, Timurid featurc of the builtling is that, as well as a ct,iling tlomc, it possesses an intermediate constructional dome which is visible from neither outside nor inside. T h e cxtcrior decoration of the mausoleum is again of special beauty. T h e ribbed dome \\as popular with the Timurids ant1 this onc is vcry similar t o the Gur-i Emir mausolcum at Samarkantl. Above the base a tall d r u m ending in a bulbous flutcd tlonlc rises high a b o \ c thr, qround. T h e d o m e is ofPcr\ian blue, the flutcs arc pattc.rnct1 with royal blue lo7engcs ccntrctl M ith r e d , yello\\l o r white. These flutes arc supported by stalactite corbels circling the drum (Wolfe, 1966: 33). T h e minaret which stands t o the cast of thc mausolcum was o n r of a pa11\\ hicli stootl on citlicr sitlc of the portal t o the Queen's n ~ a d r a ~ (Eig. a 7 . 1 9 ) . T h c \haft 01 t I ~ r ~ i ~ l n a r cbelongs t t o the simple circular variety mcmtioncd carlier. T w o halc.onics, thc muezzin's platforms, ring the shaft and t,ac h one is heavily ornamentetl with tjccp stalac titc, brackets similar t o , but m o r e ornate than, thc corbels on thc mausolcum tlomt,.

Herat, Gazar Gah T h e most celcbratcd shrine in Hcrat is situated t o tlic cast of the city and is known as Gazar Gall. It is built around thc t o m b of'thc famous c,lc\.cnth ccXnturySufi poet an(l I,hilosol~lic~r Khu.aja Abdullah-i Ansari, born in Hcrat in 1006. A long inscription explains that thc buil(ling \\as rc>storcd by Shah RGkh in 1428. In the intcrior \vc face a tall al-chetl r l n n in a high \ \ a l l

and very early used for the prophrt's tomb in t h r 0mayya(lmosque. at Mrrlina. I t was solution li)r tombs instracl 01' the (lomvd uari(.ty nlainly usrcl ill Iranian (,untric.s ( ~ o l o m b c k ,1969b; Rogers 1970 1 ).

Herat, "Great Friday " Mosque (Fig. 6.33) We havc already referred t o the Ghorid parts ofthis buiI(iing ( ~ i g6.34) . an(! nlrntitrn bclcrw the largc bronze cauldron prt.served in thc courtyartl. tIcrc. w~ skc.tc,h the. history 0 1 ' this famous mosque which rcachrd its greatest extension during the 'Timuricl ages Jlas now bccomc a centre of motlcrn architectural and dccorativc rc.storation work. In the tenth century, Hcrat's great mosquc. was already an important c ~ a ~ t i f Halkh". '~I In o u r first c.ha11trr wehhave. studir(l an AI>l,asicl l>uil(ling an rxanlpll ()l'th(*architc.cturr o f t h i s early Islamic. l>c.riocl. Accorclisg 10 Yakuhi (I,,. Stranp., 1905, 420), thcl-c. w r r r t w o Friday Mosques in the. c*ity,lstakhri rncntionccl that the. housc.s wcbrc.I,uilt c , l sun-(lric(l bricks, and t h e s a m r material was usccl in t h r city wall. Hc*c,(.ntly,archac.c,logical rcs(-arch rrvc.alr(l Timurid pottery in this wall (tiarclin, 1957: 84). This Ii)rtilic,ation of'Halkh has a long history, from prr-Christian times onwarcls, and the. 'rimuric1 wall marks tl~c-last imlx)rtant pcriocl of t h c city (Ilagcns et a!. , 1964: 9 0 102 ). Furthcrmorc., we- know o f a sul>url, of Halkh callctl Naubahar from which prc-Islamic remains arc. re-portrcl. Tllc. Mongols drvastatccl Halkh in 1220 and, according t o Ibn Hatuta, C h i n g h i s Khan ruinc-cl a third of its grcbat mosque in his Sruitless search for the hid(len treasure. W h e n Ibn Hatuta visitc*(l this tlistric.t in t h e first half of t h e fc~urtcenthcentury Halkh was still a complctc. ruin. All the morca, thcrc-fi)rc, a r c w e interested in the Timurid restoration of t h r fortress and city. 0 1 ' most intrrcst is t h e shrine of Khwaja Abu Nasr Parsa, built in memory of'a distinguished theologian who tlictl at Halkh in 1460. T h e plan of the building is octagonal. Four wings arc attachc.d t o four altcrnatc sitles and t w o of'thcse, rising t o t w o storeys as they flank t h c immc'nsc portal, f;)rrn a sort of'scrcc*n round t h e front of the building. T h e whole. of this front, including cvcsn the, c,orkscrcw pillars (Fig. 7 . 2 8 ) that flank the main facade, is vcnccrc.d in faicncx., whose pl.c*tl(~rninant tint is a cold silvery blue. O n t o p of the octagon sits thcb d r u m , also covrrcd in nlos;ii~.,and from beside it rise t w o circular rninarcts. T h e structurc. is a typical 1-imurid tloul,l(. tlomc. T h c inside of this fantastic structurc reminds us of t h c squinch architccturt. o f th,* (;ur-i M i r Samarkand. Abovc t h e cornice eight latticctl windows altc.rnatc with eight ~ l i c . l r cl ~ a n r l s ,whosc heads arc. filled with stalactites. caarlv

2

,

Timurid Works of Art .i\ (

~

l

l

l

~..IIIIIIICS

of t , small-scalc ~ ~ works of art also survive from this prriotl, of which a fcwr must suf'ficc~.

~

Il(,rat, Bronze Cauldron in the Courtyard of the Great Friday Mosque ( 1 ~ g 6.33) . 'I I I I ~c.aulclrc)n, 4.8 m

and 4.5 m in d r p t h , stands in t h e southeast c o r n e r o f t h r central

((blll-tyanl. It was originally usrcl as a r r c r p t a c l r C)r a sugary syrup callrd rharbat which was \ ( , I \(,(I t o worsllipl>crs feast days. Cast in t w o sections, its d c c o r a t i ~ nconsists o f t ~ hands o

Fig. 7.28: Balkh, shrine of Khwaja Abu Nasr Parsa.

7.

F R O M THI- MON(;OI.S TO THI. M 1 I ( ; H A l S

395

of script in Arabic and Ptbrsian over large arabesques. Timur orclcrcd a replica for a mosqut. in

~ ~ r k e s t a and n , Chinese ambassadors t o Shah Rukh's court also mentioned this caulclron in their reports. T h e first band is a verse from the Koran. The second tclls us that thc cauldron was presented t o t h e mosque by a king Muhammad, son of Muhammad, son of Muhammad thc. Kart, and gives the date of its creation as 1375, one generation before thc Timuricl prriod proper. T h e second line of the inscription includes a verse from Satli, the eminent thirtcacanth century Persian poet. As in other metal vessels of the Timurid period, one obscrves the basic qualities of monumental form and simplicityof design, and decoration limited t o relief and engraved patterns of an epigraphic and floral-arabesque nature.

Metal Ewer, British Museum, London (Fig. 7.29) This piece of a traditional technique is signed by a certain Muhammad Ibn lbrahim al-Ghori, dated 903 A . H . (A.D. 1497). The inscription also states that the piece was made for Sultan Husain Baiqara. This places it in a group of Herat metalwork, t o which belong other small vases and ewers decorated with floral patterns of relatively simple, repetitive and highly s t \ lii.ed form. The floral motifs are on a small scale, and generally based on a combination of palmettes and lancette-leaf arabesques that either cover the exteriors of thcsc vcssels in a continuous all-over pattern o r are organized into a network of cartouches.

Shah Namah, illustrated manuscript written for Muhammad Juki, Herot, about 1440. Royal Asiatic Society, London, MS.230 (I-'iq. 7.30)

Thc. miniatures are small in scale, painted with great skill in enamel colours, the figures tlnarfed by the brilliance of the landscape. The artist shows great interest in the natural \ \ o r l d , so that it takes over the function of dramatic setting and the action of the figures is ( l u ~ t subservient c t o i t . There is a tendency t o elaboration in such fcatures as the rocks which n o \ \ form great masses in unreal colouring. Trees are windswept and clouds conspicuous with 1'11ik shading t o the white swirls. The romantic spirit of thc heroic epic, Shah .h'amah, is colnplemented by the lively scenes, as for example in the history of Rustam and the Div Ihlrlan. According t o the text, the story is as follows: there came a herdsman before Kai Khusrau, the Shah, and told him that a savage wild ass was destroying his horses. Now the Shah knew this was a demon that had taken the disguise of an ass, and he sent for Rustam t o fight ')galnst him. And Rustam obeyed and, mounted on his horse Rakhsh, went t o meet the demon alr(l fought with him. But n h r n e r e r he caught him with his cord he vanished from sight. SO ' ~ l t r rthree days and nights Rustam was wearied, and lay down t o rest. Then the Div came nrar aid, loosening the ground \+here Rustam la!, he lifted it up and flung him into the sea, that rorodiles might destroy him. But Rustam drew his sword and drove them away and struggled

Fb. P.29: Metal ewer, signed and dated by Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghori, 903 A,X, = A,D. 1437, made fbr Sultan H u h Baiqaz~.British Mu~etzm.

to r h 0 1 . c . A I I a~ t i r r tinding Ralhrh. \\ ho bad brt-n (.aught anri ktapt by thr rrr\ants of ~ t ~ , ] ~IIC\ ~SICW h , the hrrdsnlan. Thcn Afrasvah himself came by to look on his horsrs and K u s t h r fought with him and put him t o night. A h r r that the l j i r came on him again, hut nustam s ~ n o t chim with his mace and killtad him ( W i l k i ~ ~ s oand n Hinyun, 1931 : 41 1. t ~ l , b

x j r u n ~ i ,illustrated manuscript by the painter of' Herot, Bihzod, paintrd 1494. British Museum, London Or. 6810 Tlic gcnrr scenc " C O I I S ~ ~ U C of ~ ~the O I Icastle of Khawarnaq" is depicted in a rtnalistic manner (Fig. 7.3 1 ) showing the labourers, the building ramp. ladders, sraffblding and other drtails of titicc.nt11 c-tbntur\iworknlanship. The painter depicts all the drtails of construction work when erecting a high keel-shaped arch for an ivan, just as thev are preserved in many ruins of that tinlr (Fig. 7.25) arid as they are still t o be seen in religious buildings nowadavs in the centre of the \r.orsllip (Fig. 6.33). Whilst we d o not possess contemporary literary sources concerning technical details of baked o r mud brick c-onstruction, rare c-xamplcs of nliniaturcs like this on,, t'l-om the Kharilsa of Nirarni may servc t o illustrate Wilber's (1955) study of construction in Islamic Iran.

Summary of Timurid Art

Thc c ~ ~ . ~ . l ~ i t c cof - t Ccntral urc Asia in the. tifteenth and sixteenth centuries is comprchcnded by the, ~ d c l vused t e r m "Timurid art' ' (Pugachmkoka, 1969-70: 1 5). which is conventional. hut .l~-c-cptaI>le in that it locates a particular cultural phenomenon bvithin the chronological I I I I ~ I ~of\ tile reign of Tinlur and his successors and hvithin the general territorial framework of an c-rlipire which covered ivhat arc now the Central Asian Republics of the USSR, Afghanistan ;\1lc1 1 .Istt\rn Iran. Thc architecture of the Tinlurid period reflects a great variety of historical ~11~ ~4 u l t u r a il ~ l f l u ~ l l cill c ssocictv, in everyday . life, in religious architecture, in secular tasks, In Iw~ldingtcc-hniques and in aestht.tic.s. I'hc tasks set for arc-hitt~cturcwere sornctinlcs c-olossal. ~~~~~~~~~~~nt buildings, the chief I I ~ O \ I I L I ~a ~ l dt l l ~ "laill lllarkets, together \vith densely p ~ p u l a t e dresidential areas, \.ere built 111 ( 1 1 hlssur, ~ the ti,rtitied part (,fa Tinlurid to\vn (Fig. 7.17) ~ v h r r rthe ritadrl. o r ? a h , was .II\o \onlrtimrs (Fie. 7.3). Water \vas supplird bv canals and underground conduits J N , ~\tored in ristcms, huuz (Fig. 7.32). o r r o v r r r d reservoirs ( a r d a b ) , and there was a svstrm 01 yr'\vagc disposal. Tlrc nlan \vhO played the most important part in building operations was the architect. ni,~ii.~r, \r.1lo had t o l>e'nidelYinformed about the various technical and decorative aspects of a1 hiterturr. Htx orr.upird a hig], position in society; miniature paintings show his C

in p r o ~ r c s s(Fig. 7 . 3 I ) . Nc\v i n v r ~ ~ t \vcre i ~ ~ ~madr s in building techniques, rspeciallv in t h r art of vaulting.

\ \ 01

Fig. 7.303 History of Rustam and IIi\ak\\ an, illustratjo~from a manuscript of Firtlausi's Shah-nama, written and illustrated fnr Muhammad Juki. Royal Asiatic Socicty.

Cupola-single, double o r triple, the outer shells of which w e r e usuallv of different shapes, frequently cylindrical (Fig. 7.27), while the inner w e r e of a gently curving elliptical form (Fig. 7 . 2 6 p w e r e supported by pendentives of various sorts: from traditional forms, coffered consoles, corbelled arches and beam pendentives, t o previously unknown systems of shieldshaped pendentives and intersecting supporting arches (Fig. 7.20). T h e most novel invcntion of Timurid architecture was the so-called double dome. It prescribes an inncr dome, which has the incidental advantage of bringing the ceiling into good rclation with thc chamber brlow

7 . FRQM

THC MONGO1.S TCI T H L M U G H A I B

399

and which, by assisting the drum to support a ring of radial buttresses, provides the s~velling LVI I of the outer dome. The master builders reached a perfhct harnlony between a well1~-1,13ortioned interior [Figs 77.0, 7.26) and a tower-like exterior, the latter sometimes s ~ i k i n gby its severe outline relieved by decorative w r k (Fig. 7.271, sometimes attracting thr rye by a ribbed dome (Fig. 7.28) based upon models from Samarkand. Technical and artistic pcrfecrion was reached in the use of tile decorations \%withglazed, t+cilourrdbricks on a hackgmund of unglazed bricks, polychrome (two to seven solours) hicnce nn a ceramic. background or finely drawn, multiroIour~dmosaic figs 7.2 I , 7.271. I-~~cscoes were also used as a form of interior decoration. Timur and his sureeswrs had their laces rmlxlhshrd with various pictures.

Besides the great Friday Mosques (Figs 6.33,7.24), there were suburban mosques and the so-called "Guzar" mosques of the various quarters of a town (Fig. 7.22). In the great central mosque during Timurid times extraordinary varieties of designs, architectural forms and decorative details appear, all on a colossal scale. The building took the form of a closed rectangle with an entrance porch, a great courtyard surrounded by arcades, with four vaulted ivons on the sides (Fig. 6.33) and a domed building on its main axis; the principal ivan and sometimes the corners of the mosque were flanked by minarets (Fig. 7.24). In some cases, a commemorative mosque is a kind of small threelfour-domed gallery attached to the mausoleum (for example, at Kohsan, Fig. 7.27); in others it is a building standing alone with its ivon overshadowing, as it were, the sepulchre in front of it (Fig. 7.28). The art of laying out gardens and parks, an important sector of the science and practice of architecture, agricultural technology and irrigation, reached an unprecedented level of development. Descriptions of the Timurid gardens at Samarkand, Herat and Kabul praise the type of Charbagh on the strictly regular geometrical plan. Timurid artists from Herat may even have contributed to certain developments of lndoMuslim architecture in the early period of Agra. In the manuscript of the Maathir-i Rahimi in the Cambridge University Library is a reference to one Ustad Hirawi, i.e. an artist from Herat, whom Maulana Wahshi Yazdi praises as one of the outstanding master builders of his time. Finally, extraordinary tomb types have recently been discovered in the Dasht-i Nawar to the west of Ghazni, possibly belonging t o the period of the Timurid tomb of Shah Shahid at Ghazni. A simple tomb on an octagonal p o u n d plan, it is a massive structure of mud, with a dome in baked bricks (Fussman, 1974b: Fig. 30); the so-called tomb of Tala Begum (Fussman, 1974b: Fig. 3 1) consists of nine upright, rectangular baked brick fields decorated by chequer boards, crosses, bonds and serrated bricks ending in a beehive summit.

Sculpture Sculpture is preserved in tombstones, for example in the compound of Khwaja Abdallah Ansari at Gazur Gah (Sourdel-Thomine, 1973: Fig. 325), datable to the third quarter of the fifteenth century by a stylistic comparison with a tombstone in the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum at Boston and with the colonettes of the southwest ivan of the Friday Mosque at Isfahan: all these memorials were attributed t o the famous workshops of the Herat school of stone carvers (Erffa, 1946, 187). The designs are mainly based on the tree of life set within a horseshoe arch. The central stem of the tree is broken up into a succession of composite palmettes from which stem most of the branches. Realistic flowers with their origin in the Far East and abstract Iranian patterns are welded into a harmonious whole.

Painting Painting in Timurid manuscripts, together with its attendant bibliophile arts of illumination

7.

FROM T H E MONGOLS TO T H E M U G H A L S

401

in gold and metal pigments, of book binding, paper-making and, naturally, the art of calligraphy (Habibi, 196970: l 2 ) , is one of the recognized high-water markl of artistic achievement in the Islamic world. Recently, new research has been started in manuscript libraries which may help t o explain the origin and diffusion of the lmprrial Timurid style of ~ a i n t i n g(Sims, 1974: 58). Twice the Timurid court of Herat played an imporbnt in the art of lslamic painting: under the patronage of the rulers of the early fifteenth century and towards the end of that century when the master Bihzad flourished. Two sons of Shah Rukh, Baysunghur and Ibrahim, were lovers of Pcrsian literature, and the former was himself a good calligrapher and prepared a new edition of the Shah Narnah at Herat. The reputed date of the foundation of his library is 1420; Jafar became the head of this most famous scriptoriu n of the day. In a manuscript of Khusrau and Sh~rrn,142 1, he already signs himself al-Baysunghuri (Gray, 196 1 : 84). In 1427 a second master calligrapher, ~ u h a m m a db. Husam, produced two beautiful small books, an Anthology and the Gulrstan of Sadi. The most sumptuous manuscript produced in Prince Baysunghur's library is the copy of the Shah Narnah by Jafar Baysunghuri, 1430, now in the Gulistan Palace at Teheran. Ba~sunghur, who was considered the greatest connoisseur of his generation, died of dissipation in 1433. Under the patronage of his son, Ala al-Dawla, who survived until 1447, Ghi\ath al-Din came t o Herat, a painter who had accompanied the embassy of Shah Rukh t o Ch~na(1419-1422) as the envoy of his son Baysunghur. Ala al-Dawla's uncle, Muhammad Jukl, was another patron of the arts; a finely illustrated manuscript of the Shah Namah which was made for him survives in the library of the Royal Asiatic Society (Fig. 7.30). After a period of puritan domination, Herat slowly recovered its artistic life (Gray, 1961 : 109). W i t h Sultan Husain Baiqara in 1468 begins a better literary record of names and careers of artists, from sources so nearly contemporary that they must be accepted as at least approximately true: Shah Muzaffar; Mirak the painter, calligrapher, illuminator and r n ~ ~ l i a t u painter, re chief of the library of Sultan Husain and, above all, teacher of Bihzad. Of the lnasterworks of this last-mentioned eminent painter, who found the means of strengthening the structural forms of his miniatures and thus of heightening their emotional trnhlon, the most important, the Bustan $Sad1 of 1488-1 489, is now in the Egyptian librar!. in C ~ l r o Three . minatures in this Cairo Bustan are exercises in architectural composition, two shotiing mosque interiors and the third Pharaoh's palace, as a setting for the attempted haviliona r c trluc 11 rllot-I.

reminiscent of European nineternth century garden art than that of an Oriental garden p,ing back t o the early ytxars of the sixteenth century, and the total lack ol' running watc,r contradicts the idea of the Persian o r the Central Asian garden park. Babur in his lifetime planted and built several gardens at Kabul o r in its surroundings. All these gardens, including the Bagh-i Babur, belong t o the Persian garden tradition that Babur, 14 years old, saw at Samarkand and Hrrat. There were all the elcmcnts of a Persian e~~clost-d paradise: the shady trees, the channels of water and the jets springing out of flat pools, the awnings and tcnts, the platforn~st o erect them and spread the carpets t o sit on, the pavilion in the centre and the magnificent gate at its entrance. All these features were composed on a strictly gcomctrical pattern on sloping ground, the central axis enhanced by canals flowing from terrace to terrace with waterfalls into the larger pools generally in front of a pavilion. The custom of stopping and camping in gardens when on a long journey became very much part of the way of life of the Mughal Emperors in India. Babur loved the gardens of Kabul and his wish to be buried there was fulfilled. His followers restored his garden and his simple tomb from time t o time, but after the earthquake of 1842 the site fell into decay and only recently has repair work begun. T o conclude this survey of Islamic monuments in Afghanistan some structures of interest erected during the Mughal and Safavid periods must be mentioned. The Chihilzina (or Forty Steps) lead t o a rock-cut chamber high above the plain at the northern end of the rugged chain of mountains t o the west of Kandahar's Old City. The chamber contains an inscription of the year 928 A . H . ( A . D . 1522) in which Babur records his conquest of Kandahar. At Balkh we find the Madrasa (college) of Sayyid Subhan Quli Khan, built in the seventeenth century. There exists the magnificent fragment of an arch, the interior of which is elaborately embellished with decorative motifs inherited from the Timurid period ( N . H. Dupree, 1971: 295). Finally, the remains of a water reservoir of a once widespread type are fortunately preserved in the vicinity of the covered bazars of Herat, in a quarter which is named, after a central square, ''Four Bazars' ' o r "Chaharsuq" ( N . H. Dupree, 1971 : 186), a traditional crossroad of the main bazar streets. The cistern was built in 1634 by a Governor ruling for the Safavids of Persia. Architectural devices, seen in religious monuments of Afghanistan from Abbasid to Timurid times, have here been used for a traditional secular building of utilitarian purpose. n the cistern is transformed by alternating keel-arched squinches and The square ground ~ l a of kite-shaped ~ e n d e n t i v e sinto a polygon from which rises a dome (Fig. 7.32). An opening in the apex allows air t o circulate and daylight t o enter. Anyone who has travelled through thc arid zones of eastern Iran, Afghanistan and northwest India and recognized how fresh watcr is a source of life will appreciate how the artistic mind has conceived a beautiful structurc of practical function.

8 Conclusion Raymond Allchin and Norman Hammond At the end of this fairly lengthy book t h e reader mav be brginning t o think that quitr a lot is known about its subject, t h e a r c h a e o l o g ~of Afghanistan through the a ~ sIt. is, hour,~l.r, still nrcrssary t o qualify such an impression. First, although much is now known, it repr(.scnnts only a fraction of t h e wealth of material still availablr and awaiting investigation. W h e n \rr compare t h e quantity and quality of t h e data from t h c adjacent rcgions, Iran, Sor*ict C'cntral Asia, and India and Pakistan, with t h e exception of Haluchistan which remains as littlc explorcd as s o m e of t h e r e m o t e r parts of Afghanistan herself, it \rill be seen that until much lnorc work is d o n e it is scarcely possible t o bcgin discussion, in rcalistic tcrrns, o f manv prohlc~ms.O u r contributors' chapters will have revealed how much is dcrivcd from vcrv recent w o r k , if n o t f r o m their o w n held researches, and how much is still strictly speaking M'OI-kin progress o r as yet incompletelv published. A third point is that t o date t h e nature of the, I-(,search has f o r all sorts of reasons, historical, practical and o t h e r , bccn rcstrictc.d. For almost t h e w h o l e prehistoric period it is necrssarv t o gencralizc on t h e basis of single sitrs. For thr, historical period t h e r e has been hitherto greater eniphasis on the disco\'c.rv of pa1ac.c.s and I-cligiouscentres, monasteries, temples o r mosques, than upon the cxcavation o f c o m n ~ o n sc.~tlr.ments,s o that w e know far niore about these special aspects, and Icss about thc lili', t c c l ~ n o l o go~r econoniic atfairs of t h e people. T h e currcnt Italian cxca\,ations at Shahr-i Sokl~ta,in Iranian Seistan, show h o w far elfen a single \re11 concc.ivc~d intcbr-disciplinarv I - C ' S C ' J I - C ~program can change this situation. In this concluding chaptcr \ r c shall trv t o draw t o g ( ~ t h c what r w e see as underlying themes, and t o point t o some of the problcms and arcas \\.l~ic.hin o u r vie^^ remain insufficiently studied and demand elucidation hv ticld research. \Ye becan by referring t o Afghanistan as thr. "cross-roads of Asia" (Caspani and C'apnacci. I c ) 5 1 ). It has also recently been spokcn of as an "intcractic)n sphrrc" (Chakraharti. 19761, Ii,lIon-ing t h e usage of Caldwcll (1964), and its rxtension t o lran (C'ald\vt.ll, 1967; LanibcrpK,II Io\:sky, 1 9 7 J a ) and Baluchistan (ShafTrr, 1974b). Wc regard both thcsc notions as valuablr. d l l t l useful in t h c i r o\vn \\la\:, although both r r q u i r e qualification, particularlv when the \r.hoI~> titll(.-span of archaeology is taken into account. Thcv complcnient cach o t h e r rather than O I ) I ) O S C . RCfCrC~ICC t o the l i i ~ tof~ the ) ~past ~ two-and-a-half millennia sukqcsts a rccurrrnt pattern o 1 ' 1 1 r o v ~ n i ~ t t h e r o u t r s of Akhanistan: bv arniirs arriving t o r a v a g o r occupv lands. 5 t . t lillp o u t to ravace o r OcCtIp\r Otllrr lands, o r nierclv in transit; hv nlcrchants and raral-am, 1 1 o t h tmcjing local(., nlorc distantly, en r o u t r t o o r from lran o r tlir Mrditrrranran. Ill(iia i I>\ p.lst;>ral nonlads in the coursr of thcir annual n i o v r m r ~ i t s ; lr! ~ i l ~ r i r no sr nltssionaricS: M']l('tbr Hudtlllist, Hindu, o r Muslim; o r simp11 . I)\.. travt.llcrs. \ ' i ~ \ \ - c d

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c'cntral Asia is ( l r t i ~ l i t r l yassoriatrd with Nrandrrthal typrs o1'rnatl, thrr(- is n o '.Irnr ruiclc.nc,r 1,.0111 o u r rcgion o n this point so far. '1'Ilt.r~is 110t AS ).catanv cvidcncx. ol'a de.\.clopnlcntal link I>ctwrcsn the ~ i ~ l ~ d ~l l~ ~ ~ ~ l i ~ *itc,r; ancl thosr o f t h r 1ll)ljcr I'alacolithir. Sitc.s ol'thr Iattrr prriorl an. again tiBunclin nl,rthrrn ~ l p l l r n i s t a n in , t b r fi)othills ~ l ' l h t iiindu * Kush o r o n r l j a r r n t Thrv inc-luclr b ~ t rave h ,111(i~ I I C I sitcs. I At Kara K a ~ l ~Ill a r thcbrc. is an C P ~ I Y l l p p r r I'alarolithic, gmrrallv e.omparahlc. t o H,lr.lclostian o f t h r Zagros. This is followrd by an al>l)arcnt hiltus in ()ccupti()nal sr(111~~1lc~c~ of t h WIIOIP ~ rrgion, possibly c o i ~ a . i d i with ~ l ~ a sc-vrrr c,c)l(] climatic I,llasc. a f t r r 25,000 1 1 . ~ ' . Such an hiatus has b r r n ~ ~ g c b s t cf;)r d srvrnl rrpic,ns in iiurasia. At t h r c.onclusio~l01' this Iliatus thcbrc is rvidrnc.c. 01' Ihirly wi(lcsl,rc,acl activity in sc-vc-ral l ~ ~ ~ . tAfgllanistan ~)l!' during the' tinal stageb o f t h c I'lcistoc.c.nr c.arlv tioloc,c.nc. l'tlis "l.pil'aIaroIitI~ic" stagr appears t o c o r r r s l ~ o n dwith t h r final stagc~s~ f t h Upptnr c I'alac.c,lithic a~lcih ~ . g i ~ l ~ ~ i nofg -thes Mesolithic in t l l ~Indian subcontinmt. Tbrrt- nrr sugc.stions of loe.aI c ~ ~ l t u r\variations: al A q Kupruk I1 is particularly interenstingin its faunal rchn~ains whic.h show a ill,l~.ke'dp r c ~ p ~ ~ l d ~ r oa fnshc'rp c c ~ and goat. It appclars that t h c c.avcs (11' t h r t4indu Kush wc-rr in solllc. c-ascs oc-cupicd right through into t h e subscqucnt "Ncolithic , and that alrcsadv at ,IN c.al-1~stage. tht-re. s11cc.p mav Ilavc hccw cionlc~sticatcd.This s u g c s t s that thcrc wcBrrvaricd loc,,~l. ~ c l a p t a t i o ~t o~ sc~nvironmcntalc.onditions; and that in Afghanistan, as in nvighhouring ~-(,gic,~ls, ditli.rcnt transitions f r o ~ i hunting l t o suhsistc~ncc~ agric.ulturc wcBrct o h r c*xpc.ctc.d. I'hr av,lil,ll>lc radiocarbon dates arc. 1 ; ~ t:w o from t h c Non-C'c~ranlic Ncolithic- pivc- H56h 6 9 6 0 I,.t.. : \\*hilc, t h c C1cramiC Nc'olitllic. appcars t o cxtcnd Irom 52 14 268 5 h.c*. Hut. as S h a t h r poi~ltso u t , the\ prol>ahility is that t h c initial domcstication of shcc.p may have- takcn placx- in tilt, c.,lvcxsof the. nort11c~l-nrc.gion rvcn prior t o thcsr. prriods. ,4fqhanistan lics t o thv cast ol' t h c L.c.vant-Kurdista~~~Zagros rcngion, tllc. "Frrtilc* C'~~-s(.c.~lt ' ' , withiu wllic11 I)ulk of t hc cviclcnc.c k,r the. hc.ginnings 01' IOod produc.tion in .'\hi., 11.1s so far I>CCII sought, anci t i ~ u n dT. h c cvidrnr.c o f t h c Aq Kupruk c-avcs i11dic.atc.s that this Y O I I C . o f p o t r ~ l t i a c.c-o~lomic l transfor~llationstrctc.hcd l i r ac.ross and hc.\ond t h r Iranian ~ ~ l a t c - a u illto thc foothills of t h c Hindu Kush and C'cntl-al Asian nlassif. It has rc.c-c.ntlv Iwcn l ~ o i n t c dout t11.11 tllc l.aIlgr o f I x ) t ~ ~ I"-ocluctivc~ ti~l man animal and marl plant r ~ l a t i o n s h i ~ ins I-urasia is 1.11. \\-i(]c.l-~~1,111 tllc rclati\~t.lv~.c.stric.tc.dsc.1 invol\.ing shcbcl)!goat Ic.attlc ;pic and \vtlc.at ,l>arlc')'. \\ inll,ortanc.c%,ill rc.trospc~ct, call I>(. seen in thc\ir succ.rsxhl aelaptatiorl in south\r.rst \hi.\ s~ll>srqurnts l ~ r c a di a t o o t b c ~rrgions . as t h c Iusis ol'srdrntarv s r t t l r n ~ c n t (s H i g s and ] . I I - I ~1971). ~ , ~ ~ Alkllanist,~~l ~, is still r c r r a i r ~ c o , q r ~ in i t ~this rcsprct, sinex. t h c Aq Kupruk cavcbs

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intermontane‘ vallt.ys sue-I1 as thosr arouncl Hcgram, migllt I>rovcXinlportant.

'I'llc Appcarancc of Scdcntary Scttlcmcnts 'I I \ (,I.\

1

i t I o s t r s t t l ~ t I s f g h a n i s t m is still sligl11, ,l~,cin1c.h as t hc.~-cis c.on~c.sn ~ , ~ i ~lion, l l y t h r s o u t h c ~I.o~\ ~ r l , ~ ~ a lHut s . s o m r annlogirs

I

,

b

o

408

F . R. A L L C H I N A N D N . H A M M O N D

Illav be dra\\-n from adjacent regions and con~parisonwith Djcitun in southcrn Turkmcnihtan to the north\vcst, and \vith sites in Iran and Pakistan arc all sugqcstivc. In all thcsc arcah thr carliest settlements sccm t o ha1.e exploited sheep, goat and cattle, and grown crops o f \ $heat and barley; thcv began t o construct houses of mud brick, and t o dcvclop alongside a hto1lc bladc industry, with occasional ~ n i c r o l i t h i cforms, the use of metal; a ~ n o n gother conlnlon crafts was the making of pottery. For Afghanistan itself the evidence of Mundigak is still the main source of information, and there is a need for fuller excavations both here and at sites as many questions remain t o be answered. At Mundigak a series of periods of building, accompanied bv developing technology and styles of ceramics, leads through t o Period I\' M-ithits monumental architecture and massive defences. Although the chronology of thrsc> developn~entsis still not firmly established, it may be fairly definitely stated that Period I V dates from the first half of the third millennium. O n e may point t o the Italian excavations at Shahr-i-Sokhta, --hose material culture shows many parallels with t h e south Afghan sites, and this has led t o the s u g e s t i o n for this culture of the name 'Halmand civilization" (LambergKarlovsky and Tosi, 1973). W h e n \ve speak of this period as one of sedentary agricultural settlements, it is necessar, t o bear in mind that it must have witnessed t h e beginning of a form of cultural symbiosis that is characteristic till todav of Afghanistan: the close inter-relations of sedentary agriculturalists and nomadic pastoralists. T h e r e are several indications of such a pattern at this time, and further research will probably bring m o r e t o light. Its significance for the development of trade and contact over longer distances also calls for investigation. It must be born in mind that t h e picture of settlements in t h e southern lowlands cannot be used t o generalize for other regions: the so called "Goat Cult" phase revealed in the Dara-iKur in the north, which on present showing may belong t o t h e late third o r earlv second millennium, suggests that cave dwellers probably with local specialist adaptations t o pastoral nomadism still occupied t h e valleys. T h e r e are as vet fe\v signs of sedentary occupation in the north, and by comparison with adjacent regions such settlements are mainly t o be expectcd on the plains. T h e picture is still far from c o n ~ p l e t eand was most probably complex, \\.it11 numerous different local adaptations t o various environments. This period must have witnessed increasing social stratification with growing numbers of specialist occupations and craft groups. It must also have seen the establishment of far wider horizons of trade and contact than at any previous time. Such special items of trade as lapis lazuli, brought from the quarries of the northeast and lvorked in such centres as Shahr-iSokhta, before being dispersed in the course of trade t o Mesopotamia o r the Indus valley, mav bc called on t o account for the presence of such luxury imports as those discovered in the Fullol hoard. T h e demand for such materials may also have led t o tradc,rs and prospectol-s operating in areas remote from their home territories. This may providt, an explanation of the recently ~ u b l i s h e dreport of the discovery of a site in northern Afghanistan, near the Soviet hordcr, having many of the characteristics of the lndus ci\-ilization (Lvonnet, 1977).Thus the second half of the third millennium marks the culmination of the period of earl\- agricultural settlements, and may well be regarded as one of incipient urbanism. Having said so much, \ve must be cautious in our use o f t h e tern1 "Hclmantl civilization". If the settlement pattern no\\- emerging in southern Afghanistan actuallv produced cities, and

8.

CONCLUSION

409

this has still t o be demonstrated, it appears ncithcbr t o have produc.ed writtm rrcordr, nor some of the other accompaniments of civilization. The paucity o['thc known sitrs Itsads us to doubt whether anything strictly coml>arablr with the urban s(,cirtirs of rithrr Mrup,tamia o r the lndus actually developed in Seistan. Rather, it mav s u p p o s r ~ ,that the rcgi(,n rcccived stimulus from its role PS an m t r e p o t between these 0 t h areas ~ ~ and that it dcrclc,prd cities of a different kind, trading centres o r caravan cities, hut falling short or the morp complex networks of settlements and social and econon~icrelations which constitutc-d thc cities of the great river valle\. cultures (Dales, 1976). There is a dramatic break in the sequence at the close of this period. Prriods V and VI at ~ u n d i ~ both a k probably belong t o the second millennium, and arc sugestivc of the time of upheaval and movement during which the Indo-Iranian speaking peoples n ~ o v z dsouthwards out of Central Asia into the Iranian plateau, and thence eastwards across Afghanistan and into India-Pakistan. T h e archaeologv of this period is beginning t o emerge from its "Llark Agc" in both Iran (Young, 1967) and northwest India (Gaur, 1974; Suraj Bhan, 1975 ), and vet even in these areas t h e possibility of relating it t o the rec.onstructed language historv rcmains problematic (Allchin and Allchin, 1968: 32 1-325; Parpola, 1974). Afghanistan rcmains still \~.ithouta sufficient factual basis of archaeological data, and we See1 that it would be wiser t o sav little about this problem. For in a very real sense the end o f t h e preceding period ushers in ,) Dark Age-succeeding centuries are still too obscure and the indications of external relations are too tenuous t o allow us t o draw inferences on tlicir wider cultural signiticancc. It is strange that up t o this time nothing comparable with the "Gandhara grave complcx" of northern Pakistan has been found in northeast Afghanistan, since the vallcvs otTer a vcrv similar environment. T h e Pakistan graves appear t o date from the middle of the second millennium t o t h e early first millennium b.c., and therefore provide evidence of happenings thcre at just t h e tinie w e are interested in. There are sugestions that the Gandhara gravcs sho\v evidence of contact with the graves of the Caucasus and evcn Kurgan culture. and mav therefore provide a link in the spread of the Indo-Iranian languages (Allchin, 1970; Dani, 1967: 4!3-55; Stacul, 1966, 1971 etc.; Tucci, 1963). It can be fairlv contidentlv expected that c>xploration in t h e neighbouring valleys of northeastern Afghanistan will provide further c>\idenceof graves of this period, and their exploration would hc \vt,II worth while. A closely related question concerns the appearance of iron sniclting arid Lvorking in 4tghanistan. T h e first occurrence of iron at ~ u n d i g a k(\vith a probleniatic exception) is in I'vriod V1, and only in the subsequent Period VII does it beco~iirat all common. This leads us t o c*xpectSol- the latter pel-iod a date from the first niillennium b.c. It seems that in the Gandhara (lral-esiron is present in the later periods but not in the early, and it niav well be that similar 3 c ~ ~ i d e lwill i c ~be found in Afghanistan. But this is still an area \vhich requires field research and Inore facts before one can say much.

'Phe Beginning of History in Afghanistan sense Afglianistan enters history with the Achaemmid period, vet onlv in a verv tenuous a\-. since no inscription of the period has so far been Sound in .4fghan t e r r i t o r ~ and coin finds

111a

.

are still few ant1 far between. It must be aclmittccl that t o idcntifj settlements as "Achacmcnitl" without the aicl of coins o r inscriptions, ancl when few absolute tlatings arc available, must necessarily be somewhat problematic. O n c e again we arc faced with the nc,ccssity of' looking t o the bettcr tlocumentetl results of work in adjacent regions, Soviet Ccntral Asia, Iran and Pakistan, in o r d e r t o discover thc typical architecture o r material culture of'thc eastern provinces of t h e Achaemenids. T h e r e is however now the beginning of'a picturc: in the north the Russian work beyond the Afghan borders can be augmentetl with the Af'ghan-Soviet expedition's work in Bactria; in the south, in Seistan the earlier French cxcavations at Nad-i Ali can bc augmented by the Italian work at Dahan-i Ghulaman across the bortlcr in Iranian territory; ant1 in t h e east the recently started British excavations at Kandahar may be augmentetl by the cxcavations at Taxila and Charsada in Pakistan. It cannot be doubtetl that the extension of Achaemenid administrative control over the provinces of Aria, Bactria, Ilrangiana, Arachosia and Gandhara was of enormous significance in terms of renewing or establishing firm links with wcst Asia and the Mediterranean world; and in this context the possiblity of the presence of Greek o r even Phoenician trading communities as elements of the Achacmenid imperial structure deserves special investigation. How profound t h e influence may have been is indicated by the continuing use of Aramaic, the Achaemenid administrative language, even in the third century B . c . , and in t h e continuing use of t h e Kharosthi script which must have been adapted from Aramaic for the writing of Indian phonetic forms during Achaemenitl times. T h e story of Alexander the Great's passage through Afghanistan in the course of his campaign of worltl conquest, and of the cities he established there, with their successor dynasties of Greek rulers in Bactria, and later in Kabul and India, was for long known almost only from the accounts of the classical historians. From the nineteenth century the discovery of coins of the Bactrian Greek rulers in various parts of the country gave numismatic dcrnonstration of the historians' accuracy, but it is only in the past decade o r so that archaeology has been able t o add anything like substance t o the history. T h e discovery of an altogether Greek city at Ai Khanum, and its continuing excavation by t h e French Delegation, has provitled the most important new evidence so far: the city was founded either in Alexander's time o r immediately thereafter, apparently on the eastern borders of the Bactrian kingdom, ancl continued t o flourish for several centuries. It is t o be hoped that the British excavations recently started at Kandahar may t h r o w similar light upon a second city, the Alt.xanclria in Arachosia, although here the existence of a city long before Alexantlcr's tirnc, ant1 possibly even before the Achaemenid period, will add a different dimension. The recent tliscovery of edicts of Asoka in Greek ant1 Aramaic translations at Kandahar is another find of outstanding importance for the historian, confirming the otherwise very tenuous evidence fbr Maurjan expansion into parts of eastern Afghanistan in the wake of Alexander's retreat from those rcgions. This otherwise obscure episotle, too, may be clarifietl by the current cxcavations. For a fuller understantling of the Greek kingdoms more field rcscarch is certainly rcquirecl, including excavation at such potentially important sites in the Bactrian arca as Balkh o r Q u l m , ant1 in the Paropamisus thc cxcavation of Hcgram certainly tleserves t o be pursuctl. Such work may throw light upon the relations of the Grcek communities t o the intligenous population.

It is our hope that Mac Dowall's lucid treatment of the inscriptions numismatic. evidence will ~ r o v i d ea basis for the rcacler t o understand the potentials of this type of cvitlcnce for illuminating not only the political history, but also economic and social history. ~ h presence c of Indian, Greek and Persian coins, and thcir relationships t o each other reflect t h e complex and cosmopolitan character of Afghan trade at this pcriocl, ancl calls t o mind the concept of the economic interaction sphere. The recent discovcries have made possible an entirely new assessment of some of' thc longstanding questions of the archaeology of the region. Thr earlv history of Indian art and architecture must be reconsidered in its light. The nature of the Hellenistic tradition which lay behind the Gandharan school of sculpture, whcther it derived mainly f'rom the c.arli(mr prcsencc of Greek artists working in the cast, as Foucher maintained o r whcthcr it was primarily the result of later Roman influence, as Sir Martimer Whrelc!r suWcstccl, may bc. rv-asst'ssed. Strong support has now been given t o Foucher's view, and wc mav cn\.isagc. a continuing Hellenistic presence, producing various hybrid growths in coursc. of tirnc. and no (Ir,~l>t continuing t o be influenced by new developments from the Mcditcrranc~anworld, but aho\.t' all demonstrating the widespread "Philhellcnism" of the Grcck rulers o r thcir Asiatic successors. This presence must also have continued t o cxert its influence on thc tcrritorics hcvond, and certainly strengthens the view that it may have contributcd t o the devc*lopmc.nt o f Indian a r t . For instance, the discovery of coins of Agathocles at Ai Khanum, bearing somc. o f thc. oldest Indian Brahmi inscriptions known from Greek coins, along with representations o f two deities who can only be identified as Vasudeva and Sankarshana, p o v i d e not onl\. valuablc contirmation for o u r knowledge of the development of early Vaishnavism in northwest Intlia, hut are by far the earliest representations of thcse deities, othcr\sisc known onlv from insc.1-iptions at so early a date. From the second century B . C . a new process is observable in the historical records. T h c I H - O ~ C S Sitself was certainly not new, and was probably recurrent. Groups of barbarous peoples started t o move down from the eastern parts of Central Asia and the frontiers of China into the more hospitable lands of Bactria, and thence t o move southwards into the mountains and into northwest India. It is probable that the movement of the Indo-Iranian speaking peoples r c~nturiesearlier had taken a not too dissimilar form. The new movement is associated with tI)(, Yueh-chi who w e r e probably a nomadic people speaking an Iranian language, driven from 1 h,>irearlier homelands by the Hiung-nu tribes, who must have been speakers of a Turki language . 1 1 1 i l who may have been ancestral t o the Hunas. By I28 B . C . the Yueh-chi had occupied the I.tr~cIsnorth of the Oxus. They gradually extended their control throughout Bactria, finally I,l-inging t o an end Greek rule there. O n e of the five groups into which they were divided 11c.1-r the Kushans and by the end of the first century e . c . they established control of all rl, ~ r t h e r n Afghanistan, following the pattern of succeeding peoples, of crossing the mountains, , apturing Kabul, and thence invading northwest India. At its height, under Kanishka, the hr~shansruled a mighty empire, extending from the Ganges valley and Sind in the east and x ~ u t ht o Kashgar in the northeast. Bactria and Kabul remained the pivotal points of the \\-hole. I luring the second century A . D . this area was the centre of an interaction sphere \\-hose scale C I I I Csplcndour ~ must ha\.e rivalled that of Rome. T h e archaeology of all these developments is h ~ i l lfar from clear, and confronts the student with all sorts of challenging opportunities. W e

know virtuallv nothing of the relations of the invaders with the existing populations; we know little of the economic implications of the extensive luxury trade attested by finds such as the Begram treasure; much still has t o be done t o work out the cultural impact of the contacts with India, Rome and China of which they give evidence. The centuries between the Achaemenid period and the climax of the Kushan empire form a time of peculiar interest, because we may feel the highly distinctive character of Afghan culture already emerging. The contact between the barbarous and nomadic peoples who arrived from Central Asia and the cultures they e n c o u n t e r e G t h e Parthians and then Sasanians, representing Iran, the Indians and the Hellenized I n d o - G r e e k ~ p r o d u c e da special amalgam. It produced a new cosmopolitan blend of all these elements, and it left a lasting mark upon the culture of all the regions it touched. Are we t o think of it as being Iranian, Indian, Hellenistic, Kushan, o r simply as Afghan? The Kushan coinage epitomizes the situation. Greek, Iranian and Indian religions all find expression in the deities on their coins. Since the time of Asoka Buddhist missionaries spread into Afghanistan on their way t o Central Asia and China. The art and architecture of Buddhism formed a major influence along the routes they followed. The dynastic shrine at Surkh Kotal, probably the counterpart of the shrine at Mat near Mathura, is a striking product of the major influences at work. So too is the developing Gandharan st)-1e of architecture and sculpture. At the same time we must feel , . life of the ordinansomewhat perplexed by the lack of knowledge regarding the evervdav people, and the varieties of life styles involved: we know something, for example, of cities and towns, but we knolv verv little about the details of life; we know el-en less about the villages o r isolated settlements, let alone of the nature of the people \vho continued to live in caves such as Shamshir Ghar. In all these respects archaeologv has still much work t o do before \ve can understand the full meaning of the culture of this period. After the break up of the greater Kushan empire Kushan rulers continued t o control more limited areas in many parts. The twin processes, of the arrival of groups of nomadic peoples, mainlv from the north, and their becoming absorbed into the cosmopolitan culture already existing in Afghanistan seems t o have continued. In this way \ve can trace the arrival of the , the western Turks. All three of these groups seem later Kidara Kushans, the H e ~ h t h a l i t e sand to have shared much in terms of their cultural ancestry, even if they spoke different languages. They seem t o have established for themselves dominion over the peoples thev encountered. It is probable that it kvas in kingdoms of this kind that the great Buddhist complex at Bamivan was constructed, with its neighbouring fortress o r palace at Shahr-i-Zohak; o r the little monastery at Fondukistan; o r the interesting Buddhist complex at Tapa Sardar. In all such instances we see the same process of amalgamation of Indian, Iranian and even Hellenistic traits still at work, producing equally rich results in architecture, sculpture and painting.

The Arrival of Islam During the s e ~ e n t hcentury A . D . a series of raids bv Arab expeditionary forces penetrated Iran and Afghanistan. For the latter they culminated in the campaiqns of Qutaiba at the beginning of the eighth century, and from that time fonvard we must think of Afghanistan as \I-ithin the

embrace of islam, even though there were areas and pockets, particularly in the mountains of the north, but even in the centre and the south, where the old religions l;ngrrrd on for ~enturies.The last such pocket was in Kafiristan where the old religion has survived into our own time. What religious conversion meant to the people of Afghanistan in cultural terms has still to be determined. The archaeology of the Muslim period is still in iu infancv. In many areas, ~articularlyin Seistan, a great deal of evidence survives from which it would be to studv settlements and the pattern of settlement in their entirety. The work of the German expedition reported in Chapter 7 is a start in this direction. It is not unexpected that so far the greater interest has been in the stud\. of the major surviving monuments, be ther palaces, tombs o r mosques. Yet even so no history of the Muslim architecture of Afghanistan has hitherto been written, and Fischer's chapters are in this respect also a pioneer attempt. The oldest Muslim monument so far identified is the Abbasid mosque recentlv discovered in the suburbs of Balkh. This should belong to the first phase of Muslim building activity, and date within a century o r two of the conquest of Balkh bv the Arab armies in A . D . 671. Its style supplies newr links with west Asia and stands as a so far unique monument to Arab penetration into Afghanistan. From the eleventh century onwards we have a much greater volume of material and evldence of a succession of broad styles which may largely be associated with, if not actuallv named after, the dynasties who were their chief promoters. The first such stvle is linked \r.ith the Ghamavids of the eleventh and early twelfth centuries. Buildings are found in many areas which may be ascribed to this period. The complex of palaces and associated town at Lashkari Bazar and the neighbouring Qala-i-Bust are of outstanding interest. The architectural stvle she\\-s principally influences from Iran and Central Asia. A characteristic feature is that both burnt and unburnt brick is used, and that brick provided bv far the most common building material. Carved marble occurs used architecturallv. The palaces too contain traces of rich mural paintings. The subject matter of the carvings and paintings was not limited to inscriptions o r geometric and ~ l a n designs, t but also included representations of men and an~mals.Another special form of the Ghaznavid stvle \vas the Minaret or tower, the latter perhaps influenced by the victory towers which Mahmud saw on his victorious campaigns in Indla. Among other aspects of the Ghaznavid material culture mention must be made of the beautihl glazed wares, with clear links to the Samanid \vares of Central Asia. As yet I-zgrettably little is known of the other crafts which must have flourished at this time. During the twelfth and early thirteenth centuries the short lived Ghorid kingdom 11 itnessed the creation of a ne\v style of architecture, developing from the Ghaznavid, and qhowing broadly similar influences. The recorded monuments of this ~ e r i o dare once again nlalnly palaces, fortresses o r minarets, and there is as yet very little information about the size o r features of the settlements, o r life of the common people. It is only with the surveys of h\cher and his colleagues that a beginning has been made on this sort of stud!., and it is to be hoped that with the progress of this work it will become possible to obtain a clearer view of t l ~ c\ arious monuments in relation to the functioning society of which they were once a part. jet man!. aspects of the material culture are only v a p e l v known. The rich glazed \\-ares, ~w~~~cipall!. s g r u z a r o , the imports of luxurv lustre wares, etc., have still to be ~ r o ~ e r l v Jcscribed.

T h e Mongol invasions of the early thirteenth century are known t o us primarily from the accounts of historians, and archaeology has still t o lend confirmation t o much of their reports. This appears t o be another very fruitful field, rich in potential, t o check systematically the evidence from major towns o r cities which are reported t o have been destroyed at that timc, and try t o ascertain the extent of the damage and of the subsequent depopulation. It has been suggested that the Mongol campaigns w e r e aimed at the destruction of the irrigation systems so as t o end the agricultural productivity of these otherwise arid areas in the interests of rcvcrting t o pastoralism. It would therefore be of great interest t o try t o discover how far this aim was successful, how far the irrigation systems w e r e destroyed, and if so, how long it took t o restore them thereafter. In t h e same way, the study of the succeeding period, under the llkhans ant1 Karts, should help t o show t h e nature of t h e reconstruction and repopulation of dc\astated areas. A fresh contribution along the lines pursued by the German expedition in Scistan is likely t o yield equally impressive results. The Timurid period (137G1506) marks the culmination of the artistic and cultural achie\ cments of Afghanistan after the advent of Islam. The architecture of this period again rcHects predominantly Iranian and Central Asian influences and the use of glazed tiles, particularly blue,, is a prominent feature. W i t h the shift of the capital from Samarkand to Hcrat, western Afghanistan came t o hold a position of unrivalled importance. T h e survival of so many monuments at Herat and elsewhere, and of so many products of the workshops of Hcrat, illuminated manuscripts and paintings, jade carvings, metal work, pottery and carpets, mcans that it is already possible t o construct a far fuller picture of these things than for anv carlicr period. At the same time the need for archacological study of monuments and settlements with a view t o obtaining a fuller view of the life of the society, its economic and technological aspects, remains. T h e archaeologist need not shrink from the study of this splcndid period because of its recentness, nor the comparative wealth of its historical documentation. In the context of Afghanistan there is still a great wealth of' material awaiting d i s c o v ~ r yand study, and a major contribution t o make. T h e establishment in this region of barren mountains and deserts, and of valleys of incredible lushness, of t h e capital of one of the most intellectually and artistically dynamic courts in both Asia and Islam, is a fitting apogee t o t h e long history w e have been reviewing. Afghanistan has acted as a crossroads, melting-pot and caravanserai between three major areas of cultural innovation in western, central and south Asia, and taking and blcnding elements and influenccs from all of them and from yet m o r e distant regions, it has emerged as an important zone of interaction and development in its own right. What has been accomplished in elucidating the archaeology of Afghanistan is still dwarfed by the magnitude of \\hat remains t o be done, but from the answers that we have already w e know that the remaining questions are important ones, and that the discoveries of the years ahead are likely t o be not less dramatic than those of the past.

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JA BEFEO BSOAS CRAI

JN JASB J NSl ZDMG NC JR AS JRGS AA H

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Subject Index

Al~l)asid, monuments, 305-307 mosque in Balkh, 305--307, 413 Abdagases, 190, 233 Ahd al-Latif, 358 Achaemenid, archaeological sites, 2 14-2 18, 41 0 cpigraphical background, I 9 1-1 92 historical background, 187-1 88 numismatic evidence, 201-203 Administrative quarter/Palace at Ai Khanurn, 221-224 Acropolis at Ai Khanum, 2 19 Adze, metal, 141 Adze, Stone, 8 4 Atlzhina Tepe, 293 Afghanistan, as interaction sphere, 405-406 beginning of history in, 4 0 9 4 1 3 clirnate of, 12-17 cross-roads of Asia, 1,4055406 geology of, 9-1 2 history of archaeological rcsrarch in, 3-8 location, 9 niountains and foothills of, 22-23 natural resources of, 18-24 physiographic rcgions of, 1 S - 19 plains and lowlands of, 23-24 prehistoric climatc of, 1 6 17 1-ainfai1in, I 2 ti-nlpcraturcs, 1 2 trade, 3 3 - 35 Agatlioclcx, coins of, 205, 208 209, 41 1 Agl-iculturc in Afghanistan, 2 5 30

Agriculturisth, pastoral (See Goat Cult Neolithic.) sedentary , 83- 87 A hangaran, 3 3 5 Ahin posh tope, 248 Ai Khanum, 199- 198, 208--209, 218--230, 410 acropolis, 2 19 adrninistrativc quartcr(Palacc, 22 1- 224 Aramaic ostracon, I99 architecture, 2 19-227 chronology, 2 2 1 coins from, 208--209 cult Statue, 227 dedications in thc Gymnasium, 199 finds from Nrcropolis, 199 funcrarj chapcl (heroon), 2 2 5 Gymnasium, 2 2 5 226 inscriptions of Clc.archus, I98 location of, 2 1 8 - 219 Necropolis, 226-227 sculptures from, 227--230 temple a rcdans, 22 5 Akcha City, 181 Akchanian sites, 18 1 184 Akkadian, 191 Ala al-din Husain Jahan-Su7, 303 Alabaster, 140, 167 \ C S S C ~ 144 ~S, Alhiruni, 2 3 5 .4lchono-Hrl1hthalitc~titlc, 2 34 Alcxandc.r, 188 189, 218, 410 coins ol', 203- 204 Alcxantlcr IHicrax, coins of, 209 Alrsandria. in Arachosia (Kandahar). 188 in Aria (Hcrat), 188

Oxiana, 2 18 Sub Caucasum, 189 Alloying 144 Ali Tappeh, 61 AI-Muqaddasi, 359 Alptigin, 235, 302 AltiwlO, 21 5 Amri, 124, 170, 173 polychrome, 156 Amu-darya (Oxus), 1, 12, 2 18 valley, 24 Amulet, bone, 82 Amyntas, coins of, 209 Andarab river, 23 Anjira (Baluchistan), 1 17 Antialcidas, coins of, 208 Antimachus, coins of, 208 Antiochus, coins of, 204 historical background, 189 Antiochus I Bala, coins of, 209 Antiochus 111, 189 Apollodotus 1, 189 coins of, 205, 208, 209 Aq Kupruk I (Snake cave), 299 Aq Kupruk 11, 55-63, 407 C-14 determinations for, 57-58 faunal remains from, 63 lithic industry of, 58-61 microlithic industry of, 61 Palaeolithic assemblage from, 57 stratigraphy of, 55-57 Aq Kupruk 111, 6 3 Aq Kupruk IV (Skull cave), 299 Aquatic niche, 279 Arachosia, 187, 191, 204, 214 Aramaic, 188 inscriptions, 192-199 ostracon, 199 role of, 192 Arch, horseshoe, 327, 368 keel-shaped, 367 squinch, 360 Architectural remains of, Abbasids, 305-307 Ai Khanum, 219-227

A l t i r r l 0 , 2 15 Dahan-i-Ghulaman, 21 5 Dashli, 182-1 8 3 Deh Morasi Ghundai , 162- I 6 3 Ghaznavids, 309-32 1 Ghorids, 33 1--355 Goat Cult Neolithic, 82 Herat, 37P-388 Ilkhanids, 360 Kandahar, 262 Mundigak, 93- 1 14 Nad-i-Ali, 2 17 Said Qala Tepe, 1 5@ 1 54 Seistan, 361-379 Shahr-i-Sokhta, 167, 169 Shahr-i Zohak, 278 Surkh Kotal, 267-271 Timurids, 397-400 Ardeshir 1, 214 Ardeshir 11, coins of, 251 Arghandab river, 91 Aria (Herat), 187, 191 Arsaces, 189-1 9 0 Asoka, 189 Asokan inscriptions, 192-1 98 historical significance of, 198 Ass, 149 Assyrians, 192 Astragali, bone, 82 Attic weight Standard, 204 Aurignacian, 50, 53 Aurochs, Bos Primigenius, 48 Awls, bone, 77, 82, 84, 90, 141, 159, 164 Awls, stone, 87 Axes, metal, 184 socket-hole, I41 Axes, Stone, 8 4 Azerbaijan, 35 Azes I 11, 190 coins of, 2 12-2 13 A.~ i l i s e s ,190 '

'

Baba Hatun Ziyarat, 3 1 5 Babar, 359

SUBJECT INDEX

Bactra, 187 Bactria, 187, 189, 191, 214, 215, 393 Greek inscriptions in, 198-1 99 Bactrian art, 227-230, 232, 278 Bactrian inscriptions, 241-244 Badakhshan, 18-19, 34-35, 167 Bad-i Asya, 263 Bagh-i Babur, 403-404 Bagh-i Mahmud, 327 Baghlan, 23 limestone reliefs of, 279 Bahram Shah, 303 minaret of, 3 13 Bajaur (Pakistan), bent bar coins from, 203 hoard, 208 Balalyk Tepe, 283, 295 Balkh, 7 , 266, 410 Abbasid mosque in, 3 0 S 3 2 1 excavations at, 230 hoard, 202 river, 55 shrine of Khwaja Abu Nasr Parsa, 393 Balls, Stone, 8 7 Bamiyan, 271, 412 Buddhas, 5, 7 , 271 caves, 271 paintings, 271 valley, 187 Bampur, 175, 180 Baradostian, 53 Rarger, E . , 7 Barley, 28, 162 Barley, domesticated Six row, Hordeurn vulgare var. afghans, 165 'Haroque Ladies', 278 Rarthoux, J . , 9 Bartold, V . V., 6 Basaltic boulder, 139 Basaltic cobble, 139 Rasawal, Buddhist caves of, 278, 282 Basketry, 167 Rayer, Theophilus, 4 Beads, 81, 82, 146, 165, 184 Beads-Pendants, 144, 146, 159 Beakers, 123 Beans, 28

437

Beas valley, 40 Bedan Rud, 3 3 I Begram, 4, 230, 257-262, 266, 410 coins from, 205--208, 245 treasure, 2 57-262, 41 2 Behistun inscriptions, 187, 191-1 92 Bellows, H. W . , 4 Bent bar Coins, hoards of, 203 Bernard, P . , 7 Bhir mound (Taxila), 202, 218 Bichurin, I . , 6 Bihzad, Painter, 397, 401 Billon currency, 2 54-2 5 5 Bmaran , stupa, 248 vase inscription, 201 Bindusara, 189 Bird of Prey, 149 Blade, 81, 89, 139, 158, 183 metal, 1 59 micro, 58, 61, 68, 90 microlithic, 139 parallel sided, 87 retouched, 41-42 Bladelets, 50 Bombaci, A . , 7 Bone artifacts, 77, 82, 84, 90, 149, 159, 164 Bovid, 43, 165 Bowlby, S., 2 Bracelets, metal, 183 Bracelets, obsidian, 8 I Buckle, metal, 141 Bucranium style, 1 3 1 , 164 Bullion, 201, 204 177 Burials, 9!+100, goat, 82 multiple, 177 rams ritual, 183 Burins, 87, 89 dihedral, 62, 79 micro, 68 Burnes, Sir Alexander, 4 Bust, great arch of, 354-355 palaces, 3 13 Bustan of Sadi, 401

Camels, 29 Canister jar, 180 Canisters, Pentagonal, 144 Caravan Cities, 409 Carbon-14 dates, 48-49, 57-58, 75, 87, 114-115, 154, 164, 167, 178, 181, 184 Carnelian, 144, 146, 167 Casal, J .-M . , 7 Cash crops, 29 Cattle, 90, 149, 162 Bos sp., 75 Cattle/deer, Bos/cervus, 7 5 Cattle Pen, 96 Celts, stone, 77, 81, 164 Cemeteries, 18 3 Ceramics of, Aq Kupruk, 299 chalcolithic period, 90 Dashli, 183 Deh Morasi Ghundai, 164 Djeitun, 8 4 8 5 Ghar-i-Mar, 9 0 Ghaznavid period, 329-330 Ghorid period, 331 Goat Cult Neolithic, 83 Kandahar, 262-263 Kile Gul Mohammad, 86 Kulli, 178-1 79 Mundigak, 1 1 5-1 39, Nad-i-Ali, 217 Neolithic period, 79 Said Qala tepe, 154-1 58 Shahr-i Sokhta, 166-1 6 7 Timurid Period, 402 Cereal remains, 149, 165 Chaghatai Khan, 3 58 Chaharsuq, 404 Chalcedony, 167 Chaman-i-Hazuri hoard, 202-203, 2 17 Chanar-i-Gunjus Khan (Hadakhshan), 41 Chandl-agupta Maurva, 189 Chaqlaq Tcpc, 267 C'harkh-i-Lohgar mosque, 3 I 5 Cllarsatla, 202, 2 17

Chehel Gazari, 335 Chigha Sarai, 289 Chihilzina, 404 Chinggis Khan, 357 Chisels, metal, 141 Chisels, stone, 8 4 Choppers, 4 0 Chopping tools, 4 0 Choresmia (Khwarizm), 188 Chust culture, 181 Cleavers, 40, 159 Coins from, Ahin Posh tope, 248 Ai-Khanum, 208-209 Bajaur (Pakistan), 208 Balkh, 202 Begram, 205-208, 214, 245 Bimaran, 248 Chahar Bagh, 248 Chaman-i-Hazuri, 202-203, 2 17 Charikar, 247 Damkot (Pakistan), 2 5 5 Gardez, 2 5 1-2 53 tladda, 214, 251 Indus valley, 253 Jalalabad, 2 12, 255 Kabul, 247 Kandahar, 210, 253 Khosh Tepe, 167 Khugjani, 203 Manikyala stupa, 2 53 Mir Zakah, 204, 21 2, 214 Oxus, 202, 204 Qunduz, 2 0 S 2 10, 247, 255 Seistan, 2 14 Shewaki, 2 55 Tepe Maranjan, 2 5 1 Coins of Achaemenids, 201-203 Agathocles 205, 208-9, 41 1 Alexander, 203-204 Alexantler Hierax, 209 Amyntas, 209 Antialcidas, 208 Antimachus, 208 Antioc-lius 1, 204 Antiochus 11, 204

SUBJECT INDEX

.4ntiochus I Bala, 209 Apollodotus I, 205, 208, 209 Ardeshir 11, 251 Azes 1, 212 Azes 11, 212 Demetruis 11, 2 10 Diodotus 1, 204, 208 Domitian, 248 Fuel-atides, 205, 208, 210 tuthydemus, 208 Gondophares, 2 1 2-2 1 4 Craeco-Bactrian, 2 W 2 10 Heliocles, 209, 2 10 Hephthalites, 25 1 Hermaeus, 2 10 Hu\.ishka, 245, 248 Indo-Parthians, 2 12-2 14 Kanishka, 245, 248 Khusru 11, 253 Kujula Kadphises, 245, 248 Kushans, 245-247 Kushans, Later, 248-251 Kushano-Sasanians, 247-248 Leo, 251 L\-sias, 208 Jlarcian, 25 1 .\laur\.an, 204-205 Menander, 208 Napki Malka, 251-253 Orthagnes, 2 14 Pacores, 214 Pantaleon, 205 Roman, 248 Sabina, 248 Samanta Deva, 254 Sasanian, 2 5 1 Seleuchus 1, 204, 209 Shahi, 253-255 Shapur 11, 247, 251 Shapur 111, 251 Sonabares, 2 I 4 Soter Megas, 245 Spalapati Deva, 254 Sri Bhima Deva, 254 Sri Khudavayaka Deva, 254 Sri Shahi, 253 Su Hrrmaeus, 214

439

Theodosius, 2 5 1 Trajan, 248 Vakka Deva, 2 5 5 Vasudeva, 247, 248 Vima Kadphises, 245, 248 Vrahitigin, 2 5 3 Yueh-chi, 2 12 Coon, C . , 7, 38 Copper, 21, 144, 165, 166, 180 compartmented seal, 165 handle, 165 simple pins, 165 slag, 167 tube, 165 Core, discoidal, 4 1 4 2 flake, 4 1 4 2 flint, 89 Levallois blade , 4 1 4 2 micro, 58, 68 Corinthian columns, 22 1 cotton, 28 Croesus of Lydia, 4 Crops, principal, 27-28 Crypt, 227 Cultural stagnation, 1 17, 1 19 C y ~ the s great, 187

D.A.F.A., 6, 91 Daggers, metal, 170 Dagger blade, metal, 170 Dahan-i-Ghulaman, 21 5, 410 architecture, 2 15 Dakhtar-i Noshirvan, 282 Dalberjin Kazan tepe, 266, 279, 283, 289 Dales, G . F., 8 Damb Sadaat (DS), 170, 173, 178-179 Damkot (Chakdara), 2 55 Danestama, 351-355 Dara-i Kalon, 6 4 Dara-i-Kur, 41-43,73-75,81-83, 1'84,406,408 faunal material from, 43 hominid material from, 4 2 4 3 lithic traditions of, 4 1 4 2

440

SUBJECT INDEX

Llaric, 202 Darius 1, 187 Dar\vcshan, 1 6 6 Dashli 1, 182-183 a r ~ h i t ~ c t u r c182-1 , 83 ceramics, 183 lithic artifacts, 183 metal artifacts, 183-1 8 4 Dashli 3, 183 Dasht-i-Margo, 9 , 24 Dasht-i-Nawar, 40, 6 5 7 0 , 406 chronological significance of inscriptions at, 2 38-240 Greek and Kharoshti inscriptions from, 238 Unkno\vn Language inscription from, 238 Daulatabad, minaret at, 32 1 Davis, R . S . , 2 Dcer, red, ccrvus claphus, 48, 75 Dch Mordsi Ghundai, 162-1 65 architecture, 162-1 6 3 bone artifacts, 164 ceramics, 164 chronology, 1 6 4 faunal remains, 165 floral remains, 165 lithic artifacts, 164 location, 162 metal artifacts, 165 small misce~laneousartifacts, 165 stratigraphy, 162-1 6 3 Delphi, 198 D e n ~ ~ t r i u s189 , Dcmetrius 11, Coins of, 2 10 Den~al-iKhodavdad, 368 Dharma, 193 Diodotus 1, 189 coins of, 204, 208 Discs, flat stone, 8 4 Djritun culture, 84-85, 408 bone artifacts, 8 4 ground stone artifacts, 8 4 houses, 84 n>icroliths, 84 potter!., 84-8 5 Ici-racotta objects, 8 5

Dog, 149 canis uureus s p . , 7 5 Dome, Pendentive, 368 squinch, 368 Turkish triangle, 368 Domesticated animals, 149 Domestication of plants and animals, 71-77 Domitian, coins of, 248 Donkeys, 29 Dori river, 91 Drangiana, 187, 191, 215 Drill heads, jasper, 167 Dubakh Sar tepe, 263 Dupree, L . , 7 , 38

Emir gray ware 166 Emshi-tepe, 230 Epigraphy, 191-201, 235-245 Es-skull cave (Israel), 43 Eucratides, 189 coins of, 205,208, 2 10 Euthydemus, 189 coins of, 208

Fa-Hsien, 4 Fairservis, W . , 7 Faiz Mohammad, qreyware, 155 painted p o t t e r ) , 132, 166, 173, 176 Fallow elds, 29 Farah tit)., 166 Farming, subsistence, 29 Faunal remains, 43, 63, 75, 8 1, 87, 90, 149, 162, 165 Fcrgana vallcv (Uzl~ckistan),18 1 Fcrrier, J . P . . 6 Fcrtilc Crcsccnt, 407 Figurine, tcrracotta, 160-1 62, 165 anthropon~oi-phic.,146, 16 1- l h l bird, 160, 165

bull o r c o w , 160 female, 146, 149, 165180 goats, 146 humped bulls, 146 ibex, 146 male, 146 pig, 146 sheep/goat, 146 Zhob, 149, 165 zooniorphic, 165 Fil Khana, Buddhist caves of, 278 Firepit, 150 Firuz, 234 Firuzkuh, 335 Fischer, K . , 2 Flakes, cortex, 139, 158 notched, 77 retouched, 164 Flaking techniques, 58 Flanged rims, 179 Floral motifs, pipal leaf, 127, 129 Floral remains, 149, 162, 165 Fodder grass, ,4egllops tauschll, 165 Foladi, Buddhist caves,282 Fondukistan, 293, 41 2 bejewelled Buddha, 293 clay imagrs from, 293 paintings from, 282 Fort at Dashli, 182-183 Fortification bastions, comparison of, 260 box, I ulpes sp., 75 I-oucher, A., 6-7 t r e n c h Archaeological Mission in Afghanistan (D.A.F.A.), 6 , 91 Fullol board, 167 Funerary chapel at Ai Khanuni, 225 Furnaces, smelting, 180

Gadliaiva Paisa, 2 53 Galena, 140 Gandhara, 187, 189, 191, 204 grave c o ~ i ~ p l c 409 s,

Gandharan art, 230, 267, 278, 279-282, 41 1 Gardan Reg, 166 decorated ware, 166 Gardner, P . , 6 Gaugamela, 188 Gauhar Shad, 380 Gawshak-i Kuhan-i Mahmud, 327 Gawshak-i Masudei, 327 Gazelle, 67, 149 Gazella subgutturosa, 48 Gazella subgutturosa ssp., 75 Geoksvur 124, 177- 178, 180 Geoksyurian, 177 Gerard, J . G . , 6 Ghar-i Asp, 73-75 Ghar-i Mar, 73-75, 79, 89-90 bone artifacts, 9 0 faunal remains, 9 0 lithic artifacts, 89-90 metal objects, 8 9 potterv, 9 0 Ghar-i Mordeh Gusfand, 43-44 Ghaznavid, 307-3 30, 4 I 3 buildings in eastern Iran. 32 1 decoration, 328-329 gardens, 328 historical background, 302- 303 house of Lustre-ware 330 minarets, 328 monuments, 309-32 1 niosques, 328 mausoleum of Shah Shahid, 389 painting, 329 palaces, 3 11-31 3, 327-328 potterv. 3 2 S 3 3 0 sculpture, 329 slip painted ware, 3 2 S 3 3 0 Ghaznavid art, summar\. of. 32 1-330 Ghazni, 31 1-313 Ghirslinian, R., 7 Ghivath al-Din (shams al-Din), 303, 330 Gliorat, 352 mountains, 33 1 Ghorband river, 205 Ghorband \alley. 2 2 Cliorids, 33Ck355, 41 3 architectural remains, 33 1-355

historical background, 303, 330 incised ware, 331 Goat, 43, 90, 149, 162 capra hircus, 18 copra hircus aegagrus, 75 capra hjrcus hirius, 7 5 capra hircus spp., 7 5 capra siberica, 43 Goat Cult Neolithic, 81-83, 184, 408 architectural remains of, 82 bone artifacts of, 82 faunal remains of, 81 metal objects of, 82 pottery of, 82-83 stone artifacts of, 81 Goblets, stemmed, 144 Gol-i Safed, 368 Gold vessels, 167 . Gondophares, 1 90, 2 3 3 coins of, 2 12-2 14 Gondophares 11, 190 Gouges, bone, 82, 8 4 Graeco-Bactrian, 199 art, 230, 278 coinage, 204-2 1 0 historical background, 189-1 9 0 Grave goods, 178 Gravers, 8 4 Grcek inscriptions, 192-1 99, 235-238 Gul Dara, 241, 267 stupa, 271 Gulistan of Sadi, 401 Gumla (Gomal valley), 8 7 , 173, 179 faunal remains, 8 7 lithic industry, 8 7 polychrome pottery, 157 Guzarpam, 3 3 5 Gymnasium at Ai Khanum, 225-226

Hackin, J . , 7 Hadda, 279 jar with Kharoshti inscription from, 240 Tapa Kalan, 279 Tapa Shotor, 279

Haibak, prehistoric sites near, 38--39, 4 4 , 63, 68-69 Buddhist caves a t , 278 Hammerstones, 8 1 , 1 59 Hamun lake, 187 Handstones, 139, 158 Harappa, 173 Harappan culture, 1 12, 1 14 Hari Rud, 3'31 Hazar Sum, 278 valley, 44 Headers, 154 Hearths, 96, 183 Hebrew inscriptions, 332 Heliocles, coins of, 209, 210 Hellcnism, 198 Helmand, basin, I 0 civilization, 1 66, 408-409 river, 91, 189 rud, 166 HelmandISeistan, sites, 165-1 6 9 valley, 24 Hephthalites, coinage, 251, 263 historical background, 234, 412 Heraeus, coins of, 2 12 Herat, bronze cauldron, 393-395 city plan and citadel, 3 7 S 3 8 0 Gazar Gah, 380-383 great Friday mosque, 348, 383 mausoleum of Sheikh Zadeh Abdallah, 388 metal ewer, 395 mosque of Hauz-i Karboz, 383 Musalla complcx, 380 Herat-Farah lowlands, 2 3-24 Hermaeus, 190 coins of, 205, 210, 212 Hindu Kush, I 1-1 2 Hintlu Shahis, 235 Hiucn Tsang, 4 , 235, 271 Hiung-nu tribes, 233, 41 1 Hocs, Stont,, 77, 164

SUBJECT INDEX

trapczoidal, 1 39 trapezoidal-triangular, 1 58 Hooks, metal, barbed, 141 H o m o sapiens sapiens, 4 3 Honigberger, M ., 5-6 Horses, 2 9 , 1 4 9 Equus Caballus ssp., 7 5 Equus s p . , 7 5 Hudud al-Alam, 4 Hulegu Khan, 357-358 Human sacrifice, 1 1 3 Huniay Qala, 278 Hund (Pakistan), 2 3 5 Huns, See Hephthalites Hussain Baiqara, 358 Huvishka, 233 coins of, 245, 248

.

Ibex, 149 Ibn Battuta, 358, 393 Ilkhanid, a r c h i t e c t u r e , 3 6 0 Ilkhans, 358 Iman-i Khurd, zivarat of, 3 I 5 Indo-Parthians, coins of, 2 12-2 1 4 historical background, 1 9 0 Indus, 112, 1 3 9 Indus (Vallcv) Civilization, 172, 1 7 3 , 4 0 8 Iron, 2 1 , 1 5 9 , 180-181 Iron age c u l t u r ( \ . 181 Iron sni(\ltlng, +OL) Irrigation \ \ *tcxni. 2 5-27 Isidore, 190 Islam, arrival of, 41 2 progrrss of, 2 34-23 5 Isotherms, 14-1 5 IhMt'O, 7 I l o n . 311, 313, 327, 328, 329, 34S, 3 5 1 , 361- 366, 368, 379, 380, 1 8 2 , 383, 389,

100 Indus, 1 1 2 , 1 39

4-43

J Jackson, P., 3 Jarit., 21, 144 Jagatu inscriptions, 243--244 Jagatu-i Wardak, 263 Jalalabad valley, 22 Jalal al-din, 357 Jalilpur, 173 jam Rud, 331 Jars, collared, 1 1 5, 1 19- 120 Jaxartes, Syr-darva, 1 Jaypal, 23 5 J c m d e t Nasr, 167 Jewish communitv in G h o r , 332 Jones, Sir William, 4 Jui Canals, 2 6 2 7

Kabul river, 40 Kabul \,allev, 22 Kaf ristan, 41 3 Katiniigan vallcv. 299 Kakrak, 271, 282 Kalibangan, 1 3 3 Kandahar (Shar-i Kohna), 2 30-2 3 2 , 2 6 2 - 2 6 3 , 4 1 0 architectural rrmains, 262 1)ilinpal rock inscription a t , 192.- I 9 3 ceramics, 262-263 citv plan, 262 G r e e k building inscription f r o m , 193 Indo-aramaic inscription f r o m , 19 3, 198 Kanishka, 233. 41 1 coins, 245 e r a , 240 Kara Kamar, 4 5 , 64-67 Kara Kanlar 111, 5 G 5 3 , 4 0 7 lithic industry of, 5&53 Kara T e p r , 177; 282 Karcz S v s t e n ~ ,2 5-26 Kebaran (Levant), 53 Kcchi Hcg, polvchromc, 1 7 0 pol!,chromr, I ~ i c h r o n i e ,1 56, I 7 3 \r.hitc>o n dark slip, 156 Kcrano-Munjan vallev, 35

4-44

SUBJECT INDEX

Khalatsc (Ladakh), 238 Kham-i Zarger, 279 stupa, 271 Khamsa of Nizami, 401 Kharoshthi inscriptions, 188, 199-201, 238-241 Khash, 368 Khinjil, 235 Khisht tepe, 209 Khissar, fortress, 335 Khosh Tepe hoard, 167 Khugani, 303 Khusru 11, Coins of, 253 Khwaja Abdullah-i Ansari, 380 Khwaja Abu Nasr Parsa, shrine of, 393 Khwaja Siah Posh, minaret at, 366 Khwarizmshah, 3 57, 303-304 Kile Gul Mohammad (KGM), 8 5-87, 170 black on red slipped ware from, 173 C-14 dates for, 8 7 Knife, metal, 141, 183 curved, 141 Knife, slate, 81 Kobadian (Tajikistan), 230 Kohistan-Panjshir valley, 2 2 Kohna Masjid, 266 Kohsan, 389 Kok Jar, 63 Kokcha, 218 Kot Diji, 172-173 Kujula (Kadphises), 2 33 coins of, 201, 245, 248 Kulli pottery, 178-1 79 Kuprukian, 77-79 Kush-Kak, 332 Kush Rabat, 389 Kushan, archaeological sites, 25 5-271 coinage, 245-247 epigraphical sources, 23 5-241 historical background, 2 33-234, 41 1 Kushan, Later, coinage, 248-2 5 1 historical background, 2 34 Kushano-Sasanian, 154, 163, 295, 299 coinage, 247 historical background, 2 34 Kushk-i Nakhud Rud, 91

Laghrnan inscription, 1 92 Lalpura, 241 Lance head, metal, 141 Lapis Lazuli, 21, 144, 146, 408 extracting of, 35 sources of, 35, 167 trade, 34-35, 167 Larwand River, 339 Lashkari Bazar , 3 1 1 , 4 13 Lassen, C., 6 Lead, 21, 144 Lentils, 28 Levalloisian technique, 41 Linear style, 13 1, 164 Lucerne, 29 Lunates, 68, 8 4 Lustre ware, 359 Lynx, 149 Lysias, coins of, 208

MacDowall, D . , 2 Madrassa (Shah-i Mashad), 348 Mahishasuramardini, image of, 295 Mahmud, 302, 308 Maize, 28 Mansehra, Asokan inscriptions, 199 Maricq, A . , 7 Masson, C . , +5 Masud, 302 Masud 111, minaret of, 3 1 3 Palace of, 3 1 1- 3 1 3 Maues, 190 Mauryan , coinage, 204-205 inscriptions, 192-1 9 9 Mazar-i Sharif, shrine of Hazrat Ali, 39Ck391 Megarian bowls, 225 Melons, 28 Menander, 189 coins of, 208 Merv, 187

SUBJECT INDEX

Metal objects, 82, 8 9 , 141-144, 159, 165, 183-1 8 4 Metallurgy, 144 Microliths, 84, 61 Mihrab, 306, 31 3, 31 5, 383 Milling stones, 139, 154, 158, 164 Minaret, 328, 366, 393 of Herat, 380, 383 of Jam, 331-332 of Khwaja Siah Posh, 366-68 of Masud 111 at Ghazni, 3 13 Miran, 282 Mir Zakah, 203 treasure, 204-205 Mirror, metal, 141, 183 handles, 141 Mithradates I, 190 Mithradates 11, 190 Mizuno, S., 8 Mohenjo-daro, 173 Molluscs, 9 0 Monastery, cave, 271 Mongols, historical background, 357-358, 414 Moorcroft, W . , 4 Mortars, 84, 139 Motifs on Pottery, animal, 1 1 7 bearded bull, 16 7 bichrome, 1 17 diamond, 139 festoon, 119-120 floral, 127, 129 geometric, 1 1 5-1 17, 127-128 loop and tassel, 1 19 pipal leaf, 124 plant, 120 scorpian, 1 8 4 serpent and vulture, 167 winged Lion, 184 yoni, 179 zoomorphic, 127, 137, 164, 177, 184 Mousterian, 41, 4 4 Mugharet el-wad (Mt. Carmel), 53 Muizz al-Din (Shihab al-Din), 303, 330 Mules, 29 Mundigak, 91-149, 409

architectural remains, 9 3 114 bone artifacts, 141 burials, 99- I 00 ceramics, 1 1 5-1 39 chronology, 1 14- 1 1 5 comparison of period 1 -11, 170- 172 comparison of period 111, 173--I78 comparison of period IV, 178 - 18 1 comparison of Period V , 18 1 faunal remains, 149 floral remains, 149 geographical location, 91 house, 109 lithic artifacts, 139-140 metal artifacts, 141-1 44 palace, 1 02- 1 0 9 radio-carbon dates, 1 14- 1 1 5 small miscellaneous artifacts, 144- 149 stratigraphy, 93, 95, 97, 109-1 1 2 temple, 109 Mustamandi, S., 8

Nad-i Ali (Sorkh Dagh), 166, 217, 410 architecture, 2 I 7 pottery, 217 Nal pottery, black on buff, 1 56, I73 polychromes, 173 Namazga, 124, 172, 177-178, 180 Napki Malka, coins, 251-253 Naqsh-i Rustam, 187 Nazarov, F., 6 Neanderthal, 43 Necropolis at Ai Khanum, 199, 2 2 G 2 2 7 Needles, bone, 77, 82, 84, 9 0 Neo-Elamite, 191 Neolithic, 71-87 bone artifacts, 7 7 dwelling, 8 0 faunal remains of, 7 5 Goat cult, See Goat cult Neolithic non-ceramic, 78-80 pottery, 7 9 radio-carbon dates for, 75

4-45

stone artifacts, 77-79 trade, 80-8 1 Niches, stalactite, 380 wall, 183 Nindowari, 179 Nishk, city of, 368 Nizami, 397 Nodular flint, 44 Nomads, 30-33 dwelling tents of, 33 scasonal movements of, 3 1 semi, 32-33 subsistence pattern of, 30-32 Numismatics, 201-214, 245-255 Nuristan, 1 1, 18-19

O b s ~ d ~ atools, n 69-70 O g c d e ~ ,357 O g h u ~tribes, 303 Oil plants, 28 Oman Pen~nsula, 180 Onager, 9 0 t y u u \ hernronus, 48 Orthagnes, 190 c oinj of, 2 14 Ostracon, 199 Ovc~n,9 5 , 150 Oxcn, 29 0 x 1 ~ 5Amu-darya, , 1 O X U St r e a w r c , 202, 204, 21 5

Pacorcs, 190 coins of. 2 14 Paklisa (Prcssrd r a r t h ) , 2 1 5 I'alacolithic, 37--70, 406- 407 I'alacolithic, Epi, 55-68, 407 I'alacolithic, latc, 48.- 5 5 C' - 14 tl(stc~-minationo f , 48- 49 climate, 49 sitcs ol', 48

Palaeolithic, lower, 4 0 Palaeolithic, middle, 41-48 sites of, 41 Pamir, 18-19 knot, 10 lake Baikal, 34-35 Panel architecture, 33 1-3 32 Pandzhikent, 289 Panjshir river, 205 Panjshir valley, 2 1 , 187 Pantaleon, coins of, 205 Paropamisadae, 1 87, 190, 204 Parthians (see Indo-Parthians) Pataiiputra (Patna), 189 Peas, 28 Pebble tools, 40, 81 Pendants, 81, 165 Perforators, stone, 8 9 Persepolis, 187 Persian gulf, 180 Peshwaran, 36 1 Pestles, 84, 87, 139, 164 Philhellenism, 41 1 Pictoral art, 27!%289 Pins, metal, 141, 159, 183 Pir Mohammad, 358 Pis(. walls, 9 3 , 154 Pistachio trees, Pistocia Vera, 4 9 l'lough, 29 l'oints, bone, 7 7 , 8 4 , 9 0 , 159 Points, bronze, projectile, 141 trilobate projcctile, 299 Points, mctal, lanceolate o r lozenge tanged, 1 59 socketed projectile, 299 tanged lozenge shaped, 1 41 tanged oval shaped, 141 Points, stone, 8 1, 139 bifacial, 7 7 hifacially flakcd lanceolatc flint, 139 Lcvallois, 43 ~)rojcctilc,I83 triangular, 4 3 unifacial IcaF shal,rtl, 7 7 Point/Punch, I ~ r o n z r ,141

SUBJECT INDEX

Polishers, bone, 82 Pol-i Zak, 299 Population, nomadic, 25 rural, 25 semi-nomadic, 25 Potter's kiln, 9 7 , 167 Pottery, (see Ceramics) basket impressed, 90, 155, 166 blue and white, 359, 402 intrusive, 124-1 27, 156 medallion stamped, 267 Poultry, 29 Pounders, Stone, 77 Prinsep, J., 4 Propylaeum, 2 2 1 Ptolemy 111, 189 Pul-i-Darunta, 192 Punches, bone, 141, 164, 184 Punch, metal, 159 Pyrenees, 9

Qala-i-Bust, 41 3 Qala-i Hauz, 361 Qala-i Chegini, 368 Qanat System, See Karez system Qarakhanids, 302 Quartzite, 14-4 Queen's madrassa, 380 Querns, stone, 77, 8 4 Quetta ware, 122-124, I 5 5 Quetta wet ware, 132, 156, 166, 177 Qunduz hoard, 20%2 10 Qunduz river, 23 Qutb al-Minar, Delhi, 330, 366, 368

Rana-Ghundai, 1 19 Raverty, H . G . , 6 Razors, metal, 183 Ribat Mahi, caravan serai of, 321 Rice, 28

Rings, 183 Ring, silver, 184 Ritter, K . , 6 Roman coins, 248 Rubbing stones, 8 7 Ruby, 21 Rud-i Biyaban, 167 river, I66 Rusraq, 366, 368

Saddle querns, 8 7 Safavids, 359 historical background, 301 Said Qala Tepe, 1 4 S 1 6 2 , 295 architecture, 15&154 bone artifacts, 159 ceramics, 154-1 58 chronology, 1 54 comparison of, 173 faunal remains, 162 floral remains, 162 lithic artifacts, 158-1 59 location, 149 metal artifacts, 159 radio-carbon dates, 154 small miscellaneous artifacts, 159 stratigraphy, 150-1 54 Salang, 20 Saka, coins of, 21 2 era, 200 historical background, 190 Saka fort, 266 Salar Chalil, 3 15 Samangan r i ~ e r ,6 8 Samanta Deva, Silver coins of, 254 Samarkand, 53 Samudragupta, 234 Sana Rud, 361 Sonabarcs 1, 190 Sonabarc, I I , I 9 0 Sangbast. 32 1 Sarai Khola, 173

447

Sarcophagi, 227 Sard al-din Armani, khanekah of, 389 Sar-i pul ziyarats, 31 5 Sasanian coins, 251 Sattagvdia, 187, 191 S a y i d Subhan Quli Khan, madrassa of, 404 Scerrato, U . , 7 Schlumberger, D., 7 Scrapers, stone, 87 carinated end, 50 end, 89 knife, I39 large, 4 0 side, 8 4 slate, 81 steep-ended, 61 Sculptural art, 271-279 Sculptures, Shahi marble, 289-292 Seals, circular, 160 compartmented, 146, 165 compartmented geometric, 160, 180, 184 lozenge, 160 oval, 160 triangular, 160 Seals, metal, with zoomorphic motif, 146 Sebuktegin, 302, 307 Sedentarv Settlements, appearance of, 4 0 7 4 0 9 Seistan, architecture and towns of, 361-379 basin, 165, 166 Iranian, 166 Seleucus 1, 1 89 coins of, 204, 209 Seleucus 11, 189 Sgraffiato ware, 33 1, 359 Shaffer, J. G . , 2 Shah-i Mashad, 348 Shah Muzaffar, 401 Shah Namah, 395-397, 401 Shah Rukh, 358 Shah Tepe, 184 Shaharak valley, 3 3 5

Shahbazgarhi, Asokan inscriptions at, 199 Shahi, coinage, 2 53-2 55 copper denominations, 2 54 sculptures, 2 8 S 2 9 5 Shahi Beg, 358 Shahr-i Banu (Tash Kurghan), 232 Shahr-i Gholghola, 3 5 1 Shar-i Kohna (See kandahar) Shahr-i Sistan, 361 Shahr-i Sokhta, 35, 1 6 6 1 6 9 , 173-174, 179-180, 408 Shahr-i Zohak, 278, 41 2 fortifications at, 35 1 Shaikhan Dheri (Charsada), 230 Shamshir Char, 295 Shapur I, 234 Shapur 11, 234 coins of, 247, 25 1 Shapur 111, Coins of, 25 1 Sharada script inscriptions, 244-245 Sheep, 29, 43, 149, 162 domesticated, 9 0 ovis orientalis, 4 8 ovis orientolio cycloceros, 75 ovis sp., 75 Sheeplgoat, 165 ovis/copro, 75 Shela Rud, 166 Shell, 144, 146 Shevaki stupa, 271 Shibar, 20 Shibar pass, 23 Shrine, household, 162 Shugnoy, 53 Siah Damb, 117, 119, 176 Sickle, metal, 141 , 159 blades, 184 Sickle, Stone, 29 blades, 77, 84, 89 Sigloi, role of, 201-202 Silk Route, 33 Sirsukh (Taxila), 266 Sling balls, 183 Soan (Pakistan), 40 river, 4 0

SUBJECT INDEX

Sogdiana, 187, 189 Solid style, 13 1 Sonabares, coins of, 2 1 4 Soter Megas, Coins of, 248 Sothi ware, 132, 172 Soviet-Afghan archaeological expedition, 8 Spalagadama, 190 Spalahores, 190 Spalapati Deva, silver coins of, 254 Spaliris, 190 Spatulas,.bone, 77, 82, 84, 141 Spindle Whorls, disc shaped, 165 steatite, 81 terracotta, 144, 159 Spindles, 184 Spiral burnished ware, 262-263 Spokeshaves, 8 4 Stater, gold, 204 Steatite, 144, 167 bowl, 7 7 , 80 vessels, 180 Stein, Sir Aurel, 6 Stone artifacts, 4 1 4 2 , 50-53, 58-61,77-79,81, 8 4 , 87, 89-90, 1 3 F 1 4 0 , 158-1 59, 164, 183 Stone vessels, 165, 183 Storage bins, I 5 4 Strato 11, 190 Stretchers, 154 Subhagasena, 18 9 Subuktigin, 235 Sugar beet, 28 Sulaiman range, 12 Surkh kotal, 26&271 architecture, 267-271 dynastic shrine at, 267-271, 41 2 great inscription from, 2 35-2 37 monumental wall inscription from, 237 Palamedes inscription from, 2 37 royal sanctuary at, 267 unfinished inscription from, 2 37 Surkhab river, 23 Surkhab valley, 35 1 Surva, marble image of, 289 Syr-darya (Jaxartes), 1

T Tabak-sar, 263 Taddei, M., 2, 7 Tahir b. al-Husain, 301 Tahirids, historical background of, 301 Takht-i-Bahi, 239 Takht-i- Jamshid, 263 Tal-i-lblis, 180 Tapa Kalan (See Hadda) Tapa Maranjan, 266, 279 Tapa Sardar, 267, 278, 41 2 Mahishasuramardini image, 295 Parinirvana Buddha, 293 stupas of, 271 Tapa Shotar (Hadda), 279 Tapa Skandar, 244, 289 Tar-o-Sar, 266 Tarim basin, 19 Tarnak river, 91 Tashkurghan 40, 67-68, 184 Taxila, 190, 192, 217-218, 266 Tchahar-Aimak area, 3 1-32 Tedzen delta, 180 Temple at Mundigak, 109 Temple a redans at Ai Khanum, 255 Tepe Barangtud, 166 Tepe Hissar, 177, 184 Tepe Maranjan hoard, 25 1 Tepe Nimlik, 198 Tepe Shahidan, 299 Tepe Sivalk, 177 Tepe Yahva, 85, 172, 175-176, 180 Tepe Zargaran (Balkh), 230 Termez, 21 8 Teshik Tash (Uzbekistan), 43 Tethys sea, 9 Textiles, 167 Theophilus Bayer, 4 Threshing, 29 Tigin Shah, 235 Tillya tepe, 2 14 Timargarha, 184 Timur, 358 Timurids, architecture, 3 9 7 4 0 historical background, 3 58

4-49

minor arts, 402-404 painting, 4 0 M 0 2 sculpture, 400 Timurid art, summary of, 3 9 7 4 0 4 Timurid Period, conclusion, 414 Tin, 1 4 4 Tira\.harna the satrap, inscription of, 200 Togau n.are, 1 17, 1 19 Tomaschek, O . , 6 Tombs, 117, 183 Topdara stupa, 271 Tourmaline, 2 1 TOM(TS, semicircular, 182 T r a p e ~ e s ,8 4 Trebcck, C . , 4 Triangles, 8 4 Tubes, bone, 141 Tucci, G , 7 Tureng Tepe, 184 Turki Shahis, historical background, 235 Turquoise, 144, 167

Ulugh Beg, 358 Uma Mahcsvara sculpture at Tapa Skandar, 289 Uruzgan inscription, 244

Vasudcva, 2 33 coins of, 247-248 Vaulted ceiling, 226 Vaulted rooms, 177 Vaults, bal-rcl, 360 stalactite, 360 Vima Katll>hiscs, 2 33 coins of, 245 clatcs for, 238-240 Vincs, 28 Vrahitigin, 2 3 5 coins of, 253

Wakhan, 18-1 9 Wardak, 232, 240 stupas, 271 Wardak valley, town site of, 263, 267 Ware, Baba Darwesh black, 82 east persian slip painted, 359 Emir gray, 166 Faiz Mohammad gray, 1 5 5 Faiz Mohammad painted, 132, 166, 173, 176 Gardan Reg decorated, 166 Ghaznavid slip painted, 329-330 Ghorid incised, 33 1 Kechi Beg polychrome, 156, 170, 173 Kechi Beg white on dark slip, 156 Lustre, 359 Quetta, 122-1 2 4 Quetta w e t , 132 Sgraffiato, 331, 359 sothi, 127 spiral burnished, 262-263 Togau, 117, 119 Wash, cream-buff opaque, 12 0 white translucent, 120 W e i dynasty, 234 Weight stone, I 3 9 Wheat, 28, 162 domesticatcd, Trltlcum Compacturn, 149 viclds in Kataghan province, 30 Wheeler, M . , 7 Wild animals, 149 Winnowing, 29 Wood, 167 Wright, P . , 7

Yaqut, 4 Yak-su river (Uzbekistan), 53 Yaqub b. Laith al-Saffar, 301 Yasovarman, 2 34 Yaz potter);, 181 Young, K . , 7

SUBJECT INDEX

Yueh-chi, 1 9 0 . , 41 1 coins o f , 2 12

Zagros, 53 Zaranj, 361 Zarzian, 5 5 Zawi chemi shanidar (zagros), 6 9

Zhob figurines, 179 Ziggurats, 1 14 Ziyarat Gah, 389 Ziyarat-i-Malikan, 3 3 9 - 3 4 3 Zoomorphic motifs, birtls, 127 felines, 127 fish, 127 horned caprid (ibex?), 127

45 1