Reimagining the Future Public Service Workforce

SPRINGER BRIEFS IN POLITIC AL SCIENCE

Helen Dickinson · Catherine Needham Catherine Mangan · Helen Sullivan Editors

Reimagining the Future Public Service Workforce

SpringerBriefs in Political Science

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8871

Helen Dickinson Catherine Needham Catherine Mangan Helen Sullivan •

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Editors

Reimagining the Future Public Service Workforce

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Editors Helen Dickinson University of New South Wales Canberra, ACT, Australia

Catherine Mangan University of Birmingham Birmingham, UK

Catherine Needham University of Birmingham Birmingham, UK

Helen Sullivan Australian National University Canberra, ACT, Australia

ISSN 2191-5466 ISSN 2191-5474 (electronic) SpringerBriefs in Political Science ISBN 978-981-13-1479-7 ISBN 978-981-13-1480-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1480-3 Library of Congress Control Number: 2018947496 © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Acknowledgements

The editors would like to acknowledge and thank all of those who have worked with, discussed and helped us along the journey of this book and the broader research programme it is part of. As a broad programme of research that stretches across nearly a decade across the UK and Australia, there are far too many people to name individually. However, we would like to give particular thanks to Maria Katsonis and Elizabeth Haydon. Over the various research projects that have comprised this programme of work, we have received funding from the Economic Social Research Council (ES/ K007572/1), Melbourne School of Government (University of Melbourne) and Public Service Academy (University of Birmingham). Of course, special thanks go to our contributors for being part of this project and providing such thought-provoking and fascinating chapters. Thanks also go to George Cox for his assistance in editing and formatting the final manuscript.

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Contents

Part I 1

Setting the Scene

Introduction: Imagining the Future Public Service Workforce . . . . Helen Dickinson, Catherine Needham, Catherine Mangan and Helen Sullivan

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Part II Major Themes in Reimagining the Public Service Workforce 2

Boundary Challenges and the Work of Boundary Spanners . . . . . . Fiona Buick, Janine O’Flynn and Eleanor Malbon

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Showing You Care: Emotional Labor and Public Service Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sharon Mastracchi and Yvonne Sawbridge

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Narratives and Storytelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chris Lawrence-Pietroni and Catherine Needham

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Design Matters: The Implications of Design Thinking and Practice for Future Public Service Workforce Skills and Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Martin Stewart-Weeks and Dominic Campbell

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More Rave Than Waltz—Why the Complexity of Public Service Means the End for Hero Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Catherine Mangan and Chris Lawrence-Pietroni

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Empathy, Ethics and Efficiency: Twenty First Century Capabilities for Public Managers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Barry Quirk

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Part III

Developing the Future Public Service Workforce

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Developing and Recruiting the Future Public Servant . . . . . . . . . . 111 Deborah Blackman, Samantha Johnson, Helen Dickinson and Linda Dewey

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Creating a Diverse Workforce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Kiran Trehan and Jane Glover

10 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Catherine Needham, Helen Sullivan, Catherine Mangan and Helen Dickinson

Editors and Contributors

About the Editors Helen Dickinson is Associate Professor Public Service Research and Director of the Public Service Research Group at the School of Business, University of New South Wales, Canberra. Her expertise is in public services, particularly in relation to topics such as governance, leadership, commissioning and priority setting and decision-making. She has published 16 books and over 50 peer-reviewed journal articles on these topics and is also a frequent commentator within the mainstream media. She is co-editor of the Journal of Health, Organization and Management and Australian Journal of Public Administration. In 2015, she was made a Victorian Fellow of the Institute of Public Administration Australia and she has worked with a range of different levels of government, community organisations and private organisations in Australia, UK, New Zealand and Europe on research and consultancy programmes. Catherine Needham is Professor of Public Policy and Public Management at the Health Services Management Centre, University of Birmingham. Her research covers public service workforce, social care co-production and personalisation. Her most recent book was published by the Policy Press in 2016 entitled, What Size is Good Care: Micro-Enterprise and Personalisation. She coordinates the 21st Century Public Servant research programme on workforce change, which has a blog https://21stcenturypublicservant.wordpress.com/ and hashtag #21cPS. Catherine Mangan is Director of the Public Services Academy and Director of the Institute for Local Government Studies at the University of Birmingham. She has a particular research interest in delivering change within the public sector; specifically, the integration of health and social care, developing the skills and roles of the future workforce and place-based leadership. She is a qualified coach and teaches on a number of executive development programmes for local government and public health. She is currently researching the impact of social care market shaping on personalisation. She teaches on the Department’s Masters programmes

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in Public Management and Public Administration and co-convenes programmes on integrating health and social care and international public management. She writes regularly for academic journals and the professional press. Helen Sullivan is Professor and Director of the Crawford School of Public Policy at the Australian National University. Her research and teaching explores the changing nature of state–society relationships and their impact on public governance including the theory and practice of governance and collaboration, new forms of democratic participation and public policy and service reform. Current research projects include an exploration of the Social Licence to Operate in the Australian resources sector, and an international study of collaborative governance under austerity. She is widely published; the author of five books and numerous academic articles, book chapters and policy reports. Her latest book with Sara Bice and Avery Poole is ‘Public Policy in the ‘Asian Century’ Concepts, Cases and Futures’ (Palgrave, 2018). She is committed to bridging the gap between research and policy and has led and supported successful innovations in this area in both the UK and Australia. She appears regularly in print and online media commenting on contemporary public policy issues.

Contributors Deborah Blackman Public Service Research Group, University of New South Wales, Canberra, Australia Fiona Buick University of New South Wales, Canberra, Australia Dominic Campbell The Australian Centre for Social Innovation, Adelaide, Australia Linda Dewey Public Service Research Group, University of New South Wales, Canberra, Australia Helen Dickinson Public Service Research Group, School of Business, University of New South Wales, Canberra, Australia Jane Glover University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK Samantha Johnson School of Business, UNSW Canberra, Canberra, Australia Chris Lawrence-Pietroni Institute for Local Government Studies, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK Eleanor Malbon Public Service Research Group, University of New South Wales, Canberra, Australia Catherine Mangan Institute for Local Government Studies, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK

Editors and Contributors

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Sharon Mastracchi Department of Political Science, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, USA Catherine Needham Public Policy and Public Management, Health Services Management Centre, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK Janine O’Flynn Public Management, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia Barry Quirk Council of Goldsmiths, University of London, London, UK Yvonne Sawbridge National Health Service, London, UK Martin Stewart-Weeks The Australian Centre for Social Innovation, Adelaide, Australia Helen Sullivan Crawford School of Public Policy, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia Kiran Trehan University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK

List of Figures

Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig.

4.1 5.1 7.1 7.2

Ganz public narrative framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Childstory journey map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Public ethics: depends on functions and context . . . Cost reduction methods in the public sector . . . . . .

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List of Tables

Table 1.1 Table 2.1 Table 3.1 Table 4.1 Table 6.1

Existing and new roles of the Australia public service workforce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boundary spanning roles and associated skills . . . . . . . Summary of Emotional Labor interventions . . . . . . . . . Six elements of stories (adapted from Needham 2011, pp. 13–22) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elements of twenty first century leadership . . . . . . . . .

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Part I

Setting the Scene

Chapter 1

Introduction: Imagining the Future Public Service Workforce Helen Dickinson, Catherine Needham, Catherine Mangan and Helen Sullivan

1.1

The Dominant Narrative of Reform

Anyone who has read commentaries of governments and public service organisations over the last decade or so will likely have come away with a keen sense that what is needed is reform, reform and more reform. Despite the fact that it is difficult to identify a country or a policy area that has not undergone reform in recent years (rhetorically at least), there is typically a sense of impatience and urgency to these cries for change. Jarvis (2016), for example, notes that ‘For too long, the Canadian civil service has remained largely immune to disruption and transformation, in part because it hasn’t faced imminent threats from competitors in the same way that a private company or a not-for-profit organization might or even other levels of government have faced. This insulation has had predictable results. Past reform efforts have often fallen short of their objectives, because there were no clear consequences when reform failed. This failure to sufficiently modernize has slowly eroded the civil service’s ability to meet the needs of Canadians’ (p. 1). What is clear from these kinds of accounts is a sense of irritation that governments have not gone far or fast enough in making changes.

H. Dickinson (&) Public Service Research Group, School of Business, University of New South Wales, Canberra, Australia e-mail: [email protected] C. Needham Public Policy and Public Management, Health Services Management Centre, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK C. Mangan Institute for Local Government Studies, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK H. Sullivan Crawford School of Public Policy, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 H. Dickinson et al. (eds.), Reimagining the Future Public Service Workforce, SpringerBriefs in Political Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1480-3_1

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In posing the case for reform, it is typically argued that changes in the external environment and in citizen expectations mean that government needs to alter what it does and how it does this. The drivers of these forces are numerous and well-rehearsed, encompassing factors such as the forces of globalization, digitization, decreased trust in public institutions, changing demographics, budgetary pressures, polarization of politics, increasing complexity of social problems, less deferential and more demanding citizens and so on (Accenture 2006; Shergold 2013b; Van der Wal 2017). As a result of these pressures, governments are being asked to work in more efficient ways, adopting innovative and more agile approaches to the co-production of solutions with a multiplicity of partners. If it is true that governments will need to operate in different ways to those that we see at present and public services will be asked to deliver different things, then it is highly likely that we will need different sorts of skills and capabilities within the workforce to deliver on this agenda. Yet, for all the calls for government to change within the broad literature, there is rather less consideration given to what these changes might look like and what the implications are for the public service workforce (for a recent exception to this rule see Van der Wal 2017). Although the literature is vocal about the various drivers of reform, one aspect it is more silent on is the changing nature of work. Over the last thirty years, calls to reconceive how we think of work within the context of contemporary societies have multiplied and intensified. Fuelled by pressures from the advent of longer working lives, a shift away from manual work to service and knowledge-intensive roles, the impacts of an increasingly internationalised workforce and more inclusive working practices (Dewe and Cooper 2012), policy makers and others are revisiting what work means to individuals and societies. The proliferation of part time and casual work has increased workplace insecurity as has the decline in the numbers of people looking for (or at least being able to attain) careers with one organisation that span over a period of thirty years or more (Frese 2008). Individuals now expect to have more than one career and even in professions attained through intensive and sustained periods of training (e.g. medicine, academia) it is now more likely that individuals will have different ‘chapters’ in their working lives, taking on different roles over the span of their career (e.g. Dickinson et al. 2013; Lewis 2013). Another important development is the increase in interest in portfolio careers where individuals bring together a variety of different jobs, some of which may be paid or voluntary, but all of which involve time for personal development. This sort of work is already often of interest to those in the early or latter parts of their careers, as individuals seek to transition into or out of work, but it appears that this is expanding to individuals at different points in their careers. Job design is also changing. Where once individuals were recruited to work in a particular professional area to do a defined task, it is increasingly common for organisations to instead recruit projects or teams on ‘umbrella contracts’ (Bridges 1995). In the future it is likely that individuals will find themselves less confined to the traditional boundaries of professional roles and more engaged in project-based activities that involve a range of different activities. All of these factors mean that the structure of careers and the sorts of jobs that future public servants will seek could be quite

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different to those we are used to. Although the public sector in many advanced liberal democracies has often been viewed as rather traditional in terms of jobs and career development, change is likely to permeate as these organisations are forced to compete for human capital in an ever more competitive environment. Of course there is nothing new about calls for change in either government and public services or the nature of work, and it can sometimes feel like we have been talking about these issues for quite some time. But as we know, change takes time to realise, particularly in the large and complex structures of public service. What is agreed though is that change is needed and there is the potential for us to find ourselves with rather different organisations and workforces as a result of these reform processes.

1.2

Focus of the Book

This book builds on research conducted in the UK and Australia (Dickinson and Sullivan 2014; Needham and Mangan 2014; Needham et al. 2014) that explored the range of roles that will be required in the future public service workforce, the skills and competencies necessary to achieve these roles and the support and training needed to fill these requirements. Both the UK and Australian studies agreed that new roles will be required and that significant attention needs to be paid to these issues and the skills required to acquit these roles. This is essential if we are to be able to design and deliver complex services to an ever more diverse population and in fiscally constrained contexts. In the following sections we provide a summary of these findings as background to the content that follows. In this book we explore the major themes from the research base with leading international experts in these areas. The aim of these contributions is to provide a review of international evidence on these topics and set out: what we know about this area; where there are gaps in our knowledge; and, how local organisations can deliver on this theme. For each of the thematic areas contributors consider the nature of future roles for public servants, the types of skills and competencies needed to fulfil these roles, how we can train and develop for this purpose and how organisations might recruit for these roles. Contributors draw on case studies and examples of where public service organisations have made progress in relation to particular themes and signpost resources for readers to find further information. The audience for this book is threefold. Current and future public servants who are participating in professional degree programmes will use this text as an entry point into the state of the current knowledge base with respect to issues relating to the public service workforce. The examples, case studies and further resources outlined will be of particular value to this audience and we hope inspire changes within individual and organisational practice. Second, we anticipate that the content will provide useful fodder to senior public servants and human resource managers who are strategically contemplating the future of their workforces. Third, there is a clear academic audience for this work given that this topic is gathering a growing research interest.

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Who Are Public Servants?

When we speak about this topic, one of the first questions we are often asked is what do we mean by public servants and the public service workforce? In a book that seeks to bring together contributions from a number of different national jurisdictions this is clearly somewhat of a challenge. Different countries establish and operate their public services in different ways, regardless of whether they share similar origins in terms of their political institutions. Added to this, although many countries that we will speak about in this book have significant numbers of individuals who work in public service roles, they would not necessarily recognise themselves as belonging to the same workforce. Teachers, doctors, accountants in local governments, social workers and any number of other public service professionals will often feel more loyalty to the organisation that they work for, or to their profession, than to a broader notion of public service. Not only are public servants spread across a broad range of public service agencies with different organisational and professional affiliations, but added to this many governments have embarked on increasingly working with third party agents in the delivery of services (Alford and O’Flynn 2012). Over the last thirty years there has been an expansion in the number of commercial and not-for-profit organisations involved in delivering everything from social services to policy advice to back office functions and data collection and beyond. This raises an important question about whether we should consider some or all of these individuals as being public servants. Many of those individuals will have roles that are fully or mostly funded by contracts with government, and they are delivering services on behalf of the state. What these individuals do and how is of great interest and importance to government, so do we need to consider them in discussions about the future public service workforce? Ultimately the answer to this question will depend very much on where you are coming from and the system that you operate. In research in Australia, Dickinson and Sullivan (2014) found that not only were interviewees keen to explain that public servants were only those who work directly for state or federal government (with others adding local government to the equation), but there was also a sense that ‘genuine’ public servants are those who are central to the administrative and policy functions of government. Such a definition of public servants excludes many individuals who the general public would likely identify as being core to this workforce such as teachers, social workers etc. In research in the UK, Needham and Mangan (2014) similarly found a divided workforce, with central government civil servants seeing themselves as distinct from public service workers in local government, professionals making the case for their own distinctiveness, and outsourced worker struggling with an ambiguous identity. The language of public servant was seen as the best umbrella category on offer to cover this diversity. Regardless of the precise definition that any particular system operates with, we can make a distinction in terms of what public servants do in terms of those involved in direct service delivery and those broadly in policy roles (supporting

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government and legislative processes, making policy, setting budgets, regulation and managing people). Traditionally public service workforces have been built with a particular eye to the latter group, and this is typically where the majority of staff have operated, although these are the first wave of jobs that have been contracted to third party agents. Depending on your definition of who should be counted within the public service, this could represent a significant shift in terms of the skills and capabilities required within the workforce. What this move does mean for most organisations is a transformation in terms of claims to legitimacy and the identity of these institutions. In recent years there have been increasing numbers of discussions about the types of capabilities required in commissioning or stewardship organisations that do not deliver services but have a role in policy and steering complex civil systems (Allen and Wade 2011; Glasby 2012; Institute of Public Care 2014). These are themes that we will explore in greater detail throughout this book.

1.4

The Future of the Public Service Workforce

In 2011, the University of Birmingham in the UK led a Policy Commission into the Future of Local Public Services (University of Birmingham Policy Commission 2011). This document covers a range of issues relating to what local, state, civic and private actors can do to meet the challenges of designing and delivering local public services in a society that supports individual and collective efficacy, social justice and local democracy. One component of the findings from this commission was the identification of four new roles which it was argued would be performed by the public servants of the future, namely: • Storyteller—the ability to author and communicate stories of how new worlds of local public services might be envisioned in the absence of existing blueprints, drawing on experience and evidence from a range of sources. The ability to fashion and communicate options for the future, however tentative and experimental, will be crucial in engaging service users, citizens and staff. • Resource-weaver—the ability to make creative use of existing resources regardless of their intended/original use; weaving together miscellaneous and disparate material to generate something new and useful for service users and citizens. • System-architect—someone who is able to describe and compile coherent local systems of public support from the myriad of public, private, third sector and other resources. This is a role that combines prescription with compilation and it is an ongoing task as system resources are likely to vary over time and space. • Navigator—a role specifically focused on guiding citizens and service users around the range of possibilities that might be available in a system of local public services. This is the kind of role that some area-based regeneration workers and neighbourhood co-ordinators and managers have developed in the past on a ‘patch’ basis.

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The Commission envisaged that these roles would be undertaken alongside some existing, but relatively new roles: commissioner, broker and reticulist (or networker), and four long-standing roles (regulator, protector, adjudicator and expert). A research team at the University of Birmingham built on the insights from the Policy Commission and undertook a literature review relating to the public service workforce (Needham et al. 2014). This review explored the academic and policy literatures on public service change and examined how change impacts on people working in these services. This was an inclusive review to the extent that it drew on a variety of disciplinary perspectives and included not just academic publications, but also the so-called grey literature (government publications, practice guidelines, business and industry outputs etc.). The review outlined eight lessons from this broad literature and these are outlined in Box 1.1. Box 1.1. Eight lessons about the future of the public service workforce 1. Future public services will require a different set of workforce roles than in the past. Whilst professional skills remain important (also see lesson 3) public servants increasingly have a role in negotiating and brokering interests among a broad array of different groups. The public service workforce therefore requires a set of relational skills which aid in forming shared values amongst a range of competing interests. Crucial in this skill set is the ability to understand services from the citizen or consumer perspective. 2. Citizens are changing too. Citizens are less deferential than in the past and increasingly have higher expectations of what public services should offer. Coproduction is a central plank of future public services and there are a diverse range of implications for this in terms of the workforce. There are presently gaps in this respect not only in the skills base of public servants, but also in the development opportunities available to hone these skills and the time and space to practice this within organizations. 3. Generic skills will be as important as technical skills for future public servants. This lesson is a potentially controversial one and this is not to argue that technical skills are not needed. Technical skills are required and there are gaps often reported in these particularly in relation to contracting and data analysis. However, there are a set of softer and less tangible skills that are becoming increasingly important in relation to communication, digital literacy and person-oriented skills. 4. Ethics and values are changing as the boundaries of public service shift. The public sector ethos has been a common reference point in discussions about public service reform for many years. Ethos captures the sense of an intrinsic motivation to service the public, distinctive from extrinsic motivations such as material reward or fear of sanctions. In a context of increased outsourcing there is a question of whether public sector ethos can survive. Better understanding the bundle of incentives that motivate people to serve the public is part of the workforce challenge for twenty-first century public services.

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5. Emotional labor will be a key element of future public service work. Many public service roles are inherently emotionally demanding and there is consensus emerging over the need for resilient responses to this as a dimension of public service practice. The research evidence suggests that emotions are important constituent components not just of the caring professions but also in any roles that involve the spanning of boundaries. If the future of public service roles is to involve greater boundary traversing then this is likely to become of even greater importance to public servants. 6. Perma-austerity is catalyzing and inhibiting the emergence of new roles. Recent UK literature has much to say about the impact of austerity on public service workforces. Whilst austerity is arguably not being experienced to such a degree in Australia it is clear that budget cuts are to come. The evidence suggests that in some places austerity is severely inhibiting the emergence of new roles, whilst in others organizations are using this opportunity to fundamentally transform their services. Understanding the contexts under which successful transformation might take place within circumstances of fiscal constraint is clearly an important task. 7. Hero-leaders aren’t the answer. When leadership is spoken about in the media and in the literature it is often focused on individual heroes. However, the evidence suggests that there is a need for a new kind of public sector leader to respond to the changing context, in which leadership beyond boundaries and beyond spans of authority will become important. Rather than focusing on individuals we will need to think about forms of distributed or dispersed leadership. 8. Many professions are coming to these conclusions, but are tackling the issue separately. A striking feature of the policy literature is that lots of different professions are coming to the same conclusions, but there is little dialogue between service sectors about how to share lessons and encourage staff to work across boundaries. Whilst these individual conversations have immense value there may be benefit from bringing together these contributions and thinking about public service issues in a broader way.

Drawing on the literature insights, the Birmingham team conducted interviews and focus groups with a range of people working within the public sector (e.g. local government, health, fire, police), private sector (service providers, commissioning support functions) and not-for-profit (service providers, service user and carer advocacy bodies). The research aimed to gather perspectives on how public service roles are changing, the types of roles, skills and competencies that will be important in the future and a sense of how these might most effectively be developed (Needham and Mangan 2014). In addition to interviews, focus groups and a survey

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of recent graduate entrants into local government that provided additional data. From this research, ten different characteristics were identified as being associated with the future public servant. These are outlined in Box 1.2. As this list of characteristics illustrates, many of the themes that are present in the literature resonated with those involved in the research, although there are also themes present that go beyond these issues and pertain to some of the specific challenges of UK public services at that point in time—for example, issues relating to austerity. Box 1.2. Ten characteristics of the future public servant The twenty-first century Public Servant… 1…is a municipal entrepreneur, undertaking a wide range of roles. Future public services require a set of workforce roles which may be different from those of the past. As one interviewee put it, ‘In the future you will need to be a municipal entrepreneur, a steward of scarce public resources.’ New roles that may be performed by the public servants of the future include story-teller, resource weaver, systems architect and navigator. 2…engages with citizens in a way that expresses their shared humanity and pooled expertise. The notion of working co-productively, or in partnership, with citizens was the preferred approach of most interviewees: ‘Valued outcomes in public services are not things that can be delivered, they are always co-produced’, as one put it. One of the suggested approaches was alluringly simple: ‘It’s about being human, that’s what we need to do’. One clear finding from the research was that the widespread calls for whole person approaches to care and support necessitate working practices in which staff are also able to be ‘whole people’. 3…is recruited and rewarded for generic skills as well as technical expertise. Generic skills are becoming as important as professional skills, with ‘soft skills’ around communication, organisation and caring becoming more highly prized. One interviewee said: ‘We need people who are really good with people and can form relationships, who are able to learn quickly.’ According to another, ‘engaging with citizens and the use, analysis and interpretation of data to understand your local populations, they are quite newish sets of skills for people who work in local authorities’. 4…builds a career which is fluid across sectors and services. People are unlikely to stay in one sector or service area for life and require portable skills that are valued in different settings. People need opportunities to learn and reflect on new skills, which may be through action learning, mentoring, job shadowing and sabbaticals rather than formal training: ‘People will have portfolio careers, working in different sectors, working for different people at the same time, not just sequentially. It’s not a job for life, or even for 5 years’, said one interviewee. 5…combines an ethos of publicness with an understanding of commerciality. Ethics and values are changing as the boundaries of public service

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shift, with notions of the public sector ethos being eclipsed by an increased push towards commercialism, along with a wider focus on social value. One interviewee said, ‘Local government will need more private sector skills, more crossover of skills and people. If staff in local government don’t have the commercial skills they won’t be employable. We have to help them get them.’ Another interviewee said: ‘I think there will be a fight between altruism and commercialism. We need managers who still care.’ 6…is rethinking public services to enable them to survive an era of perma-austerity. Perma-austerity is inhibiting and catalyzing change, as organizations struggle to balance short-term cost-cutting and redundancies with a strategic vision for change. Some interviewees expressed this in very negative terms: ‘There’s a narrative of doom…..it’s all about survival’. For others there was a potentially positive aspect to the financial context: ‘The cuts are forcing us to confront change. In public service, change doesn’t necessarily happen unless there is a crisis or a disaster, or it happens very slowly.’ 7…needs organizations which are fluid and supportive rather than siloed and controlling. Many of the organizations where our interviewees were located had been through recent restructuring and there was little appetite for more structural change. Nevertheless there was a feeling that the organizations were not necessarily fit for purpose: ‘We are trying to be twenty first century public servants in nineteenth century organizations. There’s that constant struggle. Not only how do we change what the people are but also how do we change the organizations to allow the people to be what they need to be?’ This can be about addressing issues of organizational culture, rather than assuming that new structures will be the solution. 8…rejects heroic leadership in favour of distributed and collaborative models of leading. Hero leaders aren’t the answer. Rather than emphasizing the charisma and control of an individual, new approaches focus on leadership as dispersed throughout the organization. This could be about thinking about leadership at the front line in a way that traverses traditional service sectors: ‘We should offer a career in community leadership. The twenty first century public servant should be able to cross organizational boundaries.’ 9…is rooted in a locality which frames a sense of loyalty and identity. The role of place in public service needs to be recognized: public service workers often have a strong loyalty to the neighborhoods and towns/cities in which they work as well as an organizational loyalty. For some interviewees this was about staff being based in the locality: ‘Above a certain grade you should be required to live in [the council area], because you are making huge decisions on how people will live, work and spend their recreational time.’ For others it was about putting professional knowledge into an appropriate context for the locality: ‘Professionalism will be the death of local government. It’s that lack of ability to soften and shape stuff according to locality.’

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10…reflects on practice and learns from that of others. The public service changes that we have set out here in which structures are fragmenting, citizens require authentic interactions, careers require much greater self-management, commerciality and publicness must be reconciled and expectations of leadership are dispersed across the organization, require time and space for public servants to reflect: ‘You need spaces where you take yourself apart and sort it out with the fact that the organization is expecting you to glide along like a swan looking serenely happy with no mistakes whatsoever.’

While the UK project focused predominantly on local public services and particularly on the delivery of services, an Australian team embarked on a research project focusing more on those who are involved in designing policy with the aim of exploring how similar and different findings were. An initial discussion paper was authored by a team from the Melbourne School of Government and the Victorian Department of Premier and Cabinet (Melbourne School of Government and Victorian Department of Premier and Cabinet 2013). This discussion paper aimed to generate debate about the public servant in the twenty first century and subsequently a range of other individuals and groups have contributed to this debate (Advisory Group on Reform of Australian Government Administration 2010; Shergold 2013a, b). Following the publication of this paper, the Melbourne School of Government conducted empirical research into the types of roles, skills and competencies and development approaches that will be needed in the future public service workforce (Dickinson and Sullivan 2014). This study argued that four roles that are currently within the public service system would remain important and four new roles would emerge. These roles are set out in Table 1.1. This report went on to set out the types of skills that would be required to deliver on these roles in relation to three categories: technical, human and conceptual. Given the links between the research teams at Melbourne and Birmingham it may be no surprise that similar themes were identified, albeit with some nuanced differences. What is striking from the evidence presented is that both suggest traditional professional skills are insufficient in this future context and there are an important set of ‘softer’ and less tangible skills that are necessary in driving a systems approach to public services. Both groups are also at pains to note that these roles and attributes are likely to be pooled within teams than displayed within one person. As Needham and Mangan note, ‘The 21st Century Public Servant is a composite role and exists to illuminate a series of working practices rather than to provide a blueprint for a single worker’ (2014, p. 21). These shared themes go beyond the confines of these research teams or geographical settings and have been explored in other settings such as Canada (Jarvis 2016), Singapore (Prime Minister’s Office 2016), the United States (National Academy of Public Administration 2017) and the OECD countries (OECD 2017); Van Der Wal (2017) offers a global perspective on these issues.

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Table 1.1 Existing and new roles of the Australia public service workforce Existing roles

Description

Expert

Public servants must be experts in a number of different areas so that they can appropriately advise politicians. The range of different voices and data sources mean that public servants need to understand these different perspectives and to exercise judgment in decision making, drawing on relevant skill and experience This has become increasingly important in a context of greater use of third party agents in the delivery of services and involves the oversight of these services against standards. Public servants need to understand quality and regulate providers against defined standards. This requires commercial skills and understanding how to drive efficiency and effectiveness while understanding the impact of actions and implications in terms of intended and unintended consequences This role is principally focused on the community and broader population so to better understand preferences and desires of the population, but also so public services are afforded political support. It is key to the development of good policy that will stand the test of time and not change when the political executive changes This role is concerned with the development and use of networking skills to identify new sources of expertise and support and/or to bring together agents who together can achieve desired outcomes. This involves thinking about the skills, capacities and capabilities of others beyond your own organizational setting and working across different boundaries to leverage these Description This role is concerned with the stewardship of a system in a context where government is increasingly less involved in the direct delivery of services. This is a complex role that involves having a clear sense of what the system is aiming to achieve in terms of outcomes and ensuring that the system operates effectively in achieving this This involves using a variety of different skills to ensure that those within government and beyond remain committed to core values and agendas. Public good is central to this role and involves working to continually refine what this means and how it might be created. This further involves generating institutional memory, although not just the bureaucratic memory of the architecture of public services, and is also reflective of the values of broader society This role involves applying vision and imagination to strategic thinking and anticipating future shifts. This is about envisaging future notions of public services and then working to translate this into carefully costed policy endeavors This involves authoring stories of how new worlds of public services might be envisioned, and going beyond this to communicate them to a variety of different audiences. It is about the ability to fashion and communicate options for the future, however tentative and experimental

Regulator

Engager

Reticulist

New roles Commissioner

Curator

Foresighter

Storyteller

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What is common across many of these contributions is that they are an analysis of the issues and what public services should deliver. They say rather less about how public services might go about achieving this. This book aims to start to fill this gap, providing research evidence and case studies of where change has occurred and the potential and limits of those changes.

1.5

Structure

In addressing the many issues relevant to the future public service workforce, we approached authors to write on a number of themes that our research suggested would be important aspects of future public service work. This is necessarily selective and can’t cover all relevant issues, but aims to speak to many of the key aspects of the emerging public service workforce. We have organized the book according to three main parts. This chapter comprises the first part and has set the scene, drawing on ideas that have been developed through recent international research and setting out knowledge that proceeding chapters will build upon. Part 2 moves on to present a number of chapters that deal with major themes in reimagining the future public service workforce. In Chap. 2, Fiona Buick and colleagues focus on the roles that boundaries and boundary-crossing serve in public service organizations and connect this to the roles and skills required for the future public service. In doing so they argue that there are a number of different forms of boundaries and imperatives for working across these. Accordingly, there is a need to tailor the skills and capabilities of public servants to these specific contexts. In Chap. 3 Mastracchi and Sawbridge examine the importance of recognizing the role that emotional labor plays in the delivery of public services and the types of approaches that organizations can use to support emotional labor demands on the workforce. Although emotional labor is an area that has not received significant attention in the public service literature or policy to date, these authors argue that it is crucial in assuring employee wellbeing, and explore a range of different potential interventions to address this. In Chap. 4 Lawrence-Pietroni and Needham turn to the topic of narratives and storytelling. They argue that people working in and leading twenty first century public services need to engage with the potential of narratives to shape their work and inspire others. The role of the storyteller is crucial to the skill set of the future public servant. This chapter explores narrative as a specific form of communication and the scope for it to be the basis for effective and inspiring leadership. Chapter 5 turns to the topic of design, where Stewart-Weeks and Campbell explore the implications of design thinking and practice for future public service workforce skills and cultures. They argue that much can be gained through the adoption of a design thinking approach, but that this needs the development of a set of design capabilities in the workforce and also a shift in power relations within the management of public services. This has important leadership implications, and leadership is the topic of Chap. 6 where Mangan and Lawrence-Pietroni argue that

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the new world of public services requires different types of leadership. Picking up from the earlier chapter by Buick et al., this leadership spans across organizations and is situated in a range of individuals. It recognizes the need for effective interdependencies, and the role of passion in creating a compelling narrative to achieve change. Through the metaphor of dance, the authors argue intriguingly that such leadership is ‘more a rave than a waltz’. Mangan and Lawrence-Pietroni raise a challenge for leaders in the sense that they are required to balance a number of competing and sometimes conflicting priorities. In Chap. 7, Quirk continues this theme, arguing that the capabilities of empathy, ethics and efficiency are crucial for public managers to develop. Although these are all rather ‘ancient virtues’ they will require re-imagining for the twenty first century. However, Quirk warns that these are not simply ideal principles to be considered in the abstract, but need to be applied practically and in the varied contexts in which public institutions operate. Having established a number of the key themes around the future public servant workforce, Part 3 moves on to consider how we can develop these. In Chap. 8 Blackman et al. explore issues relating to the development and recruitment of the future public servant. In doing so, these authors argue that if we want to develop and recruit for different skills then we need to think of new ways to do this. This chapter employs social learning theory, arguing that a move towards focusing on how things are learnt, rather than what is learnt, might enable a change in the human resource practices chosen to support capability development. In Chap. 9 Trehan and Glover focus specifically on how to create a diverse workforce, arguing that for all the rhetoric of the need for this to happen, this still remains a challenge for many public service organizations. In part, this is attributed to the fact that much of the work in this area operates on a theoretical plane, and is light on practical guidance. This chapter aims to plug at least some of this gap. In the final chapter we summarize the key lessons from these chapters identifying a number of cross-cutting themes associated with the emergence of a new public service workforce as well as a number of unresolved tensions. The chapter highlights the implications of the emergence of a new public service worker, specifically the demands this places on politicians and citizens and the ways in which they might need to be renewed. Finally the chapter notes the difficulty of making progress in this area given the increasing turbulence of the global environment and the challenging context that results. The book does not provide neatly packaged solutions. Rather it offers a range of insights drawn from experience for public service leaders and others to consider when responding to the undoubted pressure for a new kind of public sector workforce. One size will not fit all and the chapters that follow provide examples and frameworks that can be adapted to fit different contexts.

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References Accenture. (2006). Transforming public services: Workforce configuration for social outcomes. http://www.accenture.com/SiteCollectionDocuments/PDF/TransformingPublicServices.pdf. Accessed June 30, 2014. Advisory Group on Reform of Australian Government Administration. (2010). Ahead of the game: Blueprint for the reform of Australian Government administration. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. Alford, J., & O’Flynn, J. (2012). Rethinking public services: Managing with external providers. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Allen, B., & Wade, E. (2011). Leadership for commissioning in an era of reform. Public Money & Management, 31, 311. Bridges, W. (1995). Jobshift. London: Allen & Unwin. Dewe, P., & Cooper, C. (2012). Well-being and work: Towards a balanced agenda. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Dickinson, H., & Sullivan, H. (2014). Imagining the 21st century public service workforce. Melbourne: School of Government, University of Melbourne. Dickinson, H., Ham, C., Snelling, I., & Spurgeon, P. (2013). Are we there yet? Models of medical leadership and their effectiveness: An exploratory study (Final report). NIHR Service Delivery and Organisation programme. Frese, M. (2008). The changing nature of work. In N. Chmiel (Ed.), An introduction to work and organizational psychology: A European perspective. Oxford: Blackwell. Glasby, J. (2012). Commissioning for health and well-being: An introduction. Bristol: The Policy Press. Institute of Public Care. (2014). Commissioning for health and social care. London: Sage. Jarvis, M. (2016). Creating a high-performing Canadian civil service against a backdrop of disruptive change. Toronto: Mowat Centre. Lewis, J. (2013). Academic governance: Disciplines and policy. London: Routledge. Melbourne School of Government and Victorian Department of Premier and Cabinet. (2013). The 21st century public servant: A discussion paper. Melbourne: Melbourne School of Government. National Academy of Public Administration. (2017). The future of public service and citizenship. https:// www.napawash.org/working-groups/governing-across-the-divide/. Accessed January 30, 2018. Needham, C., & Mangan, C. (2014). The 21st century public servant. Birmingham: University of Birmingham. Needham, C., Mangan, C., & Dickinson, H. (2014). The 21st century public service workforce: Eight lessons from the literature. Birmingham: University of Birmingham. OECD. (2017). Skills for a high performing civil service. Paris: OECD Public Governance Reviews, OECD Publishing. Prime Minister’s Office. (2016). PS21: Building a future-ready public service. http://www.psd.gov. sg/what-we-do/ps21-building-a-future-ready-public-service. Accessed September 14, 2016. Shergold, P. (2013a). My hopes for a public service for the future. Australian Journal of Public Administration, 72, 7–13. Shergold, P. (2013b). Service sector reform: A roadmap for community and human services reform. Melbourne: State Government of Victoria. University of Birmingham Policy Commission. (2011). ‘When tomorrow comes’: The future of local public services. Birmingham. Van Der Wal, Z. (2017). The 21st century public manager. London: Palgrave.

Helen Dickinson is Associate Professor Public Service Research and Director of the Public Service Research Group at the School of Business, University of New South Wales, Canberra. Her expertise is in public services, particularly in relation to topics such as governance, leadership, commissioning and priority setting and decision-making. Helen has published sixteen books and

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over fifty peer-reviewed journal articles on these topics and is also a frequent commentator within the mainstream media. She is co-editor of the Journal of Health, Organization and Management and Australian Journal of Public Administration. In 2015 Helen was made a Victorian Fellow of the Institute of Public Administration Australia and she has worked with a range of different levels of government, community organisations and private organisations in Australia, UK, New Zealand and Europe on research and consultancy programmes. Catherine Needham is Professor of Public Policy and Public Management at the Health Services Management Centre, University of Birmingham. Her research covers public service workforce, social care co-production and personalisation. Her most recent book was published by the Policy Press in 2016 entitled, What Size is Good Care: Micro-Enterprise and Personalisation. She coordinates the Twenty-first Century Public Servant research programme on workforce change, which has a blog https://21stcenturypublicservant.wordpress.com/ and hashtag #21cPS. Catherine Mangan is Director of the Public Services Academy and Director of the Institute for Local Government Studies at the University of Birmingham. She has a particular research interest in delivering change within the public sector; specifically, the integration of health and social care, developing the skills and roles of the future workforce and place based leadership. She is a qualified coach and teaches on a number of executive development programmes for local government and public health. She is currently researching the impact of social care market shaping on personalisation. Catherine teaches on the Department’s Masters programmes in Public Management and Public Administration and co-convenes programmes on integrating health and social care and international public management. She writes regularly for academic journals and the professional press. Helen Sullivan is Professor and Director of the Crawford School of Public Policy at the Australian National University. Her research and teaching explores the changing nature of state-society relationships and their impact on public governance including the theory and practice of governance and collaboration, new forms of democratic participation, and public policy and service reform. Current research projects include an exploration of the Social Licence to Operate in the Australian resources sector, and an international study of collaborative governance under austerity. Helen is widely published; the author of five books and numerous academic articles, book chapters, and policy reports. Her latest book with Sara Bice and Avery Poole is ‘Public Policy in the ‘Asian Century’ Concepts, Cases and Futures’ (Palgrave, 2018). Helen is committed to bridging the gap between research and policy and has led and supported successful innovations in this area in both the UK and Australia. She appears regularly in print and online media commenting on contemporary public policy issues.

Part II

Major Themes in Reimagining the Public Service Workforce

Chapter 2

Boundary Challenges and the Work of Boundary Spanners Fiona Buick, Janine O’Flynn and Eleanor Malbon

2.1

Introduction

A key part of the discussion of the future public service workforce and the broader discourse on public sector modernization and transformation has been the centrality of cross-boundary working. The activity relates as much to the old roles that Dickinson and Sullivan (2014) set out—the expert, the regulator, the engager, the reticulist—as it does to the new ones—the commissioner, the curator, the foresighter, and the storyteller (see Chap. 1). More and more governments around the world have become interested in how to work more effectively across a range of boundaries. This increased attention sometimes glosses over the fact that cross-boundary working has always been a key part of getting the work of government done—part of the old roles that Dickinson and Sullivan (2014) see as critically important to the future. But it also signals a change in the way in which we think about government, its role and how it goes about getting things done. A part of this has been the notion that collaboration has become “the new normal” (Sullivan 2014), and intensified the focus on boundary crossing activity. Thus, even if the need to cross boundaries has, and will always, exist, the relative importance placed on this will likely change (O’Flynn et al. 2014; Pollitt 2003; Sullivan and Skelcher 2002). The purpose of this chapter is to explain the imperatives for crossing boundaries and then connect this to the roles and skills required for the future public service.

F. Buick (&) University of New South Wales, Canberra, Australia e-mail: [email protected] J. O’Flynn Public Management, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia E. Malbon Public Service Research Group, University of New South Wales, Canberra, Australia © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 H. Dickinson et al. (eds.), Reimagining the Future Public Service Workforce, SpringerBriefs in Political Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1480-3_2

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To do this we will first discuss the notion of ‘boundaries’—what they are and why they are important. We will then set out the various imperatives for crossing boundaries that intensify the call for increased attention to boundary-crossing roles and skills. Following this we identify the characteristics and skill requirements of the workforce required to cross boundaries. We then focus on the key conditions required to support boundary spanning skill development.

2.2

Understanding Boundaries

Boundaries and cross-boundary working are a central concern in public administration and policy scholarship and practice (O’Flynn et al. 2014; Pollitt 2003; Sullivan and Skelcher 2002). Much is made of the importance of crossing boundaries in contemporary discussions of public service, but little attention is paid to what we actually mean by them. Boundaries come in many forms and they can be “constructed, objective, subjective, real, and imagined” (O’Flynn et al. 2014, p. 298). Symbolic boundaries are those distinctions that are made by social actors as they seek to categorize objects, people and practices. In contrast, social boundaries are objectified forms of difference that structure interactions and groups. These boundaries can combine in practice in various ways, creating a range of challenges. For example, symbolic boundaries can become hardwired despite changes to social boundaries—a classic case being the resilience of cultures (symbolic) following structural change in organizations (social). In the context of public administration and policy the notion of boundaries is generally separated into what are considered to be (i) hard, objective boundaries, and (ii) soft, subjective boundaries. The former are relatively formal (e.g. organizational or jurisdictional boundaries) and the latter are boundaries of the mind (e.g. organizational cultures or social categorizations). And whilst we can talk of boundaries as being ‘soft’ or ‘hard’, of being decided or contested, the important point is that they take various forms and that, despite reform and change, boundaries will always exist. Regardless of the form, however, boundaries represent some notion of containment (Heracleous 2004). Some explain that boundaries can be seen as a sociocultural difference leading to discontinuity between categories (Akkerman and Bakker 2011; Williams 2002). As such, formal boundaries in the public sector can become more distinct with increased specialization within government agencies, or less distinct as more networked governance arrangement have emerged (Rhodes 1996, 1997). There has been an argument made that in recent times borders and boundaries are becoming blurred through processes of fragmentation and disarticulation (Frederickson 1999). In exploring what boundaries mean in public administration and management and how they might relate to the notion of the future public service, we can set out some of the most obvious ones. These are examples that help to structure how we govern and where we often see considerable attention to working across

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boundaries. In terms of examples of social boundaries and the mechanisms adopted to cross them, we might consider the following: • Supranational—between and across multiple nations. Examples of cross boundary relational architectures include the European Union, the United Nations and the Association for Southeast Asian Nations. • International—often between two nation states. Examples include treaties, military allies, or international legal cooperation. • National—between states within a nation. Often referred to as cross-jurisdictional or whole of government. An example includes the Council of Australian Governments (COAG) in Australia. • Sectoral—between public, private and third sectors. Sometimes referred to as collaborative governance or joined-up working. Examples include public-private partnerships or government-third sector compacts. • Organizational—between two or more organizations. Variously referred to as cooperation, coordination, alliances or partnerships. Examples include taskforces, inter-departmental committees or joint structures. • Group—between groups within an organization. Often referred to as working groups or committees. In addition to the social boundaries described above, we can also identify symbolic boundaries (see Sullivan and Skelcher 2002; van Kerkhoff and Lebel 2015; Williams 2013). For example, being trained in one profession can create knowledge boundaries with others. Similarly, groups at any level or area within an organization, may become culturally distinct from others. Such boundaries can be more difficult to cross than organizational boundaries, as they are harder to identify and navigate. Some examples of symbolic boundaries are: • Knowledge—between epistemological positions, often a result of social, cultural or disciplinary differences, and political histories. • Culture—between cultures at any scale, this may be between nationalities, ethnicities, religions or value sets. They can also be between organizations, or other cultural groups. • Political—between political ideologies, positions, parties and agendas. • Disciplinary—between educational disciplines that have different ways of understanding a situation, problem or solution. • Networks—between different governance networks, professional networks or other forms of network. • Mental models—between different perspectives or underlying assumptions that shape a situation, problem or solution. Delineating between social and symbolic boundaries is not clear cut. In practice we often see a combination of hard and soft boundaries operating in concert. For example, an organization comprises structural boundaries and may operate across multiple levels of government and sectors; it also comprises different groups that are characterized by diverse cultures, disciplines, knowledge-bases and mental

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models. The intertwined nature of boundaries makes crossing boundaries more complex, with both social and symbolic boundaries being challenging to cross. Box 2.1 illustrates examples of these ideas in practice. Box 2.1 Boundaries in action—Indigenous Coordination Centres In practice we see different types of boundaries intersect with each other. In an interesting example from Australia—the creation of Indigenous Coordination Centres—we saw an experiment with a co-location model. When these centres were created the Australian government had made a major commitment to addressing cross-boundary issues, arguing that working across them would help to address the complex issue of Indigenous disadvantage in Australia (Head and O’Flynn 2015). At the time they were created the head of the Prime Minister’s department stated: “Now comes the biggest test of whether the rhetoric of connectivity can be marshaled into effective action”. In creating the centres, the government moved representatives from various departments into the same physical spaces together, seeking to address the organisational boundary issues with physical proximity. When we undertook a study of the centres we could identify multiple forms of boundaries. In addition to different departments (organizational boundaries), we also saw patterns of different norms, values, symbols and beliefs which sometimes came into conflict (cultural boundaries). To further complicate this, in some cases there were representatives from the national and state government (jurisdictional boundaries), and these actors were working with a range of non-profit and private sector actors (sectoral boundaries), and communities. Brokering action across these various boundaries required specific skills which we discuss later in this chapter. To learn more about this example, see O’Flynn et al. (2011).

Crossing boundaries—social or symbolic, or combinations thereof—can involve different formal and informal work, depending on the nature of the boundary delineations. At the core of such cross boundary work, however, is an effort to ‘get on the same page’ or communicate in a way that is understandable to all parties (Williams 2013). With increased attention on working across boundaries, it has been more common to construct them as barriers, or to frame them in a negative way. However, Pollitt (2003) reminds us that boundaries are important for organizational functioning, not symptoms of obsolete thinking. We can no more combine all governance activities than we can completely separate them. On a practical level, governments and administrations will continue to be divided into workable agencies and departments with their own focus and mandates, a process that constructs boundaries. Boundaries will not disappear, but nor will the complex societal problems that cross them, and so we increasingly acknowledge that working across boundaries is necessary:

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… Boundaries are a central part of public management and policy which we must acknowledge; they can never be removed, despite our considerable attention to reshaping and moving them (O’Flynn 2014, p. 13).

When we recognize the various forms of boundaries, and how they may form and reform over time, then we can more meaningfully consider how to engage in cross-boundary activity more effectively.

2.3

The Imperative for Crossing Boundaries

Having a deeper understanding of boundaries, in their various forms, can also help us to develop our appreciation of the many imperatives for seeking to work across them. The rationales for working across boundaries are many. In an attempt to synthesize these, O’Flynn (2014) drew on diverse fields of study and the extensive practitioner literature to distil six main narratives or ‘stories’. These are: the twenty first century modus operandi story; the coordination story; the disaggregation and fragmentation story; the complexity story; the strategic management story; and the ‘better value’ story. Each of these stories contains its own rationale for working across boundaries and, as O’Flynn (2014) argues, these combine in various ways to frame the current focus on cross boundary working. Box 2.2 sets out a summary of the six stories. Box 2.2: The six narratives of boundary working The 21st century modus operandi story: positions boundary crossing as the ‘new normal’ for governing. In a world confronted by increasingly complex challenges and more demanding citizens, government will need to increasingly collaborate with others to address issues and deliver outcomes. This story captures important threads of the other five and has developed as a meta-narrative of the role of the state. The coordination story: frames boundary crossing as an a priori response to the perennial problem of coordination. In this sense the story is nothing new, but rather a reiteration of the fundamental question of how to coordinate action and actors. The disaggregation and fragmentation story: positions boundary crossing as a corrective to the intensification of fragmentation and disaggregation associated with new public management era reforms. In this story, the increased demand for boundary work reflects the more complex governing environments. The complexity story: explains the increased need for working across boundaries as a reaction to the increasingly complex challenges that confront governments. Complex societal problems, such as climate change, biodiversity loss, poverty, global migration, and homelessness, for example, disrespect boundaries. By their very nature, these problems require people to

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work across boundaries in order to address them. When these challenges develop into wicked policy problems, these demands intensify. The strategic management story: recognizes that other parties often hold the capabilities needed to achieve outcomes and, in this case, government does not have a monopoly on these critical resources. Leveraging these capabilities requires a more strategic approach to working across a range of boundaries and the development of different relational architecture: strategic alliances, for example. The ‘better value’ story: draws together perspectives which argue that various forms of boundaries crossing can produce increased value. This may be through better utilization of scarce resources (efficiency), reducing contradictions or duplications across government (effectiveness) or improving services for citizens (quality).

Taken together, the six stories set out in Box 2.2 help us to map out the various imperatives for boundary-crossing efforts. Motivation for boundary crossing activities varies according to context and the specific rationale or story that is being drawn from, but all the imperatives show us the need to consider what they mean for the future public service workforce. Some have argued that the changing nature of the public service, globalization and increased connectivity is increasing the need to cross boundaries (see for example, Dickinson and Sullivan 2014; PwC 2013) and that collaboration has become “the new normal” (Sullivan 2014). The effectiveness of cross-boundary working requires the creation of “an adaptable workforce that can work across boundaries and pursue cross-organisational collaborations to achieve joint outcomes” (PwC 2013, p. 21). Thus, it is foreseeable that a reasonable proportion of the future public service workforce will be expected to engage in boundary-spanning activities.

2.4

Crossing Boundaries: Roles and Skills

Developing a better understanding of various boundaries and their imperatives leads us to think about how we can develop the ability to engage in cross-boundary working. What we do know is the effectiveness of joined-up initiatives is heavily reliant on people, the adoption of various roles, and the development of important skills. It requires people who can work across multiple types of boundaries to improve and/or resolve complex problems (Williams 2002, 2013). Such people play a central role in intergroup relations (Friedman and Podolny 1992; Williams 2002) and are often referred to as ‘boundary spanners’ (Lodge and Gill 2011; Painter 2011; Williams 2002). Boundary spanners are defined as individuals or groups who work across organizational boundaries to broker relationships, culture and so forth (Williams 2002). It is important to note that boundary spanners can be

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organizations, groups or individuals; in this chapter we specifically refer to boundary spanning individuals. While the concept of boundary spanning is not new, with studies dating back to the 1960s and 1970s (see for example Aldrich and Herker 1977; Katz and Kahn 1966), the complexity of current and future challenges increases their importance in the narrative of the public service of the future. This is due to the boundary-spanning notion becoming more mainstream as this type of work has increasingly been undertaken by actors at all levels (Williams 2013) and the increasing demand for the ‘softer’ skills associated with boundary spanning (see Chap. 1). Although, it is notable that much of this relates to organizational boundaries, not the wide and varied set of boundaries we have set out above. In our view much of this can be transposed onto other boundaries quite easily. As such, in the remainder of the chapter we discuss boundary-spanning roles and the skills required to perform these different roles. To manage and facilitate cross-boundary working, boundary spanners perform multiple roles (Aldrich and Herker 1977; Ranade and Hudson 2003; Williams 2013). One important role is the transfer of information across boundaries (Broussine 2003). When we look at organizational boundary spanning, for example, it is argued that effective boundary spanners bring information into the organization and interpret, filter and channel this to ensure the organization has the information required to take action (Aldrich and Herker 1977; Tushman and Scanlan 1981a). Boundary spanners also take on representative roles, acting on behalf of their organization externally and sharing information with their networks to help advance their interests. They achieve this through linking groups of people separated by location, hierarchy, or function (Cross and Parker 2004). Boundary spanners may also play a brokerage role whereby they connect areas within an organization with networks outside of the organization (Cross and Parker 2004). Through acting as a mediator between external influences and organizations (Leifer and Huber 1977), they can help organizations to adapt to external demands and incidents, and cope with environmental constraints (Aldrich and Herker 1977). Boundary-spanning roles become increasingly important in environments that are heterogeneous and dynamic, where constraints are greater. This is because such environments are characterized by uncertainty and high levels of interdependence across organizations, thus enhancing the need to work across boundaries (Thompson 1967). This is particularly acute when facing highly complex problems, and Box 2.3 provides illustrates an example. Such environments require boundary spanners to actively collaborate with outside organizations and interests (Williams 2013). Box 2.3: Boundary spanners in action—barriers to collaborative activity Successful boundary spanners often display a different mindset. In a study of an especially wicked policy area in Australia, successful boundary spanners displayed what Bardach (1998) has referred to as “craftsmanship” [sic]

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approaches to joining up. Such leaders are able to reconceive of their situation and are adept at navigating complexity in pursuit of positive outcomes. They are purposive practitioners who overcome constraints through their strategic and judicious use of resources and opportunities. Many of the practitioners interviewed for the study were able to quickly, and rightly, identify a full range of barriers to cross-boundary work. The barriers identified frustrated their ability to deliver on the promise of cross-boundary work. A rare few, however, demonstrated quite different mindsets, some examples of which we provide to illustrate. Thinking differently does not dissolve boundaries, but it was found that such leaders were able to work in different ways and guide their teams toward better outcomes for communities. Note the interesting use of language in the examples—mazes to be navigated, being “out there”, trust, shared responsibility, relationship building. There are lots of different demarcations [and] responsibilities, unclear direction, [and] barriers… My view in relation to it is you’ve got to navigate your way through those and find a solution… understanding the context in which you’re operating… I don’t see them [as] mutually exclusive they’re just a challenge and a bit like going through a maze… you just basically work your way through it and you come to a conclusion that is productive long-term. (Centre Manager). It’s so crucial how leadership communicates and provides direction… we have to build relationships and trust… If you don’t get that leadership right, well so many things fall out after that. And you can apply that, not just to the head of the organization, but at the manager level as well… [You] need to be prepared to listen, not talk all the time…[the leader must] be very inclusive and accommodating…[and] you’ve got to feel very trusting… [and] you’ve got to feel comfortable with… sharing all the responsibility, but not the control… We’re all responsible for the outcome, but we don’t have to control everything… it takes certain types of people secure in their own capacity and in their own leadership… There are few people like that in my book. (Senior Executive) To be quite frank I’m out there; a bit further than a lot of people. I much prefer to find solutions that work… that’s why I’m here, that’s what I thought I was here for was actually to find solutions locally that work. (Centre Manager) To read more about the importance of different mindsets for boundary spanners and the “craftsmanship” [sic] approach see O’Flynn et al. (2011) and Bardach (1998). In his work on boundary spanners, Williams (2013) presents ‘types’ of boundary spanners, with each playing different roles and demonstrating a range of competencies. The first role, reticulist, focuses on understanding and managing relationships and interdependencies (Williams 2013). This role also requires boundary

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spanners to play the information intermediary role discussed by Aldrich and Herker (1977) and Tushman and Scanlan (1981a) which requires them to filter and transmit information to and from an organization’s environment. The second role, entrepreneur, focuses on developing new solutions to complex problems. The third role, interpreter and communicator, involves boundary spanners liaising, planning, gatekeeping, coordinating and collaborating with individuals who represent different interests (Williams 2013). Although Williams (2013) argues that each role is associated with different skills, there are some areas of overlap. In Table 2.1 we present the various skills that are associated with these roles. Table 2.1 Boundary spanning roles and associated skills Skills

Relevant roles

Skill characteristics

Interpersonal skills

• Reticulist • Interpreter and Communicator

Cognitive skills

• Reticulist • Interpreter and Communicator

Managerial skills

• Reticulist Interpreter and Communicator

Political skills

• Reticulist

Entrepreneurial skills

• Entrepreneur

• Developing and maintaining relationships and network links • Developing trust • Communicating effectively • Listening and empathy • Negotiation, consensus building and conflict resolution These skills have also been identified by Buick (2014a), Renade and Hudson (2003), and Tushman and Scanlan (1981a, b) • The ability to understand complexities and linkages between interests, professions, organizations and other factors • Has an appreciation of, and values, different cultures, motivations, perspectives and practices across a range of professions • The ability to operate within networks and work with individuals with different and sometimes changing interests • Coordination and planning skills • The ability to manage relationships between different sources of power using diplomacy and influencing behaviours • The ability to broker solutions through creating and assembling resources owned by others, which requires them to influence, motivate and negotiate with others These skills have also been identified by Buick (2014a), Renade and Hudson (2003) and Williams (2002, 2010) • The ability to develop new solutions to complex problems • Creativity and innovativeness; • The ability to capitalise on opportunities • The ability to manage risk • The ability to broker deals between parties with different interests

Adapted from Williams (2013)

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We have drawn out the various roles and skills that are seen as important to undertaking this cross-boundary work. However, it is important to recognize that various forms of support will be required to enable the development of these roles and the accumulation of such skills. In the next section we provide some discussion on the support required.

2.5

Crossing Boundaries: Supporting Boundary Spanners

In the literature on working across boundaries various claims are made as to the conditions required to enable effective boundary work. Here we focus on the five that garner the most attention from scholars and practitioners: culture, leadership, human resource practices, and middle management support.

2.5.1

A Supportive Organizational Culture

Organizational culture is often positioned as an important factor in effective cross-boundary working (see Buick 2014b for an overview). This is because the conventional wisdom is that culture is a barrier to joined-up working (Bakvis and Juillet 2004a) and that, for cross-boundary working to occur, cultural change is required. Interviewees in Dickinson and Sullivan’s (2014) study, for example, stressed the need for cultural change over structural transformations; indeed, it was stressed as a condition for the development of new skills and competencies. It is often argued that common cultures need to be developed (see Bakvis and Juillet 2004b; Christensen and Laegreid 2007; Hopkins et al. 2001; Shergold 2003) or new supportive cultures need to develop that encourage collaboration and cooperation (Christensen and Laegreid 2007; Ling 2002; PIU 2000). However, as Dickinson and Sullivan (2014) note, a wholesale cultural change is rarely successful. To understand why wholesale cultural change is often unsuccessful we need to appreciate what culture actually is. Although multiple definitions of culture are in use (see Buick 2012), Schein (2017) provides a detailed and useful one: … The accumulated shared learning of [a] group as it solves its problems of external adaptation and internal integration; which has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, feel and behave in relation to those problems. The accumulated learning is a pattern or system of beliefs, values and behavioural norms that come to be taken for granted as basic assumptions and eventually fall out of awareness. (p. 6).

Key points to note are that culture is the property of a group, and evolves due to shared learning and in response to environmental demands. Culture will form

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wherever a group has had sufficient stability of membership to share common experience and history (Schein 2017). Therefore, culture forms when a group of people have a history together. Culture also forms because of shared learning. It evolves over time as a group encounters similar problems and learns how to address these problems successfully. This process enables shared perceptions regarding what ways of thinking and working lead to group success over time. Through learning what behaviors lead to successful achievement of their purpose over time, associated beliefs and values evolve and progressively become more deeply embedded and taken for granted as the way to think, feel and behave; thus, they become culturally embedded (Schein 2017). This means that, for values and norms to become culturally embedded, they must have led to success over time, as assessed by the group. Finally, the shared learning of a group predominantly occurs around what does, and does not, work to meet the demands of the group’s environment (external adaptation) and how to manage and integrate internal relationships to enable its effective operation (internal integration) (Schein 2017). This means that culture forms in response to what an organization’s environment demands of it—in the public sector, key influencers might be the government and/ or industry stakeholders. Therefore, culture will form in response to what this environment requires an organization to do. An understanding of what culture is leads us to argue that the importance of culture in cross-boundary working has been overstated. If we understand culture according to Schein’s definition of accumulated learning, we realize that the establishment of a common culture across boundaries is improbable and that, in fact, culture may not be necessary for successful cross boundary working (see Buick 2012). Across organizations, for example, it is unlikely that many groups would have a sufficient or sustained shared history of working together to catalyze a common culture, unless a cross-organizational team is established and they work together intensively over time. Understanding culture highlights that it is only likely to support cross-boundary working if, and only if, this way of operating is seen as absolutely fundamental to survival or success. We may be better off, in practice, to de-emphasize the importance of culture and instead think about the behaviors we want to encourage to support cross-boundary working instead. This highlights the role of establishing the supportive architecture required for supporting working across boundaries, and boundary spanners, as “without careful attention to, and investment in, creating this architecture, most attempts at joined-up government are doomed to fail, as the power of embedded ways of doing things restrains innovation and undermines cooperation” (O’Flynn et al. 2011, p. 253). Establishing supportive human resource practices is integral to this architecture.

2.5.2

Human Resource Practices

Human resource (HR) practices play a central role in the effective development of boundary spanners and facilitation of their ability to work across boundaries, in

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particular, performance management and reward management schemes which recognize and value this work and hold employees, middle managers and senior managers to account for contributing to and achieving related goals. The inclusion of horizontal objectives, particularly in senior and middle managers’ performance agreements, is seen to be critical in developing effective cross boundary working (Bakvis and Juillet 2004b). Through integrating with reward management, where reward mechanisms recognize cooperative behaviors, information sharing and helping others, performance management can provide incentives for individuals to engage in, or provide support to those who engage in, joined-up initiatives (PIU 2000). For boundary spanners specifically, they need to be recognized for their work and feel valued (Johlke et al. 2002). Another important part of facilitating boundary spanners’ work is the investment in their skill development (Johlke et al. 2002; O’Flynn et al. 2011; Williams 2013). An effective approach would incorporate supported on-the-job learning; coaching and mentoring; and peer learning (i.e. through communities of practice). A comprehensive approach is required to enable transfer of learning, whereby individuals can apply their newly learnt behaviors and capabilities to the workplace setting (Baldwin and Ford 1988). However, learning and development interventions are insufficient on their own as the challenges associated with transfer of learning are well known (see Baldwin and Ford 1988; Enos et al. 2003). Transfer of learning can be impeded through lack of workplace support from middle and senior managers, lack of supportive resources, limited opportunity to apply their skills and insufficient rewards for applying new skills (see for example Enos et al. 2003; Lim and Morris 2006; Martin 2010; Rouiller and Goldstein 1993; Xiao 1996). These issues mean that, to be effective, boundary spanners not only require developmental support, but broader support from leaders and middle managers to perform effectively. These issues are further explored in Chap. 8.

2.5.3

Leadership

Leadership has also been positioned as important in supporting cross boundary activity (see Box 2.3 boundary spanners in action above). In particular, it has been argued that cross boundary success relies on leaders’ demonstrative ability to nurture the “right skills and attitudes amongst their staff or find work-arounds for structural issues” (Carey and Crammond 2015, p. 5). Providing people with the space and autonomy necessary to determine innovative ways to engage in cross-boundary working, as well as support them in doing so, furthers boundary-spanning activities (Buick 2014b; Williams 2013). In joined-up initiatives, distributed leadership is important—so when we refer to ‘leadership’ it is not just about top-down leadership (Huxham and Vangen 2004; Keast 2011; Williams 2013); instead it involves the collective actions taken to advance the interests of a joined-up initiative (Huxham and Vangen 2004). This highlights the importance of resetting authority relationships, so that those leading joined-up initiatives have authority over those from other

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organizations (O’Flynn et al. 2011). It also highlights the centrality of ‘craftsmanship leadership’ (O’Flynn et al. 2011), which builds effective inter-organizational collaborative capacity (Bardach 2001). Such leaders demonstrate trust, shared responsibility, inclusiveness, informality, and high-quality communication that fosters information sharing across boundaries (O’Flynn et al. 2011). They establish the platform necessary for enabling working across boundaries (Bardach 2001) and think broadly, marshal resources and reconfigure them to meet their aims (O’Flynn et al. 2011). They also demonstrate support for, and champion, joined-up initiatives by driving a clear agenda and facilitating the establishment of a common purpose (Bardach 1998; Buick 2014b; Keast 2011; PIU 2000). It is also important to note that leaders themselves undertake boundary-spanning roles, and need to ensure they demonstrate the requisite skills, to achieve desired outcomes (see Williams 2013). This means that both leadership support and leaders operating as boundary spanners are seen to be integral to effective cross-boundary working. See Chap. 6 for more on leadership.

2.5.4

Middle Management Support

A key feature of the supportive environment for boundary spanners is the role of line management. Middle managers play a critical role in organizations, as they are typically responsible for translating organizational strategies for their teams (at the operational level) and initiating actions supporting implementation (Balogun 2003; Floyd and Wooldridge 1994). This means they play a pivotal role in enabling the success of cross-boundary working as they need to be on board and willing to support their employees to engage in boundary-spanning work. They are also integral to how performance management is undertaken and determining what rewards employees receive. The ability of employees—in this case, boundary spanners—to develop and maintain constructive relationships with their middle managers is pivotal to their performance (see Becker et al. 1996; Conway and Monks 2009; Graen and Cashman 1975; Wayne and Ferris 1990). In developing these relationships, supervisor feedback and support are pivotal to employees’ commitment to crossing boundaries (Aryee et al. 1994; Dunham et al. 1994). Similar to leadership, it is also important to note that middle managers themselves can undertake boundary spanning roles, and demonstrate the requisite skills, to achieve desired outcomes (see Williams 2013). This means that both management support and managers operating as boundary spanners are integral to effective cross-boundary working. Collectively, the factors in the organizational and individual levels of the supportive architecture need to focus on ensuring boundary spanners have the practical and perceived organizational support necessary to perform their roles and work across boundaries. Whilst most of the discussion here has used organizational boundaries to illustrate our key points, we see the key lessons as being more widely applicable; that is, they can be applied to other forms of boundary spanning activities.

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Conclusions

In the twenty-first century there has been incredible attention to the idea of working across boundaries. In this chapter we have identified the various forms of boundaries and how they can combine in practice to create complex operating environments. We also explained the various imperatives that are driving the call for increased attention to working across boundaries. Doing so allowed us to set out the different explanations for the focus on cross-boundary working in the twenty first century. We have argued that the realization of cross-boundary working relies on public servants possessing boundary-spanning skills, thus highlighting the need for developing and supporting these skills. The persistence of the need to work across boundaries focuses our attention on how to support boundary spanners and boundary-spanning activity. In this chapter we reflected on the emphasis on culture—by both practitioners and academics—as a way to support boundary spanners. Through portraying culture according to Edgar Schein, we posited that the importance of culture is often overstated and that successful cross-boundary activities can occur without cultural integration. Instead, we propose that the twenty first century public service should focus on establishing the supportive architecture required for enabling boundary spanning. We outlined three key elements of this supportive architecture, including human resource practices, leadership and middle management support. In doing so, we argued that these supportive architecture elements need to focus on ensuring boundary spanners have the practical and perceived organizational support necessary to perform their roles and work across boundaries.

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Fiona Buick is a Lecturer at the University of New South Wales, Canberra. Fiona’s research focus is on the role of organizational culture and human resource management in enabling group and organizational effectiveness within the public sector. She also focuses on the dynamics involved in structural change and intra- and inter-organizational joining-up, highlighting tensions between informal and formal institutional practices. Fiona holds a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in Management, Masters of Human Resource Management, Graduate Diploma in Employment Relations and a Bachelor of Applied Psychology, all from the University of Canberra. Prior to commencing her Ph.D., Fiona worked as a human resource practitioner in the Australian Public Service and Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation. Fiona is a Certified Professional Member of the Australian Human Resources Institute. Fiona is also a member of the Australian and New Zealand Academy of Management and the Academy of Management.

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Janine O’Flynn is Professor of Public Management at the Australia and New Zealand School of Government and the University of Melbourne. Her research interests are in public management, especially in reform and relationships. She is one of the editors of the Australian Journal of Public Administration and sits on the Editorial Boards of Public Administration Review; Public Administration; International Journal of Public Administration; Canadian Public Administration; Teaching Public Administration; Journal of Management & Organization; and Policy Design and Practice. Janine is a Fellow of the Institute of Public Administration Australia (Victoria) and has been an elected member of the Executive Board of the International Research Society for Public Management. Eleanor Malbon is a Research Associate with the Public Service Research Group, University of New South Wales, Australia. She has a background in human ecology and complex systems science, and currently writes on public administration and welfare. Her work primarily focuses on large scale reform, and she also addresses the intersection of public administration, welfare and systems science. She is a moderator for the Power to Persuade advocacy organisation and co-founder of the Health Equity Forum at the Australian National University.

Chapter 3

Showing You Care: Emotional Labor and Public Service Work Sharon Mastracchi and Yvonne Sawbridge

3.1

Introduction

This chapter examines the importance of recognizing the emotional labor inherent in public service delivery and suggests several approaches that organizations can use to support emotional labor demands on staff, with an emphasis on health and social care. Emotional labor has been identified as a key element of future public service work (Needham and Mangan 2014). Whilst a country’s policy context highlights the importance of delivering public services that meet the needs of the recipients, this may do little to support implementation. This chapter outlines the need to recognize that delivering services is hard emotional labor, and that organizations need to support their workforce to enable them to do this well. Indeed, the workforce are the only vehicle through which patients, clients, and service users receive compassionate public services, and our public services can only be compassionate if we support public servants to care. Their interaction with recipients is the embodiment of whether the individual feels cared for or listened to. Delivering services compassionately is a key role requirement, demands training and support as most complex technical skills do, and yet is often overlooked as a core skill. Gabriel (2015, p. 618) observed, “in the case of health service[s], reading the emotions of patients and their loved ones, responding to them and managing them becomes as important as drawing blood with syringes or performing mastectomies.” There is a reasonable expectation that doctors are trained to perform mastectomies, but emotion management is rarely discussed. As public services develop, with greater emphasis on digital encounters, citizens and patients more

S. Mastracchi (&) Department of Political Science, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, USA e-mail: [email protected] Y. Sawbridge National Health Service, London, UK © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 H. Dickinson et al. (eds.), Reimagining the Future Public Service Workforce, SpringerBriefs in Political Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1480-3_3

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than ever need public servants to be able to act as humans, interacting on a human-to-human level and to be supported in that approach.

3.2

Emotional Labor Explained

Emotional labor is the effort to suppress inappropriate emotions and/or elicit appropriate emotions within oneself or in another person, where “appropriate” and “inappropriate” are dictated by the demands of the job. Because it is part of the job, emotional labor is part of the exchange between employee and employer. In public service work, emotional labor represents a substantial part of that exchange (Guy et al. 2008). Brunetto et al. (2014, p. 2347) define emotional labor as taking place when ‘employees are expected to regulate their feelings and expressions in accordance with their employers’ expectation when exposed to emotionallydemanding interactions on a daily basis’. Brunetto et al. (2014), Guy et al. (2008) and others observe that this often remains unremunerated and unrecognized, and its significance poorly understood by managers. As long as emotion is perceived contrary to reason, emotional labor will not be taken seriously. Display rules govern when, where and how employees should express emotion. Different professions use diverse emotion management strategies to navigate display rules. Workers subject to display rules can convince themselves that display rules are true (deep acting) or they can fake it (surface acting). Surface acting is more stressful and produces more negative outcomes, and display rules prohibiting negative emotional expression increase exhaustion (Lu and Guy 2014). Examples of emotional labor might include nurses who have experienced personal bereavements: they will display compassion and concern when working with dying patients and their families, and even when their true feelings are of extreme distress and grief, they will keep them in check. Another might be social workers who do not display the discomfort or even fear they feel when visiting hostile families, but act instead with professionalism, calm and inquiry. Given the potential impact on mental and physical well-being, supporting the emotional labor of public servants is essential.

3.3

Interventions to Support Public Servants with Emotional Labor

Through working in this field for a number of years we have identified different interventions that would appear to afford some protection to those required to perform emotional labor as part of their role (which we would argue applies to most public-sector workers). Although many of the interventions we will describe here have been used in UK healthcare services, we believe there are generalizable

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principles: readers can adopt and adapt these practices to suit their context. The evidence base for these varies, so they should be considered as potential tools for organizations to use, and not one-size-fits-all solutions. While many of the interventions differ, an underlying principle for many is Reflective Practice. Reflective Practice “places an emphasis on learning through questioning and investigation to lead to a development of understanding … [and] is important in sustaining one’s professional health and competence and that the ability to exercise professional judgment is in fact informed through reflection on practice” (Loughran 2002, p. 34). Reflective Practice has been implemented in one form or another across a range of professions (medicine, law, engineering, nursing, teaching, etc.). Schon (1987, p. 233) underscores the promise of Reflective Practice in organizations: “the enhancement of reflection-in-action is part of a larger program, liberating the capacity of human beings to think reflectively and productively about their own work.” We now move on to set out a number of different emotional labor interventions, many of which embody reflective practice approaches. Creating Learning Environments for Compassionate Care (CLECC) was developed at Southampton University by Bridges and Fuller (2014). The aim is to promote compassionate care for older hospital patients by working with ward teams. A practice development practitioner/nurse delivers classroom training, reflective discussions, facilitates action learning sets and coordinates the practice observations. The focus is on developing the relational capacity of individuals and teams and supporting leaders to create workplace learning environments which support the development of relational practices across the work team. By providing this menu of reflective learning and mutual support, the aim is to embed compassionate approaches in staff/service-user interaction and practice. The implementation program takes place over a four-month period and is designed to lead to a longer-term period of service improvement. Several key activities over this program include: • Monthly ward manager action learning sets • Team learning activities, including local team climate analysis and values clarification • Peer observations of practice and feedback to team by volunteer team members • Classroom training (8 h) • Daily five-minute team cluster discussions; and twice weekly team reflective discussions. Throughout the implementation period, ward managers and their teams develop a team learning plan, which includes a plan for inviting and responding to patient feedback, and puts in place measures for continuing to develop and support manager and team practices that underpin the delivery of compassionate care. Minimum conditions required for success include consistency of Ward leader; ability to release staff; a designated room available for reflective discussion, and protected time for peer observations of practice. Often these seemingly-minor requirements are not in place, and represent a significant risk to program success. Resources

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required include creating time and space for reflective discussion and practice observations, creating a practice development nurse/practitioner post, and educational support costs. In practice, for some teams finding a suitable, available space can be as challenging as finding the time in busy working days. The impact of the CLECC program will be gauged by a large-scale evaluation funded by the National Institute for Health (NIHR), which is currently in progress. Preliminary evidence of effectiveness shows that developing relational capacity in teams and leaders supports the delivery of compassionate care (Bridges and Fuller 2014). This finding has the potential to support staff to address widely-documented variations in care quality. Relation-Centered Leadership (RCL), developed by Dewar and colleagues at Edinburgh University in partnership with NHS Lothian, is a three-year participatory action research project to identify and support individuals within teams to develop compassionate care practices through a number of action projects. Hospital ward teams are the focus and supporting the development of leadership skills in compassionate care is one of these approaches. RCL was a year-long program using the principles of appreciative relationshipcentered leadership to enable all participants (86 staff, including all clinical nurse managers, charge nurses/ward managers and other staff nurses across all patient areas in NHS Lothian, approximately 10% of the nursing workforce) to build on existing skills, knowledge and experience and work within a framework of relationships. Participants explored relationships with self, patients and families, teams and the wider organization. This involved several work-based activities, including: • Valuing feedback from staff, patients and families using short feedback forms that asked ‘what works well for you?’ and ‘how can your experience be improved?’ • Emotional touch-points to learn from the experiences of others in a structured way that focused on the feelings associated with the experience. • Feedback fortnight—where staff were asked to invite four colleagues to provide feedback on their performance at work. • ‘Huddles’ (informal daily short meetings) to discuss with staff the things that had worked well and those things that could be improved upon. • Using the ‘All about me’ tool to find out more about staff, patients and families as people. • Using observations of interactions to highlight positive, neutral and negative interactions. As with CLECC, requirements for the program included available room space and ability to undertake work-based learning activities. A “Staff culture” questionnaire was completed at the start of the program and profiled what was currently happening, and informed areas of focus for subsequent development. All staff who commenced the program (n = 86) completed this, as well as some staff in each participating area (n = 319). Reflections following action learning indicated new learning about participants’ relationship with self, patients and families, the team

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and/or the organization. The program supported participants to think in different ways and be reflective. It engaged participants in shaping the cultural climate in which compassionate relationship-centered care can flourish. Participants are empowered to optimize their leadership capability using autonomous motivation as a personal resource. RCL was a large research project and funding included five full-time staff. In addition, a Lead Nurse and four Senior Nurses in Compassionate Care were required to support this research. This resource level may be unobtainable for many teams, but as it demonstrated changes in the work environment, some principles and practices may be adaptable for teams to use locally. Challenges to success included staff turnover at the senior level, combating staff time pressures, full engagement and contact with middle managers, which was crucial to sustaining work, sharing of good practices and culture change, maintaining the energy of project staff, focusing on continual reflection, taking action, and opportunities for giving feedback and engagement. Despite these challenges, strengths of RCL include an increased self-awareness on the part of staff, enhanced relationships among staff, enhanced reflective thinking, and an enhanced focus on staff and patient needs. Group Supervision was developed by Smojkis at the University of Birmingham, and is founded on the idea that clinical supervision is fundamental to health and social care practice and continuing professional development. This model of group supervision is based on a Reflective Practice process, originally part of a standalone module run by the University of Birmingham, and developed to enable staff to share the challenges and successes of practice in a safe, supportive and confidential environment. Practitioners in health and social care professions comprise the target audience for Group Supervision. Wellbeing and resilience are important factors for staff to enable them to work alongside patients, service users, and colleagues. Being a reflective professional in health and social care rests on the ability to be critical within an environment of substantial uncertainty and change (Light et al. 2009). This model was developed by integrating the three main functions of supervision: education, support and management (Kadushin 1976; Hawkins and Shohet 2013). Reflective Practice Teams have evolved from family therapy practice and supervision. The solution-focused reflecting team was developed for use in group clinical supervision for social workers (Norman 2003, pp. 156–167) and was adapted for newly-qualified mental health professionals on the interdisciplinary preceptorship program in a local mental health Trust. Groups of three to twelve members meet once every two weeks for 90 min. Groups and their facilitators adapt an action learning set process with one person presenting, followed by colleagues clarifying, affirming and reflecting. It ends with each presenter responding to the discussion and setting personal goals. A formal evaluation at the end of the program assesses impact, which has consistently emphasized the value of taking part in the Reflective Group, having contact with peers, and sharing issues around the shock of being newly qualified. Informal discussion around the impact on staff retention is positive. Participants value the regular opportunity to meet with peers and share issues relating to practice

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in a closed group that is facilitated by an experienced practitioner/academic. The initial outlay for an organization is the cost of a facilitator. Challenges include ensuring that staff members are released from clinical practice to participate on a regular basis. Experience has shown that it has been difficult for staff to do this once they have left the program, reinforcing the need for a purposeful and systematic approach to staff support schemes, if they are to be effective. It needs to be built into job descriptions, and time must be created accordingly, though evidence suggests this is far from a reality for many. This type of opportunity to develop a sense of community, sharing the positives and negatives of everyday practice, is important in the well-being of staff. This sense of community and connection is fundamental to building a resilient, competent, and confident workforce. The process assists in preventing burnout, compassion fatigue, and sickness levels, and therefore impacts positively on the provision of health and social care. This method has been used with newly-qualified mental health professional in one mental health Trust for 14 years. It has also been introduced in the Reflective Practice, Wellbeing and Resilience for Managers in the Work Place module for health and social care managers at the University of Birmingham and many participants use it in their organizations. Mindfulness is a self-directed practice for relaxing the body and calming the mind through focusing on present-moment awareness. Its origins are in Buddhism and it is a form of meditation. Mindfulness is a technique that has the potential to help anyone. It is not an approach that has been developed specifically for use in health or social care, although it has been introduced in a range of organizations and therapeutic encounters. Through the practice of mindfulness, people are provided with the skills to train themselves to achieve greater maintenance of attention and develop more control in focusing their attention. Typically, mindfulness practice involves sitting with your feet planted on the floor and the spine upright. The eyes can be closed or rest a few feet in front while the hands are in the lap or on the knees. The attention is gently brought to rest on the sensations of the body: feet on the floor, pressure on the seat and the air passing through the nostrils. As thoughts continue, you return again and again to these physical sensations, gently encouraging the mind not to get caught up in the thought processes but to observe their passage. The development of curiosity, acceptance and compassion in the process of patiently bringing the mind back differentiates mindfulness from simple attention training. Mindfulness can be practiced for a few moments as a breathing pause in the middle of a busy day, or for half an hour in a quiet place first thing in the morning. A program might involve eight 2.5 h weekly group sessions, a daylong silent retreat, and a commitment to practice mindfulness activities for 45 min, 6 days a week. However, there are many variations in the training approach. There are also a number of approaches that can be included under the broad heading of mindfulness, including mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, mindfulness-based relationship enhancement, mindfulness-based wellness education, mindfulness-based eating, and mindfulness-based medical practice. Improvements in the health and well-being of staff, in terms of reduced stress and anxiety, are typically the reported benefits of mindfulness approaches.

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Transport for London employs more than 20,000 people and in 2014 introduced a Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program. Long-term benefits included reduced employee absence caused by stress, anxiety, and depression by 71% over three years, decreased absence for all conditions by 50% over the same time, and a 53% increase in reported happiness and engagement. Mindfulness has also been found to reduce distress in support staff caring for people with intellectual disabilities (McConachie et al. 2014), and to improve mental performance, emotional wellbeing, and physical health. As well as feeling calmer, participants also reported increased capacity in effectively single-tasking, rather than ineffectively multi-tasking. They also reported an increased capacity for more creative and open-minded thinking including possibilities they had not considered before (Pykett et al. 2016). The primary challenge with mindfulness approaches is the lack of time to practise in a busy practice setting. Organizations and managers often expect public servants to keep busy, so the idea of stopping and being ‘still’ may be interpreted as “doing nothing”. People who have never experienced mindfulness may be cautious about practising it, and staff may feel uncomfortable. It also needs to be practised regularly to be effective. Developing this “habit” is often a challenge. Despite these caveats, many healthcare organizations have made this an integral part of their staff well-being strategies; some offer sessions at work whilst others purchase mobile apps for individuals to use in their own time. If organizations fully accept responsibility for the well-being of their staff, this latter approach would seem curious, as they address the physical dangers of work much more actively through their corporate structures (for example, panic buttons fitted in Social Work environments; hoists provided to lift patients on wards, etc.) Restorative Supervision, developed by Wallbank (2013), is a model of supervision designed to support professionals working within roles which have significant emotional demands. Over 60 NHS Trusts across the UK and Ireland have employed Restorative Supervision. In the West Midlands, the target audience has been Health Visitors, but it is applicable to all staff groups, particularly those in which time for supervision is already established practice. Restorative Supervision involves training both the supervisor and supervisees initially, so that they jointly understand this co-coaching approach to supervision. When professionals undertake complex clinical work, they move between anxiety, fear, and stress. If they can process these natural feelings about work, they can focus on learning needs and development, and then enter a creative, energetic, and solution-focused zone. The training program can be varied according to the needs of the organization/staff, but generally consists of one day spent training supervisors or groups to use co-coaching methods, followed by six sessions. Skilled supervisors train others so that the program will become self-sustaining, using internal resources only. Impact is measured through a combination of qualitative and quantitative measures, including stress, burnout, compassion fatigue, and compassion satisfaction. Feedback suggests improved levels of confidence and reduced anxiety. A number of studies have found reduced stress and burnout and increased levels of compassion satisfaction due to this approach (Wallbank 2013).

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For staff groups in which supervision is not currently offered, releasing staff time for regular supervision, coupled with the time for the initial training, is challenging. For staff groups in which supervision is already offered, there is no need for additional resources once the training program has taken place. This suggests it could be adopted in Social Work practice, where supervision is a recognized and regular activity for many. The existing supervision model could be changed to a co-coaching approach and existing evidence indicates that staff well-being would increase. Samaritans Volunteer Support System. Established in 1953 by founder Chad Varah, Samaritans provided the first 24-h helpline in the world for people needing to talk confidentially, free from judgement or pressure, and aims to reduce their isolation. Currently 15,700 listening volunteers answer a call, email, or text every six seconds. In order to provide emotional support for volunteers, Samaritans developed a system to reduce the likelihood that they leave a shift feeling anxious or distressed. Every volunteer call handler has access to this support system. Each volunteer undergoes a period of training prior to taking calls. Each shift is between three and five hours, and the volunteers never work alone. Callers are often in a highly distressed state, and the volunteers are actively encouraged to share the last call with their partner in the ‘down times’ between calls. If the volunteer needs longer to debrief, telephones are turned off to enable this to happen (it is rare that this action is required as most debriefs are possible in a few minutes). However, it signifies the importance with which the organization regards the emotional health of volunteers. It is recognized that if volunteers are not cared for then they cannot care for the callers. At the end of each shift, the volunteer ‘offloads’ to the shift leader. This process involves the volunteer summarizing the types of calls taken and their feelings about them. The leader assesses the emotional health of the volunteer, and if they feel they were particularly affected, they will arrange for further support to be offered, either by doing so themselves, or through the volunteer support team. While no formal evaluation has been made of this system, it has been used for many years, and informal testimonies attest to its effectiveness. For example, one volunteer took a call from a caller in the act of suicide, and was required to just be there for him until he was no longer able to respond. She reported how the support system enabled her to sleep that night, and contrasted this with her experience as a mental health nurse when she often felt unable to sleep after a shift, even if the stresses of the day seemed less acute than this telephone call. Sawbridge and Hewison (2012) undertook a research project to implement a similar, though heavily adapted, ‘buddying’ scheme on hospital wards for nurses. As this scheme involves predominantly a mindset change, rather than a specific set of actions, it can feel intangible, and needs specific support and role modelling of behavior changes. It also has logistical barriers: systematically debriefing at the end of every shift was countercultural for staff who just wanted to go home. Protected space for this discussion was also an issue, as was enabling nurses to raise issues and discuss their feelings rather than problem solve. The main strength of this system is that it does not require staff to leave the ward (or community/mental health clinic) for regular periods, as with supervision and some other models.

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It requires them to ‘be with’ each other in a different way, and have different conversations throughout the day, once the initial training and support has taken place. It does not require large amounts of resources or equipment. Embedding this mindset change is the key. Despite lack of formal evidence, this approach shows considerable promise for a number of settings in which public servants work with colleagues, though without time out for regular supervision, as colleagues could actively care for each other as well as the people they serve. Schwartz Rounds were adapted in the UK by the Point of Care Foundation (PoCF), and provide a structured forum where all staff, clinical and non-clinical, come together regularly to discuss the emotional and social aspects of working in healthcare. They are led by PoCF-trained facilitators. The purpose of Schwartz Rounds is to understand the challenges and rewards that are intrinsic to providing care, not to solve problems or to focus on the clinical aspects of patient care. Rounds follow a standard model to ensure they are replicable across settings, and normally take place once a month for an hour with catering provided. Once the Round starts, three or four staff share their experiences for the first 15–20 min. Each group ideally includes a mix of clinical and non-clinical staff with different levels of seniority. A Round can either be based on different accounts of a case, or can explore a particular theme such as ‘when things go wrong’ or ‘a patient I’ll never forget’. Experiences are shared from the perspective of the staff member, not the patient, and the emphasis is on emotional impact. The remainder of the hour features trained facilitators leading an open discussion. They ask participants to share their thoughts and reflections on the stories. The key skill is for facilitators to steer the discussion in such a way that it remains reflective and does not become a space to solve problems. The target audience is all staff, clinical and non-clinical, in a healthcare organization. Rounds are led by a facilitator from within the organization who will already have some experience of facilitating groups, and a senior clinician from within the organization. The underlying premise for Rounds is that the compassion shown by staff can make all the difference to a patient’s experience of care, but that in order to provide compassionate care staff must, in turn, feel supported in their work. Feedback is collected at the end of every Round from all participants using a standardized form provided by PoCF. Local evaluations have been published and a national evaluation is about to be published, led by Professor Jill Maben1 and covering 146 organizations in the UK, including acute trusts, community and mental health trusts, and hospices. Over 400 healthcare organizations in the US use Schwartz Rounds, and evidence shows that staff who attend Rounds feel less stressed and isolated, with increased insight and appreciation for each other’s roles. They also help to reduce hierarchies between staff and to focus attention on relational aspects of care. Adopting Schwartz Rounds requires contracting with PoCF in the UK in order to ensure the process is implemented in a consistent and measurable manner and complies with organizational needs for ownership, oversight, and confidence in the

1

https://www.journalslibrary.nihr.ac.uk/programmes/hsdr/130749/#/.

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impact of their investment. Rounds require commitment from Chief Executives/ Boards, a steering group to support the facilitator and clinical lead, willingness to work to make Rounds sustainable, and an agreement on the time commitment required for the facilitator. Listening to colleagues describe their work challenges helps to normalize emotions, which are part and parcel of working in healthcare but may be buried. This shared understanding manifests in improved communication between colleagues and a greater sense of teamwork. Seeing beyond colleagues’ professional identities allows staff to feel more connected to one another. Participation in Rounds also helps to provide staff with greater insight into how all colleagues, regardless of role, play a vital part in patient care. Critical Incident Stress Debriefings (CISDs) and Self-Care Plans have been developed and employed by emergency response organizations in the US. Target audiences have been police, fire, and emergency medical technicians, but the intervention could be applied in other settings. In a CISD, staff assemble to discuss a call and examine their reactions, much like the approach taken in Samaritans and Schwartz Rounds. CISDs are mandatory so no individual feels conspicuous in asking for a session. Self-care plans were developed by Cathy Phelps, executive director of the Denver Centre for Crime Victims (US). Within the first 30 days of employment, employees are required to create a plan and articulate measureable, outcome-oriented goals. Annual performance appraisals cover progress on self-care plans, which can include physical, emotional, financial, intellectual or spiritual health, such as quitting smoking, finishing a university course, and running a marathon. Attending to the whole worker underpins this approach. Table 3.1 summarizes the various interventions we have discussed in this chapter and their various aims, conditions for success and resources required.

3.4

What Do These Examples Tell Us About Managing for Emotional Labor?

Emotional labor is a combination of self-awareness and empathy (Mastracci 2015). Self-awareness can be enhanced formally by employers that foster an environment to support the emotional labor demands on their employees, or informally by individuals emphasizing task interdependency (Grant and Patil 2012; Madden et al. 2012). Organizations can foster such an environment by recruiting and hiring individuals who are aware of their emotional responses at work and who can gauge their emotional status at any given time, and by implementing practices to cultivate emotional self-awareness and ongoing emotional management such as those listed above. Through these processes organizations can cultivate an ‘ethic of care’ (Lawrence and Maitlis 2012, p. 641). To adequately recruit, train, develop and support employees, organizations must address the whole person. In a reimagined public service, public servants must be able to suppress, control and elicit their and others’ emotions as the job requires,

Aim

To embed compassionate care approaches for older people in hospital through staff/ service-user interaction and practice

To develop leadership skills in compassionate care

Supports ability to be critical within an environment of substantial uncertainty and change

Intervention

Creating Learning Environments for Compassionate Care (CLECC)

Relation-Centred Leadership (RCL)

Group Supervision

Focus on three main functions of supervision: Education, support and management

Practice development practitioner/nurse delivers classroom training, reflective discussions, facilitates action learning sets and coordinates the practice observations Appreciative relationship-centred leadership

Process

Table 3.1 Summary of Emotional Labor interventions

Exploring relationships with self, patients and families through feedback including forms, feedback fortnight, daily huddles, observations Action learning groups meet fortnightly

Action learning sets, team learning activities, peer observations of practice, reflective discussions and daily five-minute team clusters

Activities

Consistent senior staff, engagement from middle managers, focusing on continual reflection, and opportunities for giving feedback and engagement Staff released from clinical practice to participate on a regular basis

Consistency of lead, ability to release staff; designated room available for reflective discussion, and protected time

Conditions for success

Facilitator

Room space

Practice development nurse/ practitioner post, and educational support costs

Resources required

Increased self-awareness, enhanced relationships among staff, enhanced reflective thinking, and an enhanced focus on staff and patient needs The process assists in preventing burnout, compassion fatigue, and sickness levels and therefore impacts positively on the provision of health and social care (continued)

Developing relational capacity in teams supports the delivery of compassionate care

Impact

3 Showing You Care: Emotional Labor and Public Service Work 49

Self-directed practice to focus attention through focussing on present-moment awareness

Co-coaching approach to process natural responses to complex clinical work to create a solution focused approach. Support emotional health of volunteers through focus on feelings rather than problem solving

Mindfulness

Restorative supervision

Samaritans Volunteer Support System

Aim

Intervention

Table 3.1 (continued)

At the end of each shift, the volunteer ‘offloads’ to the shift leader

Can be practised at any time. Formal programmes might involve eight 2.5 h weekly group sessions, a daylong silent retreat, and a commitment to practice mindfulness activities for 45 min, 6 days a week One-day training on co-coaching. Trained supervisors train others so that the programme will become self-sustaining

Process

Volunteer summarises calls and their feelings about them. Leader assesses the emotional health of the volunteer, and if they feel they were particularly affected,

Six sessions of co-coaching

A range of approaches

Activities

Mindset change including persuading people to stay to debrief at the end of a shift

Releasing staff time for regular supervision

Providing time and space to practice. Regular practice is needed to develop a ‘habit’ of mindfulness

Conditions for success

Protected space

None after initial training

Time and space

Resources required

(continued)

No formal evaluation of approach

A number of studies have found reduced stress and burnout and increased levels of compassion satisfaction.

The health and well-being of staff in terms of reduced stress and anxiety. Long-term benefits included reduced employee absence caused by stress, anxiety, and depression

Impact

50 S. Mastracchi and Y. Sawbridge

Aim

To understand the challenges and rewards that are intrinsic to providing care

To support emotional health of staff attending critical incidents

Intervention

Schwartz Rounds —Point of Care Foundation (PoCF)

Critical Incident Stress Debriefings (CISDs) and Self-Care Plans

Table 3.1 (continued)

Staff assemble to discuss a call and examine their reactions

Structured forum where all staff, clinical and non-clinical, come together regularly to discuss the emotional and social aspects of working in healthcare

Process

In US these are mandatory With self care plans employees are required to create a plan and articulate measureable, outcome-oriented goals

they will arrange for further support Rounds take place once a month; mixed group of staff share their experiences followed by group discussion on emotional impact

Activities

Keeping a focus on reflection rather than problem solving

Conditions for success

Mandatory nature ensures complete take up

Contract with PoCF in the UK in order to ensure the process is implemented in a consistent and measurable manner. Commitment from senior staff

Resources required

Staff who attend Rounds feel less stressed and isolated, with increased insight and appreciation for each other’s roles. They also help to reduce hierarchies between staff and to focus attention on relational aspects of care

Impact

3 Showing You Care: Emotional Labor and Public Service Work 51

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and be rewarded for doing it well. Interventions such as those listed above support the emotional-labor demands of the reimagined public service. Organizations acknowledging the emotional dimensions of work and the emotional labor demands on their employees provide the context within which workers engage in emotional labor and minimize risk of burnout. Workers in a reimagined public service develop healthy boundaries so that they may engage in emotional labor without work becoming all consuming. This chapter has focused on helping professions where self-awareness is integral to emotional labor and the expression of compassion because “individuals who know ‘who they are’ have a stronger sense of self-worth, hence, they will be less threatened and overwhelmed by another’s suffering” (Atkins and Parker 2012, p. 536). As self-awareness and compassion increase, cognitive dissonance and burnout decrease (Hsieh et al. 2016). Gabriel and Diefendorff (2015) studied call center workers and observed that they were routinely engaged in ‘emotion work’ and undertook ‘emotional labor’ to manage this requirement, which was a hard task. Public servants are similarly required to manage their emotions, and require support to do this well, and protect their well-being in the meantime. They deserve nothing less.

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Light, G., Cox, R., & Calkins, S. (2009). Learning and teaching in higher education. The Reflective Professional: Sage. Loughran, J. J. (2002). Effective reflective practice: In search of meaning in learning about teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(1), 33–43. Lu, X., & Guy, M. E. (2014). How emotional labor and ethical leadership affect job engagement for Chinese public servants. Public Personnel Management, 43(1), 3–24. Mastracci, S. (2015). Human resource management practices to support emotional labor in emergency response. Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management, 12(4), 875–889. Needham, C., & Mangan, C. (2014). The 21st century public servant. University of Birmingham. Norman, H. (2003). Solution-focused reflecting teams. In B. O’Connell, S. Palmer (Eds.), The handbook of solution focused brief therapy. Sage. Pykett, J., Lilley, R., Whitehead, M., Howell, R., & Jones, R. (2016). Mindfulness, behaviour change and decision making: An experimental trial. University of Birmingham/Aberystwyth University/ESRC. Schon, D. A. (1987). Changing patterns of inquiry in work and living. Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, 135(5367), 225–237. Sawbridge, Y., & Hewison, A. (2012). Time to care: Responding to concerns about poor nursing care. HSMC Policy Paper, Health Services Management Centre, University of Birmingham. (Available at http://www.birmingham.ac.uk/Documents/college-social-sciences/socialpolicy/ HSMC/publications/PolicyPapers/policy-paper-twelve-time-to-care.pdf). Wallbank, S. (2013). Maintaining professional resilience through group restorative supervision. Community Practitioner, 86(8), 1.

Sharon Mastracchi is a Professor in the Department of Political Science at the University of Utah (US). She studies emotional labor in public services, specifically among first responders and public servants in local government service delivery. She was a Fulbright Scholar to the UK in 2015 at the University of Birmingham and is part of a larger team of researchers studying emotional labor in public services across several countries, including China, South Korea, the UK and US. Yvonne Sawbridge is a Registered General Nurse and Health Visitor by profession, and worked in the NHS for over 30 years in a variety of roles—her last post as Director of Quality and Executive Nurse in South Staffs PCT. Her move into academia afforded her the opportunity to combine her experience and expertise of practice with the rigour of a research and teaching environment and the opportunity to learn new skills. Yvonne designs and delivers a number of leadership programmes, both national and local, and her interest lies in enabling leaders to create the right environment in which practitioners can deliver of their best to patients/service users. Her main research interest focuses on the importance of emotional labor in nursing (and other health and social care professions) as a component of delivering compassionate care. Her work has reinforced her belief that well cared for staff provide the only route through which all patients can be given the care and compassion they require at their time of need. She works with organisations to share and apply this learning in practice, working through challenges together.

Chapter 4

Narratives and Storytelling Chris Lawrence-Pietroni and Catherine Needham

4.1

Introduction

The term narrative has become so widely used within management as to almost empty it of meaning. Here we argue for the enduring relevance of narrative, focusing on in what contexts and to what end a narrative approach is valid and useful. People working in and leading twenty first century public services need to engage with the potential of narratives to shape their work and inspire others. The changes in the external environment and in citizen expectations that were set out in the introduction to the book have implications for how people communicate. The role of storyteller is crucial to the skill set of the future public servant. In this chapter we will look at narrative as a specific form of communication and at the scope for it to be the basis for effective and inspiring leadership. As elsewhere in the book, we focus on people delivering public services across a range of different organizations, and not only public sector workers. The first part of the chapter explores what narratives are and how they differ from other forms of communication. In the second part of the chapter we provide reflection from practices, drawing on a number of narratives from public service workers, to illustrate key aspects of how public narratives work as interventions.

4.2

What Are Narratives?

Effective communication within organizations and to external audiences requires a range of communicative styles: not all of these are narratives, and they do not all use storytelling to communicate meaning. The distinctive contribution of narratives C. Lawrence-Pietroni
C. Needham (&) University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 H. Dickinson et al. (eds.), Reimagining the Future Public Service Workforce, SpringerBriefs in Political Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1480-3_4

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or stories (which here we use as synonyms) comes in the way the content is ordered and the style in which it is communicated. Narratives are more than an ad hoc assembling of ideas. They are storytelling devices, with all the discursive advantages that stories have over other forms of communication. Narratives have ‘internal logics’ (Bevir and Rhodes 2003, p. 20); they are a key part of ‘sensemaking’ (Weick 1995). Public servants tell stories and listen to the stories of others, translating meanings to fit their own context. As Fischer puts it, ‘Narratives create and shape social meaning by imposing a coherent interpretation on the whirl of events and actions around us’ (2003, p. 162). Table 4.1 draws on theories of political communication to suggest six ways in which stories or narratives are distinctive modes of communication. These six elements help to explain why narrative approaches have gained so much attention within public management and leadership. Leaders can harness the innate power of stories, deploying these skills to enhance their own effectiveness. Thus, discussing policy in terms of story-lines is not to trivialize communication as ‘just stories’; rather it allows us to be more alert to the ways in which narratives can be used to mobilize change within public services. Through telling stories more effectively it is possible to motivate colleagues and inspire change. It is also possible to give front-line staff a different set of tools with which to work with citizens, encouraging them to tell stories such that citizens can ‘become co-authors of their own well-being’ (University of Birmingham Policy Commission 2011). The prevalence and power of narratives does not mean that narratives are always used in positive ways. Nationalism, for example, is a very powerful and potentially destructive narrative that evokes ‘imagined communities’ (Anderson 2006). Like other forms of communication, they can be turned to a variety of ends. Here we draw attention to how narratives can be used by leaders to build connection and purpose with teams, but this is acknowledged to have risks attached. The sharing of a narrative can be risky and exposing for leaders, and can make teams feel manipulated or that personal boundaries have been transgressed. In the conclusion we set out why narratives retain enduring resonance for leadership despite these risks.

4.3

Using the Public Narrative Framework

Narrative can be an academic tool to frame and explore political communication so as to better understand why certain policies connect and endure whilst others do not (Needham 2011). It can also be an intervention—a set of insights and practices to support leadership development and systems change within and between multiple public bodies, communities and citizens. In this section we draw on the use of narrative practice by Chris Lawrence-Pietroni and Mari Davis in association with a number of organizations which support systemic change across public services in the UK, including The Leadership Center, The Systems Leadership Steering Group, The Kings Fund and the Institute of Local Government Studies (Inlogov) at the

4 Narratives and Storytelling Table 4.1 Six elements of stories (adapted from Needham 2011, pp. 13–22)

57 Stories are compelling Good stories make you want to lean in, to hear the end. As Ospina and Dodge put it, ‘When someone tells us a story about his or her experience, we become alert, tuned in, curious’ (2005, p. 143) Stories impose a temporal ordering Stories have a beginning, middle and end, with conventions about how the story builds in complexity and intensity, until reaching its conclusion. They impose ‘a certain formal coherence on a virtual chaos of events’ (White 1981, p. 251— cited in Yanow 2000, p. 58). Stories not only provide a temporal ordering, they also help to explain the links between past, present and future, offering a sequence of events which explain the transformation from one state to another (Van Eeten 2007, p. 252; Squire et al. 2008, p. 10) Stories appeal to values and emotions Stories are not just about conveying facts. They appeal to us on a deeper level. As Fischer puts it, ‘Narrative storytelling, unlike the giving of rational reasons, is designed not just to persuade people intellectually but emotionally as well’ (2009, p. 191) Stories are social, helping make sense of shared experience Stories are social in a number of ways. The first is that they are told in social settings and help people to understand how to coordinate action as a group (Stone 2005, p. 11). Second, often more than one person will contribute to the telling, building and reinterpreting the story (Fischer 2009, p. 194). Third, as well as being constructed collectively, stories tell something about the social context in which they are told: ‘It is through storytelling that people access social positions in their communities, understand the goals and values of different social groups and internalized social conventions…’ (Fischer 2009, pp. 195, 197) Stories simplify complexity Public service contexts are complex; wicked problems are hard to define and solutions are multifaceted and uncertain. Stories can help to make this complexity more manageable. Hajer talks of stories as offering ‘discursive closure’ and simplification: they become “tropes” or figures of speech that rationalize a specific approach to what seems to be a coherent problem’ (2005, p. 63) Stories are purposive: they promote certain actions and discredit others Stories are told for a reason; they are parables, fables, guides to action, even if not explicitly framed as such. A narrative is not a mere chronicle, a listing of events: it is a means through which ‘specific ideas of “blame” and “responsibility” and of “urgency” and “responsible behaviour” are attributed’ (Hajer 2005, pp. 64–5). The thread of a story-line provides a rallying point for moving forward

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University of Birmingham. Since 2011, a significant part of this work has involved making use of narrative insights and practices to support leadership development and systems change within and between multiple public bodies, communities and citizens. A foundational aspect of this work has been using Marshall Ganz’s public narrative framework (Ganz 2010a) to support the development of narrative and storytelling as a leadership practice amongst public servants. Described as ‘a skill to motivate others to join you in action’, the public narrative framework has its roots in the age-old storytelling practices associated with social movements especially in the US. In developing his framework, Ganz draws in part on his personal experience in the civil rights and farm worker movements of the 1960s and 1970s (2010b). With movement building as his end goal, Ganz is particularly interested in the ways in which stories appeal to values and emotions and how this can help to enable and sustain shared action. Drawing on the work of Bruner (1986) he points out that we interpret the world in both analytic and narrative modes: where the analytic mode addresses questions of ‘how’ to act effectively (the domain of empirical claims), the narrative mode addresses questions of ‘why’ we do act (the domain of values). Because we make choices based on the values we experience via emotion (Nussbaum 2001), Ganz demonstrates that narrative has a unique capacity not only to connect us with our values through the emotion that we feel as we experience a story, but also, since values are those things that motivate us to action, to enable and sustain purposeful action in the world. The public narrative framework draws on these insights to provide a social technology to enable storytelling for purposeful public action. While the worlds of civil rights protest and public service may seem distant (and perhaps at times at odds) the success of both rests on the willingness of multiple stakeholders to recognize shared interests, to find common cause and to sustain motivation for change amidst confusion, complexity, set-backs and considerable personal cost. While formal hierarchies and associated accountabilities and performance management processes remain significant in public services, the nature of the challenges now being faced—crossing organizational, hierarchical and professional boundaries (see Chap. 2)—means that success rests increasingly on the ability to connect individuals with their intrinsic rather than extrinsic motivations (Béanabou and Tirole 2003). Public narrative, with its roots in the voluntary world of social movements, draws on the power of storytelling for exactly this purpose. Ganz’s public narrative framework is made up of three interlocking stories: a story of self, a story of us and a story of now (Fig. 4.1). The story of self draws on the teller’s own experiences to reveal why they are motivated to engage in a particular activity or to seek to address a particular challenge. Through the story that they tell they reveal their values. In the story of us the teller describes experiences that connect the group they are seeking to motivate not just to the teller but to each other. The story of us enables ‘us’ to experience why this activity or this challenge is something that ‘we’—together—should care about. Finally, in the story of now, the teller uses narrative to build a sense of urgency drawing a clear picture of the negative consequences of inaction and the potential benefits of taking action together. It is enabling this action that is the ultimate goal of any public narrative.

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Fig. 4.1 Ganz public narrative framework

The public narrative framework can be used to enable public servants to craft stories in which they seek to motivate others to join them in addressing a particular challenge or achieving a particular goal. We reflect below on stories crafted by two individuals to draw out some of the narrative opportunities this practice opens up for the twenty first century public servant and why this seems of particular relevance and value now. Both stories necessarily illustrate the range of distinctive modes of narrative communication we outline above. Both make use of the compelling nature of the narrative form and of the power of story to connect values and emotion, and (inevitably, as both are public narratives) work to a purposive conclusion seeking to motivate others to join them in action. However, each of the stories has been selected because they illustrate additional aspects of the other narrative modes particularly clearly. The narratives presented here are as developed by the respective storytellers, with names and details changed to preserve anonymity. The first story comes from Jane, a Director of Children’s Services responsible for leading large and complex policy and service functions. Her story is notable for its simple yet sophisticated use of the temporal ordering: she creates a story within a story, connecting experiences in her own past with present challenges facing her colleagues. The second story comes from Kate, a participant on the National Graduate Development Programme for Local Government in the early stages of her career. Her public narrative is a particularly striking illustration of the social nature of storytelling and its capacity to provide meaning amidst complexity. Kate uses her own story as an analogue for the stories of her colleagues, helping them make sense of a complex set of personal and professional challenges that are unfolding as they seek to develop their careers whilst staying true to the motivations that brought them into public service in the first place.

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Jane’s public narrative Jane is a Director of Children’s services who was preparing to start a new job and was keen to develop a public narrative that she could use with her new team. After spending some time reflecting with others on experiences that had led her to choose a career in children’s social work, Jane crafted a story from her own experience that illustrated her motivations and values: I was 18, a young mum living on a council estate that had many challenges. I’d been up all night with a crying baby because he was teething. When I finally got to sleep I was woken up by a banging on the door – by the police actually. What had happened was that the neighbors had heard the baby crying and they had assumed because I was of course a young mum that I had left him on his own and abandoned him to go and take drugs or whatever these young mums do! So it was just surreal for me. It was three o’clock in the morning, the police were in the house and the baby had then started crying again. But they could see they had probably made a mistake. And the young policeman was very nice and he was fixing the door. But then the Sergeant came back. And the Sergeant was obviously experienced. And I was sitting on the settee and he leaned over me and said, ‘Just sign this luv, just sign this.’ And it was his black book and in his little black notebook was a statement that said, ‘I completely understand why the police broke down my door. I’m very happy that they were looking after me and safeguarding [my child].’ Completely what I knew was not right. I knew that wasn’t right. Because actually I was very angry that they’d broken down the door. I was very angry that people would’ve thought that I’d have left my baby. And I felt very powerless at that moment because I looked up at the Sergeant and he must have seen in my eyes that in my head I was challenging him but he leaned over me again and said, ‘Just sign it, luv. Just sign it.’ And I did just sign it. And I’ll never forget that feeling of powerlessness when I just signed it even though I knew it was the wrong thing to do. And that was a moment when I vowed that I would fight injustice whenever I could. And I vowed that I would never label people because of where they lived or because of how old they were or because of their lifestyle. And sometimes that’s been quite difficult but that’s been what’s driven me.

The power of Jane’s story is partly because of its compelling plot—the challenge she faced when confronted with the overbearing Sergeant and a sense of her own powerlessness, the choice she made to sign despite her anger, the outcome to vow to resist that happening again to herself or others. However, these are ‘facts’ that could have been conveyed without the use of a story. Jane’s story is given greater power because of the narrative techniques she used to convey it. Jane places us in the action with her so that we too experience the Sergeant leaning over aggressively and forcing the signature; we too feel some of her hurt and anger at being labeled by others. We are able to experience the emotional truth of the situation as well as any conscious insight about the good (or bad) conduct of a public servant. More than this, though, as a Director of Children’s Services crafting a narrative to use with her staff, Jane is deliberately placing herself in the position of a service user—not imaginatively or figuratively but literally. Jane’s is not a ‘user’s story’; it’s a story of self. In doing so Jane blurs the boundary between public servant and public and invites others to do the same. She is implicitly suggesting that to do so is

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not only acceptable but perhaps a necessary part of being the best public servant it is possible to be. Again this is not achieved through exhortation but through demonstration and—through narrative—enabling experiential learning. At a later time, Jane helped a group of her peer Directors of Children’s Services (DCS) to develop their own public narratives. This time Jane set the story about her 18-year-old self in the context of the first time she shared it with her new team: So my challenge coming new into a new DCS role was to get the team to gel. So I chose to give public narrative a go. I thought ‘I’ve not got a lot to lose, I’m new, so let’s start as we mean to go on.’ We had a meeting where I cancelled the agenda and I could feel the rise in nervousness when I said ‘we’re going to get to know each other today. We need to talk about our values, we need to talk about why we do what we do because it’s really important that we know what makes each other tick.’ So from that I went on to share the public narrative that I’d prepared at my systems leadership session.

Jane then included a version of the story of her at 18 and concluded by saying: So this story had a positive impact with the team. Because I went on to say, ‘Can you share what drives you?’ And what came about were a host of individual stories showing that what drives us in this team is wanting to fight injustice. Because they had all had different examples in their lives of having that sense of rage and powerlessness. Different reasons – but very real for them. And I actually learned more about them in that meeting than it would probably have taken me five years to have known. And I felt it was a really positive start because we’d bonded as a team. We trust each other. And I’m not saying it’s all perfect because of course it isn’t. But I wanted to share it with you because it’s a risk that I took that I think paid off. And that’s my story.

Through story, Jane orders her own experience temporally, creating a cause-effect connection between her experiences as a young woman and her current leadership role, and in so doing invites her team to engage in a similar process. At one level this cause-effect relationship is a narrative construction rather than an objective ‘fact’. Yet, this only underlines the ways in which the narrative form enabled a temporal ordering through which Jane could communicate a deeper and more profound truth. Jane’s complete story has a simple but effective double narrative with distinct but linked purposes. At one level there is the story she tells to her Director peers which encourages them to develop their own narratives and—like her—to take the risk of sharing them with their teams. It’s not an easy thing to do (the ‘rise in nervousness’ in the room when she began attests to the discomfort this narrative approach can create) and it doesn’t solve all problems (of course, things in Jane’s team are not perfect). At another level, Jane’s story is an invitation to her team to connect with their own stories as sources of motivation, and to share them with each other not as an end in itself but because ‘it’s really important that we know what makes each other tick’. By choosing a story that holds up her own ‘user’ experience Jane narratively confronts both her peers and her team with the ways in which they may also label and judge others—something she acknowledges that she too finds hard to avoid.

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Kate’s public narrative Kate was crafting a narrative for her peers on the National Graduate Development Programme for Local Government. She said that she wanted to share her story because of a shared social experience: ‘I think that most of us joined the NGDP for fairly similar reasons … we believe in fairness and equality … we want people to have real life chances and we want to improve outcomes for those who are disadvantaged. But I think sometimes that can get lost in the day to day’. By the end of her story Kate had connected her fellow graduate trainees to their shared values and shown through her own story how easy it can be to drift away from them. More than this, she had helped to make sense of a troubling and confusing social experience and as a result provide a more solid shared basis from which to call on her peers to take specific action. Kate’s narrative opened by describing her increasing sense of agency and success in her role: I’d been in my job for about six months and I was just getting a bit more confident. I was working in the Chief Exec’s office and having meetings with quite important people (some of whom knew my name!). I was doing work that was being recognized. Beginning to feel, not too big for my boots exactly, but a little bit confident, a little bit self-assured.

While this is Kate’s own, personal experience it also speaks directly to the experience of the colleagues she is seeking to motivate. At one and the same time she places herself at the center of her own story and draws on an experience shared amongst her peers to connect them to her and to each other. The narrative power of Kate’s story is intrinsically social; she stands both as the protagonist in her own story of self and symbolically for the whole cohort of graduate trainees. From the outset both Kate and her fellows are identified and implicated in the story she tells. This is particularly important in Kate’s story as her purpose is to challenge the assumptions and prejudices that both she and they carry. Like Jane, Kate uses the compelling power of story to take her audience with her into a specific moment in time from which they can learn experientially. However, in Kate’s case the story is about the minutiae of everyday life in public service—a colleague’s leaving do—demonstrating that in order to be powerful and effective a narrative does not need to be based on an extreme or distant experience. I went to some leaving drinks for a colleague in the pub just around the corner from work. I was having a good time, chatting to everyone and enjoying myself. Then after I’d been there about an hour, I got cornered by a woman who also worked for the council. I’d never met her before and for twenty, twenty-five minutes she gave me this barrage of abuse. Right in my face, sloshing her wine around. And she was saying things like ‘Who do you think you are? Why are the Council paying for people like you to have a job? You’ve never had a real job. You don’t understand what hardship is. You don’t really know anything about this community. You’re not doing anything for the people in this community.’ And she didn’t know anything about me… At first I tried to engage and to say, ‘This is what I’m working on. I’m trying to help young people in the Borough.’ But she really wasn’t interested and it just kept coming and coming. And after about 10 minutes I realized I wasn’t going to be able to keep it together. Because she was just in my face, constant, constant aggressive ranting. And I eventually

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escaped and ran to the toilets and I just burst into tears. I was shaking. My boss was there. The Head of the Chief Exec’s Office was there. Loads of senior people were there and I had just broken down. A friend from work walked into the loos and gave me this big hug and said, ‘You did so well! You really held your own.’ And I was, like, ‘I clearly did not hold my own – I was falling apart!’

Like all great storytellers Kate speaks in pictures, taking her audience fully into the moment in the pub, the frustration, anger and ultimately the embarrassment of the experience and being seen ‘falling apart’ in front of senior colleagues. Kate constructs a story in which her intended audience of fellow graduate trainees will identify with her as the heroine; they are clearly on her side—indeed they may have had analogous experiences, albeit possibly not as dramatic or public. In plot terms the natural next step is for Kate’s tormentor to get their comeuppance. At first it looks like this is what will happen: So then I left and I barely even said goodbye to anyone. And I was really shaken up for a couple of days. And I thought I’ve got a choice. I can talk to someone about her behavior. I can mention it to someone – not necessarily formally but I can speak to someone at work. Or I can just write her off as being quite aggressive and unreasonable.

Having taken her audience to where they naturally would like to go—complain or dismiss—Kate undercuts both her and their assumptions: Or I can explore why I’m so upset by this. She said to me that she’s born and bred here. One of her grown up children is an ex-drug addict and another is a single parent. And I thought maybe partly why I’m upset is that bits of what she said about me are true. There’s only so much that I understand about this community.

In context, this self-insight comes as something of a shock, providing a narrative jolt. Kate has revealed a level of complexity which it may be easier and preferable for her and her colleagues to ignore: perhaps the roles of heroine and villain are not so clear cut after all. The woman in the pub is not so easy to dismiss—indeed our desire to do so might signal a complex truth that needs to be faced. Through her own experience—an experience with which her audience have become narratively identified—Kate makes this complex truth unavoidable: We spend a lot of time working on these creative and innovative projects. Working with very senior people, very intelligent people, often very privileged people. And although we all are looking to secure better outcomes for residents we get a bit distant from those people and from those ideas. And sometimes we don’t want to listen to difficult challenges from some of those people.

The complexity that Kate’s narrative simplifies is the painful dissonance between espoused values and actual behavior, more an emotional than a strategic complexity, and highly relevant for the leadership of the group of young professionals. Precisely because this is Kate’s story there is no sense of moralizing or preaching to her colleagues. She is not telling them to listen to others or to behave in a particular way. She is showing them what at some level they already know to be true.

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If Kate’s purpose were merely to raise awareness of the tendency of public servants to become removed from the communities they serve and the tendency of human beings to dismiss perspectives or people they find disagreeable, she might have drawn her narrative to a close at this point. But in developing a public narrative Kate’s intention is to move others to action with her—that is one of the principle reasons why we see public narrative as primarily a leadership practice and not a communication skill. In this case the action Kate proposes is simple and achievable: And so in order to bring us back to the reasons why we joined this scheme in the first place, in the next week or two I’d like to ask you to do two things. One is to go and speak to someone who you know doesn’t agree with you, maybe doesn’t like what they think you stand for and engage with them and take what they have to say on board. And the second thing is to find out a bit more about where you are working and who you are working for. Whether that’s a particular element of the community, it could be faith group, an ethnic group – someone or group of people that you don’t know all that much about. Or an area of your Borough or your District or your County. Maybe there’s an area where you know there’s deprivation but do you know what it looks like? Have you actually been to that estate or that neighborhood? And so go out and remember why you are here in the first place.

By providing specific suggestions for action Kate takes upon herself the responsibility not only for identifying and framing a challenge that needs to be addressed but also for mobilizing the action that can help to address it. To avoid moving to action would be to walk her fellows up a narrative hill of self-discovery and to leave them stranded there. The danger is that in doing so the negative experience of facing a hard truth becomes reinforced, ironically making it harder for that truth to be accepted. What Kate provides is an example of a context-appropriate variation on the ‘call to action’ common in social movements but which can sometimes feel overblown in public service contexts.

4.4

Conclusions

In this chapter we have set out the potency of narrative, identifying the key aspects which give power to narrative and providing examples of how these aspects can be given life through the use of the public narrative framework. As the two public narratives presented here demonstrate, this simple social technology can enable public servants to develop stories of great narrative sophistication and complexity which are at the same time simple and grounded in everyday experiences. Being a skilled story-teller is a key part of being an effective twenty first century public servant, and narrative interventions can equip people to use stories more purposefully. However, effective public service cannot be reduced simply to good story-telling: the ability to frame a compelling account of the past, present and future, which simplifies complexity and engages the emotions, is a powerful tool which needs to be used with care and rooted in ethical practice. Public narrative

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takes as one of its starting points the fact that giving an account of our own motivations when we are seeking to offer leadership (particularly in relation to challenging issues where we are asking others to make significant effort) has a ‘moral’ dimension: we have a ‘duty’ to account for our own values and motivations if we are calling on others to lead with us. In doing so, leaders take a risk. In stepping forward and seeking to create an ‘us’ the narrator is risking something in the interests of a goal that they are seeking to achieve or an injustice they are seeking to end. This is one of the reasons why public narrative is a leadership practice. It connects the story of self to the story of us and the story of now. The potency of narratives is evident and there is a need to use them with care. They can be tools of manipulation and can blur the boundaries between the public and private self in a way that some people will find inappropriate. They need to be used in a context of ethical leadership and with sensitivity to their impact. The risks to the storyteller themselves also need to acknowledged. In the telling of narratives like the ones above, people make themselves vulnerable. Public servants who exercise these forms of self-disclosure need to be rooted in settings which model the workplace changes set out in other chapters of this book, which reduce blame cultures and allow forms of non-heroic leadership to thrive. Public narrative is founded on the insight that narrative is all around us. Leaders will find that others are ‘authoring’ stories about their motives and values whatever they do. Therefore, the risk public servants take in the self-disclosure of story of self is a calculated risk. The alternative is to be at the mercy of the narratives of others who interests may be in opposition to our own.

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Nussbaum, M. (2001). Upheavals of thought: The intelligence of emotions. New York: Cambridge University Press. Ospina, S. M., & Dodge, J. (2005). It’s about time: catching method up to meaning—The usefulness of narrative inquiry to public administration. Public Administration Review, 65(2), 143–157. Squire, C., Andrews, M., & Tamboukou, M. (2008). What is narrative research? In M. Andrews, C. Squire, & M. Tamboukou (Eds.), Doing narrative research (pp. 1–21). London: Sage. Stone, D. (2005). Policy paradox: The art of political decision making (Revised edition). New York: Norton. University of Birmingham Policy Commission. (2011). When tomorrow comes: The future of local public services. Birmingham: University of Birmingham. Van Eeten, M. (2007). Narrative policy analysis. In F. Fischer, G. Miller, & M. Sidney (Eds.), Handbook of public policy analysis: Theory, practice and methods (pp. 89–108). London: Taylor and Francis. Weick, K. E. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations. London: Sage. White, H. (1981). The narrativization of real events. In W. J. T. Mitchell (Ed.), On narrative (pp. 249–254). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Yanow, D. (2000). Conducting interpretive policy analysis. London: Sage.

Chris Lawrence-Pietroni is Co-Director of Leading Communities. His work focuses on leadership and change in complex systems with a particular interest in applying and adapting insights from social movements and adaptive leadership. In addition to academic teaching, Chris consults extensively in the UK, Europe and the US working across public, private, voluntary and community bodies seeking to support progress on complex social challenges. In 2016 Chris was a Teaching Fellow at the Harvard Kennedy School working as a member of Prof. Ron Heifetz’s Adaptive Leadership teaching team and he has been a coach on the Harvard Kennedy School’s Leadership in the 21st Century Executive Education Program. He has collaborated extensively with Prof. Marshall Ganz drawing on insights and frameworks from social movements. Chris is a Senior Associate Fellow at the Institute of Local Government Studies at the University of Birmingham where he runs the Leadership in Public Services module on the M.Sc. in Public Management and is a Faculty member on the National Graduate Development Programme for Local Government. Chris is also an Associate with the King’s Fund working primarily on health and social care systems change. Catherine Needham is Professor of Public Policy and Public Management at the Health Services Management Centre, University of Birmingham. Her research covers public service workforce, social care co-production and personalisation. Her most recent book was published by the Policy Press in 2016 entitled, What Size is Good Care: Micro-Enterprise and Personalisation. She coordinates the 21st century Public Servant research programme on workforce change, which has a blog https://21stcenturypublicservant.wordpress.com/ and hashtag #21cPS.

Chapter 5

Design Matters: The Implications of Design Thinking and Practice for Future Public Service Workforce Skills and Culture Martin Stewart-Weeks and Dominic Campbell

5.1

Introduction

The incidence and influence of design thinking and practice is growing in the public service in many countries around the world (Bason 2014). Design thinking comprises a set of beliefs and practices that asserts “a hands-on, user-centric approach to problem solving can lead to innovation, and innovation can lead to differentiation and competitive advantage” (Gibbons 2016). It is built around several elements, including: empathy with users and their experience of products and services; clearly defining the problem to be solved; ideation and prototyping possible solutions; testing those solutions with potential users; adjusting in the face of the feedback; and implementing. If a design thinking approach is to be adopted centrally within the development of public policy and public services, there will need to be the integration of a set of design capabilities within the workforce. But more than this, we will also need to see shifts in terms of the architecture of power, control and authority in the leadership, culture and management of the public service. This chapter draws on the combined experience of the authors, with the growing use of design tools and methods to address a range of service, regulatory and policy tasks. We briefly illustrate the growing influence of design thinking and practice in the public service and discuss some of its workforce and other implications. The chapter then moves on to set out some reflections on the implications for the public services itself, as well as more broadly for the public sector, and makes three predictions about the next phase of design’s influence on the craft and culture of public administration.

M. Stewart-Weeks (&)
D. Campbell The Australian Centre for Social Innovation, Adelaide, Australia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 H. Dickinson et al. (eds.), Reimagining the Future Public Service Workforce, SpringerBriefs in Political Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1480-3_5

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5.2

Design and the Public Sector

The public service in many countries is becoming both more interested in and more familiar with design thinking and practice. There are several common themes emerging within these reform processes, and these are briefly outlined here with examples to illustrate. These outline the kinds of changes that design thinking demands, including examples of initiatives that are being developed across a number of jurisdictions.

5.2.1

Design as Procurement: Subverting Traditional Processes

Traditionally, the procurement of technology or other services in the public sector has started with a process of developing user requirements. This involves considerable investment of time, effort and money trying to define specifications for the service or program before it is then sent out for procurement. A different approach is emerging in which design-led conversations with end users and the people most directly affected by the proposed new service or policy are brought into the process as early as possible. Instead of trying to specify the new service or program and then build it, the design approach turns that process on its head and creates a set of “specifications” by “making” a version of the desired new service as early as possible. Designers assume the quicker you start building and testing possible solutions, even if you don’t have all the formal “requirements”, the quicker you will find out what looks promising and what doesn’t. Designers “build the specifications” and use rapid iterations to discover, prototype, test and adjust. ChildStory is a good example of this and is outlined in Box 5.1. Box 5.1: Childstory This initiative is a suite of digital tools and platforms supporting the Australian New South Wales (NSW) government’s child protection reforms, Safe Home for Life. The authors were both involved in the early stages of this project, which included a two-day design workshop bringing together relevant front line staff, child protection not-for-profit organizations, policy people from the accountable government departments and technology solution providers and suppliers. The workshop was held before any “user requirements” or other traditional tools of IT development and deployment had been activated. The aim was to bring together a mix of people involved in the reforms and some companies who were likely to be providers of these services, to work together in an intensive process. Thus, the traditional linear processes of

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research, design, testing, procurement and rollout were subverted by a process grounded in early, repeated conversations between the policy reformers, the technologists, front line staff and “customers” involved in the child protection system. This project adopted a design approach, in that it started with users and their experiences. Time was then taken to build prototypical solutions and get them into the field for testing as soon as possible. Using rounds of testing and feedback the solutions were improved. An important part of this process is the requirement to appoint someone to “hold the space” that allowed the team the time and room to work this way. This approach brought users, staff and potential providers into much earlier and more creative contact, which saved both time and effort in getting to the heart of the challenge: designing a set of digital tools to help staff and users achieve better outcomes for children in care. See www.childstory.net.au for further detail on this case.

5.2.2

Human-Centered and the Concept of a “Journey”

As illustrated in the ChildStory example, design methods are obsessively centered around the “human” and their experience when they use a service or product. This is often known as their “journey” and journey mapping (Boag 2015) is a foundational tool for designers. Its principal purpose is to get a deeper and more practical sense of the experience that people have, or would like to have, when they engage with the service or product. The journey is mapped as closely as possible to the lived experience of the people or communities. The concept of a “journey” that children undertake as they make their way into, through and then out of the child protection system provided the anchor for the rest of the Safe Home for Life program. A lot of time was spent getting the “journey” story right from the perspective of those whose lives these digitally-supported policy reforms were supposed to be improving. Figure 5.1 sets out the journey that was mapped out for the Childstory project. In another project, the authors worked with the NSW Department of Primary Industry and the Office of the Small Business Commissioner to take a design approach to developing a new regulatory framework for access to public lands for bee-keepers, commercial and private. The agencies were trying to achieve two primary aims. The first was to test whether, by adopting a ‘human-centered’ design methodology, they could develop a more effective and sustainable set of policy and regulatory approaches for bee-keepers and landowners, than if they adopted a traditional policy development approach. Staff concluded that design thinking tools and practices offer an alternative to traditional policy and regulation practice. They characterized familiar reflexes as relatively linear, data-driven, closed and inward

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Fig. 5.1 Childstory journey map

looking (apart from an occasional burst of “consultation” perhaps) and mostly distant from the lived experience of “customers”. Secondly, as a design approach starts with customer and user experiences it was seen as braver about testing ideas and approaches earlier and more openly (‘rapid prototyping’). Such an approach also spends more time engaging “evidence” that goes beyond spreadsheets and draft discussion papers to include evidence of the subjective experience of those using and impacted by the regulations, for example.

5.2.3

Experts in Their Own Lives

The design process starts from the premise that people are experts in their own lives (see www.tacsi.org.au/voice-and-choice-childrens-rights for more details) That doesn’t mean individuals are any less fallible than anyone else and don’t make mistakes or misjudge their interests. However, it provides bracing discipline for other forms of expertise whose contribution needs to be tempered by, and measured against, its contribution to the expertise of experience, grounded in the lives and contexts of users and citizens. In a project on domestic violence in Queensland, FutureGov worked with survivors of family violence and a wide range of organizations to understand the experiences and needs of survivors of family violence within the existing system. They implemented a co-design approach to exemplify the difference that this type of approach can make across the whole service ecosystem—government agencies, service providers, funders—by connecting earlier and more effectively the experience of those the program was trying to help and the proposed solutions and services.

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Confronting Political and Institutional Constraints

Another common theme for designers in the public service is the need to work within, and respond to, political and institutional constraints. These include difficult budget constraints which can make it harder to invest in the tools and skills necessary for a design approach. We also recognize that political priorities change, often alarmingly and with little notice. Many of these constraints are endemic to the public sector, or perhaps more accurately, of large, complex organizations and systems. The challenge is that although the driver is often for quick change, these organizations are unable to change quickly (and there are good reasons for this, such as probity, transparency and fairness). These tensions reflect a possible “inherent clash between the logic of administrative organization and the sensibilities of designers” (Bason 2014, p. 5). For the Department of Primary Industry’s design approach to regulatory reform, there was a realistic sense of some of the continuing constraints in the political and policy context in which they work and that need to be acknowledged. Political pressures sometimes feed volatility and unpredictability. There are unspoken but powerful undercurrents of contests over power, control and authority, whose patterns are disturbed by design methods. That disruption, liberating and empowering for front line staff and customers, users and citizens, can be experienced as a grievous loss by senior and middle management. That can translate into a more fearful environment. Even though in many ways design approaches can lower the risk of poor service or policy impact, invoking the language of “risk” often stymies or stops design methods in their tracks.

5.2.5

Policy “Labs”

A final reflection on the growing evidence of the rise of design thinking is the rapid spread of various forms of “lab” or “incubator” for design and innovation around the world (Puttick et al. 2014). Many of these labs bring a critical mass of resources together to intensify the search for new design-led methods and practices that will help public servants, as well as clients and citizens, more rapidly develop more effective policy and service design solutions. Good examples include Mindlab in Denmark, the Policy Lab in the UK Cabinet Office and 18F, a relatively new lab environment in the federal public sector in Washington (other examples are outlined in Box 5.2). All policy labs have a role in introducing new tools and techniques and spreading their more confident, reflexive use in a wide range of service improvement and policy development contexts. Many have good examples of this dimension of the lab approach, including the Government Digital Service in the UK, the Australian Digital Transformation Agency and The Australian Centre for Social Innovation. An important facet of these labs is that they focus on the fact that more

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of the effective public work needs to be done in response to increasingly complex, connected and contingent risks and opportunities the public service organizations face, and the fact that this requires both effective convening and purposeful collaborating. All these labs have a commitment to “only together”. Better services and more responsive, relevant policy making can’t any longer be assumed to come out of simple or singular approaches from one agency or one team. The practical effect is to reinforce both the instinct for, and the practice of, better collaborative methods of thinking, design and working together. Box 5.2: Examples of Policy Labs Mindlab http://mind-lab.dk/en/ UK Policy Lab https://openpolicy.blog.gov.uk/about/ 18F https://18f.gsa.gov/ Government Digital Service https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/ government-digital-service Digital Transformation Agency https://www.dta.gov.au/ The Australian Centre for Social Innovation www.tacsi.org.au InnovationXchange (Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade) https:// innovationxchange.dfat.gov.au/ Australian Department of Employment Development of an Ideas Management System in association with Collabforge http://collabforge.com/getting-ideas-flowing-digitally-department-employment/ The Policy Lab at the University of Melbourne http://arts.unimelb.edu.au/ the-policy-lab

5.2.6

Why Is Design Rising?

The rise of design and design thinking in the public service reflects a growing realization that many of the risks and opportunities that communities and governments face can’t be dealt with using just the traditional tools and processes available to public servants and agencies. As outlined in Chapter One, risks and opportunities have become more complex and interconnected, the power of government to create service and policy responses is diluted by an array of contending players and interests, and “policymakers typically find themselves working with less time, trust and money to achieve their goals” (Bentley 2014, p. 111). Traditional tools and processes in the public sector typically privilege predictability, control, and distinct roles and accountabilities, meaning they struggle to engage challenges whose dynamics are fluid, interconnected and unpredictable. Where once it seemed both obvious and satisfying to line up the work of policy making and service development and delivery with well-defined disciplines of

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expertise and practice, now public agencies, as organizations in other sectors, are engaging “transdisciplinarity” or even “transcontexuality” (University of Technology Sydney 2018; Bateson 2016). The emphasis today is on understanding better, and working more effectively between different ways of seeing and learning about the world and different, sometimes contending contexts. These are demands to which much of the culture and practice of design seems to be well suited. There is a growing literature and body of theoretical and “good practice” work around the value and impact that design thinking can have in the public sector. Many of these themes are illustrated in the recent documentary Designthinking, which was concerned with the rise of design and its growing influence in many different fields, including across social issues and the public sector. In particular, there is a growing movement focused on applying design thinking to social innovation and sustainability (UNDP 2014).

5.3

Workforce Implications: Skills, Culture and Leadership

Given the significant changes outlined if we are to more centrally embed design thinking within the public service, there are of course a number of workforce implications for public service skills, culture and leadership. These are the focus of this section, before we go on to set out a series of lessons that we might learn from the design literature.

5.3.1

Skills

An obvious implication in terms of skills is the growing demand for people who work in and with government and the public service to bring specific design skills and capabilities. There is growing evidence of recruitment into the public service of people with explicit design skills and experience. Examples include recent recruitment drives by The Australian Centre for Social Innovation for service designers (https://www.linkedin.com/jobs/view/276088465/), a website dedicated to government design jobs in the UK (https://www.indeed.co.uk/GovernmentDesign-jobs) and the establishment of a service design community from within Australia’s Digital Transformation Agency (https://www.dta.gov.au/blog/servicedesign-in-government-join-the-community/). In the future, there will be more people working in and with the public service who know how to put together a customer or citizen ‘journey’, who understand when to use an empathy map (Bland 2016; understanding how users think, feel and act) and why it’s valuable, not just in service reform but in some of the more traditional areas of mainstream policy making, to start with the experiences and

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expectations of those most likely to be directly affected. Creating “personas” (imaginative depictions of key characteristics and attributes of actual users and clients) as the starting point for more and more service, regulation and policy reform work will become reflexive. Different public service roles and positions will engage the opportunities, and risks, of design thinking and practice in various ways. Think of these four roles that exist within public services: policy and advisory, service design, front-line delivery and support and internal administration. In each case, the room for design thinking methods will vary. But across those four roles—and they are just a few of many others in the public service—there are consistent design thinking approaches and attitudes that could improve both performance and impact. These include a focus on customers, end-users and citizens, a concern with the way the result of their work is experienced, and the availability of a range of tools, especially the use of co-design and co-production, early and rapid prototyping, and constant user testing. Many of the traditional and emerging roles in government will need to know how, when, where and why to engage different combinations of design-focused activities. More people in public services will need to become “design savvy”, in much the same way that more roles are becoming “tech savvy”. This reinforces the different skill implications of adopting a design thinking approach. One set of skills will be the ability to use design tools and methods. This will mean becoming more confident in how to use a journey mapping technique to understand an actual user or citizen experience, or setting up a rapid prototyping process to launch an early version of a new service or policy to test responses and get quick feedback that then feeds into the next iteration of development. But a second set of skills will reflect the ability to, firstly, determine when and how best to use design methods and approaches and, also, how to integrate the results of a design approach back into the rhythms and requirements of public service work and practices.

5.3.2

Culture

Many of design’s instincts and behaviors seem antithetical to some values and habits of the public service. According to one recent review, “design thinking, in its purest form, does not fit with mainstream policymaking processes” (Mitrom and Luetjens 2016). That view reinforces a sense that there is something fundamentally incompatible between the worldview and cultural instincts of design and designers —agile, rapid iterations, prototyping, learning quickly from failure, grounded in the experience and impact of users and customers, privileging practice over theory and to “make” rather than to theorize and to write—and the habits of the public service —hierarchical, slow and sometimes ponderous, risk-avoidant and failure-shy and too distant from the experiences of, and impact on, customers, users and citizens. There are several features of design which we expect to become increasingly influential in shifting important elements of a public service culture:

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• Users and customers … everything is grounded in the expectations and circumstances of people whose lives are meant to be better, safer or more convenient, because of the policy, service or regulatory intervention. • Empathy … when a designer sets out to design a chair, the reflex is to think about what it’s like to be a person sitting in the chair we’re about to design. That’s the rule—be in the shoes of the user. It clearly is not always the case, despite much rhetorical commitment, that policy making, regulatory reform and service redesign invariably starts with the intended user experience and holds the process accountable to that measure of impact and success. • No assumptions … public servants, especially senior policy people, have a deep and well-educated reflex to bring to the table “draft answers”, instead of “draft questions”. The design reflex is the opposite—nothing but open, searching and “silly” questions until the real nature of the problem starts to show itself as the starting point for a conversation about possible, attractive and feasible answers. • Collaboration … designing for social and public work is a “better together” endeavor, with designers and users and policy makers and program managers and funders and political advisors working as a collective in search of some ways forward that each can contribute to, shape and live with. Collectives work to different authority and accountability rhythms than can’t always be accommodated by agency-focused and professionally-driven accountability reflexes. • Experience … products and services, for designers, are simply vehicles through which people have experiences—feeling safer, smarter, happier, delighted, challenged, looking better, saving time. This suggests a deceptively simple proposition to “follow the experience” that isn’t always easy in a public service environment. • Launch to learn … and, finally, the design ethic gets a “good enough something” (“minimum viable product”) out the door so that the people for whom the “something” is intended can quickly tell you what’s wrong with it. That way, you learn quickly how to make it better. It’s faster, more productive and, in terms of the longevity and delight the final product might expect to enjoy, much more effective.

5.3.3

Leadership and Accountability

Discussing the full leadership implications of adopting a design thinking approach in the public service would take us beyond the limits of this analysis (and is also the topic of the following chapter). But there are three we would draw attention to. 1. The ability to “hold the space” within which public servants, and their design advisors and co-producers, have the time and freedom to work in ways that might clash with some of the expectations and rules of traditional ways of working. We referenced earlier the ChildStory project in the NSW Department of Family and Community Services. The ability to try a new approach to digital

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design and technology procurement needed someone to protect the team while they put into action a design-led approach that challenged aspects of traditional procurement. That role was fulfilled by the Secretary and the agency’s executive board. It isn’t an easy or comfortable role, especially when the progress of the design-influenced innovation is neither smooth nor predictable. In those situations, the primary task of leadership is to deflect inevitable criticism and considerable pressure to revert to older and more traditional modes of working. 2. The ability to share power and influence in a process of both service design and policy development, and in which other interests, including customers and citizens and others outside the agency, will claim a significant role. That is not an easy trick to pull off in a public sector environment in which risk management and accountability structures remain often highly centralized and exclusive. 3. The need to resolve the tension between different instincts and practices of accountability. Christian Bason calls this out when he argues for a new authorizing context from policy and government leaders, making even the idea that design might have something useful to contribute to the business of better policy and improved impact for citizens both legitimate and accepted: … design in policy may very well lead to sensitive policy questions. Insight into human experiences and behaviors can have implications for political perceptions of right and wrong, good or bad; conducting policy processes with certain forms of stakeholder engagement is potentially disruptive to long-standing power relationships …” (Bason 2014, p. 234).

To the extent that it is grounded in the experience of users, and not the needs of the institutions or organization delivering the product or service, design disrupts settled patterns of power and authority. Its instincts are exploratory and emergent. Good design “makes things up” as it goes. It invests less in an egocentric organizational obsession with pre-determined outcomes and more in a process of rapid, inclusive and mistake-strewn learning. Patterns of control and authority in that kind of process are very different to those that seek to minimize disruption and surprise. Design thrives on disruption and surprise (if you’re not surprised, you’re probably not learning anything; try telling that to a harassed Minister anxious to keep off the front page). In that contradiction, we can expect to find some powerful forces capable of dislocating the structures of power and control in the public service. Redrawing aspects of the architecture of power and control in the public service has implications for accountability. By and large, accountability in public policy and the public service works vertically. Governments, through Ministers, account for their work and the public money they spend back up the vertical system, which is trained to discern variability, surprise and disruption as symptoms of possible breaches of probity or accountability. In a design approach, accountability is ‘down’ and ‘out’ to the people and the communities whose experiences the policy or service intervention is meant to improve. The only accountability that really

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matters—over and above simple things such as probity or embezzling and plain criminality—is whether those whose lives are meant to change for the better experience it that way. Obviously probity, fairness, transparency, and the avoidance of corruption and personal enrichment at public expense are important. Achieving those standards depended on familiar institutional and regulatory processes over a long period. But embracing the rhythms of design challenges some of those processes. The question is whether there is a point past which the design influence in and on the public service can’t go, because it is too disruptive of a necessary architecture of power and accountability. Or is there scope for the public sector to rethink its accountability methods to fit with, and learn from, the world of design? We think the rising use of design in service and policy development and reform brings with it a contest with at least some aspects of traditional public service leadership and accountability. As design becomes an entrenched practice across the public service, political and executive leaders will be asked to resolve that tension to harness the power of design without diminishing, and perhaps improving, proper accountability for the work and impact of the public sector.

5.4

Implications for the Public Service

There are some clear implications for the public service that relate to the rise of design thinking and practice. The mix of skills and capabilities in the public service will need to change. Along with a steady influx of design-savvy people engaged in public work, inside or outside the public sector, we will see growth in people who know how to harness its considerable and sometimes subversive potential. Being design-savvy will mean, for some, being able to use some of the design tools and methods themselves in their policy and service management and delivery work. Sometimes it will mean being able to find and integrate external skills and expertise into mixed co-design teams. But being design-savvy doesn’t reduce the importance of effective implementation skills. Design methods and tools are a means to an end, including more effective policy and improved services that change people’s lives for the better. The ability to take the results of good design work, and then navigate the implementation landscape inside the public sector, remains a key skill, perhaps more important than ever. Public sector leadership will become gradually more design-sensitive. New reflexes and language—human-centered, personas, the citizen or customer journey, ethnography and observation, empathy maps—will become as pervasive in the public service toolkit as the ability to write a good Cabinet submission, a Ministerial briefing or a “note for file”. These and other venerable tools of the public service craft will evolve into something different as they too are infected with the design ethic of “look, learn and listen” before you try to lead.

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We also think it’s likely that a more design-conscious public service will welcome more porous boundaries between them and the ‘real’ world whose work and life they impact. Designers rely on an open flow of ideas, expertise, perspectives and knowledge from anywhere, all the time, especially from the world of users and customers. This will become a defining characteristic of a modern and relevant public sector. Finally, we make three predictions for the future influence of design and design thinking in the public service. 1. Mutual respect and humility Design and the public service will do great things together so long as they work from a base of mutual respect for the other’s work (Mulgan 2010). Our public spaces and the collective work we need to do for a life of opportunity, fairness and solidarity in a fraught and complex world will only become more complex and contested. Politics and government will always be difficult and wrinkly. Designers especially need to enter this space, not as magicians, but as genuine collaborators, fired not by a sense of superiority or disdain for the difficult terrain in which public work gets done, but by a respectful, if sometimes impatient, commitment to its pain and potential. 2. You know it makes sense—design will spread because it works. Design and design thinking will permeate the structure and workforce of the public service because people will feel the fit between the new tools, techniques and culture and the kinds of risks and opportunities with which they are grappling. We expect the demand for design-capable people to rise. We expect more and more public servants and other public workers to work with design disciplines, often without necessarily being aware that is what they are doing. More and more public work will be increasingly “design by default”. 3. The risk of mutual indifference: a contest for power and authority. The influence of design may be slowed by the clash of cultures of design and public work which is actually a contest about power and authority. It’s easy to get a sense that there is something incompatible between the worldview and cultural instincts of design and designers and the habits and rhythms of the public service. The answer perhaps lies in the search for “a humbler tone, to pay more attention to results, to attend to the ‘deep craft’ that’s needed for successful public innovation, and to recognize that they are most likely to achieve their best within teams bringing together complementary skills” (Mulgan 2014). Design and the public sector can be good companions so long as the relationship is grounded in respectful, disciplined mutual learning. Design and the public service have a lot to offer to, and learn from, each other. The contest for power and control is misconceived. Each needs the other so that, together, they have half a chance of putting a dent in the problems we need to fix.

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References Bason, C. (2013). Design-led innovation in government. In Stanford social innovation review 10th anniversary essays. Bason, C. (Eds). (2014). Design for policy (Vol. 5, p. 234). Bateson, N. (2016). Small arcs of larger circles: Framing through other patterns. Axminster, England: Triarchy Press. Bentley, T. (2014). Design in policy: Challenges and sources of hope for policymakers. In C. Bason (Eds.), Design for policy. 11ff: Routledge. Bland, D. (2016). Agile coaching tip: What is an empathy map? https://www.solutionsiq.com/ resource/blog-post/what-is-an-empathy-map/. Boag, P. (2015). All you need to know about customer journey mapping. www.smashingmagazine. com/2015/01/all-about-journey-mapping. Gibbons, S. (2016). Design thinking 101. www.nngroup.com/articles/design-thinking. Mitrom, M., & Luetjens, J. (2016). Design thinking in policy making processes: Opportunities and challenges. Australian Journal of Public Administration, 75(3), 391–402. Mulgan, G. (2010). In improving public services and social innovation, the design world has vital insights to offer. But designers must go beyond evangelism to show greater rigour about methods and limits. http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/politicsandpolicy/improving-public-services-socialinnovation-insights-from-design/. Mulgan, G. (2014). Design in public and social innovation: What works and what could work better. https://www.nesta.org.uk/sites/default/files/design_in_public_and_social_innovation.pdf. UNDP. (2014). Design thinking for public sector excellence. In 2014 global centre for public sector excellence. University of Technology Sydney. (2018). Transdisciplinary innovation guide undergraduate courses guide.

Martin Stewart-Weeks has over 35 years’ experience in policy and public sector reform. After spending time in Canberra and Sydney in policy and strategy roles, including in the NSW Cabinet Office, Martin spent 11 years leading a small team of advisors in the Asia-Pacific practice of Cisco’s public sector strategy and innovation group. He now works as an independent advisor. He spent two years working with the public sector team at Deloitte and is now advising PwC on aspects of their social impact strategy. He is Chair of the NSW Digital Government Advisory Panel and holds board positions at The Australian Centre for Social Innovation and the Centre for Policy Development. Dominic Campbell is a digital government specialist and social innovator with a background in government policy, communications and technology-led change. He is an experienced organisational change agent with senior management experience in implementing successful change initiatives with a primary interest in emerging uses of new media and “social” strategies to deliver public service transformation and social innovation. After five years in local government in London, Dominic established FutureGov in early 2008. He leads the practice that has helped more than 100 local and national authorities across four continents use a combination of digital, design and change management to think different about public services.

Chapter 6

More Rave Than Waltz—Why the Complexity of Public Service Means the End for Hero Leadership Catherine Mangan and Chris Lawrence-Pietroni

6.1

Introduction

This chapter argues that the traditional concept of a hero leader is no longer an appropriate model for the new world of public services (see Chap. 1). We suggest that new forms of leadership are emerging, which span across organizations, are situated in a range of individuals, recognize the need for effective interdependencies, and where passion and the ability to create a compelling narrative is the key to achieving change. This type of leadership requires creative development approaches that nurture people’s ability to use their knowledge, skills and competencies with a greater degree of mental sophistication and complexity, within an appropriate holding environment.

6.1.1

What Is the Current Environment for Our Public Service Leaders?

Recently there has been a concerted attempt to understand the roles, behaviors, skills and leadership required of leaders of public services at this specific socio-historical moment. This moment is defined by the changing nature of public services, the changing expectations of the public and the historic shift in public spending that has taken place across advanced economies since the financial crisis of 2008. In this context, the current state of public services is frequently characterized as one of complexity and change (Ghate et al. 2013, Needham and Mangan 2014). In truth these trends have been evident for some time. Since the 1990s public C. Mangan (&)
C. Lawrence-Pietroni Institute for Local Government Studies, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 H. Dickinson et al. (eds.), Reimagining the Future Public Service Workforce, SpringerBriefs in Political Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1480-3_6

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services have been subject to competition and a plurality of providers, dealing with increasingly complex societal and environmental problems, demographic changes and increasing public expectations about what the state should provide and how far it should be involved in designing and delivering solutions (Tizard 2012).

6.1.2

Why Are We Holding Out for a Hero?

Despite the universal acceptance that public servants are operating within a complex world, the traditional notion of a hero leader holds strong. Hero leaders are those at the pinnacle of leadership, who use the power of their position to make decisions unilaterally and act autocratically. Hero leaders are set apart from most of us—they tend to be distinct in some way in their traits and personal characteristics from ‘ordinary’ individuals and possess greater knowledge and information (Drysdale et al. 2014). They also offer themselves as a role model, by ‘influencing people to follow their example in performing behaviors that save, protect, or improve human lives’ (Allison and Cecilione 2016). Perhaps because of the complexity of the world in which we operate, people cling to the comfort of the idea of the traditional hero, leading from the front with certainty and confidence that they can solve the problem. Moreover, the media and politicians also yearn for a ‘Mr. Fix it’ style leader. The 2009 Hollywood film Sully: Miracle on the Hudson illustrates the point: despite repeated pleas from ‘Sully’ that the successful landing of the plane on the river was a team effort with the crew, the air traffic control and the co-pilot, the media and subsequently filmmakers provided us with a version of reality that we want to be true. Likewise, the media and politicians often demand a hero leader, responding to public service crises by demanding the removal of chief executive, as if removing a single leader will be a solution to the complex system issues (e.g. the Government’s response to the appalling Grenfell Tower fire in London was to order the chief executive of the council to resign, despite the fact that a complicated chain of events, with a multitude of agents, had contributed to the tragedy). Allison and Cecilione (2016) suggest that the hero leader is so attractive because we find engaging with the messy reality of teamwork and collaboration less appealing, because we have to take responsibility for our part in how the world works rather than relying on our leader. This tendency for passivity underpins Heifetz’s and Laurie’s (1997) advice to leaders ‘to give the work back to people’ rather than provide fixes for them.

6.1.3

Leadership that Embraces Complexity

Traditional models of leadership and authority have been under challenge for some time, although their legacy lives on, and tools of targets, regulation and associated

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pacesetter style, while no longer functional (if indeed they ever were), remain stubbornly entrenched. This may be one reason why models of transformational leadership have been and remain so popular and pervasive (Peck and Dickinson 2009). The traditional bureaucratic public service institution, with its role to protect and save, along with the need for a command and control style of management, appears to lend itself particularly well to the call for a single hero to exert their influence and control over the institution. Concepts such as collaborative, distributed, dispersed, collective and systems leadership have emerged in recognition of the need for different leadership and there has been a steady growth in descriptions of leadership that more accurately reflects the needs of twenty first century public servants operating amidst complexity. Heifetz (1994, Heifetz et al. (2009), Mark Moore (1997), Grint (2000, 2005) and Snowden and Bone (2007) have all made important contributions that have found some positive reception across public services. While far from representing a distinctive leadership ‘school’, what these contributions have in common is an appreciation of the nature of the complex systems within which leadership is exercised and the particular challenges that this presents for individual and collective leadership. More recently the concept of a ‘flux generation’ of leaders has emerged: nimble and agile leaders who are at home in complexity and use approaches that enable others to navigate and make some sense of it (Safian 2012). In the UK public sector, the term VUCA (volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous) has gained prominence as a description of the nature of the environment in which public servants find themselves working (see also Van Der Wal 2017). The VUCA term was first used by the U.S. Army War College to describe the post-Cold War environment (Barber 1992). Although the term tends to be used as a catch-all, formally the four terms can be used to distinguish between related but distinct characteristics (Bennet and Lemoine 2014): • Volatility describes relatively unstable change; information is available and the situation is understandable, but change is frequent and sometimes unpredictable. • Uncertainty is the lack of knowledge as to whether an event will have meaningful ramifications; cause and effect are understood, but it is unknown if an event will create significant change. • Complexity reflects the number of interconnected parts forming an elaborate network of information and procedures, often multiform and convoluted. • Ambiguity is a lack of knowledge as to ‘the basic rules of the game’; cause and effect are not understood and there is no precedent for making predictions as to what to expect. The widespread adoption of the language of VUCA attests to its usefulness as a sense-making framework for public servants that reflects day-to-day experience. However, this practical applicability can mask the rootedness of VUCA in systems theory and in particular insights relating to complex adaptive systems. Academics have applied lessons from complexity science in analysing how society and public services operate; for example, Fish and Hardy (2015) apply complexity theory to social work practice, to illustrate how practitioners have to make judgements in circumstances characterised by uncertainty and ambiguity; a complex undertaking

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which prevents efforts to generate and apply transferable knowledge in a technical fashion. The term complex adaptive system has emerged as one that is highly relevant to public services. Holland (2006) defines complex adaptive systems as those that have large numbers of components (or agents) that interact and adapt or learn how to respond most effectively to achieve the desired goals, however much the external circumstances change. A complex adaptive system has specific characteristics, including: nonlinear interactions, where minor changes can produce disproportionately major consequences; a dynamic system where solutions can’t be imposed, but must instead emerge; and a history where the past is integrated with the present. Though a complex system may, in retrospect, appear to be ordered and predictable, hindsight does not lead to foresight because the external conditions and systems constantly change. This means that it is impossible to predict what will happen (Snowden and Bone 2007). The language of complexity is now so pervasive in the professional consciousness that it is in danger of becoming a cliché. This may hide the profound implications these insights have for the practice of leadership. If twenty first century public servants are truly operating in complex adaptive systems then appropriate roles, behaviors, skills and modes of leadership are required. Yet as we have argued above, the real world of public service is one in which the default leadership mode remains essentially heroic.

6.2

Complex Adaptive Systems and 21st Century Public Leadership

Why is the traditional mode of hero leadership so counterproductive within complex adaptive systems? Considering the relationship between complexity and the other elements of the VUCA framework provides some insights. Complexity, volatility and leadership Volatility is a characteristic of complex systems in which the connections between the parts of the system are weak and in which there is little built-in redundancy. These systems can lack resilience and are therefore particularly vulnerable to external shocks. The recent ‘crisis’ in the UK health and social care system illustrates this (Morse 2017). Disconnection has long existed between parts of the system, e.g. between NHS service commissioners and operational delivery in hospitals and care homes. Redundancy (in the form of unused bed capacity in acute settings or available capacity in community settings) has been driven out through reductions in funding and a drive for greater ‘efficiency’. As a result, the system is vulnerable to external ‘shocks’ such as sudden increases in demand during winter months (Morse 2017). The irony for twenty first century public leadership is that the highly political nature of public services often leads to calls for decisive, hero-like action in the face of the perceived ‘crisis’ when what is in fact required is a leadership capable of understanding the complex system issues.

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Complexity, uncertainty and leadership Complexity and uncertainty go hand in hand—not something the hero leader can easily accommodate. Complex systems can be characterized as a community of connected entities with multiple and often delayed feedback loops that create their own pattern of behavior over time (Meadows 2009). This poses a real problem for the traditional leader who wishes to set a strategic goal and a clear path for reaching it. The leader who is seeking to tackle childhood obesity cannot know whether an intervention focused on exercise or food production or the media or parenting or education is likely to be most effective. More problematic still, this leader cannot know how these different interventions may interact over time. Complexity, ambiguity and leadership Complexity and ambiguity require many decisions to be made at multiple points in the systems. Yet, the hero-leader cannot have at their disposal the full range of information on which to make informed judgements, let alone decisions. Nevertheless, the dominant organizational form for public services is designed as if this were the case. Hierarchical ‘silo’ organizations with vertical information flows remain the norm, based on an assumption that the leaders at the ‘top’ can assimilate data and information from across their organization and as a result make the best decisions about how to proceed. This assumption remains essentially unchanged since Frederick Taylor (1919) wrote in his Principles of Scientific Management that “it is possible to know all you need to know … to be able to plan what we do”. It is, in fact, an assumption that works very well in the simple system world of the production line. It is however, the opposite, of what is required in genuinely complex contexts. Complexity, systems and leadership A final feature of complex adaptive systems makes the heroic leader mode deeply problematic. It is axiomatic that systems display characteristics that are properties of the system as a whole; to understand the system it is necessary to study it as a whole. It therefore follows that to lead the system it is necessary to lead the system as a whole—yet this is literally impossible. The nearest approximation perhaps is the kind of leadership role that has been described in the literature on networked governance as ‘reticulist’ or ‘boundary spanner’, and which has been identified as crucial to inter-organizational working, operational effectiveness and co-production (see Chap. 2 for more on this). Drawing more formally on network theory, the role of reticulists and their ability to activate both strong and weak ties (Granovetter 1973) has been shown to play a vital role in the capacity of public services to change at pace and scale (Battilana and Casciaro 2013). Yet the heroic leader often discovers that the demands of their own organization—its internal priorities and expectations for continued survival—are a barrier to offering genuine leadership across a system. In seeking to describe leadership that embraces rather than avoids complexity a number of authors have reached for metaphors from the creative arts. Grint (2000) writes of ‘the arts of leadership’, suggesting that leadership is an inventive or imaginative act more similar in practice to fine art than to science. Heifetz (1994) and

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Heifetz et al. (2009) draws on musical metaphors likening leadership amidst complexity to jazz, summoning notions of improvisation, responsiveness, unreplicability and emergence. Although more traditional forms of jazz are governed by a loose set of rules about tonal sequences and a predefined structure, freer forms of jazz may be an even more appropriate metaphor for the type of leadership required, where it is a matter of not only tolerating ambiguity and equivocality, but finding it to be a source of beauty, exhilaration, and creative freedom. Where Ropo and Sauer (2008) describe leadership as a waltz (intending the metaphor to stand for ‘rational leadership’ where the leader is dominant, knows where to go and has a follower), perhaps leadership in complex systems and the VUCA world of public services is more like a rave, where there are no fixed dance steps or dance partners but in which each dancer responds to shifts in tempo, pace and mood not just from the music but from their fellow ravers. Heifetz’s famous metaphor of the difference between being on the balcony (where it is possible to observe and develop some sense of what is going on below) and being amidst the bodies on the dancefloor (where you are only aware of those immediately around you) speaks to a similar insight (1994, 2009). But, if twenty first century leadership of public services is more rave than waltz, more bebop than Bach, more Pollock than Rembrandt, the shift required in roles, behaviors, skills, leadership practices and expectations is profound. Elements of twenty first century public service leadership If the concept of flux and complexity is so fundamental to twenty first century public service leadership, is it possible (or desirable) to seek to define what twenty first century public service leadership might look like? Senge et al. (2015) suggest that new types of leaders are emerging who ‘see reality through the eyes of people very different from themselves [which] encourages others to be more open as well. They build relationships based on deep listening, and networks of trust and collaboration start to flourish. They are so convinced that something can be done that they do not wait for a fully developed plan, thereby freeing others to step ahead and learn by doing’ (p. 28). These leaders are described by Senge as far removed from the all-knowing hero: ‘one of their greatest contributions can come from the strength of their ignorance, which gives them permission to ask obvious questions and to embody an openness and commitment to their own ongoing learning and growth that eventually infuse larger change efforts’ (p. 28). Some elements of this new types of leadership are suggested in Table 6.1.

6.2.1

Developing C21st Public Service Leadership

Identifying and describing C21st leadership is one thing; articulating how leaders can be most effectively developed is another question entirely. For this it is helpful to turn to a parallel literature on adult learning; in particular, that which focuses on contexts that have characteristics similar to those faced by contemporary public servants.

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Table 6.1 Elements of twenty first century leadership It’s more than one organization

It’s more than one person

It’s based on interdependency

It’s about passion

It’s about creating compelling narratives (not a vision….)

Effective leadership amidst VUCA requires a twenty first century public service leader to be comfortable ‘leading beyond authority’ across organizational and geopolitical boundaries, professional disciplines and a host of organizational and stakeholder cultures. Skills, attitudes and behaviors that support this type of leadership might include: an appetite for risk; the ability to see multiple perspectives; the capacity for deep listening; the ability to influence, persuade and negotiate; and the willingness to cede and share power and resources Leadership in a complex system requires multiple decisions at multiple points; it requires an abundance of leadership, not a single leader. Distributed leadership, with its merging network of interacting individuals drawing on a variety of expertise spread across many people, provides a more helpful guide for the twenty first century public servant than hero leadership. It also acts as a helpful corrective to the reflexive resort to hierarchy As in an orchestra, so in a complex system the interactions between the parts are more significant for overall outcomes than the performance of any single entity. The conductor may be given a formal role guided by the score, and players may bring specific expertise, but the final result rests on the interdependencies between every member of the orchestra. Likewise, twenty first century public servant leadership requires effective interdependencies between multiple actors to enable the development of solutions to systemic challenges not evident to any of them individually. Only in this way is it possible to lead for the health of the whole system rather than pursuing symptomatic fixes to individual problems. This approach requires trust and humility to recognise the value of what others can offer There is an emotional or spiritual aspect to leadership in complex systems that can be described as a “heartset” (Welbourn 2015). The importance of intrinsic motivation in making change is emerging as ‘reform’ leadership in New Zealand where they reflect on the need for passion to achieve reform; to make a break with the past, instill passion in others to break and remake something (UNDP 2016) Acting as a ‘narrative weaver’ (see Chap. 4) is amongst the most necessary and most demanding skills. Narrative aspects of leadership might include the ability to mobilize multiple actors in a system, to make sense of complexity without resorting to heroic simplification, to craft coherent narratives that allow interdependent strategies, visions and goals to nest together within a common purpose, to name difficult truths, and to use the tension between vision and reality to inspire new forms of action

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6.2.1.1

Horizontal and Vertical Development

The dominant paradigm for professional learning and development rests on four basic approaches: individual skill development; socialization of corporate vision and values; strategic interventions that support change management; and targeted action learning (Conger 2010). The first three of these tend to support what is known as horizontal rather than vertical development. Horizontal development focuses on the acquisition of more knowledge, skills and competencies; for example, developing technical knowledge on procurement, commissioning or child protection. More broadly, it might include developing a deeper appreciation of the nature of complex systems in theory and the skills needed to apply them in practice; for example developing a fuller appreciation of the central role of the ‘boundary spanner’ in complex systems. Whilst this kind of horizontal development is an essential part of the development of 21st century leaders, it does not address a fundamental dilemma: what if the problem is not a lack of knowledge or skills but an inability effectively to apply them? What if, as Nick Petrie puts it, ‘they already know it, they just can’t be it?’ (2013a). Research based on adult learning provides insight into this dilemma. We now know that mental development continues through adulthood, though at variable speeds. This means that different adults will apply different levels of ‘mental complexity’ (Kegan and Leahy 2009) or ‘action logics’ (Fisher et al. 2003) depending on their level of vertical development. Where horizontal development is the acquisition of additional knowledge, skills and competencies, vertical development is the ability to use the knowledge, skills and competencies already gained with a greater degree of mental sophistication and complexity. The precise typologies vary but the core insight is the same: later stages of mental development are a pre-requisite for effectively operating in VUCA contexts. Yet it seems that fewer than half of the population (including the graduate population) are operating with a level of mental complexity that would provide them with the necessary capacities (Kegan and Leahy 2009). The implication for twenty first century leadership development is profound. While interventions designed to support horizontal development may be necessary, they will not be sufficient; interventions will need to be designed to support vertical development as well. Box 6.1 sets out such an example. Box 6.1: Heat experiences There is debate in the literature about the precise circumstances in which professionals learn to operate effectively amidst greater complexity and uncertainty (McCall 2010). However, a consistent finding is that vertical learning is more likely to take place in situations where a degree of disorientation disrupts habitual thinking patterns. These are what Petrie calls ‘heat experiences’ (Petrie 2013b). For leaders to experience vertical development they need to be confronted by a situation in which the paucity of their existing mental model is revealed and the process of adopting or adapting to a new

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mental model that more accurately reflects the complexity they are experiencing can take place. Given the VUCA nature of the contexts in which twenty first century public servants are operating it is reasonable to ask why rapid vertical development is not more common. In part this may simply be a function of time: vertical development is a feature of adult mental development and there is a limit to which it can be accelerated. However, it also seems likely that the necessary ‘holding environment’ (Heifetz et al. 2009) to support vertical development is insufficiently understood, meaning that the opportunity for vertical learning can be lost.

6.2.1.2

Holding Environments for Supporting the Development of Twenty First Century Public Leadership

There has been relatively little research on this specific question of what constitute effective holding environments for the kind of vertical learning described above. However, the experience of two recent approaches in the UK provide some insights. Local Vision and Leadership for Change were distinct programs that resulted from a collaboration of the main agencies with responsibility for leadership and development across public services in the UK (Vize 2016a, b). Both sought to apply insights from systems thinking to supporting change and leadership development, combining place-based work with team and individual development. In total over 400 people in over 60 different localities participated in the programs. Four elements stand out as enabling vertical learning and development. Grounding the learning in ‘real work’ Both programs situated learning in relation to active systemic challenges that small groups of public service leaders were seeking to address together. It seems that situating learning ‘about’ leadership in complex systems alongside the practice within a real complex system created valuable learning opportunities. In some cases, this seems to have allowed for shifts not only in individual but also in collective or shared leadership behaviors: “No-one had thought about ceding leadership, or sharing leadership, and what this might mean. The programme helped surface these issues in a way that simply wouldn’t have been possible or happened otherwise.” (Vize 2016b, p. 7). Sense-making and Reflective Practice Both programs emphasized sense-making and reflective practice. A variety of approaches were used, including team and one-to-one coaching, individual reflective practice and peer feedback. This element of the ‘holding environment’ seems to have provided the opportunity for participants to begin to make sense of their

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experience using more elevated levels of ‘mental complexity’ and ‘action logics’. For some, this shift was relatively basic, e.g. a growing capacity to observe multiple perspectives in the system. For others this seems to have supported the capacity to ‘see’ more of the system. In at least one case this seems to have resulted in a paradigm-shifting understanding of the nature of leadership in their system: “[Our approach now emphasises] the importance of ‘leadership in a system’ as opposed to ‘system leaders’” (Vize 2016b, p. 11). Paying attention to the ‘emotional labor’ Working in complex systems amidst VUCA is intellectually demanding and often emotionally draining. The term ‘emotional labor’ is sometimes used to describe this aspect of the work of public servants (see Chap. 3 for definition). Within the programs, naming and giving validity to the experience of emotional labor seems to have been significant: “the program as a whole acted as a reminder that you could be different, and human, and still be a leader, and that change can start anywhere” (Vize 2016b, p. 9). Similarly, the simple practice of having a regular space (either literal or metaphorical) to debrief with peers provided a degree of emotional release. It is not possible to claim that these holding environments were either decisive in enabling learning and development for the participants in these programs, or that they would work for all such attempts at leadership development amidst complexity. However, they do represent an attempt to design leadership development interventions that seek to work with what is known about the nature of complex systems and the kind of development (particularly vertical) that may be required. For some at least, the overall effect was not only professionally but also personally powerful. One participant described Leadership for Change as “a life changing program for me; a personal journey of connecting more powerfully to my values and purpose” (Vize 2016b, p. 11). However, given our earlier reflections on how creative arts provide useful metaphors for leadership in complexity, we could in future look to develop more creative holding environments, that reflect the ‘off stage’ nature of music rehearsals, or theatre workshops which enable practitioners to prepare themselves out of sight of the audience so that they can meet the challenges of a performance or exhibition.

6.3

Conclusion

We have sought to strengthen the case that the traditional notion of heroic leadership is no longer fit for purpose within the complex adaptive system of public services. We argue for the need for a new type of twenty first century public leadership, which spans organizations and incorporates a range of individuals with complex interdependencies, whose passion and ability to create a compelling narrative will help others to achieve change. To nurture and develop these new leaders requires different, more creative programs that support vertical learning in a range of holding environments that ground the experience in real work, enable them to make sense of the situation, and to enable them to sustain themselves through the inevitable emotional

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labor of their work. We suggest that programs could go further and incorporate the lessons from creative arts and reflect the off stage, emergent nature of rehearsals. In this way, we can prepare our twenty first century leaders for a world that is more rave than waltz, more bebop than Bach, more Pollock than Rembrandt.

References Allison, S. T., & Cecilione, J. L. (2016). Paradoxical truths in heroic leadership: Implications for leadership development and effectiveness. Richmond: University of Richmond. Battilana, J., & Casicaro, T. (2013). The network secrets of great change agents. Boston: Harvard Business Review. Barber, H. F. (1992). Developing strategic leadership: The US army war college experience. Journal of Management Development, 11(6), 4–12. Bennett, N., & Lemoine, G. J. (2014). What a difference a word makes: Understanding threats to performance in a VUCA world. Business Horizons, 57(3), 311–317. Conger, J. A. (2010). Leadership development interventions: Ensuring a return on the investment. In N. Nohria, & R. Khurana (Eds.), Handbook of leadership theory and practice. HBS. Drysdale, L., Bennett, J., Murakami, E. T., Johansson, O., & Gurr, D. (2014). Heroic leadership in Australia, Sweden, and the United States. International Journal of Educational Management, 28(7), 785–797. Fish, S., & Hardy, M. (2015). Complex issues, complex solutions: Applying complexity theory in social work practice. Nordic Social Work Research, 5(sup1), 98–114. Fisher, D., Rooke, D., & Torbert, B. (2003). Personal and organisational transformations through action inquiry. Edge/Work Press. Ghate, D., Lewis, J., & Welbourn, D. (2013). Systems Leadership: Exceptional leadership for exceptional times, a synthesis paper, Virtual Staff College, Nottingham. Granovetter, M. S. (1973). The strength of weak ties. American Journal of Sociology, 78(6), 1360–1380. Grint, K. (2000). The arts of leadership. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Grint, K. (2005). Problems, problems, problems: The social construction of “leadership”. Human Relations, 58(11), 1467–1494. Heifetz, R. (1994). Leadership without easy answers. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Heifetz, R., & Laurie, D. (1997). The work of leadership. Harvard Business Review, 75(1), 124–134. Heifetz, R. A., Grashow, A., & Linsky, M. (2009). The practice of adaptive leadership: Tools and tactics for changing your organization and the world. Harvard Business Press. Holland, J. H. (2006). Studying complex adaptive systems. Journal of Systems Science and Complexity, 19(1), 1–8. Kegan, R., & Lahey, L. (2009). Immunity to change. HBS. McCall, M. W. (2010). The experience conundrum. In N. Nohria, & R. Khurana (Eds.), Handbook of leadership theory and practice. HBS. Meadows, D. H. (2009). Thinking in systems: A primer. UK: Earthscan. Moore, M. H. (1997) Creating Public Value: Strategic Management in Government. Harvard University Press Morse, A (2017) Health and social care integration, National Audit Office, London. Needham, C., & Mangan, C. (2014). The 21st century public servant. Birmingham: University of Birmingham. Peck, E., & Dickinson, H. (2009). Performing leadership. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Petrie, N. (2013a). Vertical leadership development—Part 1. Developing Leaders for a Complex World. Center for Creative Leadership. Petrie, N. (2013b). The how-to of vertical leadership development—Part 2. 30 Experts, 3 Conditions, 15 Approaches. Center for Creative Leadership.

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Ropo, A., & Sauer, E. (2008). Dances of leadership: Bridging theory and practice through an aesthetic approach. Journal of Management & Organization, 14(5), 560–572. Safian, R. (2012). This is generation flux: Meet the pioneers of the new (and chaotic) frontier of business. Fast Company, 162. Senge, P., Hamilton, H., & Kania, J. (2015). The dawn of system leadership. Stanford Social Innovation Review, 13(1), 27–33. Snowden, D., & Bone, M. (2007). A leader’s framework for decision making. Bostan: Harvard Business Review. Taylor, F. W. (1919). The principles of scientific management. Harper & brothers. Tizard, J. (2012). The challenges and opportunities in contemporary public sector leadership. The International Journal of Leadership in Public Services, 8, 182–190. UNDP Global Centre for Public Service Excellence. (2016). New Public Passion, Reflections from New Zealand on Public Service Reform. Singapore. Van Der Wal, Z. (2017). The 21st century public manager. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Virtual Staff College. (2013). Systems leadership: Exceptional leadership for exceptional times, a synthesis paper. http://www.virtualstaffcollege.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/VUCA_publish.pdf. Vize, R. (2016a). The Revolution will be Improvised. A report for the Systems Leadership Steering Group. Vize, R. (2016b). Stories from Leadership for Change. A report for the Leadership for Change Steering Group. Welbourn, D. (2015). Leadership in a contested space: A review of literature and research. Nottingham. Available at www.virtualstaffcollege.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/VUCA_publish.pdf. Accessed January 2018.

Catherine Mangan is Director of the Public Services Academy and Director of the Institute for Local Government Studies at the University of Birmingham. She has a particular research interest in delivering change within the public sector; specifically, the integration of health and social care, developing the skills and roles of the future workforce and place based leadership. She is a qualified coach and teaches on a number of executive development programmes for local government and public health. She is currently researching the impact of social care market shaping on personalisation. Catherine teaches on the Department’s Masters programmes in Public Management and Public Administration and co-convenes programmes on integrating health and social care and international public management. She writes regularly for academic journals and the professional press. Chris Lawrence-Pietroni is Co-Director of Leading Communities. His work focuses on leadership and change in complex systems with a particular interest in applying and adapting insights from social movements and adaptive leadership. In addition to academic teaching, Chris consults extensively in the UK, Europe and the US working across public, private, voluntary and community bodies seeking to support progress on complex social challenges. In 2016 Chris was a Teaching Fellow at the Harvard Kennedy School working as a member of Prof Ron Heifetz’s Adaptive Leadership teaching team and he has been a coach on the Harvard Kennedy School’s Leadership in the 21st Century Executive Education Program. He has collaborated extensively with Prof Marshall Ganz drawing on insights and frameworks from social movements. Chris is a Senior Associate Fellow at the Institute of Local Government Studies at the University of Birmingham where he runs the Leadership in Public Services module on the M.Sc. in Public Management and is a Faculty member on the National Graduate Development Programme for Local Government. Chris is also an Associate with the King’s Fund working primarily on health and social care systems change.

Chapter 7

Empathy, Ethics and Efficiency: Twenty First Century Capabilities for Public Managers Barry Quirk

7.1

Introduction

Over the next thirty years to 2050, public sector leaders and managers will need dramatically to develop their capabilities if they are to keep ahead of the demands and pressures that they and their organizations will face. Three capabilities will need to come to the fore over the next period. There will be a greater need for public servants to demonstrate empathy in their work; they will need to apply more nuanced ethical approaches to solving public problems and dilemmas; and finally, they will need to take ever more efficient approaches to allocating public goods and securing public services. In many ways these three capabilities (of empathy, ethics and efficiency) reflect ancient civic virtues. These virtues were thought essential to cultivate habits of personal conduct of those in public life. This ancient form of civic republicanism aimed to develop constructive styles of citizenship and enable “other directed” behavior for achieving outcomes for the common good (Dagger 1997). But these ancient civic virtues urgently need to be re-imagined for the twenty first century. In advanced democracies, public services that were first developed in the late nineteenth century were re-purposed after the Second World War to meet new generational needs. Some three generations later they require re-purposing again, this time to meet the dynamic needs of the twenty first century (Quirk 2011). Public servants need to re-imagine these civic virtues so as to develop new paths of empathy in public life; they need to form new styles of public ethics; and they need to steward public resources with greater disciplines of efficiency. The quintessence of public life ought to be its focus on the “common good”, while the focus of public service ought to be found in its “other directedness”. The best public institutions or agencies are those that are centered on the needs and B. Quirk (&) Council of Goldsmiths, University of London, London, UK e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 H. Dickinson et al. (eds.), Reimagining the Future Public Service Workforce, SpringerBriefs in Political Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1480-3_7

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preferences of the public. Public agencies should not be focused on their own internally generated institutional needs and wants. Public managers and public sector staff need to be less attentive to the internal dynamics of their organization and avoid the almost inevitable professional self-regard that stems from the pervasive character of high order professional codes. To achieve this, public leaders and managers need to heighten their compassion and deepen their empathy. But empathy has its limits as a moral compass for public leaders. We have a strong tendency to empathize with those closest to us. Developing empathy for everyone equally may be an ideal standard, but in practice it is beyond the reach of even the most altruistic public leader. Second, we need to develop a better and more appropriate ethics for public action, ethical approaches that apply to the particular challenges of public life in real world circumstances. Better ethical practice applies with respect to the conduct of individuals in the public sector but it also applies to the way in which public decision making is exercised and the way in which public goods and services are allocated. Third, in a climate of increasingly scarce public resources, public services will need to exhibit the highest standards of responsiveness and productivity, at the lowest possible cost to the taxpayer. This is not simply because of the public sector austerity programs that have been adopted by some governments, in the aftermath of the global financial crash, to reduce the scale of their public sector debt and national deficits. It is also because the most developed welfare states in the world tend to be in those nations that have growing and ageing populations. The ratio of working age taxpayers to those dependent upon them (whether they are young or elderly) is at its lowest in these nations. Hence there is a need in advanced democracies for a continuing focus on improving the overall efficiency of their governmental sectors. This chapter sets out why these three capabilities of empathy, ethics and efficiency are so important and it also seeks to explain how public managers can develop these capabilities.

7.2

Present Trends, Future Challenges

In the so-called advanced economies, a good deal of the infrastructure and facilities of the public sector (roads, railways, water and drainage systems, power systems, and even many of the schools and hospitals) was developed in the late nineteenth century. By contrast, most of what we now consider as being public services were actually designed in the mid twentieth century. Very many of today’s public services were designed at a time when no one had a television, when few had washing machines and most people bought their food every day locally because few people had a refrigerator at home. The character of private consumption has changed beyond all recognition since that time, and yet so many public services remain trapped in the past. The central issue of the next thirty years will be how economic and demographic shifts combine with the global information revolution to shape the operating context for government and public services.

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Towards 2050, public sector managers will need to become more like civic entrepreneurs, helping communities and politicians solve problems, grasp opportunities and reconcile social dilemmas. They will increasingly be called upon to shape better public outcomes not through the direct action of the state but through fostering greater social innovation and encouraging more community based action. For the past thirty years a new public management (NPM) approach, among other things, disrupted conventional public sector organizational design, and replaced it with mixed economies of service provision and the creation of contested public service quasi-markets. Some argue that this managerialist period (which remains dominant) was a necessary phase for modernizing public services. Others consider the period to have generated much activity without delivering substantial efficiencies to taxpayers (Hood and Dixon 2015). In the mid-1980s Michael Ignatieff warned powerfully about how welfare provision and state services had served to wall citizens off from each other. He argued that the needs of strangers were met through a mediated web of state relationships that anonymized care and compassion and that this institutionalization of empathy may have undermined the very collectivism that state provision was designed to realize (Ignatieff 1984). As we stand together in line at the post office, while they cash their pension cheques, some tiny portion of my income is transferred into their pockets through the numberless capillaries of the state. The mediated quality of our relationship seems necessary to both of us. They are dependent on the state, not upon me, and we are both glad of it. Yet I am also aware of how this mediation walls us off from each other. We are responsible for each other, but we are not responsible to each other.

Of course, the detachment of those who are net contributors to the welfare state and those who are its principal beneficiaries has worsened considerably since Ignatieff’s warning in the 1980s. By the early part of the twenty first century, the rise of digital era public services, means that we no longer stand together in lines at the post office. Indeed, we barely rub shoulders in the same supermarkets. From the 1980s onwards, a lot of the focus of public agencies was on “delivering” public projects and/or public services. By the 1990s it became evident that the role of the public sector was as much about “solving problems” as it was about delivering projects and services. The adoption of problem solving approaches therefore augmented, rather than replaced, public institution’s core infrastructure and service delivery purposes. However, problem solving approaches emphasize problem identification, pragmatic strategy and managerial craft more than plan-based management methods. Problem solving requires a culture of curiosity and discovery as well as a more experimental approach to service design and delivery. During this period, the foundations of evidence-led approaches to public policy were developed. However, by the year 2000 there was a growing acknowledgement (principally through the use of advanced risk management techniques) that those economic, environmental and social problems that are demanding of public action are situated within highly complex systems that are not impacted by simple managerial action.

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Singular focused management action on, say, mental health problems in communities are bound to be less effective than when efforts are coordinated across many institutions and within communities themselves. It therefore became widely recognized that more systemic and adaptive approaches are required. From this recognition, new approaches emerged about how to initiate positive change across systems, and how to respond to changes in complex systems, where no one institution could “solve the problem” on its own. These systemic approaches to social change have moved public managers into yet another phase. As Matthew Taylor, of the Royal Society of Arts, argues, “effective public leaders need to think like a system, and act like an entrepreneur” (Taylor 2016). Managing services better and solving problems more effectively is still not enough. This is because societies still suffer substantial social problems, and because public institutions still deliver services that are sub-optimally effective. And there are very many unresolved (and newly created) social and ethical dilemmas across modern societies. Social dilemmas occur in a range of generic situations where individuals fail to engage in cooperative behavior and instead pursue selfish actions resulting in losses to everyone. These dilemmas usually arise in situations where too many individuals choose to pursue their own interests in using a common resource, rather than behave in the group or community’s best long-term interests. There are very many forms of these dilemmas in modern societies, and they constantly arise when states pursue public action (Ostrom 1990). If the state doesn’t act on everyone’s behalf (a prevailing solution in the twentieth century), the question becomes, “How is it possible to get everyone to act for the common good?” One answer lies in public leadership that helps people and communities resolve these dilemmas amongst themselves. It is therefore likely that the next phase of public service management will require a deeper degree of leadership across systems. It will require not only a broader set of management skills but also a wider repertoire of leadership capabilities. It is likely to require an appreciation of how best to anticipate adverse and unintended effects across systems, and how best to create preparedness and readiness in public institutions, as well as the insight to help people and communities resolve social dilemmas. Over the next thirty years it is highly likely that the broad contours of what constitutes the accepted realm of governmental action in “the public interest” will alter dramatically. Public service leaders and managers may well move their focus from delivering services and projects to solving social and economic problems, and also to helping people and communities reconcile their complex social dilemmas. One way of doing this is to help people shape their collective future collaboratively. This requires moving beyond professionally based scenario forecasting to engaging with the public directly. Future forecasting is often little more than a passive activity involving adding extrapolations to current trends. And in very many cases, expert forecasters have been shown to have no greater predictive capabilities than would occur through random chance. However, large facilitated groups of citizens interested in building better futures could harness their own talents, energies and collective capabilities, rather than rely on experts (Tetlock and Gardner 2015).

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And in shifting the focus of their attention, from delivering service change to enabling social change, public leaders and managers will need to develop their capabilities in public engagement and community dialogue. More broadly, the contours of acceptable governmental action vary from nation to nation and rest upon differing cultural assumptions about human nature and the extent to which individual agency should be bound by the collective goals of the nation state. Deep differences across nations stem from the extent to which the competing political philosophies of individualism and collectivism are successful in shaping public sentiment. More generally, day to day public attitudes toward government reflect the changing balance between what appears to be an ever declining deference to authority (Nevitte 1996) and an accompanying, if episodic, rise of social and community action (Taylor 2014; Parker 2015). The decline of formal trust in government and politics can be demonstrated across most advanced economies (Evans et al. 2016; Ipsos 2016; Pew Research 2015). However, cross-national research on this issue appears to show that this trend may not to be related to a generalized decline in social trust but more specifically to declining confidence in public institutions (Newton and Norris 1999). This may itself partly reflect the “hollowing out” of democratic party politics, the rejection of the adversarial character of modern party politics, or it may be related to more structural and generational changes in party identification and alignment (Mair 2014). Whatever the sources of this declining trust and confidence in government, politics and public institutions, the consequences were evident in 2016 when a tide of electoral populism rose against established political elites in both the UK (with the Brexit vote) and in the USA (with the election of President Donald Trump). These electoral outcomes reflect a mix of economic and cultural insurgency against established political incumbents. They may also reflect a deeper form of electoral complacency that stems from the apparent insulation from risk of war and catastrophe (Ganesh 2017). The extent to which these recent electoral outcomes and the more general rise in populism will have long term consequences is yet uncertain. But the problem with trust and confidence in government politics and public institutions, and what has been termed a generalised “truth decay”, needs to be urgently addressed (Kavanagh and Rich 2018). The public’s needs, wants, demands and preferences for public services are best understood as being liquid: they are ever changing. By contrast, the public institutions that are designed to meet these needs, wants, demands and preferences seem to be frozen. Changing them is very difficult. The institutions themselves have rigid boundaries and contain very large sunk costs which hamper their ability to be agile and adaptive (most usually in the form of the redundancy costs of those people employed in them). Of course, it remains true that a demanding group of service users, a positively supportive citizenry, a group of committed politicians and progressively minded public managers, when acting in concert, can achieve significant changes in public service delivery. But mostly, change appears glacial. That’s because it requires an alignment of progressive motivations and the highly unusual absence of the negative impediments to change, as well as the absence of any forces of inertia (such as vested interests and politically agreed policy “lock-ins”).

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These problems are more difficult in advanced economies with their highly developed pattern of public welfare provision. That’s because to commission the new, they first need to de-commission the old. That sounds straightforward when expressed in these terms. But decommissioning schools, police stations, hospitals, libraries and existing services for, say the very elderly or for young children, poses obvious and serious political challenges. Moreover, those who benefit from existing provision are usually more vocal than those who gain from new styles of provision. As Niccolò Machiavelli famously observed in The Prince: We must bear in mind, then, that there is nothing more difficult and dangerous, or more doubtful of success, than an attempt to introduce a new order of things in any state. For the innovator has for enemies all those who derived advantages from the old order of things, whilst those who expect to be benefited by the new institutions will be but lukewarm defenders. (1950)

There are very many drivers of change in the public sector workplace. These include changes to political accountability; changes to organizational form; changes to the character of knowledge and professional codes of action; and changes to the social media ecology in which work is to be conducted in the future. The thrust of the argument in the remainder of this chapter is that the challenges that will persist for public sector managers into the longer term are the desire for greater levels of empathy, the demands for better ethics, and the continued requirement of stricter disciplines for improved efficiency.

7.3

The Desire for Empathy

As robots and automation take over the routinized aspects of future work, and supplant humans from the drudgery of mechanistic roles at work, humans will increasingly be freed to do what only they can do—provide authentic connection to other humans. This is particularly so in those public services that are heavily people dependent, such as education, health care and social care. Over several decades, many of these services have become enmeshed in processes and techniques that have served to wall off the service provider from the service user. The extent to which automation and robotization will lead to people being freed to perform uniquely human tasks of care, empathy and compassion is at present a highly speculative point. The advent of the technological “singularity” (when artificial general intelligence is expected to match general human intelligence) is causing severe arguments amongst utopian and dystopian futurologists. The transformation of work through greater technical substitution is inevitable; the issue, however, is whether this will enable public services to be more humanized or whether the experience of them will be more anaesthetized (Chace 2016). In respect of their connection with government and public service, people desire human attachment and connection; while too often their modern day experience is that the front line staff whom they encounter seem trapped in computer systems and paper-based form filling. Too many public services have been designed for robustness and reliability and not sufficiently for authentic engagement. As a result, those providing these services too often appear to lack compassion or sympathy.

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For several hundred years “sympathy” was the word used when referring to people’s capacity to understand and appreciate the feelings of others. It was used by Adam Smith in his “theory of moral sentiments” (Smith 2010): How selfish soever man may be supposed, there are evidently some principles in his nature, which interest him in the fortune of others, and render their happiness necessary to him, though he derives nothing from it, except the pleasure of seeing it.

In modern times, the word sympathy has narrowed to convey commiseration, pity, or feelings of sorrow for someone who is experiencing hardship or misfortune. Instead the word “empathy” has taken on the broader meaning of other-regard. The word was first used by the psychologist Edward Titchener in the early twentieth century. Nowadays it is used to imply an understanding of the emotions and agency of others—having the ability to stand in another’s shoes. In this modern meaning it is therefore an essential capability for public servants, whether elected or appointed. Cognitive empathy, sometimes referred to as “perspective taking”, is the understanding of other people’s emotions and feelings. It is possible to understand the feelings of others so as to manipulate them for one’s own purposes or to help them achieve their own purposes. Cognitive empathy is therefore a morally neutral capacity. By contrast, affective empathy involves the internalization of other people’s emotions and feelings (Baron-Cohen 2012; de Waal 2010). It is only when moderate affective empathy is combined with a drive to achieve progressive social change that it can begin to generate morally purposeful other-regarding behavior. Possessing a sense of empathy moderates our self-interest and ego. The struggle for material and positional goods (to satisfy the demands of our egos) may be a psychological feature of the drive for achievement amongst humans, but the desire for attachment to and empathy from others is equally strong. Ego may be the source of human ambition and hence at the heart of competition, but empathy is the principle source of human cooperation. And this is another reason why the development of empathy is so important for the future development of government and public service, for cooperative endeavor is central to public action at all levels of government. Cooperation is plainly a core aspect of the human condition, but cooperative behaviors can also be taught. In a groundbreaking book on game theory and the sources of cooperation, the American political scientist Robert Axelrod (1984) suggested the following five step process for teaching people about the benefits of cooperative behavior: 1. “Enlarge the shadow of the future”—mutual cooperation is stable if the future is sufficiently important relative to the present 2. Change the “payoffs” so that non-cooperation is more heavily penalized 3. Teach people to care about the welfare of others 4. Teach people about the benefits of reciprocity 5. Improve people’s abilities to recognize the pattern of other people’s responses so as to sustain long-run cooperation The simple application of this five-step approach would require public institutions to improve the cognitive dimension of their institutional empathy, for they

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would need to work out how they can frame issues differently so as to influence people’s behavior. This application of behavioral economics and social psychology to public policy is best seen in “nudge theory” (Thaler and Sunstein 2008). By altering people’s “choice architecture” Thaler and Sunstein argued that it is possible to alter people’s actual choices, at reasonably low cost, so that they make “pro-social” and not “anti-social” choices. The style of interventions suggested by Thaler and Sunstein has had a profound impact on public policy. Behavioral insight is at the center of service design and public policy development, and it has found receptive policy agendas in the UK, USA and in Australia. It is likely that behavioral insight studies will colour and add nuance to service design and public policy for the next few decades. However, the idea of state sponsored “pro-social” behavior itself raises ethical considerations. When does information that influences behavior become manipulative; when does it lose touch with agreed truths and serve the interests of those publicizing the information; and when does it become in danger of being coercive? These abstract questions can only be addressed practically. States already impose fines, bans, and sanctions on citizens for a range of behaviors. Framing choices for the public so that they recycle more paper and glass, drive their cars more carefully, and take fewer risky recreational drugs may seem innocuous. But framing other choices may seem more manipulative if they also challenge established social or cultural norms. Sunstein himself considers that these ethical questions about nudge policies are best addressed by looking at how, in practical terms, the proposals promote or undermine welfare, autonomy, dignity and self-government (Sunstein 2016). These are essentially “meta-empathy” issues. They describe how public institutions heighten their institutional empathy to foster pro-social behavior among their citizens. But empathy as a personal skill, and the capability of public sector leaders and workers is likely to be in ever greater demand over the coming generation. This will require a deepening of skills based on the existing customer service and public service ethos. The public desire more than a sunny disposition from those who provide their public services. In a fast-paced globalizing world, they desire attachments. Attachments to others, to people who are significant in their lives. And attachments to places that have meaning to the course of their lives. For senior public managers and civil servants, the requirements of political impartiality and the possession of emotional detachment or intellectual “disinterestedness” has been a long cherished standard of conduct. The conventional view for generations was that politicians brought emotion and passion to bear on government and public institutions; professionals brought managerial and policy rationality. This dualism has been essentially retained through the new public management era but it may fail the test of the future. This issue was continually addressed by Barack Obama in his two terms as US President. Indeed, he first used the term “empathy deficit” to describe a moral void in American politics while he was a Senator in 2006. In 2009, President Obama was asked to describe the qualities of the people who he was considering as nominees to the Supreme Court.

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He said: There are many qualities that I admire in judges across the spectrum of judicial philosophy, and that I seek in my own nominee, there are a few that stand out that I just want to mention. First and foremost is a rigorous intellect, a mastery of the law, an ability to hone in on the key issues and provide clear answers to complex legal questions. Second is a recognition of the limits of the judicial role, an understanding that a judge’s job is to interpret, not make law, to approach decisions without any particular ideology or agenda, but rather a commitment to impartial justice, a respect for precedent, and a determination to faithfully apply the law to the facts at hand. These two qualities are essential, I believe, for anyone who would sit on our nation’s highest court. And yet these qualities alone are insufficient. We need something more. For as Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes once said, the life of the law has not been logic, it has been experience; experience being tested by obstacles and barriers, by hardship and misfortune; experience insisting, persisting, and ultimately overcoming those barriers. It is experience that can give a person a common touch and a sense of compassion, an understanding of how the world works and how ordinary people live. (2009)

Obama’s suggestion is that first-hand experience can better one’s understanding of how others live. Crucially, Obama does not imply that one’s capacity to “feel the pain of others” (a phrase more associated with President Clinton) is the critical factor. That’s probably because affective empathy has limitations in its application to making judgments in the public interest. Some argue that encouraging the “empathy instinct” inevitably results in better civil and public outcomes (Bazalgette 2017). But this is contrary to the evidence that humans empathize more strongly with others who are close to them and with whom they can identify. In this way affective empathy has an obvious “spotlight effect” in that it focusses our attention on people like ourselves. The psychologist Paul Bloom cogently argues that empathy “does poorly in a world where there are many people in need and where the effects of one’s actions are diffuse, often delayed, and difficult to compute, a world in which an act that helps one person in the here and now can lead to greater suffering in the future” (Bloom 2016). We could conclude that while improved empathy amongst public institutions and public leaders may heighten the quality and responsiveness of public services, it may worsen their decision making. Empathic responses may be authentic but they are as likely to be impulsive, irrational and emotive. As Bloom argues our compassion needs to be rationally based in the needs, wants and preferences of the public rather than our emotional connections to them. Addressing the desire for greater empathy will only take us so far; we need also to meet the growing demand for better public ethics.

7.4

The Demands of Ethics

In government and public service, ends and means are intertwined and are equally important. A search for ends involves being clear about goals and intended results and about focusing on impact, outcomes and consequences. This has been one of the positive consequences of “new public management” approaches: a focus on positive impact and social results. This has been a healthy corrective to an approach which simply sought to manage and sustain public sector activities. However, in

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government, ends are always balanced with means. That’s because in taking public interest questions forward, issues of procedural justice, fairness, equity and due process are critical. There are three layers of analysis for considering ethics in government and the public sector. The first involves the encouragement of good personal conduct (of elected politicians as well as appointed public service managers). At this personal level, the key questions involve integrity and character—about the personal qualities of being honest, trustworthy and dependable. Second is the organizational layer of public ethics. Public institutions need to adopt practices and cultural norms that establish fairness and good conduct within and across their institutions. The first test of this is the demonstrable absence of any abuse of public authority (Rothstein and Varraich 2017). This is especially important when public institutions occupy quasi-monopolistic positions in respect of public issues. In these circumstances it is critical that public authority is exercised with humility and in ways that are not self-regarding and are instead clearly other-regarding. The ultimate test for public institutions is the extent to which their actions enable them to be considered as “trustworthy” by their service users as well as by citizens generally. Third is the decision making layer of public institutions. Ethical demands require public interest decisions to be made thoroughly and coherently. These demands will vary from agency to agency. Single purpose agencies (dealing with say, public transport, fire and rescue services or environmental protection) face different challenges from those public institutions with multi-purpose mandates (such as regional or local governments). The contexts in which they operate will differ considerably, from young communities in high-growth inner city areas, to ageing populations living amidst suburban sprawl, as well as to dispersed communities living in peri-urban and more rural contexts. But whatever the context, the challenge for public institutions will be how to respond to the demands for public reason; how to balance individual rights with group rights; and how to choose between competing claims for common resources. Figure 7.1 illustrates how ethical considerations differ depending upon the functional purpose of the public decisions concerned, as well as on the varied contexts in which the public institution is acting. For example, the governance and management of social care and health care services will require ethical decision-making based principally upon human rights considerations. In this case, ethics involves the balancing of individual rights with other social norms and rights (such as minority group rights). By comparison, judgments about access to public infrastructure and common pool resources or services require ethical considerations to focus on estimating fair shares of costs and benefits (now and in the future). Public organisations that serve to meet particular needs (such as child protection) will base much of their approach to fairness on rule based approaches to assessing needs, establishing thresholds and so on. Other public organisations that serve to develop public infrastructure and set physical planning frameworks will base their approach to fairness on assessments of the consequences of differing options. For those public institutions that need to make decisions that result in allocating public goods or arbitrating between competing claims, different ethical

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Fig. 7.1 Public ethics: depends on functions and context

considerations are required. In these cases, these public institutions need to balance factors of comparative utility, contribution, consequence and, sometimes even virtue (or deserts). More generally, politicians and public managers will need to know what approach best delivers fairness and justice in which public circumstance. When are rule based approaches more relevant than consideration of consequences; and when are virtue based approaches relevant? Generalized demands for “fairness” mask highly complex questions. These include whether public institutions are evaluating public preferences and values, and whether competing claims on public resources are commensurable (Sen 2009; Hausman 2012). These are complex issues that arise from the enormous difference between two very straightforward questions: “Which option is better for me personally?” and “Which option is better for everyone, all things considered?”

Amartya Sen illustrates the ethical challenge about delivering justice with a short thought experiment. Imagine three children arguing over who should possess a flute. Anne says the flute should be given to her because she is the only one who knows how to play it. Bob says the flute should be handed to him as he lives in a very poor family and he has no toys nor musical instruments to play with. Carla says the flute should be hers because she made it. Sen argues that who gets the flute depends on your philosophy of justice. Bob, the poorest, will have the support of the economic egalitarian. The libertarian would opt for Carla. The utilitarian will argue for Anne because she will get the maximum pleasure, as she can actually play the instrument. Sen suggests that these are incommensurable claims and institutional arrangements are of limited use in helping us resolve this dispute in a universally acceptable and just manner. Algorithms cannot resolve incommensurable claims or incompatible values—that’s why we need elected politicians to reconcile differences and enable ethically based compromises to be achieved. In a crowded future of increasing social diversity and competing claims for public resources, the demands of public ethics will come to the forefront of

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governmental challenges. Ethical fairness involves more than “treating everyone the same” or simply being “consistent”. Ethical fairness is at the center of politics and at the heart of public action. It will therefore be a central requirement for the skills and capabilities in the future public leaders. Generalized and abstract principles are useful starting points, but they need to be situated in the practical considerations that confront public leaders. Thus while the following five ethical principles can act as a useful compass for public decision making, they need to be made practical in the real world of public challenge and action (King 2008): 1. treat people as ends not means: treat people according to their own wants and intentions and not by what you think others want of them 2. promote autonomy: let people chose for themselves unless you can be absolutely sure that you know their interests better than they can 3. selflessness and service: empathize with the needs of others and be true to your obligations to them 4. offer help prudently: provide help to people if the help you give is worth more to them than it is to the public at large (provide help where it is needed, not where it is too difficult to give or where it will be wasted) 5. cooperation and community: encourage people to help each other through fostering mutually reciprocal behavior With public institutions having to grapple with ever more complex ethical questions, they need to develop the ethical capabilities of their leaders, managers and staff, for they will have to demonstrate their impartiality and integrity in dealing with a host of competing partial interests. These include the fairness of public outcomes, measured in the short and longer terms; the fairness of balancing competing claims for resources between the corporate and the civil sectors; as well the due processes of disclosure, openness and transparency when dealing with public interest questions. But being ethical is no defense against charges that the public sector is ineffective and/or inefficient. Cost-efficacy is an essential line. Doing the right thing (choosing the right policy and the right policy instrument) is critical. But over the coming decades doing the right thing in the right way (efficiency) will be ever more important. That’s because in their own lives as consumers and citizens, the public recognizes efficiency and inefficiency in a nano-second. That is why they will be ever more demanding that public institutions conform to the discipline of efficiency.

7.5

The Discipline of Efficiency

With the fiscal constraints on government spending currently in place across many advanced economies, public sector efficiency is becoming a hallmark capability for public managers. The term “efficiency” is used here as a generic term that encompasses approaches to reducing cost, heightening productivity and improving overall economy. It is not used in its narrow term of “technical efficiency” (as a measure of improving the ratio of outputs to inputs). This drive for improved public sector efficiency may have been triggered by the 2008 Global Financial Crash and

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its impact on government indebtedness and public spending deficits. But it is a trend that will continue and accelerate into the future. This is partly for structural reasons to do with public revenues and spending, and partly because of demographic changes within these economies over the coming thirty years. The ageing populations, and dependency ratios that flow from them, will mean that those of working age will need to finance public services (in, say, education and health care) to an ever increasing “dependent” share of the population. What’s more, an increasing proportion of public sector spending will be needed to finance the pension costs of former public sector workers. Together with other structural impacts (such as worker indebtedness arising from prior student loans) this will place ever greater fiscal pressure on public service spending. Efficiency measures are needed to lower the costs as well as heighten the productivity of core public services. A recent report by the UK’s Office for Budget Responsibility (OBR 2017) pointed out that spending on health in the UK has increased by an average of 3.8% a year since 1978, while the economy has grown by just 2.2% a year. But why is this? For almost fifty years economists have discussed the so-called “cost disease”. This asserts that the cost of health care, personal social care, education and the live performing arts inevitably rise at a rate significantly greater than the economy’s rate of inflation. In the 1960s William Baumol studied the rising cost of live performing arts—theatre, music and dance and was struck by the universal upward movement of theatre production costs and ticket prices. The real cost of any commodity is calculated very simply. It is the nominal cost divided by a measure of the average change in cost for all the economy’s commodities (or a representative sample of its commodities, such as a consumer price index). Obviously, some commodities will rise more or less than this average. There is nothing surprising about the fact that some services such as health care have rising real costs, while others such as computers and telecommunications have falling real costs. This is principally because the quantity of labor required to produce these services is difficult to reduce. It is self-evident that some sectors of the economy require more labor than others. This comes as a surprise to anyone who attends a live opera for the first time. They are shocked at the numbers of performers on stage and the numbers of musicians in the orchestra pit. Surely operas can be performed at lower overall cost? Well, the scope for doing so is marginal—there’s only so many parts that one performer or one musician can play at any one time. That is why in 2015 the Royal Opera House in London had a total budget of £125 m and its box office receipts were just £42 m, despite the incredibly high costs of the tickets. And it is why the Sydney Opera House collected A$75 m in its box office but spent a total of A$144 m (Sydney Opera House 2015; Royal Opera House 2016). Health care and social care are like opera, economically. They are labor intensive businesses that employ very many people to provide personal health and social care to other people. Of course, the cost of clinical innovations and new drugs add to the costs—but they also help in reducing costs as well. And of course, health care and social care services are being redesigned and improvements to overall productivity can be achieved. But at the aggregate level it is not arithmetically feasible for productivity to be achieved in health care and social care at a rate higher than it is

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Fig. 7.2 Cost reduction methods in the public sector

for the economy as a whole (Baumol et al. 2013). This truism is why very many attempts at improving public sector efficiency are aimed at reducing staffing levels through service redesign and reshaping the public sector workforce. Other ways of improving efficiency can be achieved through digital transformation programs that enable greater levels of self service; through asset rationalization programs (of depots, offices, plant and redundant front line service points) that reduce the overhead on revenue budgets; and through more focused approaches to commercialization and income generation. Approaches to efficiency that rest on singular solutions are bound to fail. Figure 7.2 is an idealized illustration of the likely pay-off in terms of the relative cost savings that may result from a series of organizational and service changes. For example, de-layering management and other organizational changes are likely to realize cost savings greater than merely applying percentage efficiency targets (which will are subject to a plethora of ratchet and gaming effects). And in some service areas, improvements to supply management (sourcing strategies involving outsourcing, insourcing and co-sourcing) and service commissioning are likely to lower costs less than demand management strategies. Getting 70% of service users to channel shift to digital may save much more than a 20% reduction in supply costs. Again, this abstract principle needs to be tested in the everyday practice of each public service. Costs vary considerably from locality to locality and across functional services, and opportunities for reducing costs and heightening productivity vary according to the scope for practical action. The key point is that public managers will need to sharpen their capabilities with respect to delivering ever more efficient public services. Public revenues will be under enormous pressure over the coming thirty years, and there is raised expectations of public managers to do more for less. In practice they will have to do differently for less. This will require them to develop new commercial and entrepreneurial capabilities. Above all, they will need to embrace the discipline of efficiency.

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Conclusion

The next thirty years (and beyond) will present different challenges to a new generation of public leaders and managers. They will have to operate confidently in a more liquid world. The contours of acceptable government action will inevitably change—but in what direction? We are entering a fog of uncertainties about politics, economics and technological change. And there is an understandable tendency for us to slow down in a fog. But government and public institutions cannot operate in the slow lane while the rest of the world is accelerating. Ways need to be found to develop a pace and rhythm of public sector change that meets the pulse of the people and communities that we serve. This can only be done by reconnecting the people in government and the public sector with those whom they serve, and by vastly improving the development and learning of those employed in the public sector. They need to possess subject matter expertise and to continuously improve their expertise at pace and in depth. But they also need to develop their capabilities in the three “E’s” of empathy, ethics and efficiency. Empathy, ethics and efficiency are not ideal principles to be considered in abstract. They need to be applied practically and in the varied contexts in which public institutions operate. But public leaders and managers will not be capable of leading their institutions and services if they fail to sharpen their capabilities in empathy, ethics and efficiency, not in theory, but in the practical circumstances in which they will need to operate effectively in the future.

References Axelrod, R. (1984). The evolution of cooperation. New York: Basic Books. Baron-Cohen, S. (2012). Zero degrees of empathy. London: Penguin. Baumol, W., et al. (2013). The cost disease: Why computers get cheaper and health care doesn’t. New Haven: Yale University Press. Bazalgette, P. (2017). The empathy instinct: How the art and science of compassion can build a better society. London: JohnMurray.Co. Bloom, P. (2016). Against empathy: The case for rational compassion. London: Bodley Head. Chace, C. (2016). The economic singularity: Artificial intelligence and the death of capitalism. San Mateo: Three Cs. Dagger, R. (1997). Civic virtues: Rights, citizenship and republican liberalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. de Waal, F. (2010). The age of empathy: Nature’s lessons for a kinder society. New York: Broadway Books. Evans, M., et al. (2016). Who do you trust to run the country? Canberra Institute of Governance and Policy Analysis. Ganesh, J. (2017, July 25). Brexit is the child of complacency, not pain. Financial Times. Hausman, D. (2012). Preference, value, choice and welfare. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hood, C., & Dixon, R. (2015). A government that worked better and cost less? Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ignatieff, M. (1984). The needs of strangers. New York: Penguin Random House.

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Ipsos. (2016). Veracity index. Ipsos Mori. King, I. (2008). How to make good decisions and be right every time. London: Bloomsbury. Machiavelli, N. (1950). The Prince. New York: Random House. Mair, P. (2014). Ruling the void: The hollowing out of western democracy. London: Verso. Nevitte, N. (1996). The decline of deference: Canadian value change in cross-national perspective. Peterborough: Broadview Press. Newton, K., & Norris, P. (1999). Confidence in public institutions. JFK School of Government Policy Paper. Obama, B. (2009, May 26). President Barack Obama introduces Judge Sonya Sotomayor. Office for Budget Responsibility. (2017, January). Fiscal sustainability report. Ostrom, E. (1990). Governing the commons: The evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Parker, S. (2015). Taking power back. Bristol: Policy Press. Pew Research. (2015). Trust in government: 1958–2015. Quirk, B. (2011). Re-imagining government: Public leadership and management in challenging times. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan. Rothstein, B., & Varraich, A. (2017). Making sense of corruption. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Royal Opera House. (2016). Annual reports 2016. Sen, A. (2009). The idea of justice. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Smith, A. (2010). The theory of moral sentiments. London: Penguin. Sunstein, C. (2016). The ethics of influence: Government in the age of behavioural science. New York: Cambridge University Press. Sydney Opera House. (2015). Annual report 2015. Taylor, M. (2014). The power to create. RSA. Taylor, M. (2016). 21st century enlightenment revisited. RSA. Tetlock, P., & Gardner, D. (2015). Superforecasting: The art and science of prediction. New York: Random House. Thaler, R., & Sunstein, C. (2008). Nudge. London: Penguin. Kavanagh, J., & Rich, M. (2018). Truth decay. Santa Monica: Rand Corporation, Rand.org.

Barry Quirk has been one of the UK’s leading public sector managers for over two decades. He combines a core role as a chief executive in London local government with a portfolio of academic, international and advisory work. Barry has worked in London’s local government for over 40 years; over half of which he has served as the Chief Executive of the London Borough of Lewisham. In 2017, following the Grenfell Tower fire tragedy in London, he was appointed to be the Chief Executive at the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea. He is an expert in managerial economics, service-based innovation, social policy, organisational design, electoral systems and the urban dynamics of London. Barry has been both the President and Chairman of SOLACE (the association for local government chief executives across the UK). He is also a member of the US-based International City Managers Association (ICMA) where he regularly contributes to conferences and publications on city management, community building and city management strategies. He serves on the ICMA research advisory board. Barry has a Ph.D. in social and political geography. His book, Re-imagining Government, was published by Palgrave MacMillan in 2011. It focusses on the inter-section between politics, public management and public policy. In particular it focusses on the leadership required to re-imagine the purposes of public services in the context of the austerity programmes adopted by many advanced democracies in the post 2008 era.

Part III

Developing the Future Public Service Workforce

Chapter 8

Developing and Recruiting the Future Public Servant Deborah Blackman, Samantha Johnson, Helen Dickinson and Linda Dewey

If the public service of the future is to fulfil the many different roles suggested in this book and have the types of competencies and skills needed to acquit them, there will need to be a significant shift in terms of the development and recruitment of public servants. Recruitment has traditionally been on the basis of skills and abilities in relation to particular professional domains, or based upon the tasks historically seen to be part of the role. However, as this book has illustrated, the future public servant will need explicit skills and abilities that go beyond these narrow confines and a different range of skills and abilities will be required and developed within strategic workforce planning. In this chapter we consider the types of changes that will be needed in relation to the development and recruitment of public servants, presenting examples of successful initiatives and suggestions that are transforming organizational practice. We suggest that there needs to be a rethinking of not only the types of skills required from ‘hard’ to ‘soft’ (Dickinson et al. 2015), but also the way that such skills should be identified and developed. In this chapter we first clarify the importance of public servant capabilities and historical limitations with developing them. We then present social learning theory, suggesting that a move towards focusing on how things are learnt, rather than what is learnt, might enable a change in the human resource practices chosen to support capability development. Specifically, we use four elements of social learning as a framework to suggest development and recruitment activities which would better support the development of future public servants.

D. Blackman (&)
H. Dickinson
L. Dewey Public Service Research Group, University of New South Wales, Canberra, Australia e-mail: [email protected] S. Johnson School of Business, UNSW Canberra, Canberra, Australia © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 H. Dickinson et al. (eds.), Reimagining the Future Public Service Workforce, SpringerBriefs in Political Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1480-3_8

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Skills They Are A-Changing

Research shows that the skills and abilities of individual employees matter greatly, as they determine the degree to which an organization can be innovative, flexible and capable of change (Ambrosini et al. 2009; Huselid et al. 2005; Teece et al. 1997). As outlined in Chap. 1, and reflecting the important role of employee skills in organizational capacity, it is argued that in order to support new ways of working within the public service, future public servants will need a different range of skills (Dickinson and Sullivan 2014). As illustrated in many chapters of this book, the focus will not be on simply specific technical or specialist skills; instead there is priority given to interpersonal qualities, people skills, and personal attributes which are often known as “soft skills” (Hartley et al. 2015; Robles 2012). However, we suggest that, to date, the majority of human resource practices in the public service are not able to support the effective acquisition and development of such soft skills. As traditional recruitment processes have often focused on experience in a similar role or task to date they are not always well equipped to consider the desired attributes of a different future (Van Der Wal 2017). Moreover, it is well established that formal training has a number of inherent limitations (Sparr et al. 2017); while some core skills can be transferred and integrated into work relatively easily, more complex tacit knowledge is harder to develop and/or transfer, requiring organizations to actively support their employees in applying and implementing their new knowledge (Ellström 2001; Krylova et al. 2016; Seidle et al. 2016). Such problems with the effective acquisition and transfer of learning mean that public sector organizations can struggle to develop requisite skills in employees, despite investing time and money into formal training and development programs (Seidle et al. 2016). The question becomes, therefore, how can a wider variety of skills be attracted, developed and sustained.

8.2

Social Learning as a Capability Enhancer

Recent human resource development initiatives have focused on different forms of learning as a way of encouraging deeper, more complex, and longer lasting knowledge development. In Australia, for example, there has been considerable focus upon the 70:20:10 model of development, which argues that individuals obtain 70% of their knowledge from job-related experiences, 20% from interactions with others and 10% from formal educational events (Blackman et al. 2016; Kajewski and Madsen 2013; Training Industry 2015). However, although recognizing that experiential learning is important, if it is not appropriately supported then its effectiveness in terms of learning applied within the workplace might be limited. For example, learning may be difficult to enact where it is different from current norms and there is no apparent appetite for change. Advocates of social learning suggest that more impact is likely as it can help support the integration of

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new capabilities—soft skills in particular—into organizations a way that will create collective change. Social learning theory (also known as social cognitive theory) posits that, through observation, imitation and modelling, people learn from each other (Bandura 1977, 1986; Buller and McEvoy 1990); it is one of the reasons why “walking the talk” is so important. People make decisions about what to do at work based on these observations. If they observe other people adopting similar behaviors or applying skills in a similar manner in a way that results in identifiable benefits, people are more likely to copy them. Likewise, people tend to avoid adopting behaviors that are seen to cause problems for others (Bandura 1977, 1986; Gibson 2004). Thus, if there are to be new skills developed there will need to be interventions undertaken that will trigger different observations. For these reasons, we suggest using elements of social learning as a framework for considering what recruitment and development practices would be those most suited for developing the skills needed by future public servants. According to Bandura (1977, 1986) for adults to learn and adopt new behaviors to build capability or respond to change they must progress through a complex process that consists of four distinct elements. These elements are: • attentional—observing role models who exemplify desired behaviors • retention—processing and recalling behaviors for future use • motor-reproduction—mastering behaviors through practice, self-correcting activities and constructive feedback • motivational—identifying clear benefits from adopting certain behaviors to motivate ongoing practice and eventual mastery Bandura (1977) proposed that these elements reflect the complex interactions between individuals and their environment and explain how adults learn and modify their behavior. In order to learn and reproduce behaviors people must attentively observe others modelling the behavior and accurately perceive the significant components of the behavior. They must then remember the behavior, stored through visual and verbal cues, and be able to accurately copy the behavior when role models are not observable. Practice refines the behavior through trial and error, self-corrective adjustments and feedback from others. Finally, the new behavior must result in positive consequences as mastering the behavior is determined by the degree to which they find the behavior self-satisfying and resulting in positive outcomes. These four elements of social learning can, we suggest, serve as a framework, supported by guidelines and practices, for building workplace capability and supporting change. In the case of developing new public service skills the framework will need to be applied through new human resource practices that actively implement each element.

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Attentional Processes: Learning by Observing Role Models in the Workplace

In this phase people identify appropriate and inappropriate behaviors and learn the apparently acceptable rules of behavior from observing the people with whom they interact with regularly, in particular the most appealing or dominant members of their social group. By observing the behaviors that appear to be the most appropriate and effective at work, people select and accept behavioral norms that depict ‘how we do things around here’; over time these become behavioral rules. As new people join the workplace, they observe these rules from influential peers and senior managers, understand these as appropriate and effective, and then they too adopt these behaviors as norms. In situations where individuals attend training programs to learn new behaviors, despite all good intentions to apply new behaviors in the workplace, they are unlikely to do so if those behaviors are not consistent with the modelled behaviors they regularly observe in the workplace. Understanding the significance of observing modelled behaviors helps explain why embedding new organizational capacity, through the development of new employee skills and capabilities, can be difficult to cement in the workplace. While on the one hand the desired behaviors, such as innovation, are articulated and championed verbally, on the other hand, people continue to copy the original behaviors that are modelled regularly and accepted as appropriate. The question becomes how to overcome this.

8.2.2

Identifying and Supporting Internal Role Models

HRM practitioners can help support learning and behavioral change by identifying those people in the workplace who currently model, or would be best placed to model, the desired behaviors. In the workplace this may be the middle and senior managers, but equally it may be those who are seen to be successful, confident, charismatic and highly visible. Training these people in the preferred or new behaviors, and supporting them to explicitly portray these behaviors regularly and consistently, can support change through social learning. New or preferred behaviors are observed by others to be rewarded and will become new behavioral norms, and, when this occurs, a snowball effect of copying behaviors becomes possible. Box 8.1 sets out an example of such an approach. Box 8.1: Exemplar of Role Model Approach In the Canadian public service it was recognized that there were experts within the organization, negating the need to bring in consultants or experts to teach others; however, the individuals needed support in being able to share their knowledge. The solution was the development of a community-of-practice,

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which the public service actively supported through the provision of network members from each region, whose role was to enable peer-to-peer learning and adaptation of new ideas. The role models were identified, supported and enabled to create an atmosphere where the community-of-practice activities were looked to as a way to support the creation of new capabilities (for more details see Blackman 2018).

8.2.3

Sourcing New Skills

Changed recruitment activity provides an opportunity to introduce and subsequently model new or preferred behaviors in the workplace. Human Resource Manager (HRM) practitioners can identify the behaviors required to support change in the organization (see for example NSW PSC 2015; VPSC 2015) and recruit candidates who can confidently apply those behaviors or who have a clear potential to do so once trained. What will be critical is that the new recruits are not socialized into current practices, instead of demonstrating new ones. For this reason, HRM and Human Resource Development practitioners must work together to ensure that the behaviors they seek to encourage through training programs are the same behaviors they identify and select in recruitment activities. When this occurs there is more likelihood that role models will be embedded across an organization who will display the behaviors required for change to be achieved, and through social learning ensure that the same behaviors are adopted by others in the organization. Two ways to enable the recruitment of new skills to be successful are to (a) seek to recruit people from different pools with different skills and (b) recruit for potential rather than established task focused track record in a similar role. Box 8.2 provides an example of such approaches. Box 8.2: Exemplars of New Recruitment Approaches Some Australian Federal Government departments no longer rely upon traditional methods to advertise vacancies or use more conventional criteria based applications. Social media has been widely used to demonstrate the desired behaviors of the department to attract the type of person they are seeking. The Department of Finance and Administration, for example, invites potential employees to search LinkedIn to identify people who will exemplify the new ways of working; the Department of Human Services invites potential employees to join their Facebook page to help them fully understand the department, the services it offers, the clients it works with and how to make contact with the department, and IP Australia operates an active Twitter account to reach out to individuals who might never have thought of applying but can now see their skills might fit. This use of social media facilitates a shift in public perception from the traditional, formal public service,

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providing organizations with an opportunity for modelling behaviors such as innovation, new forms of communication, relationship building, transparency and accessibility, all skills they are seeking in their future employees. The Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet has moved away from using traditional criteria based application forms to a ‘one-page pitch’ where candidates set out why they are appropriate people to work within that organization. Salary specifications have also been removed in order to choose individuals on the basis of ‘fit’ rather than because it is advertised at a particular level. The aim is to produce job advertisements that are free of public service jargon and duty statements. Similarly, in another Department’s recruitment form there is a section called “Significant Achievement” where, instead of simply describing what they have done in their previous roles, potential recruits are asked to explain something they have done that will be directly related to the new skill they will require in the new job. This is used for short-listing as it helps to identify candidates who are (a) looking at the new job as not just an extension of previous roles and (b) those who are focused on skills and not just task.

8.2.4

Retention Processes: Remembering and Reproducing Desired Behaviors

While observing role models demonstrating desired behaviors is important, observation is ineffective if observers cannot remember the behaviors. The observer must consistently see, and have repeated exposure to, preferred behaviors, in order to develop visual and verbal cues that allow easy recall and practice of the behavior (Bandura 1977, 1986). This coding of behaviors into mental images and verbal cues strengthens an association between a situation and a preferred behavior and enables the observer to recall and apply the preferred behavior when they are in similar situations. Having role models is a good start, but they need to be seen within a context where their skills are explicitly supported and consistently rewarded. In the modern workplace being engaged and focused on another’s behavior can be challenging when emails and other electronic communication has replaced much face-to-face interaction, particularly with senior staff who are the most effective role models. Focusing on behavior can also be challenging when undertaking routine tasks or focusing on outputs is rewarded more explicitly than engaging in face-to-face interactions or developing other-directed skills. It is well known from the work by Argyris and Schon (1996) that for organizational learning to be effective there must be congruence between what is said to be desired and what is rewarded. The old adage of ‘walk the walk’ rather than simply ‘talk the talk’ reflects this important aspect of social learning. Bandura’s retention processes highlight the importance of observers actually observing

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preferred behaviors regularly by watching role models, rather than simply being told how to behave. For learning and change to take place, reinstating the ‘walk the walk’ approach to workplace behavior must be coupled with actively ensuring engagement and focus on the behaviors being role modelled, and discouraging ‘multi-tasking’ whereby people attempt to interact with others while being preoccupied with an electronic device. The need for consistency highlights the importance of middle managers when developing the capacity of the future public service. Blackman et al. (2016) demonstrated that middle managers felt challenged when they became managers as often they had not had formal development prior to taking on the role and they did not feel supported once they were in the role. We have already indicated that, for soft skills development, there will need to be active support to embed formal training, and this is why we suggest that the most pertinent support mechanism at this stage of the framework is mentoring and coaching. By providing those who should be modelling new desired behaviors and are responsible for developing them in others with support from people who know what the intended outcomes are, there is a much greater chance of consistency. Box 8.3 sets out an example of this type of approach. What this example highlights is that the recruitment, development and briefings of coaches and mentors may need to change. Instead of being expected just to enable their mentee to execute their tasks better, they will need to be actively working with them to understand how to be a consistent role model, be able to integrate new skills into their own work and, most importantly, be able to support peers and team members to integrate new skills into their work. Box 8.3: Exemplar of Developing Role Models Approach Anew NewMindsets Project was set up to develop soft skills to help create an effective leadership cadre. Despite targeting soft-skills, it involved building and pilot testing an e-learning system. However, it was a little different from many e-learning initiatives as it adopted an action learning—“learning by doing”—methodology. Of note was the recognition of the importance of learning that took place outside of the formal course through mentors and performance coaching. Team-based mentoring with senior members of the organization was set up from the outset to support experimentation, offer advice and act as advocates where needed. The importance of the combination of formal learning and social learning from the mentoring for creating consistent messages was very apparent (for more details see Adams and Morgan 2007).

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Motor Reproduction Processes: Refining Behavior Through Self-assessment and Feedback

The third stage of the framework is where, through self-corrective activities and feedback from others, people refine newly acquired behaviors bit-by-bit until mastery is achieved (Bandura 1977). Social learning requires observers to develop a high level of self-efficacy in relation to new or preferred behaviors as this directly links to their likelihood of applying the behavior. Self-efficacy is defined as the belief that ‘one can successfully execute the behavior required to produce the outcome,’ (Bandura 1977, p. 79). If self-efficacy is low, individuals will feel unable to execute the preferred behaviors successfully and avoid doing so. Where self-efficacy is high, individuals will believe they can effectively and successfully apply preferred behaviors and probably will do so. Feedback and tolerance for error influence self-efficacy. An environment and workplace that is supportive of legitimate attempts to apply new behaviors, correcting errors and providing constructive and corrective feedback, will enable new behaviors to be applied and will build higher levels of self-efficacy in individuals. For this to happen, two things are required: an environment that tolerates error and a workplace that provides regular, constructive or corrective feedback. It is widely reported that many public sector organizations are risk averse (De Vries et al. 2016) and this is often cited as the reason why there is a persistent call for increased innovation (Flemig et al. 2016). This risk aversion can inhibit learning and change, as observers may be reluctant to apply new behaviors for fear of the adverse consequences of error. Although feedback is often thought of as a manager critiquing an employee, in fact it is anything that provides an opinion of something, positive or negative; thus an experience of trying something new and having it knocked back is a form of feedback (Hattie and Timperley 2007). In terms of self-efficacy, it means that even where a manager is supportive, if the organizational governance processes make it clear something will be difficult to achieve it is likely the individual will not be motivated to change their behavior (Blackman et al. 2017). Box 8.4 provides an example of risk aversion. Box 8.4: Exemplar of Risk Aversion In 2016, when the Australian Government innovations awards were being announced, almost all the teams thanked their managers for keeping them hidden while they got on with something new so it did not get stopped. It was clear that, although the individual managers were giving positive feedback, the organizations had governance processes and systems which provided negative feedback. In these cases, individuals were determined enough and had enough self-efficacy to overcome this dichotomy, but in many cases this is not the outcome.

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It is well understood that employees will struggle to correct and refine new behaviors to achieve mastery if constructive feedback is not forthcoming (Hattie and Timperley 2007). But the example in Box 8.4 shows that the refinement and feedback needed for this stage of social learning is not just employers supporting employee mastery of an activity, but also creating supporting systems and structures which reinforce desired behaviors and promote employee beliefs that they can achieve. This matters because it means that when considering the role and impact of feedback, HR practitioners and senior leaders may need to reconceptualize the way they approach it. For example, In terms of capacity and willingness to give feedback, an ongoing item for discussion in the annual Australian State of the Service Reports1 reported was whether employees thought they got effective feedback. But this is seen purely as feedback from managers, not feedback from other experiences in terms of trying to make changes or develop new ideas. We suggest that the role of HRM practitioners will be to consider how to build an environment that tolerates and manages experimentation and a workplace that provides positive, constructive and corrective feedback, not only through consistent HR practices, but also general organizational governance. Recognizing this bigger system feedback issue helps to explain why recruiting for new skills is not enough; when the new person arrives they must be supported to use and demonstrate the skills. Managers will need to be developed to understand the full scope of feedback and realize how what is said, done and modelled affects what their employees will do. This would help to explain why there needs to be space for error and risk acceptance rather than merely stating the case. We suggest that creating a focus upon feedback that creates self-efficacy rather than just mastery would help to create a new, positive conversation that will support the development of managerial and employee soft skills.

8.2.6

Motivational Processes: Mastering and Embedding Behavior

The final stage of Bandura’s social learning process relates to motivation. Applying new behaviors at work regularly enough to achieve mastery of new skills will require both individual motivation and organizational support (Brewster et al. 2015). If either is missing the individual will not persist and will return to comfortable habits. People will be motivated to practice, refine and master new or preferred behaviors when they believe that the behavior will bring valuable and positive results and self-satisfaction (Blackman et al. 2017). Assuming the other

1

The State of the Service Report (SOSR) provides data and information on changing workforce trends and workforce capability within the Australian Federal Government. It also details the activities and human resource management practices of government agencies.

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three parts of the social learning framework have been implemented an employee will: know what are the new skills desired and be seeing behaviors modelled wherever possible; have mentors acting to support the development of new soft skills through strong role models and supporting active social learning linking formal and experiential learning; and be receiving consistent feedback from a full range of sources reflecting the desired outcomes. At this stage the key HR process that will make a difference will be performance management. Performance management, when done well, is a strategic management tool, because it can provide the wider context, purpose and clarity that an employee needs to be able to perform their role well (Buick et al. 2015). Managers and mentors can use the process to explain what high performance will look like, and this links to the ongoing modelling needed for social learning. The other thing that will be important if performance management is to be effective in this way is the development of mutuality and joint ownership of the desired goals; this will be closely linked with self-efficacy. See Box 8.5 for an example of this. Recognizing this role for performance management means that it should not be about compliance, but be seen as enabling the creation of enhanced self-efficacy as well as mastery. Consequently, both the process itself and the development support for managers and employees taking part will need to be slightly reframed. Box 8.5: Exemplar of Enhancing Mutuality Exemplar 6: Mutuality provides employees with an opportunity to provide input into decisions that directly impact them. In one government department a major cut in resources had been announced. Senior and middle managers conducted workshops with their employees asking “Is there any work that we’re doing that we really just don’t need to do? Or which we don’t think we should be doing? Or can it be done better somewhere else?”. Participants explained that the workshops led to numerous positive outcomes and encouraged employees to think strategically about the allocation of resources, optimizing efficiencies and prioritizing activities. Through managers and employees actively working together, mutuality was enhanced enabling performance management to be a more effective process that supported employee self-efficacy and consequent willingness and ability to adapt to change (for more information see Buick et al. 2015).

8.3

Conclusions

At the outset of this chapter we suggested that future public servants will need to develop a wider range of managerial and soft skills rather than technical skills. We then looked at how the HR practices of recruitment and development can be designed such that social learning encourages new skill development and support.

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We have presented the four elements of the social learning framework, given examples of how organizations have introduced new approaches around these and made suggestions for practice. What should have become apparent as the chapter has developed is that, as well as HR practices being linked to a strategic objective (Daley 2015), they must also have a goal to create the environment that will support actively managed social learning that links formal and experiential learning and supports the development of self-efficacy. In organizations seeking to develop future public servants with a wider variety of skills, HR practices must support the change by ensuring that not only are the new skills and behaviors required clearly identified, but the organizational systems are in place to support their sustained attainment. Bandura’s social learning theory offers a framework that can be used to bring about change through HR practices that support behavioral role modelling, the practice of new behaviors in the workplace, regular and constructive feedback on behavior and clear rewarding of valued behaviors.

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Buller, P. F., & McEvoy, G. M. (1990). Exploring the long-term effects of behaviour modelling training. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 3(1), 32–45. https://doi.org/10.1108/ 09534819010136073. Daley, D. M. (2015). Strategic human resource management. In N. M. Riccucci (Ed.), Public personnel management. Routledge. De Vries, H., Bekkers, V., & Tummers, L. (2016). Innovation in the public sector: A systematic review and future research agenda. Public Administration, 94(1), 146–166. https://doi.org/10. 1111/padm.12209. Dickinson, H., Sullivan, H., & Head, G. (2015). The future of the public service workforce: A dialogue. Australian Journal of Public Administration, 74, 23–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/ 1467-8500.12143. Dickinson, H., & Sullivan, H. (2014). Imagining the 21st century public service workforce. Melbourne School of Government. http://www.birmingham.ac.uk/Documents/college-socialsciences/public-service-academy/news-events/2014/imagining-the-21st-century-public-serviceworkforce.pdf. Ellström, P. E. (2001). Integrating learning and work: Conceptual issues and critical conditions. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 12, 421–435. Flemig, S., Osborne, S., & Kinder, T. (2016). Risky business—Reconceptualizing risk and innovation in public services. Public Money & Management, 36(6), 425–432. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/09540962.2016.1206751. Gibson, S. (2004). Social learning (cognitive) theory and implications for human resource development. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 6, 193–210. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 1523422304263429. Hartley, J., Alford, J., Hughes, O., & Yates, S. (2015). Public value and political astuteness in the work of public managers: The art of the possible. Public Administration, 93(1), 195–211. https://doi.org/10.1111/padm.12125. Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81–112. https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430298487. Huselid, M. A., Becker, B. E., & Beatty, R. W. (2005). The workforce scorecard: Managing human capital to execute strategy. Boston, MS: Harvard Business School Press. https://doi.org/ 10.7202/016499ar. Kajewski, K., & Madsen, V. (2013). Demystifying 70:20:10. DeakinPrime: Melbourne. http:// deakinprime.com/media/47821/002978_dpw_70-20-10wp_v01_fa.pdf. Krylova, K. O., Vera, D., & Crossan, M. (2016). Knowledge transfer in knowledge-intensive organizations: The crucial role of improvisation in transferring and protecting knowledge. Journal of Knowledge Management, 20(5), 1045–1064. https://doi.org/10.1108/JKM-10-20150385. NSW Public Service Commission (NSW PSC). (2015). NSW Public Sector Capability Framework. http://www.psc.nsw.gov.au/workforce-management/capability-framework. Robles, M. M. (2012). Executive perceptions of the top 10 soft skills needed in today’s workplace. Business and Professional Communication Quarterly, 75(4), 453–465. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 1080569912460400. Seidle, B., Fernandez, S., & Perry, J. L. (2016). Do leadership training and development make a difference in the public sector? A panel study. Public Administration Review, 76(4), 603–613. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.12531. Sparr, J. L., Knipfer, K., & Willems, F. (2017). How leaders can get the most out of formal training: The significance of feedback-seeking and reflection as informal learning behaviors. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 28(1), 29–54. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.21263. Teece, D. J., Pisano, G., & Shuen, A. (1997). Dynamic capabilities and strategic management. Strategic Management Journal, 18, 509–533. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(199708) 18:7 3.0.CO;2-Zw.

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Training Industry. (2015). 70:20:10 model for learning and development. https://www. trainingindustry.com/wiki/the-702010-model-for-learning-and-development-cpdc/. Van Der Wal, Z. (2017). The 21st century public manager. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Victorian Public Sector Commission (VPSC). (2015). Components of the VPS HR Capability Framework. Victorian Public Sector Commission. https://vpsc.vic.gov.au/html-resources/vpshr-capability-framework/components-of-the-vps-hr-capability-framework/.

Deborah Blackman is Professor Public Sector Management Strategy and the Deputy Director of the Public Service Research Group at University of New South Wales, Canberra. Her research interests include Public Sector Policy Implementation, Employee Performance Management, Organisational Learning, Organisational Effectiveness and Governance. Current research projects include: understanding the impact of system complexity on effective long-term crisis recovery, and investigating the impact of middle manager capability on the Australian public service. She is an editor on the text Human Capital Management Research: Influencing practice and process which integrates recent research with current HR practice. Recent projects include a joint collaborative project with the Australian Public Service Commission entitled the “Strengthening the Performance Framework”. The result was a new framework for diagnosing the effectiveness of a performance management system and the tool is being used in a range of contexts and organisations. She also worked on an ARC grant considering Whole of Government from which she developed a new diagnostic model to support effective joined-up working. Samantha Johnson is a Lecturer in public sector leadership with the School of Business at UNSW Canberra. Her research interests are in middle management capability development, middle management performance and public sector leadership. Prior to joining UNSW Canberra, Sam consulted to the Australian Federal Government in management and leadership development for 15 years. She has also consulted to the governments of Timor-Leste and Papua New Guinea and worked with Australian diplomats across South East Asia and the South Pacific. Sam holds a Ph.D. in Management (organisational behaviour). Helen Dickinson is Associate Professor Public Service Research and Director of the Public Service Research Group at the School of Business, University of New South Wales, Canberra. Her expertise is in public services, particularly in relation to topics such as governance, leadership, commissioning and priority setting and decision-making. Helen has published sixteen books and over fifty peer-reviewed journal articles on these topics and is also a frequent commentator within the mainstream media. She is co-editor of the Journal of Health, Organization and Management and Australian Journal of Public Administration. In 2015 Helen was made a Victorian Fellow of the Institute of Public Administration Australia and she has worked with a range of different levels of government, community organisations and private organisations in Australia, UK, New Zealand and Europe on research and consultancy programmes. Linda Dewey is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Public Service Research Group, University of New South Wales, Canberra. Her research relates to individual emotional intelligence and how this relates to and is used by individuals in organisational behavioural change, and her areas of interest are employee performance management, organisational behaviour, change management and organisational governance. Her recent projects include the evaluation of the effectiveness of behavioural change facilitated through the implementation of organisational values.

Chapter 9

Creating a Diverse Workforce Kiran Trehan and Jane Glover

9.1

Introduction

The chapter investigates the ways in which the theory and practice of workforce diversity can contribute to our understanding of how public services operate in superdiverse urban settings. ‘Superdiversity’, as outlined by Vertovec (2007), draws attention to the new and complex social formations characterised by a dynamic integration of variables (race, ethnicity, social class, gender, religion, as well as physical ability or sexual orientation). Increased diversity has created a complex range of under-explored challenges for public services. In recent years, workforce diversity has achieved the status of shibboleth in the public sector, a social good, a source of richness, a resource to be welcomed, worked with and managed. The premise of this chapter is that contrary to such rhetoric, creating a diverse workforce continues to be a challenge for the public services. The message advocated is that diversity can enhance public sector performance and make the workplace more socially inclusive, yet organisations often lack practical guidance about how to achieve this. This chapter will first review key ideas and controversies in relation to workforce diversity. Second, we illuminate how the theory and practise of workforce diversity is being refreshed and revitalised by innovations in terms of perspectives and approach, paying particular attention to questions of power, emotions and political dynamics. The chapter concludes by exploring practical ways in which workforce diversity initiatives can be applied and the implications for future role for public servants.

K. Trehan (&)
J. Glover University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 H. Dickinson et al. (eds.), Reimagining the Future Public Service Workforce, SpringerBriefs in Political Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1480-3_9

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Workforce Diversity: A Critical Review

The concept of ‘diversity’ as a motto of various policies seems to be omnipresent in the public sphere of many countries (Vertovec 2012; Salzbrunn 2014; de Jong 2016). Public service organizations are under increasing pressure to ensure they are representative of the communities which they serve. In many areas of the world the environments that public service organizations operate in and the communities they serve have changed dramatically. Moreover, organizations may also face legal and regulatory pressure to ensure equality and prevent discrimination, for example, through the European Union anti-discrimination provisions. As the notion of diversity and the need to create a diverse workforce has risen in prominence, human resource management has become an important tool of reform within public services. There have been concerted efforts to change organizational culture and individual behavior in public organizations with the aim of creating a diverse and inclusive workforce that reflects the population (Ohemeng and McGrandle 2015). The growth of academic and practitioner interest in the issues of representation and workforce diversity has prompted a significant increase in the scholarly application of theories of representative bureaucracy (Peters et al. 2012). Many of these studies have established that public service organizations are becoming increasingly diverse and representative (e.g. Selden 2006; Andrews and Ashworth 2013). Such studies argue that workforce diversity can bring business benefits in terms of better problem solving and decision-making when bringing together diverse perspectives, as there is a larger pool of knowledge, skills and abilities (Ewoh 2013). As Wilson (1994, p. 27) describes: Diversity in the workplace is important because of its contribution to organization decision-making, effectiveness, and responsiveness. Those from diverse populations have expectations, insights, approaches, and values from which can come many different perspectives on alternative approaches on and alternative approaches to problems, and knowledge about consequences of each alternative… Input from diverse work groups can enhance rational decision making, and therefore efficiency.

Studies exploring workforce diversity in public services have been conducted across a number of policy settings, e.g. police, prisons and health care (e.g. Krause et al. 2012; Martinez-Ariño et al. 2015). Potential benefits of diversity include better decision making, higher creativity and innovation, greater success in marketing to foreign and domestic ethnic minority communities, and a better distribution of economic opportunity (Cox 1991; Cox and Blake 1991). Pitts (2005) found positive effects of racial diversity, using data from Texas public school districts. According to his research, fewer students dropped out of their high schools and more students passed the standardized graduation examination when teachers were more reflective of demographics in each educational districts (Hur 2013, p. 152). Recruiting and, importantly, retaining a diverse workforce can help achieve important public goals (Brown and Harris 1993; Krislov and Rosenbloom 1981; Mosher 1968). More generally, research has shown positive effects of diversity: a highly diverse workforce has shown that their ability to solve problems and complete tasks

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outperforms less diverse groups under certain conditions, particularly with regard to creativity and satisfaction (Fujimoto et al. 2004; Podsiadlowskia et al. 2013; Podsiadlowski 2002; Stahl et al. 2010). Individuals from diverse backgrounds bring different perspectives to a situation, especially when trying to solve work-based tasks. Diverse individuals also have access to different resources, enhancing creativity and performance (Williams and O’Reilly 1998a, b). Some studies have also identified negative effects from the creation of more diverse workforces. For example, Andrews et al. (2005), in their study on English local authorities, found that citizen satisfaction decreased as workforces in local authorities became more reflective of communities in terms of race and ethnicity (Hur 2013, p. 152). Although the theoretical case for diversity is clear and there is some limited evidence of its effectiveness, the empirical evidence on the policies and management strategies of public organizations and their effects are still scarce (OECD 2010, p. 9; Groeneveld and Verbeek 2012, p. 354; Bührmann and Schönwälder 2017). The evidence base is far from clear cut when it comes to diversity.

9.3

The Opportunities and Challenges of Workforce Diversity

Creating a diverse workforce is not without its challenges. This, combined with limited evidence to demonstrate that diversity improves organizational performance, have led to debates on workforce diversity taking a more critical turn in recent years (Lorbiecki and Jack 2000). A number of organizations have struggled to understand what is meant by diversity and equality and many have struggled to operationalize diversity management. Although racial, and to some extent gender, diversity have been at the center of debates, other facets of diversity (e.g. disability) have remained neglected. Overall, more research is needed to understand the organisational consequences of workforce diversity in the public sector, and understand the effects of diversity (Hur 2013). For example, whilst some public service organisations have been effective in hiring women and black Asian and minority ethnic (BAME) individuals, (Perlman 1992), they have been challenged in retaining and promoting them (Blum et al. 1994; Goodman et al. 2003). As a result, Thomas (1990, p. 108) encourages employers to move ‘From affirmative action to affirming diversity’, arguing that ‘women and minorities no longer need a boarding pass, they need an upgrade’. As a result of these kinds of criticisms a number of public service organisations have developed new initiatives. For example, the English NHS has a BAME leadership development programme aimed at increasing the diversity of leadership roles across the organisation and across different levels (NHS 2017). What such examples illustrate is that public service organisations need to be more proactive and systematic in their approach to diversity management (Myers and Dreachslin 2007).

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Individuals must be mindful of their own behaviours, understand and respect the perspectives and contributions of the diverse workforce that they need to attract, identify factors that contribute to a high-performing work climate, and translate that knowledge into organisational policies and practices (Myers and Dreachslin 2007). Despite these concerns, Trehan et al. (2018) argues enthusiasm and commitment to workforce diversity and development is still high on the public service agenda, and becoming of increasing relevance within the learning process of organisations (see also Chap. 8). If public services are to meet the challenges and opportunities presented by workforce diversity, we will need a far more nuanced, integrated and multidisciplinary understanding of the relationship between diversity, people, place and work in the context of transitions and the impacts of ongoing and future technological innovations on livelihoods and liveability, and not simply rely on the flawed assumption that workplace diversity is about increasing racial, national, gender or class representation, [and] recruiting and retaining more people from traditionally under-represented identity groups. The focus on economic and social benefits ensures that the theory and practise of workplace diversity engages more broadly with social innovation, skills, inequalities, diversities and difference, and politics, governance and democracy. In the context of rapidly changing labor markets, as new forms of work emerge (for example, the gig economy), existing forms are replaced as people experience a series of ever increasingly complex transitions (known and unknown) from education, to work, to partial retirement to full retirement. This is in the context of a period in which public services are being radically reconfigured through the emergence of new forms of work. Planning for a diverse workforce requires a multi-disciplinary approach in order to understand future work/skills needs while anticipating the emergence of new working spaces. Public services are complex systems that underpin social, economic and political well-being. Therefore, identifying and understanding the interdependencies between people and these systems is critical for improving workforce diversity and livelihoods; developing prosperous, sustainable and resilient city-regions; and imagining better futures that would work for all.

9.4

Leading Workforce Diversity

The goal for leadership development in the twenty-first century should focus on the development of cross-cultural leaders, resulting in a new generation of multicultural professionals. The continuous search for more diverse leadership is driven by the need to cultivate contemporary leadership skills that are able to respond to changing social, political and economic demographics. In more recent years, scholars such as Joshi and Roh (2009) have argued that we need a new diversity research agenda, one that promotes debate which moves beyond the exploring the benefits or costs of diversity to one which highlights the contextual dependency of diversity effects in organizations. They, and others, argue that a context-based approach to workplace

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diversity research can potentially provide practical insights for leadership that could enhance the effectiveness of diversity management practices for an organization’s future workforce (Shore et al. 2011). This agenda has been coupled with a recent shift in emphasis within the broader management field away from equality and diversity and toward ‘inclusion’ (Oswick 2011; Shore et al. 2011). Diversity is a concept different from affirmative action or equal employment opportunity. Diversity is seen as the collective, all-inclusive mixture of human differences and similarities, including educational background, geographic origin, sexual preference, profession, culture, political affiliation, tenure in an organisation, and other socioeconomic, psychographic, and ethnic-racial characteristics, as well as age and disability (Cox 1993). On this basis, it is argued that attention to inclusion represents a shift away from ‘managing diversity’ in favor of proactive approaches which involves ‘managing for diversity’ (Andrews and Ashworth 2015; Chavez and Weisinger 2008; Oswick and Noon 2014). To this end, Thomas and Ely (1996) outline three perspectives on diversity which help advance thinking in relation to workforce diversity: discrimination and fairness (which focuses on ease of access into, and fair treatment within, employment in public service organizations), access and legitimacy (where diversity enables responsive and improved public services) and learning and effectiveness (where individuals from different groups are integrated and assimilated within the organisation in order to achieve improved policy responsiveness). Selden and Selden (2001) take these perspectives a step further by adding a fourth paradigm to the Thomas and Ely framework specifically for the public sector context: valuing and integrating: creating a multi-cultural organisation. Through this, they emphasis processes of acculturation within organizations (where non-dominant cultures exist within a dominant culture) rather than assimilation (where non-dominant cultures must be subordinate to the dominant culture). Selden and Selden (2001) conclude that “organisations with explicit pretence of valuing cultural diversity should elect to support and foster acculturated environments” (p. 319). What the literature tells us is that there is a need for public service leadership to shift its strategies to effectively lead in the 21st century (Bedrule-Grigoruta 2012; O’Connell 2014). To do this, leaders need to challenge the status quo, enable creativity, and be innovative and entrepreneurial. The development of public service leaders has to be a collective responsibility, and effective leadership that addresses diversity gaps in the future will require flexibility and an ability to be outcome-oriented, in contrast to rigid accountability and quantitative indicators, which are tradition in the public sector (Perrin 2015). This also involves an integrative holistic approach that facilitates a culture change and diffuses a new orientation toward diversity throughout the organization, not just to recruitment (Gilbert and Ivancevich 2000). This necessitates a review of structures and processes that facilitate organizational and cultural transformation. Workforce planning must be strategically linked to core activities, so that the work gets diversified, not just the people. This will be an interesting challenge for organizations, particularly as most diverse workforce initiatives are either isolated or episodic.

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Workforce Diversity: An Account of Practice

So far we have argued that public service leaders must be aware of the multifaceted nature of diversity, including its dual dimensions. The agenda for workforce diversity is more critical than ever if future public services are going to reflect and merit the trust of the diverse communities and stakeholders they serve. The following illustrations provide an insightful exemplar of how planning for capability and capacity requirements can enable the development of a workforce that is well equipped to meet current and future challenges. Before expanding diversity recruitment initiatives, leaders must clearly articulate the strategic objectives of the organization and assess the extent to which the existing organizational reputation, rank, and culture support those goals. It may be necessary to change the culture and diffuse a new orientation toward diversity throughout the organization, not just to recruitment (Gilbert and Ivancevich 2000, and also Chap. 8). Aligning culturally sensitive recruitment activities with strategic objectives will mean that value-driven diversity goals, such as teamwork, openness to others, and encouragement of the positive expression of individual identity in the workplace are emphasized in recruiting materials and advertising imagery (Taber and Hendrick 2003; Thomas 1996). Organizations may wish to use informal recruitment judiciously so that homogeneity is not replicated and entrenched. The aim is to broaden the referral base to include individuals of different sociodemographic backgrounds, so that diversity increases and candidates have an in-house network for support and informal information. The US has an organization known as the Institute for Diversity in Health Management, and this provides one avenue in supporting the development of a more inclusive informal network. Similar kinds of organizations are available in other jurisdictions. In order to create a diverse workforce, it is important to choose an appropriate mix of selection and screening techniques to identify competencies based on a portfolio of past work, cognitive tests, and structured interviews. In addition to having appropriate technical skills, candidates should also be selected for having emotional intelligence (Coleman 1995). It is not simply enough to say that you work on different ways and change your organizational imagery. If you wish to retain staff, there is a need to be honest and informative about the organization’s culture, policies, and work expectations to prevent attrition: assess and cultivate a culture that emphasizes quality, competency, learning, and the full participation of all employees. To that end, seek to minimize abuses of rank and balance power through inclusion, egalitarian norms, and democratic processes (Thomas and Ely 1996). Invest in professional development that is tailored to accommodate diverse learning styles; languages; physical needs; and proficiency levels in technology and the English language (Ford and Orel 2005). Be intentional about transferring knowledge from veterans to neophytes to retain and enhance the organization’s competitive strength. Use mentoring and reverse mentoring techniques that acknowledge and value both the experiential wisdom of older workers and the technical knowledge of younger ones (Ford and

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Orel 2005). Create opportunities for learning across boundaries, including age, race, and occupation, where the benefits of diversity are likely to materialize. Learn from the best through studying the actions of organizations that have been recognized for high performance.

9.6

Concluding Reflections

This chapter set out to highlight critical thinking and approaches to workforce diversity in public services, with the aim of supporting improved diversity practise. Drawing on insights from theory and practice, the chapter has illuminated how organizations with effective workforce diversity strategies will have a leading edge in employee productivity and retention. However, it is notable that much of the work in this area operates on a theoretical plane, and is often light on practical guidance. Empirical investigations that have systematically applied workforce diversity initiatives successfully are in short supply. At a time when the landscape of our workforce in the UK is changing, due to labor supply, ageing populations, the gig economy, and lack of young people entering the labor market, public services need to recognize the importance of diversity for future success. The chapter does not make the case for a step by step guide for action, but acknowledges the importance of understanding and working with the globalization of the economy, as well as changes to the domestic demographic characteristics of the population. If our Public service leaders are to continue to thrive they must recognize the importance of investing in leadership which is diverse, and implement, evaluate, and review diversity strategies that will have a positive effect on business, employees, suppliers, customers, products, services and communities.

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Williams, K. Y., & O’Reilly, C. A. (1998a). Demography and diversity in organizations: Review of 40 years of research. Research in Organizational Behavior, 20, 77–140. Williams, K., & O’Reilly, C. (1998b). Demography and diversity in organizations: A review of 40 years of research. In B. W. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (pp. 77–140). Greenwich: JAI Press. Wilson, P. A. (1994). Cultural diversity: An organizational asset. Public Manager, 23(3), 27–30.

Kiran Trehan is Professor of Leadership and Enterprise Development, Director of External Engagement, and Co-Director of the Enterprise and diversity Alliance [EDA] at Birmingham University. Kiran is a key contributor to debates on leadership, Enterprise development and diversity. Kiran has led a number of leadership, enterprise and business support initiatives and extensively published a number of journal articles, policy reports, books and book chapters in the field. Professor Trehan’s work has been supported by grants from a full range of research funding bodies; including the Economic and Social Research Councils and Arts Humanities Research councils, government departments, regional and local agencies and the private sector. Professor Trehan has also taken up national advisory roles that shape debates and policy in leadership Diversity. She is also Vice President at the Institute for Small Business and Entrepreneurship [ISBE] and visiting professor at Lancaster University. Jane Glover is Research Fellow at the University of Birmingham. Her research contributes to the debates on the socio-emotional wealth of family business ownership and the relationships within and beyond the family business. Her work focuses on family farming and explores the experiences of individuals working in these family firms. She is also interested in the role family firms have to play in creating a diverse and resilient local economy. Jane’s work explores these phenomenon using qualitative research methods.

Chapter 10

Conclusions Catherine Needham, Helen Sullivan, Catherine Mangan and Helen Dickinson

Public service work is changing and the chapters gathered here highlight the different elements of change and the ways in which the workforce can adapt. For some of these changes there are multiple examples of adaption—for example in relation to support for emotional labor—whereas for others, such as improving diversity and inclusion in the workplace, it is much harder to identify examples of success. Over four decades, many countries have restructured the size of their public services, and drawn much more on for profit and not-for-profit providers, bringing in external policy experts rather than growing their own, but the workforce implications of these changes have been poorly understood. Many of the chapters draw out aspects of the VUCA context of public service work (volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous), which renders obsolete many of the operating assumptions of bureaucracy. The chapters here present a way to understand these changes, which do not abandon practitioners in a fog of postmodern ambivalence, but provide insight and examples of how to adapt to the new environment. Buick et al., for example, highlight the importance of boundary spanning and the growing need for roles that span boundaries. However they also remind us that boundaries will not disappear. They will continue to play a useful containment role within organizations, so we C. Needham
C. Mangan University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK e-mail: [email protected] C. Mangan e-mail: [email protected] H. Sullivan Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia e-mail: [email protected] H. Dickinson (&) University of New South Wales, Canberra, ACT, Australia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 H. Dickinson et al. (eds.), Reimagining the Future Public Service Workforce, SpringerBriefs in Political Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1480-3_10

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shouldn’t simply bemoan the way that they impede agile, holistic approaches to problem solving. Equally we shouldn’t throw up our hands in despair at different cultures in different organizations and say that joint working is impossible (as many do in relation to integrated health and care for example), or that design-type approaches cannot fit into mainstream policy making. Rather we need to acknowledge that cultural differences are inevitable, and focus instead on the behaviors we want to encourage to support cross boundary working.

10.1

Cross-Cutting Themes

There are a number of themes that cut across these chapters. Perhaps an irony in the era where old hierarchies are perceived to be dying is the sustained importance of leadership that many of the chapters emphasize. However, this isn’t the hero leader, acting unilaterally, peddling certainties and denying self-doubt. This is the collaborative or craftsperson leader, who builds effective inter-organizational collaborative capacity and models inclusion and diversity. The leader is a story-teller, owning up publicly to their values and their failures, to inspire others to come on a journey with them. Lawrence-Pietroni and Mangan draw on the work of Saifan (2012) to describe the current generation of leaders as a ‘flux generation’. By this they mean leaders who are at home with complexity and help others to understand it. However we could also use that notion of flux to capture the sense of a transition generation, between the hero leaders (who have not entirely gone away) and a future generation of leaders who are more comfortable with uncertainty and shared power. The current generation have to navigate a setting in which the media, service regulators, elected politicians and citizens may not have got the memo about the end of hero leadership, and where to survive in office they may be expected at times to dust off the superhero costume. A second theme across many of the chapters is the importance of learning. Design approaches are based on the launch to learn concept—make something good enough, and then get the target audience to use it so you quickly learn how to improve. Mastracci and Sawbridge talk about the importance of learning through the reflective practice which is essential to managing emotional labor. In their chapter on leadership, Lawrence Pietroni and Mangan write about the need to move from horizontal to vertical learning. This means going from the acquisition of knowledge, skills and competencies to the ability to use these tools: not just to know it, but to be it. Blackman et al.’s work on social learning provides a helpful framework for advancing learning within public service organizations. Through this approach it becomes possible to link formal and experiential learning, and to put organizational systems in place to support sustained attainment. A third cross-cutting theme is about the ethics of public service work. The tools on offer to support learning and leadership need to be deployed with care: whether it is public narrative (in Lawrence Pietroni and Needham’s chapter) or nudge-type approaches in Quirk’s chapter, there is an awareness that these tools can be

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manipulative if used without an appropriate ethical commitment. There is also an awareness of the ethic of care which guides the ways in which public servants interact with the people who use services, and which is a strong theme in Mastracci and Sawbridge’s chapter on emotional labor and in the design chapter by Stewart Weeks and Campbell. Acting ethically towards the people who work in and use public services is not just about adhering to standards of sameness, as Quirk reminds us, in recognition of people’s different starting points and needs. The importance of empathy – understanding and responding to the personhood of the person using public services – is a theme in many of the chapters. This empathy is a key aspect of the emotional labor of public services; it underpins the success of design-led approaches. Quirk reminds us of how often we are attentive to the internal dynamics of the organization rather than the needs and preferences of the public. A fourth theme is recognizing the public service worker as a whole person. This helps to provide the support they need to deal with the emotional labor of their work, and engage in self-care. It recognizes Trehan and Glover’s point about the importance of public servants who are representative of the communities in which they serve rather than neutral processing agents of bureaucratic machines. The ‘bring your whole self to work’ approach emphasises vulnerability and the creation of a nurturing environment for staff (Robbins 2015). It makes possible the social learning approach set out by Blackman et al. in which people learn through observing people in the organizing adopting behaviors and skills that have identifiable benefits.

10.2

Unresolved Tensions

The chapters also reveal some tensions or contradictions that confront those trying to design or work within a changing public service. The first of these concerns the nature of the change that is affecting public service work. Despite the many voices in this book and elsewhere emphasizing the profound implications of technology, demography and economics on the shape and nature of public services, we know that public services, like all institutions, are good at surviving. Institutions do change, but they do so in an evolutionary rather than revolutionary way. The diagnoses and prescriptions contained in this book offer support to both those who believe in the virtues of evolution, and those who believe that revolution is coming regardless of our appetite for it. The challenge then particularly for public service leaders is to know how to navigate this future, retaining what is of value from our established institutions and norms, while embracing new ideas, technologies and ways of doing public service work. This brings us to the second tension inherent in the discussion, which is the scope of change to public service work and its impact on public service workers. As we indicate above many of the chapters in this book highlight the importance of ‘soft’ skills in developing an appropriately equipped public service workforce, and

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the dominance of relationships in this new environment. However even if public services are to be radically transformed they are still likely to comprise a range of roles and to retain a degree of hierarchy and bureaucracy not least because of important accountability requirements. Consequently some public service workers will still be required to practice ‘old’ skills, of monitoring and managing, up as well as down (and out). This is not to say they too won’t be relationship focused, but rather that they will have to manage the old alongside the new. This tension is most likely to be evident in middle management where strategic leadership meets street level bureaucracy. Working out which skills and capabilities are required where in the new public service workforce will require careful planning. The third tension is related to the future demands on workforce planning. An obvious but nonetheless important consequence of the rethinking of the dimensions of public service work is the need to invest in strategic workforce planning. As public service organizations invest in ‘foresighting’ activities to estimate the likely shape and nature of future public service demands so too they will need to invest in strategic planning for recruitment, training and retention of workers. Aside from the question of whether or not this kind of strategic planning is going on, there is another question about the implications of workforce changes on existing employees, their job security and their rights at work. The irony of exhorting workers to ‘bring their whole selves to work’ while at the same time accepting more insecure conditions and lower pay will not be lost on those who see public service work as having some inherent value.

10.3

New Workers Need New Politicians and Citizens

There are a number of key aspects of public service work that we have not covered directly here, but will shape the context within which the workforce will develop. The first is political climate in which public service workers operate. In order to undertake the creative, risky and learning-infused work that we set out here, public managers need elected politicians who support this way of working and the risks it entails. In their 21st century Councillor project, Mangan and Needham, highlighted a parallel set of roles which elected politicians need to acquire if they are to work effectively alongside a new generation of public service workers, these include: • • • •

Stewards of place—working across the locality in partnership with others Advocates—acting to represent the interests of all citizens Buffers—seeking to mitigate the impact of austerity on citizens Sense-makers—translating a shift in the role of public services and the relationship between institutions and citizen • Catalysts—enabling citizens to do things for themselves, having new conversations about what is now possible

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Attention also needs to be paid to what kinds of citizens are needed if this vision of public service workforce change is to be realized. If we are to take on board the learning about workforce change, ought there to be a parallel conversation about what sorts of citizens we need to be if communities and places are to flourish? The language of coproduction occurs in various chapters in the book, but this can’t work if it is a one-sided commitment or if only one side of the partnership is designing it. There is plenty of literature about the ways in which citizens are changing— becoming more assertive for example and less willing to be grateful for what they get from the state—but less is written about what kinds of publics are needed if public services are to survive the many challenges they face. And finally, technology will play a key role in public services. The future public servant may be virtual rather than flesh and blood, like Amelia, the AI public servant developed by Enfield council. More of the interactions between public service workers and citizens will be through social media rather than face to face. In these encounters the interaction becomes more informal and less rule-driven, and both citizens and workers need to learn new norms and vocabularies to operate in these media. In a striking passage from Quirk’s chapter he points out: ‘By the early part of the 21st century we no longer stand together in lines at the post office. Indeed, we barely rub shoulders in the same supermarkets.’ This in part is due to the technologies which allow us to work, shop and play in other ways. Quirk poses the challenge: will technical substitution enable public services to be more humanized (freeing up humans to do the compassion and empathy work), or will our experience of them become more anaesthetized through technology?

10.4

Context, Conditions and Challenges

The capacity of the public service system to respond to the challenges identified in this book must be considered in the context of contemporary politics and governance. The contextual challenges described in the introduction to this book have intensified, as global and domestic political turbulence continues to shape the potential and limits of reform, the collapsing faith in institutions repels citizens from engaging more expansively with the state, and economic instability and uncertainty inhibits policy debate. Policy challenges persist but they are framed by a politics that is increasingly populist, short-term and anti-the public domain. In this context a re-imagined public service workforce is at best marginal to policy debate and at worst a focus only Not for ‘efficiency gains’ and staff reductions. Notwithstanding these challenging circumstances there is evidence of public service reform that recognizes the value of the ‘the public domain’ and is reshaping its activities and workforce in keeping with this valuation. The contributors to this book provide evidence of some of these reforms, and also offer new ideas and possibilities. These then are the multiple challenges that public service workers and those working in policy support and academic roles must approach. The machine

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metaphors of the 20th century bureaucracy have been left behind with the bowler hats. As Lawrence-Pietroni and Mangan put it in their chapter on leadership, we need a public service workforce that fits a world that is more rave than waltz, more bebop than Bach, more Pollock than Rembrandt.

Catherine Needham is Professor of Public Policy and Public Management at the Health Services Management Centre, University of Birmingham. Her research covers public service workforce, social care co-production and personalisation. Her most recent book was published by the Policy Press in 2016 entitled, What Size is Good Care: Micro-Enterprise and Personalisation. She coordinates the 21st century Public Servant research programme on workforce change, which has a blog https://21stcenturypublicservant.wordpress.com/ and hashtag #21cPS. Helen Sullivan is Professor and Director of the Crawford School of Public Policy at the Australian National University. Her research and teaching explores the changing nature of state-society relationships and their impact on public governance including the theory and practice of governance and collaboration, new forms of democratic participation, and public policy and service reform. Current research projects include an exploration of the Social Licence to Operate in the Australian resources sector, and an international study of collaborative governance under austerity. Helen is widely published; the author of five books and numerous academic articles, book chapters, and policy reports. Her latest book with Sara Bice and Avery Poole is ‘Public Policy in the ‘Asian Century’ Concepts, Cases and Futures’ (Palgrave, 2018). Helen is committed to bridging the gap between research and policy and has led and supported successful innovations in this area in both the UK and Australia. She appears regularly in print and online media commenting on contemporary public policy issues. Catherine Mangan is Director of the Public Services Academy and Director of the Institute for Local Government Studies at the University of Birmingham. She has a particular research interest in delivering change within the public sector; specifically, the integration of health and social care, developing the skills and roles of the future workforce and place based leadership. She is a qualified coach and teaches on a number of executive development programmes for local government and public health. She is currently researching the impact of social care market shaping on personalisation. Catherine teaches on the Department’s Masters programmes in Public Management and Public Administration and co-convenes programmes on integrating health and social care and international public management. She writes regularly for academic journals and the professional press. Helen Dickinson is Associate Professor Public Service Research and Director of the Public Service Research Group at the School of Business, University of New South Wales, Canberra. Her expertise is in public services, particularly in relation to topics such as governance, leadership, commissioning and priority setting and decision-making. Helen has published sixteen books and over fifty peer-reviewed journal articles on these topics and is also a frequent commentator within the mainstream media. She is co-editor of the Journal of Health, Organization and Management and Australian Journal of Public Administration. In 2015 Helen was made a Victorian Fellow of the Institute of Public Administration Australia and she has worked with a range of different levels of government, community organisations and private organisations in Australia, UK, New Zealand and Europe on research and consultancy programmes.