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Boeing707 Family
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Boeing707 Family AHistory
GrahamMSimons
Animprintof Pen&SwordBooksLtd Yorkshire-Philadelphia
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FirstpublishedinGreatBritainin2018by PEN&SWORDAVIATION Animprintof Pen&SwordBooksLtd Yorkshire-Philadelphia
Copyright©PenandSwordBooksLimited,2017 ISBN9781473861343
TherightofGrahamSimonstobeidentifiedas Authorofthisworkhasbeenassertedbyhiminaccordance withtheCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988. ACIPcataloguerecordforthisbookis availablefromtheBritishLibrary
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Contents Acknowledgements ......................................................................... Introduction
7
Playingcatch-up .......................................................
21
What’sinaname? ....................................................
45
Inthebeginning ........................................................
Chapter3
Thejourneyfrompapertometal ..............................
Chapter4 Chapter5
GasPassersandsomuchmore:the135series .......
Chapter6
Big ol’ jet airliner ......................................................
Chapter8
Military707s .............................................................
Chapter7
6
....................................................................................
Chapter1 Chapter2
5
9
33
75
137
‘Ladies and Gentlemen, From the Flight Deck’.........
227
255
Chapter9
‘Come Fly With me’
................................................
293
Appendix2
Specifications ...........................................................
302
Appendix1
Summaryofnewbuildaircraft .................................
Bibliography .................................................................................... Index
.....................................................................................
299
307
310
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Acknowledgements Abookofthisnaturewouldnothavebeenpossiblewithoutthehelpofmany peopleandorganisations.Thanksareofferedtothemanyrepresentativesof tensofairlinespastandpresentIhavecontactedovertheyears,including everyoneatPanAmericanAirways,TransWorldAirlines,QANTAS,British MidlandAirways,SABENA,AirFrance,OlympicAirways,theBritishAirways ArchiveandKLM,butespeciallytothelatePeterMBowersandLanceKuhn at Boeing, Gudrun Gorner, Corporate Communications Executive UK & Ireland Lufthansa German Airlines and to Kerstin Roßkopp, Deutsche LufthansaAGfordiggingdeepintheirfiles. Thanks and a big salute should go to the Public Affairs and Community Relations Officers of the many military units who have provided help and assistance,especiallytoJimRobinson,MediaandCommunicationsOfficer RAFConingsby,allon8SquadronRAF,especiallytheirSENGOforgranting meaccess,DennisColeandallatthe927ARW,McDillAFBandthe100ARW, RAFMildenhall,JeffDufordandRogerDeereattheNationalMuseumofthe USAirForceandallattheSmithsonianNationalAirandSpaceMuseum. MythanksalsogotothestaffofDan-AirServices,DanAirEngineeringand theDan-AirStaffAssociation,manyofwhomfreelyprovidedinformation, adviceandphotographs. ThanksarealsoofferedtoJohnHuntofIanAllenTravel,MrFEFNewman, CBE,MC,MichaelNewman,CaptainKeithMoody,CaptainYvonneSintes, CaptainBrynWayt,CaptainRogerCooper,CaptainArthurLarkman,John Stride, BillArmstrong, David Lee, John Hamlin, Vince Hemmings, Brian Cocks,MichelleMillar,MikeRamsden,MickOakey,IanFrimston,Warrant OfficerPaddyPorterBEM.Finally,thanksalsogotoLauraHirst,MattJones, JonWilkinson,andCharlesHewittofPen&Sword!
Iamindebtedtomanypeopleandorganisationsforprovidingphotographsfor thisstory,butinsomecasesithasnotbeenpossibletoidentifytheoriginal photographerandsocreditsaregivenintheappropriateplacestotheimmediate supplier.Ifanyofthepictureshavenotbeencorrectlycredited,pleaseaccept myapologies.
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Introduction
IthasbeenclaimedbymanythattheBoeingModel 707 airliner and its derivatives marked the true beginningofthejet-transportage,andintheprocess totallyrevolutionisedthenatureofairtransport. AssessmentsoftheimpactoftheBoeing707on worldairtransportationdiffersfromonesideofthe Atlantic to the other, mainly reflecting parochial attitudes.WhereasintheUnitedStatestheNational Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian InstitutiondesignatedtheBoeing367-80-thefamous ‘Dash80’-prototypeasbeingoneofthetwelvemost significantaircraftdesignsofalltime-those‘inthe know’ in the rest of the world see the story in a somewhat different light. Boeing and the SmithsonianalsoinsistoncallingtheModel367-80 the707,which,asweshallsee,itclearlyisnot. Outwardlysimilartothe707sthatweretofollow, theDash80was,infact,verydifferent.Itwasshorter, lower,lighterandhadbothanarrowercross-section andsmallerwingspanthanany707built. Boeinganditssupporterstakegreatdelightin usingphraseslike‘...the world’s first commercially successful airliner’ whichtheyhavebandiedabout overtheyearswhentalkingaboutthe707andits derivatives, conveniently forgetting that ‘commercially successful’ issomethingsubjective.In realitythe707wasinfactthefourthjetairlinertofly andwaslaunchedonthebackofahugemilitary order for a structurally similar but dimensionally differentdesign.Thisuseofmilitaryfundeddesign workandtoolingconsiderablyreduceddevelopment costs. Therehadbeenearlierjettransportsintheforms oftheDeHavillandDH.106Comet,theAvroJetliner, theSud-AviationSE.210CaravelleandTupolevTu104;butforvariousreasonsthesehadfailedtosecure the technical and commercial lead eventually assumed by the Model 707.The Comet had first flownon27July1949,butsufferedfromproblems associatedwiththethenlittle-knownphenomenaof fatiguefailuresofthefuselage.Itwasalsodesigned aswhatwouldtodaybeencalledamediumrange aircrafttoservetheBritishEmpireroutestoSouth Africa, India, the Far East and Australia. The Caravelle was tailored to the short/medium-haul regimeofairlineoperationsandtheTu-104wasa small-capacityairlinerofprodigiousperformance whoseoperatingcostsmadethetypetoocostlyfor allbuttheRussianstosustaininregularservice.
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Another thing that grates with many is the selectivememorysyndromefromwhichBoeingand manyofitssupportersseemtosuffer.Whentalking abouttheComettheyalwaysmentionthestructural failureofawindowinthefuselage-infactitwasnot a‘window’,itwasanapertureholdingadirection findingaerial-butcompletelyfailtomentionthe poordesignoftheverticalfinoftheB.307thatledto thedeathsofallonboardtheprototype.It’sthesame thingwhenitcomestothemultipleenginefailures oftheBoeing377thatledtothephrase‘the greatest three engined airliner ever built’. Indeed, this poor vertical fin design and the infamous‘dutchroll’thatcontinuedwiththe367-80, C/KC-135and707designsresultedinthelossof manylivesthattookalotoftime,moneyandeffort tofix;butthatisseldommentioned. This selective memory of the supporters continuesinotherareas:theyalwayssay‘...the longrange 707...’, convenientlyforgettingthattheBoeing 707-120 was incapable of non-stop transatlantic operation and barely capable of going transcontinental with a full payload. There are a numberofrecordedincidentswheretheseearly-120s wereforcedtolandatnon-jetregisteredairportsdue tobeinglowonfuelandwereimpoundedduetothe airportsnothavingthecorrectinsurance! Trawlingthroughthelistofphrasesheapedupon theBoeing707,theKC-135tankerandtheBoeing company, it seems that according to some, the companyandtheairlinercoulddonowrong.After all,itwaswellknownthatthecompanygambled everything-bybudgeting$16millionoftheirown money-onlettingthedesigngoahead! Inthewordsofmany,itseemsthattheBoeing 707andtheKC-135tankerfortheUSAirForcewas an immaculate conception borne of an idea from WilliamMAllen,thecompanypresident-fromthat momenton,everyotherairlinerhadfaults,seemingly almostdeliberatelyso!Therhetoriccreatedanimage thatall‘theopposition’weredownonrange,had pooreconomics,weretechnicallyflawed,couldnot carry as many, for as far - or as fast. The hype surroundingtheaircraftandthecompanyreached feverpitchwiththesloganthatjusthadtocomefrom sharp suited advertising executives of Madison Avenueandisstillquotedtoday: ‘Tell your travel agent - if it’s not Boeing, you’re not going!’ Thetruthisthataccidentshappen;whenpushing
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theboundariesofknowledgethereisalwaystherisk of discovering new areas of danger. Likewise, comparisonsshouldonlybemadewhencomparing likeforlike,notsticksandstones.Tomakeclaims through what appears at best to be rose-coloured glassesdoesadisservicetothemanythousandsof peoplewhodesigned,built,servicedandflewthe designs,betheytankersorairliners. Wasallthis‘Americanpride’justified,orwasit merelythecynicalmanipulationofthefactsbythe public relations and marketing people? The only solutionwastoobjectivelylookindetailatthehistory ofthedesign,itsevolutionanduse. Then,intheprocessofresearchforthisbookI wassentatattyoldpieceofpaperwithfartoomany thumb-tackholesinit.Clearlyithadhungonmany acrewroomnoticeboard,andfromthewordsused, American crew rooms at that. It shed a whole differentlightonthesubject:
An Ode to the Boeing 707 Those were the good ole days. Pilots back then were men that didn’t want to be women or girlie men. Pilots all knew who Jimmy Doolittle was. Pilots drank coffee, whiskey, smoked cigars wearing their uniforms in airport lounges and didn’t wear digital watches. They carried their own suitcases and brain bags like the real men that they were. Pilots didn’t bend over into the crash position multiple times each day in front of the passengers at security so that some Government agent could probe for tweezers or fingernail clippers or too much toothpaste. Pilots didn’t go through the terminal looking a caddy pulling a bunch of golf clubs, computers, guitars and feed bags full of tofu and granola on a sissy-trailer with no hat and granny glasses hanging on a pink string around their pencil neck while talking to their personal trainer on a cell phone! Being an airline captain was as good as being the King in a Mel Brooks movie. All the Stewardesses were young, attractive, single women that were proud to be combatants in the sexual revolution. They didn’t have to turn sideways, grease up and suck it in to get through the cockpit door. They would blush and say thank you when told that they looked good, instead of filing a sexual harassment claim. Junior Stewardesses shared a room and talked about men; with no thoughts of substitution. Passengers wore nice clothes and were polite; they could speak AND understand English. They didn’t speak gibberish or listen to loud gangsta rap on their IPods. They bathed and didn’t smell like a rotting pile of garbage in a jogging suit and flip-flops. Children didn’t travel
alone, commuting between trailer parks. There were no Mongol hordes asking for a seatbelt extension or a Scotch and grapefruit juice cocktail with a twist. If a captain wanted to throw some offensive, ranting jerk off the airplane, it was done without any worries of a lawsuit or getting fired. Axial flow engines crackled with the sound of freedom and left an impressive black smoke trail like a locomotive burning soft coal. Jet fuel was cheap and once the throttles were pushed up they were left there, after all it was the jet age and the idea was to go fast. Economy cruise was something in the performance book, but no one knew why or where it was. When the clacker went off no one got all tight and scared because Boeing built it out of iron, nothing was going to fall off and that sound had the same effect on real pilots then as Viagra does now for these new age guys. There was very little plastic and no composites on the airplanes or Stewardesses’ pectoral regions. Airplanes and women had eye pleasing symmetrical curves, not a bunch of ugly vortex generators, ventral fins, winglets, flow diverters, tattoos, rings in their nose, tongues and eyebrows. It took 185 pounds pressure on the rudder to hold a 707 straight with an outboard engine out. That was because the Boeing‘s engineers were afraid the pilots would break their aeroplane if they gave them enough hydraulic power to hold it. Airlines were run by men like C.R. Smith and Juan Tripp who had built their companies virtually from scratch, knew most of their employees by name and were lifetime airline employees themselves...Not pseudo financiers and bean counters who flip from one occupation to another for a few bucks, a better parachute or a fancier title, while fervently believing that they are a class of beings unto themselves. And so it was back then . . .. and never will be again! Clearly,itwasadifferenttime... Thisthenisthestory.
GrahamMSimons Peterborough April2017
PS:Forthosequestioningwhynometricdimensionsand sizesappearinthisbook,pleaserememberthattheBoeing AircraftcompanyusedImperialdimensions-thatisfeet andinchesetc-whendesigningandbuildingthe707.For metoconvertthesetometric,usinganaccuracyoffour decimal points, makes the original figures look silly. Anyonewishingtoconvert,pleaserememberthatoneinch equals25.4millimetres!
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ChapterOne
9
InTheBeginning TheBoeingCompanywasfoundedbyWilliamE. flight in June 1916.With the original partnership ‘Bill’ Boeing, the son of a wealthy timber man. dissolvedbyWestervelt’sdeparture,andtheB&W Boeingtookupflyingforhisownamusementatthe aircraftasuccess,corporateidentitywasnotachieved ageofthirty-four.Hebecameconvincedthathecould until the Pacific Aero Products Company was build a better aeroplane. He and Commander G. incorporated on 15 July 1916 and a new airline Conrad Westervelt, a Navy officer assigned to subsidiary,BoeingAirTransport,wasformed.On26 engineeringworkataSeattleshipyard,Washington, April1917thenamewaschangedtoTheBoeing decidedtobuildapairofseaplanes.ByDecember AirplaneCompany-Boeingkepthisofficeinthe 1915,anaircraftcalledthe‘B&WSeaplane’was HogebuildingindowntownSeattle,whilehisplant underconstructioninahangarontheeastshoreof managerswereattheshipyard. The company attracted interest from the US LakeUnion,alargebodyoffreshwaterroughlytwo mileslongandthree-quartersofamilewideinthe Navy, which was becoming aware of the rapid heartofthecity.Oftenreferredtoasafloatinghangar, growthofmilitaryaviationinEuropeandtheneed thebuildingwasconstructedabovewaterlevelon forexpansionofitsownairarm.WhiletheNavydid pilingdrivenoffshoreatthefootofRoanoakeStreet not buy either B & W, it did encourage the ontheeasternshoreofthelake.Theimpressionof developmentofanewmodeldesignedspecifically floatingwasconveyedbytheslopingseaplaneramp as a trainer that could be used in the anticipated whichhidthepilingfromview,andwasreinforced expansionoftheNavyflight-trainingprogramme. Pacific Aero enlarged its engineering and bytheprevalenceofhouseboatsandotherfloating buildings in the immediate area. Although used manufacturingfacilitiesandundertookthedesignof originally to house a Martin seaplane that ‘Bill’ twonewmodels,aseaplanethatcouldbeusedfor Boeinghadboughtfollowinghisdecisiontobuild private flying as well as meeting the Navy requirements for a primary aircraftinpartnershipwith William E ‘Bill’ Boeing trainer and a landplane for Westervelt, it was (b. 1 October 1881 – d. 28 September 1956) Army requirements. After constructed with the testinginSeattle,thesecond manufacture of aircraft in and third examples of the mind. Bluebird – some new seaplane were sent by sources say it was called railtotheNavytestfacilityat Bluebill-thefirstB&W, HamptonRoads,Virginia. was completed in early The lakeside hangar 1916, marking the modest wasnotsuitable,soBoeing beginning of aircraft expanded by setting up production at the Boeing aircraft manufacturing Company; it flew for the facilities in the Heath firsttimeon29June. Shipyard, a small yachtAlthough work on the building firm on the aircrafthadbeeninprogress Duwamish River, south of since 1915, Commander Seattle,whichhadbuiltthe Westervelt did not see the floatsfortheB&W,andwas fruitsofhislabours,having acompanythatBillBoeing beentransferredtotheeast had acquired some years coastonNavyordersbefore previously. Many of the the machine made its first
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existingbuildingsandmuchoftheequipmentcould be used to produce aircraft parts, but additional facilitieswerestillrequired. Alargefinalassemblybuildingwaserectedafter theNavyaskedBoeingtobuild50CurtissHS-2L flyingboatsforthewartimeprogramme.TheLake Unionhangarwasretainedasaflightoperationsbase untilafterthewar,whenitwassold. Boeing – the Man. WilliamEdwardBoeing(b.1October1881–d.28 September1956)wasborninDetroit,Michigantoa wealthyGermanminingengineer,WilhelmBöing andhiswifeMarie.Hisfather,whoarrivedinthe UnitedStatesin1868,wasadescendantfromanold andwell-to-dofamilyinHagen-Hohenlimburgarea ofGermany,andhadservedintheGermanarmy. WilhelmhademigratedtotheUSAattheageof20, starting work as a farm labourer, but soon joined forces with Karl Ortmann, a lumberman and, ultimately,hisfather-in-law.YoungWilhelmbought timberland,withitsmineralrights,intheMesabi RangeinnorthernMinnesota,builtalargehome,and became the director of Peoples Savings Bank, presidentoftheGalvinBrassandIronWorks,anda shareholderintheStandardLifeInsuranceCompany. HealsoboughtlandinWashingtonStateinthearea nowknownasOceanShoresandtimberlandinthe redwoodforestinCalifornia. WhenWilhelmwaslogginginMinnesotahehad difficultyrunningcompasslinesonhisproperty,the reasonsbeinghewasloggingoveraniron-orerange. Fortunately,whenhepurchasedtimberlandshekept themineralrightsalso.Therewaslow-gradeironore knownastaconitenearthesurface,andbelowthat layveinsofhigh-qualityore.ThoughWilhelmdid not live to see the development of those mining
rights,hiswidowreceivedthebenefitsofthemineral rights later in her life. Wilhelm Boeing died of influenzain1890whenhewasonly42yearsold. Young William was sent to school in Vevey, Switzerland, leaving after a year, continuing his schoolinginpublicandprivateschoolsintheUnited States.Between1899and1902,hestudiedatthe Sheffield Scientific School at Yale but did not graduate. Instead, in 1903 at age 22, William E. Boeingleftcollege,wentwest,andstartedhisnew lifeinGraysHarbor,Washington,wherehelearned theloggingbusinessonhisown,startingwithlands hehadinherited.Boeingboughtmoretimberland, begantoaddtothewealthhehadinheritedfromhis family, and started to explore new frontiers by outfittingexpeditionstoAlaska. He moved to Seattle in 1908 to establish the GreenwoodTimberCo.Hisfirsthometherewasa genteelapartment-hotelonFirstHill,butin1909,he waselectedamemberofTheHighlands,abrandnew,exclusiveresidentialsuburbintheShoreline areanorthoftown.In1910,heboughttheHeath ShipyardontheDuwamishRivertobuildayacht, namedtheTaconite. ThreeyearslaterBoeingaskedthearchitecture firmofBebbandMendeltodesignhiswhite-stucco, red-roofed mansion in The Highlands. While presidentofGreenwoodTimberCompany,Boeing, whohadexperimentedwithboatdesign,travelledto Seattle, where, during the Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Expositionin1909,hesawamannedflyingmachine forthefirsttimeandbecamefascinatedwithaircraft. He soon purchased an aircraft from the Glenn L. MartinCompany,andreceivedflyinglessonsfrom Martinhimself.Justasmanypioneerflyers,Boeing soon crashed the aircraft. When he was told by Martin that replacement parts would not become In 1909, Edward Heath built a shipyard on the Duwamish River in Seattle. Heath became insolvent, and Bill Boeing, for whom Heath was building a luxurious yacht, bought the shipyard and land for ten dollars during 1917, in exchange for Boeing's acceptance of Heath's debts. Building 105, also known as the Red Barn, was part of the package. The Boeing Company began producing aircraft from the simple barn-like structure.
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availableformonths,Boeingblewup.Heangrilytold hisUSNavyfriendCdr.GeorgeConradWestervelt ‘…Wecouldbuildabetterplaneourselvesandbuild itfaster’.Westerveltagreed.Theysoonbuiltandflew theB&WSeaplane,anamphibianbiplanethathad outstandingperformance.Boeingdecidedtogointo theaircraftbusinessandboughtanoldboatworkson theDuwamishRivernearSeattleforhisfactory. In1921,WilliamBoeingmarriedBerthaMarie PotterPaschall(1891-1977).Shehadpreviouslybeen marriedtoNathanielPaschall,arealestatebroker with whom she bore two sons, Nathaniel ‘Nat’ PaschallJr.andCranstonPaschall.Thesetwosons becameBoeing'sstepsons.Thecouplehadasonof theirown,WilliamE.BoeingJr.Thestepsonswent intoaviationmanufacturingasacareer.NatPaschall wasasalesmanagerforDouglasAircraftandthen McDonnellDouglas.WilliamE.BoeingJr.became a noted private pilot and industrial real estate developer. Bertha was the daughter of Howard CranstonPotterandAliceKershawPotter.Through her father, Bertha was a descendant of merchant bankers Alexander Brown of Baltimore, James BrownandBrown'sson-in-lawandpartnerHoward Potter of NewYork; and through her mother, the granddaughterofCharlesJamesKershawandMary Leavenworth Kershaw, a descendant of Henry Leavenworth,afamousAmericansoldieractivein the War of 1812 and early military expeditions againstthePlainsIndians. In1926BoeingbegancontractingforAirMail postalroutes,abusinessthatmadeBoeingawealthy man.Hiscompanytookcontrolofaloose-knitgroup of air carriers, bringing these entities together as UnitedAirLinesTransportationCompany,another Boeingsubsidiary,whichcametodominateairmail routes.Boeingthreatenedtomovehiscompaniesto LosAngelesunlessthelocalgovernmentbuilthima newairport,andin1928KingCountyInternational Airport-commonlycalledBoeingField-openedon Seattle'ssouthside. BillBoeingbeganinvestingmostofhistimeinto hishorsesin1937.Between1935and1944,William BoeingandhiswifeBerthasetasideamassivetract oflandnorthofSeattlecitylimitsforsubdivision, including the future communities of Richmond Beach,RichmondHeights,InnisArden,BlueRidge andShoreview. Boeingretiredfromtheaircraftindustry.Hethen spent the remainder of his years in property developmentandthoroughbredhorsebreeding.In 1942BoeingdonatedhisHighlandsHillsMansion totheChildren'sOrthopaedicHospitalandmovedto the 500-acre Aldarra Farm near Fall City. The
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mansionwassubsequentlysoldtoraisefundsforthe hospital,andin1988wasplacedonboththeNational andWashingtonStateRegistersofHistoricPlaces. On15May1954,heandhiswifeBerthareturned toTheBoeingCompanyagainforthe367-80rollout. ThistimeBerthawasabletouserealchampagne, unlike the time she was asked to launch the first Model40AmailplaneduringtheeraofProhibition, whennochampagnewasallowedonCrissyFieldin San Francisco. ‘I christen thee the airplane of tomorrow, the Boeing Jet Stratoliner and Stratotanker,’ sheproclaimed. WilliamBoeingdiedon28September1956,just three days before his 75th birthday. He was pronounceddeadonarrivalattheSeattleYachtClub, havinghadaheartattackaboardhisyacht.
Peace breaks out – and making ends meet. With the end of the war in November 1918, the BoeingAirplaneCompany,likemanyothersbuilding aircraftforthewareffort,sufferedrapid,catastrophic loss of contracts. Suddenly finding itself without work, it turned its hand to other things, making furniture,phonographcases,andevenfixturesfora corsetcompany. Businessslowlyrecovered.Thecompanystarted toshowaprofitfromrepairingmilitaryaircraftand building biplane fighters designed by other companies.By1921,thecompanyhadre-established itself,andsoonnewBoeingdesignsappearedfor bothnavalandcivilianuse. The Post Office Department issued a specificationforaLiberty-enginepoweredbiplaneto replacetheDeHavillandDH.4stheninuse.The Boeing Model 40 was designed inApril 1925 as Boeingentryintothecompetitionandfirstflewon7 July.ThePostOfficeboughtthesinglemachine,but didnotplaceaproductionorder. USairmailoperationshadbeganinAugust1918, afterstartingintheUnitedStatesArmyAirService in May, with pilots and aircraft belonging to the United States Post Office. For nine years, using mostlywar-surplusDeHavillandDH.4biplanes,the Post Office built and flew a nationwide network. Subsidiesforcarryingmailexceededthecostofthe mailitself,andsomecarriersabusedtheircontracts byfloodingthesystemwithjunkmailat100%profit orhaulingheavyfreightasairmail.HistorianOliver E.Allen,inhisbookThe Airline Builders, estimated thatairlineswouldhavehadtochargea150-pound passenger $450 per ticket in lieu of carrying an equivalentamountofmail. Then,earlyin1927Boeingdecidedtobidforthe San Francisco – Chicago portion of the trans-
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continental airmail route that the US Post Office Department had sought to turn over to private enterprise.TheSeattlefactoryredesignedtheir1925 Model40totakethenewPrattandWhitneyaircooled Wasp engine and based their bid on the modifieddesignwithitsincreasedcapacityandcould thereforeaddpassengerrevenuetomailpayments. Competing bids were based on aircraft using the heavyLibertyengineandcarryingnopassengers,so weretwiceashigh–theBoeingAirplaneCompany wasawardedtheroute. Atotalofeighty-twoModel40swerebuilt.Their introduction signalled the beginning of regular commercialpassengerserviceoverlongdistances and served as the vehicle for the first regular passengerandnightmailflights. Sobegananeweraforthecompany.BoeingAir Transportwasformedasanairlinetooperatethe serviceasaseparatecorporation,butBoeingAirplane executivesmadeuptheentiremanagementstructure. Theoriginalrouteswereexpandedlatein1928by theacquisitionofPacificAirTransport(PAT),aSan Francisco to Seattle airline. The combined lines became known as ‘The Boeing System’. Under Boeingownership,PATboughtBoeingmachinesbut continuedtooperatesomeofitsoriginalaircraft. The first of four Model 80 tri-motor biplanes weredeliveredtoBoeingAirTransportinAugust 1928,onlytwoweeksafteritsfirstflight.Twelve passengers-andlater,eighteen-werecarriedina largecabinprovidedwithhotandcoldrunningwater, atoilet,forcedairventilation,leatherupholstered seatsandindividualreadinglamps.Theneedsofa dozenormorepassengersduringlongflightssoon indicated the desirability of a full-time cabin attendantwhocoulddevoteallhis/herattentionto theircomfort.WhilesomeEuropeanairlinesused malestewards,BoeingAirTransporthiredfemale registerednurseswhobecamethefirstofthenowuniversalstewardesses.Thepilotandco-pilotwere enclosedinaroomycabinaheadofandseparateto thepassengercabin. Thecompanyexpandedinotherdirections,too. In February 1929, Boeing acquired the Hamilton Metalplane Company of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, whichcontinuedtomanufactureaeroplanesofits own design under its own name.That same year Boeing and the Hoffar-Breeching Shipyard of Vancouver,Canada,ayacht-buildingconcer,formed Boeing Aircraft of Canada Ltd to build Seattledesignedaircraft.Theirfirstproductswereanumber ofModel204flyingboats,calledtheC204stodenote theirCanadianmanufacture. TheUnitedAircraftandTransportCorporation, with headquarters in Hartford, Connecticut was
created as a holding company owning all of the capitalstockoftheBoeingAirplaneCompanyand itsHamiltonsubsidiary,BoeingAirTransport,Inc. and its subsidiary PAT, the Chance Vought Corporation, a manufacturer of Navy fighterobservationaircraft,HamiltonAeroManufacturing Company,apropellermanufacturer,andthePratt& WhitneyAircraftCompany,thewell-knownengine manufacturer. Each company continued to trade underitsownnamewithitsownproductlinethat complemented, rather than competed with, the products of the other member companies. This associationresultedinthestandardizationofPratt& WhitneyenginesandHamiltonpropellersonmost subsequent Boeing aircraft unless specifically requested by the customer. Both the airline and manufacturing sides of United grew rapidly. The Sikorsky Aviation Corporation, a New England manufacturerofamphibians,wasadded,followedby theStearmanAircraftCompanyofWichita,Kansas, andtheStandardSteelPropellerCompany. Stout Airlines, who operated the route from ChicagotoCleveland,wasaddedtotheBoeing/PAT routes,followedbyNationalAirTransport(NAT) withroutesfromDallas,Texas,toNewYorkCityby wayofChicago.VarneyAirLines,whichranfrom Reno, Nevada, to Pasco, Washington, via Boise, Idahowasalsoadded.Asaresultoftheincreased airlineactivityUnitedAirLines,Inc.,wasformedas amanagementcompanytooperatethelines,which like the manufacturing companies continued to functionundertheiroriginalnames. InadditiontotheofficesheheldintheBoeing AirplaneCompanyandBoeingAirTransport,Bill Boeing became chairman of the board of United Aircraft and Transport Corp., with Frederick. B. RenschlerfromPratt&Whitneyaspresident. When markets for new aircraft designs developed, Boeing was ready. It was the first Americanmanufacturertouseweldedsteeltubing forfuselagestructure,afeaturethatbecamestandard throughouttheindustryuntilgenerallyreplacedby monococquesheet-metalstructuresinthemid-1930s. Boeing again demonstrated its technological leadership by introducing this new construction, matchedtoaerodynamicallyadvancedaircraft,in bothcommercialandmilitaryproductionwiththe Monomail,B-9and247modelsof1930-1933. The all-metal Model 200 Monomail mail and cargocarrierfirstflewon6May1930.Designedas a combination mail and passenger aircraft, its performancecamefromstructuralandaerodynamic refinements, not from the addition of brute horsepower.Thetraditionalbiplanedesignwithdragproducingstrutsandwireswasreplacedbyasingle,
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smooth, all-metal low wing of clean cantilever construction.Thewheelswereretractedintothewing duringflightandthedragoftheair-cooled‘Hornet’ enginewasgreatlyreducedbyenclosingitinanewly developedanti-dragcowling.Efficientuseofitsfull performancerangerequiredavariable-pitchpropeller andwhenonewaseventuallyinstalled,theaircraft wasalreadyonthevergeofbeingreplacedbythe newer,multi-engineddesignsithadinspired. BoeingModels214and215,whichbecamethe USArmyY1B-9andYB-9,werelogicalmilitary developmentsoftheMonomail.Boeingembarked onthetwoB-9projectsasaprivateventureinthe hopethattheywouldproducethesameperformance advance in the area of heavy bombers as the Monomailhaddoneinthecommercialsector;butthe type was not ordered in quantity. The B-9 did, however,proveamajoradvanceinbomberdesign and it greatly influenced the Model 247, the first airlinerproducedinquantitybyBoeing. Anunprecedenteddecisionwasmadetore-equip the Boeing Air Transport System with the new twelve-seatermachineandanorderforsixtyModel 247swasplacedwhilethedesignwasstillinthe mock-up stage. The Model 247 was the first allmetal, streamlined monoplane transport. It was powered by two supercharged Pratt andWhitney 550hpS1D1Wasps(thefirsttimesuperchargershad been used on a transport type) and featured a retractablelandinggear,anenclosedcabin,autopilot,
trimtabsandde-icingequipment.
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A scandal strikes. TheformationofsuchahugecorporationlikeUnited was indicative that aviation and air transport had becomebigbusinessinthelate1920s.However,the economicdepressionthatfollowedthestockmarket crashof1929resultedincurtailmentofeconomic support for both civil and military aeronautical activity and governmental investigation of big businessofwhichUnitedbecameamajortarget. ThescandalenvelopedBoeingwhenwhatwas calledtheAirMailfiascostruck.Thiswasthename thattheAmericanpressgavetothepoliticalscandal resultingfromacongressionalinvestigationofa1930 meetingbetweenPostmasterGeneralWalterFolger Brownandtheexecutivesofthetopairlines.The partiesoftheconferenceeffectivelydividedamongst themselvestheairmailroutes,resultinginaSenate investigation. TheAirMailActof12June1934,draftedby Senator Black, regulated the air mail business, dissolved the holding companies that brought together airlines and aircraft manufacturers, and preventedcompaniesthatheldtheoldcontractsfrom gettingnewones.Theindustry'sresponsetothiswas simply to change names; for instance Northwest AirwaysbecameNorthwestAirlines.UnitedAircraft andTransportationCompany(UATC)appearedtobe itsparticulartargetandbrokeupon26September The Boeing 247 is often claimed - usually by Boeing to be the first modern airliner, which first took to the air on 8 February 1933.
The first Model 247 is seen below, carrying the experimental registration X-13301 and the Boeing Air transport logo.
The interior of the 247 featured steps over the main wing spar which passed through the passenger cabin. (via David Lee)
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1934 into three companies: United Aircraft Manufacturing Company, United Air Lines Transportation Company, and Boeing Aircraft Company. Themostpunitivemeasurewastobanallformer airline executives from further contracts. United Airlines’president,PhilipG.Johnson,forinstance, chosetoleavetheUSAandhelpedtoformTransCanadaAirlines.WilliamBoeingresignedasUATC's chairmanon18September1934.Theeffectofthe entirescandalwastoguaranteethatmail-carrying contracts remained unprofitable, and pushed the entireindustrytowardscarryingpassengers.With biddingforcontractsmorecompetitiveandairmail revenuelessattractivethanbefore,theairlinesplaced anewemphasisonpassengertransportation. WilliamBoeingdivestedhimselfofownershipas his holding company, UATC, broke into three separateentities:Pratt&Whitney,Vought,Sikorsky, andthenow-mergedHamiltonStandardPropeller Company became a new United Aircraft Corporation, while the airlines, National Air Transport, Boeing Air Transport, Pacific Air Transport,Varney,andBAT’ssubsidiary,theBoeing School ofAeronautics, became UnitedAir Lines Transport Corporation. The Boeing Airplane Company,withwesternUSmanufacturing,which laterbecameTheBoeingCompany.
For the military - with a commercial spin-off. In the 1930s it was accepted that a formation of unescortedbomberscouldgetthroughtotheirtarget iftheywereproperlyarrangedandadequatelyarmed. During air manoeuvres in 1933, fighter aircraft knownbytheAmericansas‘pursuits’-repeatedly failedtointerceptthebombersandtherewaseven talkofeliminatingpursuitsaltogether.Fundsfornew aircraft were very limited and mostly it was manufacturerswhofundednewdevelopmentswhich inturncouldpossiblyattractordersfromthemilitary. Boeing'sfirstbomberdevelopment,in1934,was theModel294,ortheXBLR-l(experimentalbomber, longrange),whichbecametheXB-15. The Model 294 underwent protracted development.Itwasthelargestandheaviestaircraft builtintheUnitedStatesatthetimeofitsfirstflight on 15 October 1937, and featured many new innovations.Electricalpowerwassuppliedbytwo 110-voltA.C. generators driven by two auxiliary petrolengines,sleepingandcookingfacilitieswere providedforthecrew,andmanyofthemechanical dutiespreviouslyallocatedtothepilotandco-pilot were taken over by a flight engineer, who had a separate station in the cockpit.The structure was
generallysimilartoearlierBoeingmonoplanesfrom theMonomailonexceptthatthewingfromthe mainsparaftwasfabriccovered.Thewingwasso thickattherootthatitwaspossibleforamemberof thecrewtoservicetheengineaccessorysectionsin flight from a passageway behind the nacelles. Becauseofthehighgrossweight,twowheelswere usedoneachmainundercarriagetruck. TheXB-15wasdesignedtouseAllisonV-3420 liquid-cooled engines, but the power plants were changed to 1,000 h.p. P & W R-1830 twin-row radialsbeforecompletion,butevenso,theaircraft remainedunder-powered.Twoservicetestmachines weresupposedtobebuiltastheYB-20withslightly larger P&W R-2180 engines, but these were cancelledbeforemetalwascut.However,allwasnot atotalwaste,forthewingdesignwasusedonthe Model314flyingboat. 1934 saw the Army Air Corps issue a specification for a ‘multi-engined’ bomber, but manufacturerswouldhavetobuildprototypesattheir ownexpense.Althoughtheterm‘multi-engined’was generallytakentomeantwoengines,Boeinghada four-enginedmachineinthedesignstage,soon16 September1934,Boeingdecidedboldlytoinvest $275,000intheModel299.Thenewdesign,which wastobecomefamousinWorldWarTwoastheB17,incorporatedmanylessonslearnedwiththeX-15, B-9andModel247.Poweredbyfour750hpPrattand WhitneyHornetradials,itwouldcarryallbombs internallyandaccommodateacrewofeight.Thirteen service-testYIB-17swentintoservicewiththeAAC andestablishedmanylong-distancerecords. OneofBoeing'sbiggestpre-warcustomers,who wouldprovefundamentaltothesuccessofBoeing airliners for decades to come, was PanAmerican Airways,headedbyJuanTerryTrippe. TrippewasborninSeaBright,NewJersey.Due tohisHispanicfirstname,peopleoftenassumethat TrippewasofSpanishdescent,buthisfamilywas actuallyNorthernEuropeaninancestryandsettledin Maryland in 1664. He was, in fact, named after JuanitaTerry,theVenezuelanwifeofhisgreatuncle. Trippe attended the Bovea School and graduated fromtheHillSchoolin1917. HeenrolledatYaleUniversitybutleftwhenthe UnitedStatesenteredWorldWarOnetoapplyfor flighttrainingwiththeUSNavy.Aftercompleting traininginJune1918,hewasdesignatedasaNaval AviatorandwascommissionedasanEnsigninthe USNavalReserve.However,theendofWorldWar One precluded him from flying in combat. Demobilizedfromactiveduty,hereturnedtoYale University,graduatingin1921.WhileatYale,hewas
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amemberofSt.AnthonyHallandoftheSkulland Bonessociety.Trippewastreasureratthefirst-ever meet of the National Intercollegiate Flying Associationin1920. After graduation from Yale, Trippe began workingonWallStreet,butsoonbecamebored.In 1922heraisedmoneyfromhisoldYaleclassmates, sellingthemstockinhisnewairline,whichhecalled LongIslandAirways,anair-taxiservicefortheelite. OnceagaintappinghiswealthyfriendsfromYale, Trippe invested in an airline named ColonialAir Transport,whichwasawardedanewrouteandan airmail contract on 7 October 1925. Interested in operating to the Caribbean, Trippe created the Aviation Corporation of the Americas. Based in Florida,thecompanywouldevolveintotheunofficial USflagcarrier,PanAmericanAirways,commonly knownasPanAm. He then followed this with another merger in 1930, which led to Pan Am gaining lucrative contractstocarryairmailonhisFokkerTri-Motors andSikorskyS-38flyingboatsbetweentheUSand
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SouthAmerica.In1932PanAmericanorderedits firstfour-enginedflyingboatsandittookdeliveryof threeSikorskyS-42sandthreeMartinM.130sfor forty-eight passengers. Soon, delivering air mail accounted for three-quarters of the company's revenues. In the mid-1930sTrippe expanded Pan Am'soperationstoincludethePacific.PanAmerican Airwayswasthefirstbigcarriertoflyregularlongdistance flights and quickly became the world's largestpassengerairlineaswellasairmailcarrier. In1936TrippeorderedtwelveBoeingModel314 flyingboats.Eachwascapableofcarryingseventyfour passengers and was fitted out with sleeping berthsanddiningareas. The flying boat used the same wing and tail surfaces of the Boeing Model 294, a design developedfromastudyawardedbytheUSArmyin 1934 to determine to feasibility of an extremely heavybomber.TermedtheXBLR-1(Experimental Bomber,LongRangeModel1)thedesignationwas changed to XB-15 while the machine was under construction. Alltwelveflyingboatswerecalled‘Clippers’and Left: Juan Terry Trippe, (b.June 27, 1899 – d.April 3, 1981) the head of Pan American Airways.
Below: The prototype Boeing Model 307 Stratoliner NX19901 is seen undergoing engine runs. (both author’s collection.)
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hadromanticnamessuchasCalifornia Clipper and Pacific Clipper; collectively they were known as ‘ChinaClippers'.BytheeveofWorldWarTwoPan Am World Airways were flying to London via NewfoundlandandLisbonandMarseillesviathe Azores.Duringthewar,PanAmbecamethelargest civiliantroopcarrierandalmostallitsenergywas directedtoassistingthewareffort.Post-war,Trippe investedheavilyinnewaircraftandsoontheywere flyingtoeverycontinent. Bybusinessschoolstandards,JuanTrippewas notamodelchiefexecutive.Hedidn'tdelegatewell. He often made big deals without telling his top managers. He almost single-handedly built Pan Americanintoaworldairline,andoftenactedasif heownedtheworld.Ashistorywastoshow,Trippe, always committed to revolutionizing commercial aviation,wouldtakeeveryopportunitytoinvestin newaircraftanditwasBoeingthatwouldbenefit mostinthepost-waryearsandbeyond. Meanwhile, in 1935 Boeing designed a fourengineairlinerbasedonitsB-17heavybomberthen in development, calling it the Model 307 ‘Stratoliner’.Theintentionfromtheoutsetwasto produce simultaniously military and commerial versionsusingthesamewings,tail,rudder,landing gear,andenginesfromtheirproductionB-17Cwith a new, circular 138 inch diameter cross-section Right: Howard Robart Hughes, head of Transcontinental and Western Air.
Below: A Transcontinental and Western Airlines (TWA) Boeing 307 Stratoliner with cabin attendants. (Trans World Airlines)
fuselagedesignedtoallowpressurization. Thefirstorder,fortwo307s-namedStratoliners -wasplacedin1937byJuanTripp’sPanAmerican Airways;PanAmsoonincreasedthistosix,anda second order for five from Transcontinental & Western Air, later to be re-named Trans World Airways (TWA), prompting Boeing to begin productiononaninitialbatchoftheairliner. The maiden flight of the first Boeing 307 Stratoliner(notaprototypeassuch,asitwasplanned to be delivered to PanAm following testing and certification),registrationNX19901,tookplacefrom Boeing Field, Seattle on 31 December 1938. It crashedon18March1939,whileitsperformance withtwoenginesinoperativeononewingwasbeing demonstratedtorepresentativesoftheDutchairline KLM.Whentheengineswereshutdown,thepilot
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The Boeing 314 used the same wing and tail surfaces as the Boeing XB-15 bomber, developed from the US Army XBLR-1 design study. The picture shows NC18603 ‘Yankee Clipper’ of Pan American Airways System. (author’s collection.)
movedtheruddertomaximumdeflectiontocounter theresultingyaw.TheStratolinerthenexperienced rudderlock,wherethecontrolloadspreventedthe rudderfrombeingre-centered.Asaresult,the307 wentintoaspinandcrashed.Thetenpeopleaboard, including KLM test pilotAlbert von Baumhauer, Boeing test pilot Julius Barr, Boeing Chief AerodynamicistRalphCram,BoeingChiefEngineer EarlFerguson,andaTWArepresentativewerekilled. Subsequent wind tunnel testing showed that the addition of an extended dorsal fin ahead of and attachedtotheverticaltailpreventedrudderlock. Thiswasincorporatedintothe307'srudderredesign, while also being incorporated in Boeing's rear fuselageredesignfortheirlatermodelsofB-17s. ThefirstdeliverytoacustomerwastomultimillionaireHowardHughes,whoboughtoneModel 307foraround-the-worldflight,hopingtobreakhis ownrecordof91hours14minutessetfrom10-14 July 1938 in a Lockheed 14. Hughes’ Boeing Stratolinerwasfittedwithextrafueltanksandwas readytosetoutonthefirstlegoftheround-the-world attempt when Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, causing the attempt to be abandoned.This307laterhadtheextrafueltanks removed, was fitted with much more powerful WrightR-2600engines,andwastransformedintoa luxurious‘flyingpenthouse’forHughes,althoughit waslittleused,eventuallybeingsoldtooiltycoon GlennMcCarthyin1949. DeliveriestoPanAmstartedinMarch1940,with TWA receiving its first 307 in April. TWA's Stratoliners flew three-stop flights between Los AngelesandNewYorkwhilePanAm'sflewfrom MiamitoLatinAmerica.Ten307swerebuilt,three beingdeliveredtoPan-Am(Clipper Flying Cloud, Clipper Comet, andClipper Rainbow)andfiveto TWA (Comanche, Cherokee, Zuni, Navajo, and
Apache)withoneaircraftgoingtoHughes. Hughes and Trippe were set to become bitter rivals-abattlethatfirstcametothepublicattention whenSenatorRalphOwenBrewster(b. February22, 1888 – d. December 25, 1961) attempted to put HughesbeforeaspecialSenateCommitte,ofwhich he was the chairman, investigating defence procurement during World War Two. Brewster claimed concern that Hughes had received $40 million from the Defense Department without actuallydeliveringtheaircrafthehadcontractedto provide, but Brewster may have had an ulterior motive. Hughes aggressively combatted the inquiring Brewster,allegingcorruptiononthepartofBrewster. MemoirsbyHughes'sright-handmanNoahDietrich andsyndicatednewspapercolumnistJackAnderson eachsketchedBrewsteras,inDietrich'swords,‘...an errand boy for Juan Trippe and Pan American World Airways,’ whopushedforlegislationthatwouldgive PanAmthesingle-carrierinternationalairmonopoly fortheUSHughesspreadrumorsaboutBrewster's close association with Pan Am, alleging that he received free flights and hospitality in return for legislationsuchashisbilltowithdrawgovernment approvalforTWAflightsacrosstheAtlantic. InaSenatehearingthatelectrifiedthenation, HughesrepeatedhisaccusationsthatBrewsterhad promised an end to the Senate inquiry if Hughes wouldagreetomergingTWAwithPanAm.(Dietrich wrotethatHughes,inabidtostallfortimebeforethe hearing,wentsofarastolaunchnegotiationswith Trippeaboutsuchamerger.)Inresponse,Brewster, stungbytheallegations,stoodasidefromchairing theinquiryandbecameinsteadawitnessbeforethe committee–whichalsoallowedHughestoquestion Brewster directly. Brewster denied Hughes’ allegationsandmadeseveralcounter-claims,butby
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The 500th C-97 tanker-transport is rolled out at Renton for the USAF.
The Model 377 Stratocruiser was an airline development of the C-97 and fifty-six were built between 1947 and 1949, making much use of the design, structure and jigs of the military aircraft. Stratocruisers offered the last word in passenger comfort and a galley was located near the tail and men's and women's washrooms separated the forward compartments from the passenger cabin, where a spiral stairway led to a lower deck lounge behind the wing. When fitted out as a sleeper aircraft, the 377 was equipped with twenty-eight upper and lower berth units plus five seats. Below: a line-up of Stratocruisers awaiting delivery, Northwest, BOAC and Pan Am.
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thetimethehearingendedBrewster'sreputationhad sufferedgreatly.Ironically,Hughes,forallhiswealth, cameacrossaswhatDietrichdescribedasthe ‘little guy who fought City Hall and won.’
Postwar - the Stratocruisers WhatBoeinghadconcievedpre-warwiththeModel 299/B-17producingtheModel307andmajorparts oftheB-15beingusedtoproducetheModel314 flyingboatseemedtobeasoundbusinessconcept, SocameabouttheBoeing377Stratocruiser,a commercial derivative of the Boeing Model 367, knownastheBoeingC-97Stratofreighter,whichfirst flewinlate1944fortheUSAAF.TheC-97itselfwas anevolvementoftheB-29bomberthatdroppedthe twoatombombsonHiroshimaandNagasakitoend WorldWarTwo. WilliamAllen,whohadbecomePresidentofThe Boeing Company in September 1945, sought to introduceanewcivilianaircrafttoreplacegreatly reducedmilitaryproductionafterSecondWorldWar. The Model 377 Stratocruiser was the only commercialproductonBoeing’sdrawingboardin 1945andBillAllenwentaheadwithproductionof fiftyairframes.Atthetime,therewerenoorders,but it was the only way to save the company’s civil aircraftbusiness. Thishasoftenbeendescribedasagamble,butin truth,alotofthedevelopmentcostsofthe377had beenbornebytheModel367Stratofreighter. On 29 November 1945 Pan American World Airwaysbecamethelaunchcustomerwiththelargest commercialaircraftorderinhistory,a$24,500,000 orderfortwentyStratocruisers.Earlierin1945aC97 had flown from Seattle to Washington, D.C. nonstop in six hours and four minutes; with this knowledge,andwithPanAmPresidentJuanTrippe's highregardforBoeingaftertheirsuccesswiththe Boeing 314 Clipper, Pan Am was confident in
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orderingtheexpensiveairliner. The377sharedthedistinctivedesignoftheC97,witha‘double-bubble’fuselagecross-section, resembling a figure-8, with 6,600 cubic feet of interiorspace,allowingforpressurizationofalarge cabinwithtwopassengerdecks.Outsidediameterof the upper lobe was 132 inches, compared to 125 inchesfortheDC-6andotherDouglastypes.The lowerdeckservedasalounge,seatingfourteen. TheModel377hadinnovationssuchashigher cabinpressureandairconditioning;thesuperchargers on the four Pratt & Whitney R-4360 engines increasedpowerataltitudeandallowedconsistent cabinpressure.ThewingwastheBoeing117airofoil, regardedasthe‘fastestwingofitstime’. FirstflightoftheModel377wason8July1947, two years after the first commercial order. Supposedly, the flight test fleet of three 377s underwent250,000 milesofflyingtotestitslimits beforecertification. Asthelaunchcustomer,PanAmwasthefirstto begin scheduled service, from San Francisco to HonoluluinApril1949.Bytheendofthatyear,Pan Am,BOACandAmericanOverseasAirlineswere flying Model 377s transatlantic, while Northwest OrientAirlineswasflyingintheUnitedStates;in January 1950 United began flights from San Francisco to Honolulu. By the fall of 1950, Northwest Orient was serving New York City, Chicago,Detroit,Minneapolis/St.Paul,Milwaukee andSpokanewiththeaircraftandwasalsooperating the Stratocruiser nonstop between Seattle and Honolulu. Despite a service record plagued by disasters arisingfromtheCurtissElectricpropellersfittedto earlyproductionaircraft,the377wasoneofthemost advanced and capable of the propeller-driven transports,andamongthemostluxurious.Atotalof 56werebuilt,oneprototype(laterreconditioned)and
N7301C, a 1049A Starliner of Trans World Airlines.
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The ultimate in piston engined airliners as far as American Airlines was concerned, was the Douglas DC-7B. This is N303AA ‘Flagship Missouri’ delivered in February 1954. Its four Wright R-3350 turbocompound engines allowed eight hour non-stop coastto-coast operations in direct competition with TWA's Super Constellations.
55 production aircraft. Within six years of first delivery, the Stratocruiser had carried 3,199,219 passengers;ithadcompleted3,597transcontinental flights,and27,678transatlanticcrossings,andwent betweentheUnitedStatesandSouthAmerica822 times.ItalsolosttheBoeingcompany$7million. In1953,United'sChiefExecutive,RayIreland, went on record describing the Stratocruiser as unbeatable as a luxury attraction but totally uneconomic. Ireland said PAA's Stratocruiser competitiontoHawaiiinducedUnitedtobuythe aircraftoriginally.In1950United'ssevenModel377s averaged$2.46directoperatingcostperaircraft-mile, andthat‘...indirect costs are generally considered to be equal or greater than the direct costs.’ Soa57passengerModel377wasunlikelytomakemoney anyway.
Other rivals By the end of the Second World War the Boeing AircraftCompanyhadestablisheditselfasthepremier manufacturerofbomberaircraftintheUSA.Boeing haddevelopedthetechnology,skillsandexpertiseto buildlarge,multi-enginedaircraft,buthadlosttouch withtheairlinesandtheneedsofthecivilianmarket. Intheimmediatepost-waryears,Boeingsawtheir rivals for airliner manufacture as being Lockheed aircraftwiththeirConstellationsandDouglaswith theirDouglasCommercialrangeofairliners-and Boeingweredefinitelyinthirdplace,especiallywhen oneconsidersthenumbersbuilt.BothLockheedand Douglasbuiltmanyhundredsoftheirairlinerdesigns, whereas Boeing only built fifty-six Stratocruisers. Boeingwouldhavetosellitselfasacompanytothe airlines,asmuchasithadtosellitsproducts;andwith amuchlessexperiencedsalesforce. Douglas,withitslonglineofsuccessfulairliners fromtheDC-3onwards,hadareputationoflistening towhattheairlineswanted.Lockheedmeanwhile had developed their Constellation on the back of
government contracts and were the undisputed leadersinthecommercialaircraftsphere. HowardHughesandTWA,JuanTrippeandPan Americanwereplacinghugeordersforthetime,with their marketing men constantly pushing the holy trinityofspeed,distanceandluxury. Douglas’DC-4,ledtotheDC-6andtheDC-7 whilstLockheed’sModel049Constellationevolved throughseveralstagesintotheL-1049series.Parallel toairframedevelopment,engineadvancesstruggled tokeeppace.BothaircraftcompaniesandPratt& Witney developed multi-cylinder-row turbocompoundenginesofever-increasingcomplexitythusdemandingmoreandmoremaintenancetimeemploying a turbine to recover energy from the exhaustgases. Theturbinewasusuallymechanicallyconnected to the crankshaft, such as on the Wright R-3350 Duplex-CycloneenginesfittedtoDouglasDC-7B andLockheedL-1049SuperConstellationairliners, butelectricandhydraulicpowerrecoverysystems were investigated as well. Recovery turbines increasedtheoutputoftheenginewithoutincreasing itsfuelconsumption,thusreducingthespecificfuel consumption. Reciprocatingenginestendedtobeoperatedat higherlevelsofpoweroutputforlongerperiodsof time,thisincreasingtheriskofover-stressingand overheating.However,notonlydidthehorsepower increase,butsodidthemechanicalcomplexityofthe engines,whichinturnledtoahigherlikelihoodof mechanicalfailure. Across the board, failures of reciprocating enginesbecamemoreandmorecommonanditwas obviousthatpiston-enginedevelopmenthadreached its peak with further advances becoming selfdefeating.Clearlyitwastimeforadifferent,less complex style of powerplant, but the airliner manufacturers, engine makers and airlines were reticent.
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ChapterTwo
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Playingcatch-up Thesharp-suitedcopywitersandexecutivesinthe MadisonAvenueadvertisingagencieswouldhavethe public believe that the Boeing 707 was an allAmerican jet airliner, designed by white-shirted pocket-protectorwearingcollegegraduateswithflattop crew cuts to revolutionalise air transport and powered by the latest engine technology. It was drapedinOldGloryandasAmericanasbaseball,hot dogs,andMom’sapplepie.Nothingcouldbefurther fromthetruth. Inreality,Americawaslatetoentertheeraofthe jetengine–indeed,itweredismissiveofit.In1923, USphysicistEdgarBuckinghamoftheUSNational Bureau of Standards published report No.159 expressing scepticism that jet engines would be economically competitive with propeller driven aircraftatthelowaltitudesandairspeeds:‘…there does not appear to be, at present, any prospect whatever that jet propulsion of the sort here considered will ever be of practical value, even for military purposes.’ From this moment on, apart from a few visionaries,Americanofficers,engineersscientists andindustrialistsfailedtodevotesignificantattention toaviationturbineengineresearch. Thejetagebeganingreatsecrecyon27August 1939,whentheGermanHeinkelHe178research aircraft,poweredwitha1,100poundthrustHeinkel He53gas-turbine-orjetengine-madeitsfirstflight inthehandsofErichWarsitz. AyoungGermanphysicist,HansJoachimPabst vonOhain,workedforErnstHeinkel,specialisingin advancedenginesandpioneeredthisdevelopment work.vonOhainwasborn14December1911,in Dessau,Germany.Whilepursuingdoctorateworkat the University of Gottingen, he forumulated his theoryofjetpropulsionin1933.Afterreceivinghis degreein1935,hebecameajuniorassistanttoRobert WichardPohl,directoroftheuniversity'sPhysical Institute. Grantedapatentforhisturbojetenginein1936, Ohain joined the Heinkel Company in Rostock,
Germany. By 1937 he had built a factory-tested demonstration engine and, by 1939, a fully operationaljetaircraft,theHe178.Soonafter,Ohain directedtheconstructionoftheHeS.3B,thefirst fullyoperationalcentrifugal-flowturbojetengine. Ohaindevelopedanimprovedengine,theHeS.8A, whichwasfirstflownon2April1941.Thisengine design,however,waslessefficientthanonedesigned byAnselmFranz,whichpoweredtheMe262,the firstoperationaljetfighteraircraft. OhainwasoneofhundredsofGermanscientists, academicsandtechnicianswhowere‘sheep-dipped’ underOperationPaperclipandmovedtotheUnited Statesintheimmediatepost-waryears,becominga researchscientistin1947atWright-PattersonAir Force Base,theAerospace Research Laboratories, Wright's Aero Propulsion Laboratory, and the UniversityofDaytonResearchInstitute. Thisprocessofchangingnamesandidentities becamecommonpractice–theterm‘sheep-dipping’ was developed by those in the intelligence communityandismore-or-lessslangandnotofficial terminology. It is commonly used in intelligence circlesasawayofsayingapersonoritemhasbeen givenanalternateidentity. Thisnewformofpropulsionmetresistanceon thepartofGermanofficialdomand,fortunatelyfor theAllies,theoperationaldebutofthejetfighterwas delayed for nearly three years. Even then it was grosslymismanaged. Inthemeantime,anentirelyindependentresearch programmewasbeingconductedinEngland,where thefirstBritishjet,theGlosterE28/39,madeitsfirst flight on 14 May 1941. The development of this machine dates back to 1928, when RAF College CranwellcadetFrankWhittleformallysubmittedhis ideasforaturbo-jettohissuperiors.On16January 1930,Whittlesubmittedhisfirstpatent(grantedin 1932) that showed a two-stage axial compressor feeding a single-sided centrifugal compressor. Practicalaxialcompressorsweremadepossibleby ideasfromA.A.Griffithinaseminalpaperin1926
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(An Aerodynamic Theory of Turbine Design). Whittlewouldlaterconcentrateonthesimpler centrifugalcompressoronly,foravarietyofpractical reasons.WhittlehadhisfirstenginerunninginApril 1937. It was liquid-fuelled, and included a selfcontained fuel pump. Whittle's team experienced near-panic when the engine would not stop, acceleratingevenafterthefuelwasswitchedoff.It turnedoutthatfuelhadleakedintotheengineand accumulatedinpools,sotheenginewouldnotstop untilalltheleakedfuelhadburnedoff.Whittlewas unabletointerestthegovernmentinhisinvention, anddevelopmentcontinuedataslowpace. As soon as the merits of this new type of powerplant were acknowledged by the RoyalAir Force, jet fighters were designed and put into production. InAmerica,therehadbeentwoexceptionsto ignoringanydevelopmentofthejetengine–in1939 bothNorthropAircraftandtheLockheedCorporation bothstartedworkonturbineengines,Lockheedwith theirtwin-spool,axialflowL-1000turbojetthatwas expected to develop 5,000 pounds of thrust and NorthropwiththeirTurbodyneaxial-flowpropellerturbine which eventually developed 10,000 shaft horsepower but did not progress past the developmentstage. SincetheLockheeddesignwasnevercompleted, andtheonlythreeNorthropprototypeenginesdid notbench-rununtil1947,theAmericanshadtorely
onBritishassistanceandthecapabilitiesofitsturbine manufacturerstogetintothejetage. It was not until 1941 that the powers that be decidedtostartworkontheirownconceptdesigns for a jet aircraft that was something of a contest betweenBellandLockheedAircraft. MajorGeneralHenryH.‘Hap’Arnoldbecame awareoftheUnitedKingdom'sjetprogrammewhen heattendedademonstrationoftheGlosterE.28/39 inApril1941.Thesubjecthadbeenmentionedtothe AmericansaspartoftheTizardMissiontheprevious year.GeneralArnoldrequested,andwasgiven,the plansfortheaircraft'sengine,FrankWhittle’sPower JetsW.1,whichhetookbacktotheUS The Tizard Mission, officially the British TechnicalandScientificMission,wasadelegation thatvisitedtheUSAinordertoobtaintheindustrial resources to exploit the military potential of the researchanddevelopmentworkcompletedbythe UKuptothebeginningofWorldWarTwo,butwhich Britainitselfcouldnotexploitduetotheimmediate requirementsofwar-relatedproduction.Itreceived itspopularnamefromtheprogram'sinstigator,Henry TizardFRS(b.23August1885–d.9October1959) -aBritishscientistandchairmanoftheAeronautical Research Committee, which had propelled the developmentofradar. Theobjectiveofthemissionwastocooperatein scienceandtechnologywiththeUS,whichatthat timewasneutraland,inmanyquarters,unwillingto
The Northrop company-designed gas-turbine engine - named the Turbodyne on its test bed at Hawthorne, CA.
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become involved in the war.The US had greater resourcesfordevelopmentandproduction,which Britaindesperatelywantedtouse.Theinformation providedbytheBritishdelegationwassubjectto carefullyvettedsecurityprocedures,andcontained someofthegreatestscientificadvancesmadeduring thewar.ThesharedtechnologyincludedRadar(in particular the greatly improved cavity magnetron whichtheAmericanhistorianJamesPhinneyBaxter III later called ‘...the most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores’),thedesignforthe‘Variable Time’orproximityfuse,detailsofFrankWhittle'sjet engine and the Frisch-Peierls memorandum describingthefeasibilityofanatomicbomb.Though thesemaybeconsideredthemostsignificant,many otheritemswerealsotransported,includingdesigns for rockets, superchargers, gyroscopic gunsights, submarinedetectiondevices,self-sealingfueltanks andplasticexplosives. Tizard met with both Vannevar Bush, the chairmanofNationalDefenseResearchCommittee, and George W. Lewis of the National Advisory CommitteeforAeronautics(NACA)andtoldthem aboutjetpropulsion,butherevealedverylittleexcept theseriousnessofBritishefforts.Bushlaterrecalled: ‘The interesting parts of the subject, namely the
Above: Sir Henry Tizard FRS (b. 23 August 1885 – d. 9 October 1959) Right: Air Commodore Sir Frank Whittle OM KBE CB FRS FRAeS (b.1 June 1907 – d. 9 August 1996)
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explicit way in which the investigation was being carried out, were apparently not known to Tizard, and at least he did not give me any indication that he knew such details’. ItwasnotuntillaterthatBushrealisedthatthe developmentoftheWhittleenginewasfaraheadof theNACAproject. InJuly1941hewrotetoGeneral‘Hap’Arnold, commanderoftheUSAAF, ‘It becomes evident that the Whittle engine is a satisfactory development and that it is approaching production, although we yet do not know just how satisfactory it is. Certainly if it is now in such state that the British plans call for large production in five months, it is extraordinarily advanced and no time should be lost on the matter’. Bushrecommendedthatarrangementsshouldbe madetoproducetheBritishengineintheUnited Statesbyfindingasuitablecompany. TheAmericanpoliticalestablishmenthadmany proponentsofneutrality-andevenafairnumberof isolationalists - for the USA and so there were barrierstoco-operation.Thiswasdespitethefactthat therewerealargenumberof‘SpecialObservers’ operatingoutoftheAmericanEmbassyinLondon fromasearlyasJanuary1939whosedutiesincluded gettingtheirhandsonasmuchinformationregarding British new technology as possible. However, it seemsthattheinformationregardingBritishactivities gained by the Special Observers had not yet percolateddowntotheleveloftheNACA. Tizarddecidedthatthemostproductiveapproach tocircumventanyCongressional‘objections’would besimplytogivetheinformationanduseAmerica's productivecapacity.NeitherWinstonChurchillnor theradarpioneer,RobertWatson-Watt,wereinitially in agreement with these tactics for the mission. Nevertheless,TizardfirstarrangedforArchibaldHill,
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Two views of the Whittle W1.X and its installation in a Bell YP-59. (author’s collection)
anotherscientificmemberofthecommittee,togoto Washingtontoexplorethepossibilities. Asaresult,theNationalAdvisoryCommitteefor Aeronautics set up a special Committee on Jet Propulsion, which in turn asked Allis Chalmers, GeneralElectricandWestinghouse,thenationsthree leadingturbinemanufacturerstoparticipateinthe
Committeesinvestigations. GeneralArnoldarrangedforanexampleofthe engine,theWhittleW.1Xturbojet,tobeflowntothe USinthebombbayofaUSAACConsolidatedB24 Liberator, along with drawings for the more powerfulW.2B/23engineandasmallteamofPower Jetsengineers.
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On4September1941HapArnoldofferedthe GeneralElectricenginecompanyacontractto‘build fifteen‘TypeIsuperchargers’basedontheWhittle W2Bturbojetdesign.Itisworthyofrecordtostate thattheletter‘I’designationwaschosentogivethe appearancethatGE,whichwasthenmanufacturing turbo-superchargers for contemporary aircraft engines-suchastheTypeBfittedtotheWrightR1820radialspoweringBoeingB-17s-wouldmerely beworkingonanimprovedturbo-supercharger.The AmericanversionoftheWhittleW2Bengine,which subsequently became the General Electric I-A in ordertodisguiseitsorigins. On the following day, Arnold approached Lawrence Dale Bell, head of Bell Aircraft Corporation,tobuildafightertoutiliseit.Bellagreed andsettoworkonproducingthreeprototypes.Asa disinformationtactic,theUSAAFgavetheproject the designation ‘P-59A’, to suggest it was a development of the unrelated Bell XP-59 fighter project that had been cancelled. The design was finalisedon9January1942,andconstructionbegan. In March, long before the prototypes were completed,anorderfor13‘YP-59A’pre-production machineswasaddedtothecontract. Bench-testingoftheGETypeIstartedinLynn, Massachusetts, on 18April 1942 by a GE group underDaleStreidandapairofTypeI-Aengines powered the Bell XP-59B on its first flight on 1 October.GeneralElectricwentontodevelopuprated versionsoftheTypeI-theI-14,I-16,and1-20. Thirteen service test YP-59As had a more powerfulenginethanitspredecessor,theGeneral ElectricJ31,buttheimprovementinperformance wasnegligiblewithtopspeedincreasedbyonly5 mphandareductioninthetimetheycouldbeused beforeanoverhaulwasneeded.Oneoftheseaircraft, thethirdYP-59A(S/n:42-22611)wassuppliedtothe RoyalAirForce(receivingBritishserialRG362/G), inexchangeforthefirstproductionGlosterMeteor I, EE210/G. British pilots found that the aircraft comparedveryunfavorablywiththejetsthatthey were already flying. The YP-59A also compared unfavourablytothepropeller-drivenNorthAmerican P-51Mustang.TwoYP-59AAiracomets(42-108778 and42-100779)werealsodeliveredtotheUSNavy wheretheywereevaluatedastheYF2L-1butquickly foundcompletelyunsuitableforcarrieroperations. The United States Army Air Force was not impressedbytheP-59’sperformanceandcancelled the contract when fewer than half of the aircraft orderedhadbeenproduced.AlthoughnoP-59swent into combat, it paved the way for another design generationofUSturbojet-poweredaircraftandwas
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thefirstturbojetfightertohaveitsturbojetengineand airinletnacellesintegratedwithinthemainfuselage. The Lockheed XP-80 had a conventional allmetalairframe,withaslimlowwingandtricycle undercarriage and had straight wings like the previouspropeller-drivenmachines.Conceptwork beganontheXP-80in1943withadesignbeingbuilt aroundtheblueprintdimensionsofaBritishHalford H-1Bturbojet,manufacturedbyandlatercalledthe De Havilland Goblin, an engine to which the Lockheeddesignteamdidnotinitiallyhaveactual access.Lockheed'steam,oftwenty-eightengineers, was led by the legendary Clarence L. ‘Kelly’ Johnson. This teaming was an early product of Lockheed'sSkunkWorks. Previously,KellyJohnsonhadapproachedthe WarDepartmenttobuildanexperimentaldesign,but wasturneddown,itisallegedbecauseJohnson’s designrequiredanentirelynewtypeofengineand theAirForcesweremoreeagertoobtainmultitudes ofexistingpiston-enginedaircraftthantoexperiment withnewkindsofmachines. Then, on 17 June 1943 while at Eglin Field, Florida,JohnsonmetwithColonelMSRothofthe Materiel Command's Wright Field research and development division. Roth told him of the poor flighttestsoftheBellP.59A.Rothissupposedto haveaskedJohnson‘Kelly, why can’t you design a jet plane around that British engine?’ WiththeGermansandBritishclearlyfarahead indevelopment,Lockheedwaspressedtodevelopa comparablejetinasshortatimeaspossible.Kelly Johnsonsubmittedadesignproposalinmid-Juneand promised that the prototype would be ready for testing in 180 days. The Skunk Works team, beginning26June1943,producedtheairframein 143days,deliveringittoMurocArmyAirBase.This wastheXP-80A.Theprojectwassosecretthatonly fiveofthemorethan130peopleworkingonitknew thattheyweredevelopingajetaircraft. Thearrival-andsubsequentuse-ofsomeofthe very few first jet engines by theAmericans was somethingofacomedyoferrors,asCMartinSharp was later to describe in ‘DH a history of de Havilland’: ‘Information was being passed to the Americans all along and on October 30 1943, when de Havilland had done about thirteen hours of test flying with the Vampire, they sent off one of their first few engines to the Lockheed Company of California, to be installed in their new X.P.80A [sic]aircraft, designed for jet propulsion. With it went one of the best DH development engineers, Bristow, who could ill be spared. That foggy Saturday the specially packed Goblin
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Left: A De Havilland Gobin jet turbine of a type supplied to the Americans. Below: Guy Bristow, chief test engineer for De Havillands (right) and tester Mr F Bench check over a Goblin on the test stands at Hatfield. Guy Bristow went over to the USA with two of the very early Gobins to get the American jet programme going. (both DH via BAE Hatfield)
left Welsh Harp, Hendon, on a lorry for Prestwick; by special concession the driver was allowed to use undimmed headlights. The case was loaded into a C-54 which left Prestwick on Sunday evening, transhipped at New York, and arrived (with the engineer) at Burbank, California, on Tuesday evening. The use of ‘undimmedheadlights’washighlyunusualastheUK wasunderstrictwartimeblackoutrestrictions.Bythe timeGuyBristowreachedBurbankwithhischarge, hefoundonefurtherobstacleinhisway-hewas detainedbythepolicebecauseLockheedofficials couldnotvouchforhim! Previously a well-finished mock-up had been flown across during June and used for the trial installation,sothatbythetimeGuyBristowarrived withtheactualengine,itslippedintoplaceinthree andahalfhourswithoutanytroubles. However,duringgroundrunsthisenginewas badlydamagedbysuckinginitsownintakeducts, whichwerenotstrongenough,andsoahurredly despatchedtelegramaskedforasecondenginetobe urgentlysentfromHatfield. Recordsshowthatthisenginewentnorthbytrain fromCamdenTownandwasflowntoAmericaon ChristmasEve,accompaniedagainbyGuyBristow. Thefirstprototype(44-83020)wasnicknamed Lulu-Belle (also known as the ‘Green Hornet’ because of its paint scheme). Powered by the replacementHalfordH1takenfromtheprototypede Havilland Vampire jet fighter, it first flew on 8
January 1944, with Lockheed test pilot Milo Burcham at the controls. Following this flight, Johnsonsaid, ‘It was a magnificent demonstration, our plane was a success – such a complete success that it had overcome the temporary advantage the Germans had gained from years of preliminary development on jet planes.’ ClearlythedonatedBritishjetprogrammedata andhardwarehadprovedinvaluable. Thesecondprototypewasdesignedforthelarger GeneralElectricI-40engine(animprovedRollsRoyce Derwent, later produced byAllison as the J.33).Twoaircraft(44-83021and44-83022)were built.44-83021wasnicknamedtheGray Ghost after its pearl gray paint scheme, while 44-83022, left unpaintedforcomparisonofflightcharacteristics, becameknownastheSilver Ghost. TwomonthsbeforeGeneralElectrichadbegun toadapttheWhittledesigntoUSspecificationsas theTypeI,thethreeindustrialturbinemanufacturers whichhadbeensupportingresearchbytheNACA SpecialCommitteeon]etPropulsionwereawarded developmentcontracts.NavycontractswenttoAllis Chalmersforthedevelopmentofaducted-fanengine
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and to Westinghouse for turbojets.AnArmyAir Forces contract went to General Electric for the designofaturbopropengine. TheAllisChalmersducted-fanenginedidnotpan out,andtheGeneralElectricTG100,whichinMay 1945 became the world’s first turbine propeller enginetobebenchtested,endeduppoweringonly theConsolidated-VulteeXP-81(thefirstturboproppoweredflightintheUnitedStateswasmadeon21 December 1945, just two months after the experimentalGlosterMeteor-Trenthadbecomethe world’sfirstturbopropaircrafttoflyinEngland). More successful, the series of small diameter turbojetsdevelopedbyWestinghouseresultedinthe WE-19XB-2BpoweringthefirstUSNcarrierjet,the McDonnellXFD-1Phantom,onitsmaidenhopon 2January1945.AdevelopmentoftheWE-19,the firstAmericanaxial-flowturbojet,wentonlargescaleproductionastheJ34fornavalfighters. While working on improved models of the Whittle turbo-jet and on its TG100 turboprop, GeneralElectrictookanearlyleadinUSturbojet developmentbyinceptingtwoturbojetdesigns.First benchtestedinJanuary1944,the1-40centrifugalflowturbojetpoweredtheLockheedXP-80A,the productionprototypeoftheShootingStar,onitsfirst flightinJune1944.RedesignatedJ-35andmostly builtunderlicensebyAllison,theI-40becamethe firstAmericanturbojetenginetobemassproduced. Evenmoresuccessful,theGeneralElectricTG-180 axial-flowturbojetwasbuiltinlargenumbersasthe I-35,mostlybylicenseesAllisonandChevrolet. However,whenthewarended,Allison,Pratt& Whitney and Wright were left to catch up with turbinetechnology.Atfirst,Allisonfaredabitbetter, as it had been selected as a licensee for General
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Electric J33 centrifugal-flow and I.35 axial-flow turbojets,butPratt&WhitneyandWrighthadtoturn toBritaintogetintotheturbojetenginebusiness. Pratt & Whitney started negotiating for manufacturingandsalesrightsfortheRolls-Royce NeneinApril1947,eightmonthsaftertheoriginal Americanlicensee,theTaylorTurbineCorporation, hadacquiredinitialrightsinthiscentrifugal-flow turbojet.Wright,whichinitiallyfavouredturboprop engines, was even slower to grasp the turbojet potentialandonlyacquiredthelicenserightsforthe Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire axial-flow turbojet afterwarhadbrokenoutinKorea. The 1945 surrender of Germany revealed substantial wartime discoveries and inventions. GeneralElectricandPratt&Whitney,addedGerman lessons to those of Whittle and other British designers.Earlyjetengines,suchasthoseoftheMe 262,gulpedfuelrapidly.Thus,aninitialchallenge wasposed:tobuildanenginethatcouldprovidehigh thrustwithlessfuelconsumption. Pratt&Whitneyresolvedthefuelconsumption dilemmain1948bycombiningtwoenginesintoone. Theengineincludedtwocompressors;eachrotated independently,theinneronegivinghighcompression forgoodperformance.Eachcompressordrewpower fromitsownturbine;hencethereweretwoturbines, onebehindtheother.ThisledtotheJ-57engine. Thistwo-spoolturbopropwaslaunchedasthe PT4, funded by the Air Force as the XT45. Componentsweremadeinlate1947,whileparallel studiesweremadeofthetwo-spoolJT3-8turbojet, whichbyMarch1948wassuperchargedbyadding twostagesatthefront,giving10,000poundsof thrust.During1948AirForceinteresthardenedon a high-compression turbo- jet for long-range
A General Electric I-40 seen in a NACA facility on 9 March 1945. GE was repeatedly unable to deliver enough engines for Army and Navy demand, and production of the I-40 (now known as the J33) was also handed to Allison Engines in 1944. (NACA)
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bombers, and the XT45 was terminated in September1948.InsteadtheJ57-P-1specification was written, and the shops began building two actualengines,theX-176(JT3-8)andX-184(JT310). Even as they were being built, rig testing indicatedpoorperformance,mainlybecauseofthe verysmallHPcompressorblades,poorturbinedisc designandexcessiveweight. MechanicaldesigncameunderAndrewWillgoos and aerodynamic design under PerryW. Pratt. In February1949theyworkedoutaschemetore-design the JT3 in a wasp-waisted form, the rotor discs havingaconstantdiameterbutthecasingstapering towards the HP end amidships, to give higher efficiency,bettersealingandcut600poundsoffthe weight, besides improving the arrangement of accessoriestogiveamorecompactinstallationin fightersorinbomberpods.Prattgotthego-aheadto redesigninMay1949,butitwasdecidedtocomplete boththebarrelengines,theX-176runningon28June 1949 and the X-184 in February 1950. Both confirmedthepoorperformance.Thewasp-waisted design threw up its own problems, notably with bearingsandcompressor-bladevibration,butwith massive effort these were eliminated. The first redesignedJT3ranon21January1950,flewunder aB-50inMarch1951,completeda150-hourtestin J57-3productionconfigurationinNovember1951, poweredthe8-jetYB-52on15April1952,andwith afterburnertooktheYF-100AbeyondMachOneon itsfirstflighton25May1953. It initially gave 10,000 pounds dry thrust or 15,000poundswithafterburneryet,becauseofits pressure-rationof12.5,itsettotallynewstandardsin jetfueleconomy.
Developments in aeronautics TechnologicalchangeduringWorldWarTwohad proceeded at an almost frightening pace. Developments in aircraft design, propulsion,
weapons,andelectronicsallcontributedvitallytothe outcomeofeventsintheglobalconflict. There were, however, a number of scientists, largelycivilians,whoinitiallyinventedanddesigned military equipment and then drove these developmentsforwardtoturnthetideofthewar. Afterthatcamethemightofproduction. AmongthescientistsandthinkerswasHungarian aerodynamicistDr.TheodorevonKármán.Sincehis arrivalintheUnitedStatesfromEurope,andhaving obtainedGuggenheimfundingandhopingtoavoid rising nationalism and Nazism, he had become acquaintedwithseveralhigh-rankingArmyAirForce officers,includingHenry‘Hap’Arnold. SincetheirfirstmeetingattheCaliforniaInstitute ofTechnology(CalTech)intheearly1930s,Arnold had witnessed the professor’s skilled use of mathematical equations to solve complex aerodynamicproblems. Arnold’strustinKármángrewastheCalTech programme continued to tackle the most difficult projectswithouthesitation.Duringtheearlypartof 1943,theExperimentalEngineeringDivisionofthe UnitedStatesArmyAirForcesMaterialCommand forwarded to von Kármán reports from British intelligence sources describing German rockets capableofreachingmorethan100miles.Inaletter dated2August1943vonKármánprovidedtheArmy withhisanalysisofandcommentsontheGerman programme. OnlyafterD-Dayandtherealizationofseveral key elements in wartime operations didArnold believe that Allied victory in Europe was a foregoneconclusion.Theairwarhadbecomea deadlyroutineandwasbecomingamerenumbers game - growing Allied air strength versus dwindlingAxisaircapability. By now GeneralArnold had decided that the ArmyAirForcewasinapositiontocapitaliseonthe many technological developments. Following the
An early Pratt & Whitney JT3 in its wasp-waisted form.
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shipmentofseveraltonsofcapturedGermanmaterial backfromFrancebyUSIntelligencenotlongafter thestartofOperationOverlord,Arnoldrealisedthat theUnitedStatesanditsAlliesbynomeansledthe worldinmilitaryaeronauticaldevelopment.Heused hisinfluencewithKármánatasuper-secretmeeting ontherunwayatLaGuardiaAirport,NewYork, convincinghimtoheadataskforceofscientistswho wouldevaluatecapturedGermanaeronauticaldata andlaboratoriesfortheArmyAirForce. Kármán – who was recovering from recent abdominalsurgery-wastransportedbyArmyStaff cartotheendoftherunwayatLaGuardia,wherehe met Arnold’s recently arrived aircraft. Arnold dismissedKármán’sdriverandthendiscussedhis plansforKármánandhisdesiresfortheexploitation project. Supposedly GeneralArnold spoke of his concernsforthefutureofAmericanairpowerand wonderedhowjetpropulsion,radar,rocketsandother gizmosmightaffectthefuture.Inresponsetothe questionastowhathewantedKármántodo,Arnold told him that he wanted Kármán to go to the Pentagon,gatheragroupofscientiststogetherand workoutablueprintforairresearchforthenextfifty
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years. To accomplish his mission, Kármán officially becameanAAFconsultantonscientificmatterson 23October1944.Hisfirst,unofficialAAFreportwas organisationalinnature,namingashisdeputyDr. Hugh L. Dryden, longtime head of the National BureauofStandards.November1944sawendless conferencesandestablishmentof‘...relationswiththe various agencies in the labyrinth of military and scientificaviation’.Arnolddraftedofficial,written instructions on 7 November, solidifying the La GuardiaAgreement,afour-pageletterthatsetthe boundariesforthereportofKármán’sgroup.They werenotveryrestrictive:‘...Except perhaps to review current techniques and research trends, I am asking you and your associates to divorce yourselves from the present war in order to investigate all the possibilities and desirabilities for postwar and future war’s development as respects the AAF. Upon completion of your studies, please then give me a report or guide for recommended future AAF research and development programs.’ Initially,Kármán’sgroupwascalledtheArmyAir Force Consulting Board for Future Research, but
On 18 February 1963 President John F. Kennedy presented the National Medal of Science to Dr. Theodore von Kármán in the Rose Garden of the White House, Washington, DC. Left to right: Chairman of the President’s Committee on the National Medal of Science, Frederick Seitz; Air Force Aide to the President, Brigadier General Godfrey T. McHugh; General Bernard Schriever; President John F. Kennedy; Judge Victor L. Anfuso of the New York State Supreme Court; Dr. von Kármán; Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force, General Curtis E. LeMay; Special Assistant to the President for Science and Technology, Dr. Jerome B. Wiesner; President of the California Institute of Technology, Dr. Lee A. DuBridge; unidentified; Director of Defense Research and Engineering, Dr. Harold Brown.
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apparentlyAAFCBFRprovedtoolonganacronym, even for the Army. Redesignated the Scientific Advisory Group (SAG) on 1 December 1944, it reported directly to General Arnold. In 1944 intelligenceexpertsatWrightFieldhaddeveloped listsofadvancedaviationequipmenttheywantedto examine. The US Army Air Forces Intelligence ServicesentteamstoEuropehardontheheelsofthe invading armies to gain access to enemy aircraft, technicalandscientificreports,researchfacilities,and weapons for study in the United States. TheAir Technical Intelligence (ATI) teams, trained at the TechnicalIntelligenceSchoolatWrightField,Ohio, collectedenemyequipmenttolearnaboutGermany's technicaldevelopments.TheATIteamscompeted with thirty-two other allied technical intelligence groupstogaininformationandequipmentrecovered fromcrashsites. One member of Von Karman’s Scientific AdvisoryGroupwasBoeing'schiefaerodynamicist, GeorgeSSchairer. After working for Bendix Aviation, Schairer joined Consolidated Aircraft, where he led the aerodynamicdesigneffortoftheConsolidatedXP4Y CorregidorandtheConsolidatedB-24Liberator.In particular,hewasoneoftheengineersresponsible for the incorporation of the Davis wing in these designs.At ConsolidatedAircraft, he also gained extensiveexperienceinthedesignofcontrolsfor aircraft. In1939EddieAllenhiredSchairertobechiefof theaerodynamicsunitatBoeing,replacingRalph Cram,whohadbeenkilledinthecrashoftheBoeing 307prototype.Inthisposition,hehelpeddevelopand testtheBoeing307Stratoliner,thefirstpressurised airliner,includingtheredesignoftheverticaltailin responsetothe18March1939crashoftheprototype. He also was involved in the development of the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress particularly the incorporationofaerodynamicallybalancedcontrol surfacesontheB-17E,replacingspringtabs.During thedesignoftheBoeingB-29Superfortresshewas responsible for the incorporation the Boeing 117 wing airofoil, previously designed for use on the BoeingXPBBSeaRanger.Schairerhelpeddefend theuseofamuchhigherwingloading-69pounds persquarefoot-ontheB-29thanhadbeenusedon previousdesigns.Thiswasaccomplishedbytheuse ofapowerfulflapsystemthatallowedgoodlowspeedperformance. Boeinghadstartedworkonajetbomberdesign in 1943, when an informal requirement for a jetpoweredreconnaissancebomberdrawnupbytheUS ArmyAirForceswasreceived.This‘requirement’
wasissuedtopromptmanufacturerstostartresearch into jet bombers. Boeing was among several companiesthatrespondedtothisrequest;itsinitial design,theModel424,wasbasicallyascaled-down version of the piston-engined B-29 Superfortress equippedwithfourjetengines. In1944thishadevolvedintoaformalrequestfor-proposal to design a new bomber with a maximum speed of 550 mph, a cruise speed of 450 mph,arangeof3,500 milesandaserviceceiling of45,000 feet.InDecember1944,NorthAmerican Aviation,theConvairCorp.,BoeingandtheGlenn MartinCompanysubmittedproposalsforthenew long-range jet bomber. Wind tunnel testing had shownthatthedragfromtheengineinstallationof theModel424wastoohigh,soBoeing'sentrywasa reviseddesign,theModel432,withthefourengines buriedintheforwardfuselage. TheUSAAFawardedstudycontractstoallfour companies, requiring that North American and Convair concentrate on four-engined designs (to becomeB-45andXB-46),whileBoeingandMartin weretobuildsix-enginedaircraft(theB-47andXB48).ThepowerplantwastobeGeneralElectric'snew TG-180turbojetengine. WhenSchairervisitedGermanyattheendofthe war,hewasalreadyawareofthecontroversialsweptwingtheoryofRobertT.‘Bob’JonesatLangley, Virginia.Jones’workthereallowedthedevelopment of the delta wing, based on thin-aerofoil theory. Others were extremely skeptical until supersonic testingofmodelswasdonebyRobertGilruthandin AprilbyTheodorevonKarman.Jones’theorywas nottrulyaccepteduntilthatsummer,whenSchairer found that German experts had been working on swept-wing designs for several years at the Völkenrode research centre, The discovery was backed up with test results showing the drag reductionofferedbysweptwingsattransonicspeeds. Jonesthin-wingdesignultimatelyprovedsuperiorto thickaerofoilsdevelopedbyAlexanderLippischin Germany.Forhispioneeringwork,hewasgiventhe IASSylvanusAlbertReedAwardin1946. Schairerissupposedtohavewiredhomeoffice ‘Stop the Bomber Design’ andthenon10Mayitis recordedthathewroteaseven-pagelettertoBoeing colleagueBobWithingtonthatincludedadrawingof the swept wing and, in cramped handwriting, presentedthekeymathematicalformulas.Toavoid delay,Schairerwrote‘Censored’ontheenvelopeand mailedit.UponreturningfromGermany,Schairer ledanefforttooverhaulBoeing'sdesignforwhat becametheBoeingB-47Stratojetbyincorporating wingsthatweresweptback35degrees.Theswept
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wingprovedtobecrucialinBoeing'seffortstowin thedesigncompetitiontobuildtheB-47.Inaddition, heiscreditedwiththeincorporationofthepodded engineconceptontheB-47. NACAwindtunneltestsshowedthatthemodel underconsiderationfortheAirForcesufferedfrom excessivedrag.Boeingengineersthentriedarevised design, the Model 432, that had the four engines buriedintheforwardfuselage,butthoughtheModel 432hadsomestructuraladvantages,changingthe enginelayoutdidn'treallyreducedragverymuch. TheBoeingengineersturnedtotheswept-wingdata obtained from the Germans and promoted by Schairer. Further design work by Boeing aerodynamicist Vic Ganzer led to an optimum sweepbackof35degrees. BoeingthenmodifiedtheModel432designwith sweptwingsandtail,resultingintheModel448, whichwaspresentedtotheUSAAFinSeptember 1945.TheModel448hadthefourTG-180sinthe forwardfuselageashadtheModel432,plustwoTG180sburiedintherearfuselage.TheBoeingproject manager, George Martin, had decided that the
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company'sentryintothebombercompetitionneeded greaterrangeandperformance,andthatledtosix enginesratherthanfour. Theflush-mountedairintakesfortherearengines were inadequate, while the USAAF disliked the installation of engines within the fuselage, consideringitafirehazard. Theenginesweremovedouttopylon-mounted streamlinedpodsunderthewings,leadingtothenext iteration,theModel450,whichfeaturedtwoTG180sinatwinpodmountedonapylonaboutathird of the way outboard on each wing, plus another engineateachwingtip.TheArmyAirForcelikedthis newconfiguration,andsoBoeing'steamofengineers continuedtorefineit,withtheouterenginesbeing movedfurtherinboard,toaboutthree-quarterspan. BythetimethemockupoftheBoeingModel450 wasapprovedinApril1946,theB-47hadmoved evenfurtherfromtheconventionalconfiguration.A tandem‘bicycle’landinggearwasadopted,anda retractable outrigger wheel was mounted in each inboardjetpodforlateralgroundstability.Because ofthelocationofthemainwheelsrelativetothe
The B-47 - to quote Boeing’s publicity machine ‘The Stratojet’s revolutionary design and construction endow it with performance entirely new to aircraft of its dimensions’. (USAF)
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In 1953, two B-47Bs were modified for testing the probe-and-drogue refueling system. The tanker was given the designation KB-47G and was known as ‘Maw’ by flightcrews, and was fitted with a British-built tanker kit. The refuelling test aircraft was given the designation YB-47F and was known as ‘Paw', though other aircraft (including the YB-52 prototype) were also used as refueling targets. The program was cancelled in 1954; it turned out that the KB-47G simply could not carry enough fuel to make it a useful tanker. The idea of fielding B47 tanker conversions came up again a few years later, but the economics did not make sense, and the notion was finally put to rest for good. (USAF)
centreofgravity,theB-47satonthegroundintakeoffattitudeandtookoffandlandedatthesameangle without‘rotating’inthetraditionalmannerofaircraft withconventionallandinggear.Becauseofitshigh wing loading and the slow acceleration characteristicsoftheearlyturbojetengines,18JATO rocket units, developed during the war for ‘jetassisted takeoff’, were built into the sides of the fuselage.Onlatermodels,theseunitswerecarried onajettisonableexternalrackasaweight-saving measure. The heavy weight of these units also resultedinfasterlandingspeedsandaseverebraking problem,whichwasmetbydeploymentofaribbontypeparachute-anotherGermanwartimeinvention -fromthetailjustasthewheelstouchedtheground. Onlatermodels,thispracticewasmodifiedtotraila smalldrogueparachutewhileinthelandingpattern anddeploythemainbrakingparachutejustbefore theaircrafttoucheddown.Wartimeexperiencewith stripped-downB-29Bsrevealedthatbomberswith near-fighterspeedscouldbesuccessfullyintercepted onlyfromtherear,sotheonlydefensivearmament oftheB-47wasintheformoftailturretgunsthat couldbeaimedandfiredremotelyfromthecockpit orautomaticallybyradar. TheUSAAFwasverypleasedwiththerefined
Model 450 design, and inApril 1946 the service ordered two prototypes, to be designated XB-47. AssemblybeganinJune1947. ThefirstXB-47wasrolledouton12September 1947, a few days before the USAAF became a separateservice,theUSAirForce,on18September 1947.TheXB-47prototypemadeitsfirstflighton 17December1947withtestpilotsRobertRobbins andScottOsleratthecontrols.ItflewfromBoeing FieldinSeattletotheMosesLakeAirfieldincentral Washington state, in a flight that lasted just 27 minutes,withnomajorproblems.Robbinshadto pull up the flaps with the ‘emergency hot wire system’,andthe‘enginefire’warningindicatorswere falsely lit. Robbins reported that the flight characteristicsoftheaircraftweregood. InFebruary1949,RussSchleehandJoeHowell brokeallcoast-to-coastspeedrecordsflyingfrom MosesLakeAirForceBasetoAndrewsAirForce Base.Theyaveraged607.8milesperhour. Althoughheavierthantheheaviestbomberof WorldWarll-theB-29-theB-47wasclassedasa mediumbomber.ltnormallywasoperatedbyathreemancrew:pilotandcopilotintandemunderafightertypecanopyandabombardier-navigatorinthenose. ThetotalnumberofB-47sbuiltwas2,032.
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ChapterThree
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TheJourneyFromPaperToMetal WhenBoeingbeganjetairlinerdevelopmenttheair transportationindustryinAmerica-Boeing’smain customers-wasverydifferentthanitistoday.The all-importanttrans-continentalrouteslinkingtheEast andWestcoastswereflownbyunpressurisedtwinengineDouglasDC-3sinsixteentotwentyhours, dependingonthenumberofintermediatestops. During 1946, the introduction of four-engine airliners, unpressurized Douglas DC-4s and pressurised Lockheed Constellations, enabled fiercely competing trunk carriers to operate transcontinentallywithoneintermediatestopandto flythe2,500-mileroutesinthirteentofourteenhours withDC-4sandelevenhourswithConstellations.An east-boundtranscontinentalservicewasnotoffered untilOctober1953,whenTWAbegan1049CSuper ConstellationservicebetweenLosAngelesandNew Yorkinlessthaneighthours.West-boundnonstop scheduled services began the next month when AmericanAirlines introduced the Douglas DC-7, makingtheflightagainstprevailingwindsineight andaquarterhours. Theotherroutethatplayedasignificantpartin determiningthepayload-rangecharacteristicsofthe firstgenerationofjetairlinersasfarastheAmericans wereconcernedwasthatacrosstheNorthAtlantic. Although a limited passenger service had been initiatedwithaBoeing314flying-boatfirsttaking twenty-twopassengersfromNewYorktoMarseilles, France,inJune1939,asustainedserviceonlystarted afterthewar. Critical legs were between either Shannon, Ireland, or Prestwick, Scotland, and Gander, Newfoundland.TheShannon-Ganderlegwas1,715 nauticalmiles,uncorrectedforprevailingwindsfrom thewest.OvertheNorthAtlantic,newandmore capableaircraftwereintroducedinJanuary1946with useoftheLockheedConstellationandinJune1949 theBoeingStratocruiser,bothbyPanAmerican, NorthAtlanticoperationsstillrequiredatleast onestopuntilNovember1954,whenPanAmerican beganflyingnon-stopeastboundusingStratocruisers fittedwithadditionalfueltanks.Westboundnonstop
flights between London or Paris and New York becamepossibleonlywiththeintroductionbyTWA ofthe1049GSuperConstellationinNovember1955, buteventhen,winterwindsand/orheavypayload oftenstillrequiredarefuelingstop. AlldomesticandinternationalUSserviceswere offeredinasingleclass.Coachfareswereintroduced onsomeroutesbytheendof1948andwereextended totranscontinentalservicesayearlater.OnNorth Atlanticroutes,touristfaresandeconomyfareswere introducedinMay1952andApril1958respectively. Theimpactoftheselowerfareswasdramatic. Thenumberofpassengerscarriedbythenineairlines offeringtransAtlanticservices-AirFrance,BOAC, KLM,PanAmerican,Sabena,ScandanavianAirline System,Swissair,Trans-CanadaAirlines,andTWA -jumpedfrom329,656in1951to452,272in1952. Nevertheless,in1952,onlyfouroutoftenNorth Atlanticpassengerstraveledbyair.Fiveyearslater, with the availability of cheaper fares air transportation finally overtook sea transportation acrosstheNorthAtlantic. In1958,theintroductionofeconomyclassand jetserviceresultedinyetanotherjumpinairtraffic over the North Atlantic, with the number of air passengersfirstexceedingtheonemillionmark. Creditforintroducingturbine-poweredaircraft intoairlineservicegoestoGreatBritain.BoththeDe HavillandCometandtheVickersViscountresulted fromtheinspiredworkoftheBrabazonCommittee. ChairedbyLordBrabazonofTara,thiscommittee had been set up by the British Government in December1942tomakerecommendationsforthe postwardevelopmentofairliners. ReportingbetweenAugust1943andNovember 1945,thesecondBrabazonCommitteecameupwith recommendationsforfiveclassesofairliners:The TypeIcalledforthedevelopmentofa500,000pound machinefornonstopoperationsbetweenLondonand NewYork. This resulted in the Bristol Brabazon landplaneandSaroPrincessflying-boat,neitherof whichproceededpasttheprototypestage. TheTypeIIwastailoredtoEuropeanoperations.
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Right: The World's first jet airliner, albiet in experimental form - the sole Rolls-Royce Nenepowered Vickers Viking which first flew as G-AJPH in 1948. (author’s collection)
Itresultedinthedesignofthreeaircraft:theAirspeed Ambassador,whichwasbuiltinlimitednumber;the experimentalArmstrongWhitworthApollopowered byfourturbopropengines;andtheVickersViscount. TheTypeIIIwasaimedatairlinersforoperations ontheEmpireroutes-thoselinkingBritainwith coloniesinAfrica,Asia,andthePacific.ltresultedin theAvroTudorwhich,poweredbyfourRolls-Royce Merlins, and was intended as an interim aircraft pendingavailabilityofthejet-poweredAvro695. The Type IV began as a specification for a relativelysmalljet-poweredaircrafttotransportmail overtheNorthAtlantic.However,itendedupasthe DeHavillandComet,theworld’sfirstjetairliner, which was initially built for operations over the Empireroutes. TheTypeVresultedintwotypesoffeederliners, theDeHavillandDoveandtheMilesMarathon. BrabazonCommitteemembersrecognizedthat British turbine engine manufacturers had a substantialleadovertheirAmericancompetitors,that resultedintheturboprop-poweredVickersViscount and turbojet-powered De Havilland Comet. With thesetwoaircraft,Britainheraldedanewerainair transportation. Originally projected as a jet-powered North Atlantictwin-boommailplane,theBrabazonTypeIV evolvedintothecommerciallymorejustifiedDH.l06. Adopting a remarkably clean layout with a pressurizedfuselageandmoderatelysweptwings withfourdeHavillandGhostturbojetenginesburied intheirroots,DeHavillandendedupdesigningan aircraft no longer meeting Brabazon Type IV requirementsforaNorthAtlanticmailplane.Instead, therevisedD.H.106toSpecification22/46metType IIIA requirements for a medium range turbinepoweredairlinerforuseontheEmpireroutes.Two D.H.106prototypeswereorderedbytheMinistryof Supply in May 1946. Eight months later British OverseasAirways Corporation (BOAC) placed a preliminaryorderforeightaircrafton21January 1947,thusbecomingtheworld’sfirstairlinetostep intothejetage.ThefirstprototypeflewatHatfield on27July1949andwasfirstshownpubliclyatthe SocietyofBritishAerospaceCompanies(SBAC)
Show less than two months later. Although generatingmuchinterest,theCometinitiallyfailed toattractadditionalorders,asairlinesfeltthatthenew jetairlinerwithfirst-classaccommodationforupto 36passengerswouldbetooexpensivetooperate, makingitdifficulttoturninaprofitoreventobreakeven.However,aseriesofrecordflightsbetween London and European capitals at average speeds above420milesperhoursoondemonstratedthatthe Comet was likely to have high passenger appeal. Before the first 36-set production aircraft was deliveredtoBOACon2April1951,exportorders foreightComet1AswerereceivedfromCanadian Pacific Airlines and two French carriers, UAT UnionAéromaritimedeTransport-andAirFrance. AftersettingrecordsbetweenLondonandEuropean capitals, the Comet 1 was ready for commercial operations. Carrying 36 passengers, the first productionCometleftLondonon2May1952bound for SouthAfrica.After five intermediate stops, it landedinJohannesburgaftercovering6,724milesin 23 hours 34 minutes. First flown on 16 February 1952, the Avon-powered Comet 2 proved more attractivetoprospectivecustomers,andordersfor thislonger-rangedversionwereplacedbyAirFrance, BOAC, British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines, CanadianPacific,JapanAirlines,LineaAeropostal Venezolana, Panair do Brasil, and UAT. Unfortunately,beforeComet2scouldbedelivered toairlinesandbeforetheComet3prototypeflewon 19July1954,sixofthepioneeringComet1shad crashed or been destroyed, with the loss of 99 passengersandcrewmembers. TheUKwasnottheonlycountrytorealisethat the development of turbine-engined transports offered an opportunity to challenge the US hegemony.Whilemostoftheearlyaircraftinthis tablewerejet-poweredtestbeds,theAvroCanada C.102 ]etliner was a genuine transport aircraft intendedforone-stopservicebetweenMontrealand Vancouver.ConceivedinGreatBritain,butdesigned, built,andflowninCanada,theC.102jetairlinerwas therecipientofaletterofintentissuedinApril1946 from Trans-Canada Airlines. However, nonavailability of the planned Rolls-Royce Avon
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Left and below: The Rolls-Royce Tay-powered Vickers Viscount. Originally it was registered as G-AHRG but redesignated as a Type 663 to specification 4/49 and serialled VX217.
The wide-axled, double mainwheel undercarriage is shown to advantage. It was completed with two Tay jet engines instead of Darts and was used for research into control systems.
To all intents and purposes this was the British 737 - at least fifteen years before Boeing came out with a similar design! (Author’s collection)
turbo-jetsforcedthemanufacturertosubstitutefour less powerful and more fuel-thirsty Rolls-Royce Derwentturbo-jets.Performancefellbelowthosefor the projected twin-Avon version, and TCA lost interestbeforethefirstflightoftheDerwent-powered airlineron10August1949.Moreimportantly,design of the SNCASE Caravelle had been initiated in France before Boeing and Douglas committed to buildingjetairliners.Stemmingfromarequestfor proposalsissuedinNovember1951bytheFrench government,thetwinjetCaravellewasintendedfor operationsonEuropean,MiddleEastern,andNorth Africanroutes.Selectedasoneofthethreefinalists inMarch1952,onemonthbeforetheBoeingboard authorizeddevelopmentofthe367-80demonstrator, theCaravellefirstflewon27May1955. WhileatfirsttheFrenchchallengerwasnottaken seriouslyintheUnitedStates,theturbine-powered Britishdesignselicitedseriousinterestsfromseveral In its production form, the turbo-prop Vickers Viscount made deep inroads into the American airliner market, even outselling Lockheed’s Electra. Continental Airlines of Denver, CO. took fifteen. (Author’s collection)
UScarriers.CapitalAirlines,whichwasacquiredby UnitedAirlinesin1961,orderedthefirstthreeofan eventualfleetofseventy-fiveVickersViscountturbopropsinMay1954.ItinitiatedViscountservicein theUnitedStatesinJuly1955,3½yearsbeforethe LockheedElectrabecamethenextturbopropairliner inUSservice.OrdersfromContinentalAirlinesand NortheastAirlineseventuallyresultedin147ofthe 445ViscountsbuiltbyVickersbeingdeliveredtoUS airlines,aremarkableachievementfortheBritish aircraftindustry,particularlyinthelightofthefact thatLockheedonlybuilt170turboprop-powered ElectrasandneverquitematchedtheViscountinthe homemarket(144ElectrasweredeliveredtoUS carriers). WhenBOACinauguratedscheduledjetservice on2May1952,USairlinessuddenlylosttheirapathy towardjetairliners.Fourmonthslater,RonaldE. Bishop,directorandchiefengineerforDeHavilland,
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The Avro C102 Jetliner was a prototype mediumrange turbojet-powered jet airliner built by Avro Canada in 1949. It was beaten to the air by only 13 days by the De Havilland Comet, thereby becoming the second jet airliner in the world. (author’s collection)
proclaimed during the SBAC Show, “We feel we have a lead on the Americans of between four and five years on jet transport aircraft. They are now in the same position we were in 1946.” Amongthoseinattendanceatthe1952SBAC ShowwereGeorgeTBakerandCaptainEdwardV ‘Eddie’ Rickenbacker, presidents respectively of NationalandEasternAirlines.Asthepayload/range performance of even the original Comet 1 were sufficient for operations on the NewYork-Miami routesonwhichtheirairlinescompetedfiercely,both airlineswerereadytoorderComets.Rickenbacker, afteratripintheComet2Xdevelopmentaircraft,was quotedassaying‘It was all I expected—plus.’ He plannedaninitialorderforthirty-fivetofiftyComets, provided that de Havilland would deliver these aircraftwithintwoyearsfromcontract. ItwasnotsurprisingthatBOAC'sinauguraljet serviceshouldcausemorethanoneAmericanairline executivetositupandstarttakingakeeninterestin Cometaffairs,althoughitisdoubtfuleventhenifany of them would have been prepared to back the comparatively uneconomical Series I in the way BOAChaddone. ItwasBOAC'sannouncementthattheyintended toputSeries2CometsontheirSouthAtlanticroute inlessthan18months,thatfinallyshockedtheUS intotherealizationthatBritainhadstolenaclearfiveyearleadovertheminprestigetravel.Itwasnotlong beforePanAmericanandanumberofotherleading airlinesplacedordersfortheComet3,a‘stretched’ version of the Series 2, with still more powerful Rolls-Royceengines,alongerfuselageseatingupto 78passengers,andadditionalnacelle-likefueltanks near the wing tips that increased the range by
The Tupolev Tu-104 (NATO reporting name: Camel) was a twinengined medium-range narrow-body turbojetpowered Soviet airliner. (author’s collection)
somethinglikesixtypercentascomparedwiththe SeriesI. TheAmericanpresswasgenerousinitstribute; astheinfluentialChristianScienceMonitorputit,"A good competitor knows how to congratulate a winner as well as how to carry off trophies himself.’ TheNew York Daily Mirror wasbriefandtothepointwiththe headline ‘'Britain Out-Jets Us’ Finally,on20October1952,DeHavillandswere abletoannouncethepurchaseofthreeCometSeries 3jetairlinersbyPanAmericanWorldAirways.Thus for the first time in history a British main-line transportaircrafthadbeenchosenbyanAmerican airlineoperator. ‘The contract just signed calls for delivery of the three Comets in 1956 and includes an option on seven additional aircraft for delivery in 1957. The advanced delivery date was made possible because Sir Miles Thomas, Chairman of the British Overseas Airways Corporation, agreed to release three of the 11 Comets Series 3 which have been earmarked for BOAC. The historic importance of this event to the British aircraft industry becomes apparent when it is realised that not for 20 years have American operators found it necessary to go beyond their own borders for equipment. It may be recalled that 95 per cent. of all the American production of aircraft for the 1914-18 war were to de Havilland design, and that Americanbuilt D.H.4s were used to carry United States mails in the years between 1919 and 1927. Thereafter, while British air transport developed under a policy of minimum subsidies and struggled to pay for itself with specialised aircraft, American civil aviation thrived in its naturally favourable circumstances and
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yielded in the early ‘thirties the Douglas DC-2 and a succession of fine American airliners. Just when British manufacturers were beginning to see broader opportunities the war broke out in 1939, debarring the British industry from further civil developments. British wartime progress with jet engines opened the way for the Comet. Now, with the advent of the Comet 3 and its forthcoming entry into the United States airline system, comes a fresh opportunity for Britain to become established in the airline markets of the world. With a payload capacity and a cruising range in tune with the expected requirements of the early 1960s and with a speed of travel and a degree of passenger comfort marking nothing less than a new era in world communications, the Comet Series 3, backed by many thousands of hours of routeoperating experience with the Series 1 and 2, shows every promise of international success. Pan American World Airways will now become the first American operator to put jet liners into service. Since before the war Juan Trippe, the President of Pan American, has been a leading advocate of the low-fare tourist- class air service. In 1948, alone among the world's airlines. Pan American instituted a tourist-class service between New York and Puerto Rico, but it was not until late
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in 1951 that the principle of the tourist fare was generally accepted, to go into effect internationally on May 1, 1952. Pan American's enthusiasm for tourist-class air travel emphasises the fact that the Series 1A and Series 2 Comets, seating 44 passengers, were not large enough for operation on their system; the Comet 3, with a capacity ranging from 58 to 78 seats, allows full scope for a service combining high-density traffic with high-speed operation. The Comet's ability, by reason of its speed, to cover more miles for a given rate of utilisation increases its work capacity far above that of piston aircraft of comparable seating capacity. In a statement issued by Pan American, Juan Trippe pointed out that the Series 3, capable of carrying a full payload of passengers, mail and cargo for about 2,700 miles against a headwind of 50 mph with adequate reserves, will be the first jet transport able to operate efficiently over the principal routes of the Pan American system. Plain business reasons brought about the American purchase of the Comet and it is to be hoped that plain technical satisfaction will bring about its airworthiness certification by the USA’. That same month Trans World Airlines chief pilot,PaulSFredrickson,andTWAVice-President RobertWRummel-actingonbehalfofthesecretive
TheDeHavillandComet-inthiscaseG-AYLP-is‘wavedaway’ontheworld’sfirstjetairlinerpassenger service.Thedate?2May1952.(DH Hatfield)
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American billionaire Howard R Hughes - visited Hatfield and Frank Lloyd, the Commercial Sales Manager. Here they were briefed on the programme abouttheCometIand1A,thebuildingoftheMk II,workbeingdoneonengineeringtheMkIIIand theplansfortheMkIV.FrankLloydtoldthemthat the Mk IV, powered by Rolls-Royce Conway engines, would be larger and fully competitive with anything that theAmerican market would offerineighttotenyearstime. AswithmanycommentsfromtheAmericans, Rummelwasprivatelydismissiveanddisparaging about De Havilland’s efforts: ‘By American standards, De Havilland's production tooling seemed meager and rudimentary. Wings were being constructed in an inefficient horizontal position over pits rather than with the wing chord (the line between the leading and trailing edges) vertical, as was customary in the States. Production was very slow. Only nine Mark 1s had been delivered. De Havilland planned to establish additional production lines at Chester and Belfast rather than expand the Hatfield facility. Frank Lloyd explained that this would make use of existing factory facilities. It was necessary to move the work to the workman rather than the opposite because of the housing shortage and the extreme reluctance of workmen to move. He said, ‘They refuse to leave their homes, which in many cases have been in the family for generations.” Rummel also raised one other point - that of
certification.UnitedStatescertificationoftheComet wasconsideredamajorproblem,fortheauthorities werealreadyputtingobstaclesinthepathofthenew airliner.LloydsaidDeHavillandwantedcomplete reciprocitytopermitautomaticcertificationinthe UnitedStateswithoutneedfortheaircraftdesignto complywithUSCivilAirRequirements(CAR). WhileBritainandtheUnitedStateshadagreed toreciprocalcertificationduringthe1944Chicago Convention,whichresultedintheformationofthe InternationalCivilAviationOrganization,theUnited Statesheldtheviewthatthiswaslimitedtopiston enginedpoweredaircraftonly-becauseUSturbine aircraft certification requirements had not been writtenthen,andstillhadnotbeenwrittenby1952. Rummelexpressedtheviewthattheexpectation ofautomaticcertificationwasunrealistic,andthathe thought it would be more constructive for De Havilland and the British authorities to assist the AmericansinestablishingappropriateUSturbinepowered aircraft certification requirements that wouldhavetobecompliedwith. ‘I considered the Comet program to be a superb pioneering venture that quite obviously required pressing the state of the art of airplane design in nearly all significant technology areas to achieve the barest minimum acceptable overall efficiency. In the earlier models this produced marginal structure, minimal operating weights, and borderline performance. For example, the thin fuselage skin of the Comet had been stretched during manufacturing
At one stage Boeing referred to the work done on the jet transport as the infamous ‘Project X’, as demonstrated by this extract from a geneological chart from late 1953 shows. (author’s collection)
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to increase strength at the expense of ductility; every pound of empty weight was critical re payload or range; higher-thrust engines were clearly needed. The limited range, sluggish takeoff at high rotation angles, and the ability to stop after landing on slippery runways were also important concerns. Except for the lack of reverse thrust, I did not think any one of the marginal conditions ruled the airplane out, but the combination of them gave me serious pause. I thought it likely that the anticipated march of progress could lessen or erase these concerns in succeeding models, possibly in the Mark IV, which was years away. I had evaluated potential TWA Comet operations several times and recommended each time to Hughes that none be procured because of borderline design and performance or because of program timing with respect to the clearly superior US jets. My early negative recommendations, which Howard accepted, generated considerable high-echelon TWA criticism after BOAC's initial operations proved the extreme popularity of the Comet. One TWA board member even commented, "Bob, you could have been a hero." ClearlytheUSAweredoingallthattheycould toforstalltheintroductionofforiegnjet-airlinersinto serviceonAmericansoiluntiltheywereready,a processthatwasunintentionallyaidedbyaseriesof disasters that struck the Comet 1 and led to its groundinginApril1954. DeHavillandannouncedthedevelopmentofa much heavier version of the Comet with greater rangeandincreasedpayload.Poweredbyfour10,000 poundsthrustRolls-RoyceAvonturbojetsinsteadof the4,500poundsthrustdeHavillandGhostsofthe Comet1,thisComet3wasoptimizedtocarry50 The US Navy ordered four Super Connies modified with four Pratt & Whitney YT34-P12A turboprop engines, squared propellers and a shortened wing, being designated R7V-2. Lockheed leased one back from the Navy to use as a test aircraft for the upcoming L-188 Electra. The Air Force ordered their own pair of turbo Connies, designated as the YC-121F. only six were built and none entered airline service. (author’s collection)
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passengersonsingle-stopservicebetweenLondon andNewYork.Consequently,tohedgeitsbetandbe readytocompetewithBOACsoonaftertheBritish flagcarrierwasexpectedtostartComet3service, PanAmericanorderedthreeoftheseaircrafton20 October1952.However,beforetheComet3first flew,Comet1swerewithdrawnfromuse.Bythen the367-80wasabouttoflyandPanAmcancelledits Comet3order. Only one other US carrier, Capital Airlines, showedsufficientinterestinthepioneeringBritish jetairlinertoplaceanorderforfourComet4sand tenstretchedComet4Asin]uly1956.Twoyears later,financialdifficultiesforcedCapitaltocancelits order. American industry leaders still remained lukewarmtowardthedevelopmentofjetairliners,as greaterbenefitwouldbederivedfromdeveloping turboprop-powered derivatives of their Super Constellation/StarlinerandDC-6/DC-7series. lnparticular,afterstudyinga32-to40-passenger CL-152withthreeorfourofitsownL-1000turbojets in 1946, Lockheed concentrated its efforts on turboprop-powered aircraft and on flying experimentalSuperConstellationmodelspowered byPratt&WhitneyT34Turbo-Wasps(fourR7V-2s fortheUSN,withtwobecomingYC-l21Fsforthe USAFandonebeingre-enginedwithAllison501 turboprops).Convairmeanwhile,preferredturbine developmentsofitsModel240/540/440seriesfor operations over shorter routes. First flown on 29 December1950afterbeingre-enginedwithapairof Allison501s,itsModel240prototypebecamethe firstUSairlinerpoweredbyturboprops.However, further turbine development of the 240/340/440 seriesdidnotmaterializeuntiltenyearslater.
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Dubbed ‘Avitruc’ by its manufacturer, the Chase Aircraft Company, the XC123A conducted its maiden flight on 21 April 1951, so becoming the first jetpowered transport aircraft to successfully fly in the United States of America. (author’s collection)
Douglas came close to launching a DC-7D poweredbyfourRolls-RoyceTyneturbopropsbut, reacting to customer preference for jet-powered aircraft,theSantaMonicamanufacturerannounced in August 1952 that it would launch a DC-8 jet airliner.Thisannouncementprecededbyonemonth that by Boeing concerning the 367-80. Douglas howeverlosttheinitiativeas,unlikeBoeing,itsought to wait for airline orders before proceeding with constructionofaprototype. Historicallyspeaking,thehonourofbeingthe firstAmericanpure-jettransportaircraftfelltothe little-knownChaseXC-123A.Whilenotajetairliner, thistestbedwasthefirstUSjet-poweredaircraftwith atransport-typeairframe.PoweredbyfourGeneral ElectricJ47turbojetsinpairedpodsunderthewing and utilizing the airframe of the second XCG-20 experimentalcargoglider,thisaircraftfirstflewon 21April1951.However,nofurtherjetdevelopment oftheC-123wasundertaken,andthetypewentinto productionfortheUSAFwithtwoPratt&Whitney R-2800radialsastheFairchildC-123BProvider. The Air Transport Association (ATA, later to becomeAirlinesforAmerica(A4A)),wasandisan Americantradeassociationandlobbyinggroupbased inWashington, D.C.towhichallAmericanscheduled carriersbelonged.Theyissueddetailedjettransport design recommendations in October 1952. Recommendationsincludedprovisionforcarrying allfueloutsidethefuselage,eitherinwingsorpods or both; undercarriage wells designed to contain damagefollowingtyreexplosion;abilitytooperate in 40-miles per hour crosswinds; ability to manoeuver at low speeds despite failure of one engineinatwoorthree-engineaircraftorfailureof twoenginesinafourorfive-engineaircraft;‘fail safe’maintenancetoprecludeincorrectattachment ofparts;improvedfirewarningandprotection;128inch internal cabin width to make possible five-abreast coach accommodation; and sealed electrical system to eliminate all electrical booby traps. TheATAfavouredindividualenginepodsand expressed concerns over cabin pressurisation
problems. In the case of the powerplant, ATA considered it ‘...imperative that the engine installation assure an advancement in the safety of the airplane with respect to fire over that provided in present transport airplanes. An engine fire should not jeopardize the airplane primary structure, adjacent engines, or airplane and engine controls.’ Concernsoverpotentialstructuralintegritywas expressed by ATA as there was no previous experienceinpressurisingsolargeavolumeasthe cabinofajetairlinerflyingataltitudeof40,000feet. ATAJetTransportSpecification Costperton-mile: EqualtoDC-6 Cruisespeed: 550milesperhour Range,domestic: 2,000miles Range,international: 3,200miles Runwaylength,domestic: 5,500feet Runwaylength,international: 7,500feet Fuselagewidth,insidediameter: 128inches Cabinaisleheadroom: 80inches Passengercapacity,firstclass: 70-80 Intheevent,earlyBoeing707sandDouglasDC8s barely met ATA range specifications and completelyfailedtomeetfield-lengthrequirements. However,theyexceededATArequirementsinterms of cabin width and seating, for ATA issued its specificationssixyearsbeforeeconomyclasswas introduced. Boeing Gambles. In the spring of 1947, four months after the undesignatedlayoutmentionedatthebeginningof thischapterhadbeenprepared,Boeinginitiatedmore comprehensive preliminary design studies for jet airlinersundertheModel473designation.Thefirst ofthesestudies,the473-1,wasa27-seat,48,430pound gross weight aircraft with a tricycle undercarriageandfour6,000poundsthrustRollsRoyceNeneturbojetsinunderslungpods.Withtanks for only 2,208 gallons of fuel, the 473-1 was optimizedfordomesticoperationsoverflightsectors of less than 1,200 miles. It was not long before severalotherconfigurationswerestudiedtoincrease
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BOEING 473-1 Span: Length: Height: Fuselage dia: Powerplant:
116 feet 0 inches 107 feet 6 inches 31 feet 3 inches 110 inches 4 x R-R Nenes
© G.M.Simons
From December 1946 comes what is possibly the first three-view of the Boeing jet airliner. The layout that shows the B47 influence with podded engines and shoulder-mounted wing.
range.Typicalofthesestudieswasthe473-11which, stilltobepoweredbyapairofNenes,haditswing areaincreasedfrom790to1,000squarefeet,carried 2,620gallonsoffuel,hadabicycleundercarriage, and range of up to 1,500 miles. These early 473 configurationshadlimitedpayload(withresulting very high seat-mile costs) and limited range that required one or two stops for transcontinental operations. It is not surprising therefore that they failedtoattractairlineinterest.However,pending availabilityofmorepowerfulandmorefuelefficient turbojets,therewaslittlethatBoeingcoulddoto increasepayloadandrange. Twoyearslater,experiencegainedwiththesixenginedB-47thatwasfirstflowninDecember1947 and the eight-jet B-52 together with anticipated availabilityofcivilderivativesofmilitaryturbojets inthe7,500-to10,000-poundthrustclass,enabled Boeingtoscaleupitsproposedjetairliners.Typical oftheseconfigurationswasthe473-25detailedin May1949.Bearingastrongfamilyresemblancewith theXB-52butpoweredbysixinsteadofeightJ57 turbojets,the285,000-poundsgrossweight473-25 wasplannedtocarry98passengersnon-stopacross theNorthAtlantic.Internalandexternaltankswere tohouse18,620gallonsoffuelandthe473-25was expectedtohaveacruisingspeedof530milesper hour at 53,000 feet. This was a substantial
improvementovertheperformanceofearlyNene 473 configurations but still a long way from satisfyingairlinerequirements.Notably,theuseof shoulder-mountedwingsandbicycleundercarriage resultedintheneedtoretractthefour-wheelforward bogie into the fuselage, between the twenty-seat forward cabin and the main cabin. Only limited improvements resulted from the adoption of a double-lobe,inverted-eight,fuselagecrosssectionfor the473-29,ashousingthetwobogiesinthelower lobe limited space available for cargo, mail, and baggage. With the 473-47, Boeing returned to a Nene configuration for domestic operations in January1950.Seatingwasprovidedfor32first-class passengersand,withitsenginesfittedclosebeneath thelow-mountedandmoderatelysweptwings-an installationnotunlikethatadoptedinthemid-sixties fortheBoeing737-thisconfigurationmadepossible theuseofaconventionaltricycleundercarriage. Performance,though,leftmuchtobedesired. Becausesignificantwingsweepwasnecessaryto achievethedesiredcruiseperformance,whileatthe same time the airlines were expressing a strong preference for low-mounted wings, configuration engineerswerefrustratedintheirattemptstofinda satisfactoryhousingforthemainundercarriageunits. Onthe473-48,forexample,thefour-wheelmain bogiesweretoretractintopodsprojectingforward
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BOEING 473-12 Span: Length: Height: Fuselage dia: Powerplant:
100 feet 0 inches 80 feet 10 inches 26 feet 6 inches 2 x Rolls Royce Nenes
© G.M.Simons
The Boeing 473-12, from July 1948. The machine would have carried a crew of three and twenty-seven passengers a range of 550 miles. The aircraft appears to have had a sideways retracting offset nosewheel.
oftheleadingedge,betweenthefuselageandthe twin-enginepods.Onthe473-49B,themaingear consisted of four separate legs, each with a large wheelandretractingforwardwiththewheelturning 90degreestolayflatintheundersideofthewing. Withasatisfactorysolutionstilleludingtheproject team,theModel473cametoaninconclusiveend shortlyafterthe473-57configurationwiththreeJ57 turbojetsandaccommodationfor50passengerswas elaboratedinApril1950. WhileoneteamatBoeingtoiledtocomeupwith asatisfactoryModel473jetairlinerconfiguration, anotherworkedoncontinueddevelopmentsofthe Model 367 transport and tanker for the USAF. Combining the wings and Wright R-3350 radial enginesoftheB-29Superfortresswithadouble-deck pressurized fuselage, the first of three XC-97 prototypes had flown on 9 November 1944. Subsequentdevelopments,withmorepowerfulPratt &WhitneyR-4360radialsandB-50wingsandtail surfaces,ledtotheproductionof888Model367sas C-97sandKC-97sfortheUSAFand56Model377 Stratocruisersforasmallnumberofairlines.Asa tanker,theModel367madeitsdebutin1950when threeC-97AsweremodifiedasKC-97Aprototypes. Thereafter,nofewerthan811ofthe888Model367s
were completed as KC-97Es, KC-97Fs, and KC97Cs.WhilethesenumbersreflectedtheStrategicAir Command’spressingneedfortankersintheearly ColdWaryears,theyhidthefactthatthesepiston engined aircraft proved only to be marginally satisfactory when refueling B-47 jet bombers. Substituting turboprops for the radial engines to improveC-97performancewasfirstcontemplatedas far back as April 1948 when a 367-15-23 configuration was proposed withAllison T38s, a lengthenedfuselageofincreaseddiameter,longer spanwings,andanose-loadingramp.Twomonths later, the dimensionally larger 367-18-28 configuration was studied with more powerful AllisonT40s. Althoughthesedesignexercisesdidnotresultin productionconfigurations,theyprovidedauseful starting point for the 367-23-33 configuration proposedinJune1949asaboom-equippedtanker withT40turboprops.TheAirForceitseems,wasnot overlyconcernedbytheanticipateddifficultiesof refuelingjetbomberswithpiston-enginedtankers. Workonaturboprop-poweredKC-97wasresumed inDecember1950whenBoeingattemptedtocounter theDouglasYKC-124BwithitsModel367-60-61 poweredbyfourPratt&WhitneyT34turboprops
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BOEING 473-25
The Boeing 473-25 clearly demonstrates its Model 464-67 parentage. The similarities with the XB-52 is striking.
© G.M.Simons
The Model 473-47 was almost a hark-back to earlier thinking.
BOEING 473-47 Span: 85 feet 6 inches Length: 69 feet 2 inches Height: Fuselage dia: 112 inches Powerplant: 2 x Pratt & Whitney JT6D
© G.M.Simons
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BOEING 707-6 Span: Length: Height: Fuselage height:
andfeaturinggullwingswith25degreesofsweepat thequarterchord.Duringthefollowingmonth,the 367-64wasproposedwithfourPratt86WhitneyJ57 turbojetsasaNavyminelayerorAirForcetanker. Again,Boeingwasunsuccessful,buttheseedfora jet-powered development of the C-97 had been planted, promising significant performance improvements.lnMarch1951,initialB-47refueling tests with a KC-97A had brought to light the performanceshortcomingofpiston-enginedtankers. AsbythenDouglaswasaggressivelymarketingits proposedturboprop-poweredKC-124BtotheAir Force, Boeing put new emphasis on designing turboprop-andturbojet-poweredderivativesofits KC-97.Thesedesigneffortsresultedinproposalsfor the367-68withfourBristolOlympusturbojets,the 367-69withtwinJ57pods,the367-70withswept wings and Olympus turbojets, the similarly configured367-71with1575,andthe367-77with fourT34turboprops.Unfortunatelyfortheproject team working on advanced developments of the Model367,in1951theAirForcecouldnotyetafford turbine-engined tankers. This may have been a blessingindisguiseas,untilfundingfornewtankers becamelikelytobebudgeted,Boeingwouldagain concentrateonjetairlinerdesigns.Startingwitha clean sheet of paper after earlier Model 473 configurationshadfailedtoresultinasatisfactoryjet airliner design, Boeing launched Model 707 jet airliner preliminary design studies in September
130 feet 0 inches 126 feet 4 inches 39 feet 5 inches 164 inches
© G.M.Simons
1951.Fromthestart,asolutionwasfoundforthe previouslyfrustratingproblemofmainundercarriage retraction.Withthebasiclayoutnowcallingforlowmountedwingswiththirty-fivedegreesofsweepat thequarterchord,themainelementsofthetricycle gearwouldbelocatedcloseenoughtothecentreof gravitytofacilitaterotationontake-offwhilebeing placedfarenoughafttopreventthetailfromcoming incontactwiththegroundduringaftloading.Using this arrangement, the 707-1 layout dated 16 November 1951 called for an aircraft providing accommodation for seventy-two first-class passengersina122-inchwidecabinandpoweredby fourJ57sintwinpods.Inthemonthsthatfollowed, thedesignevolvedonlyslightly,whilewingareaand fuselagecrosssectionwereenlarged.Bytheearly springof1952,engineersfinallyfeltthatthe707-6 layout shown on the accompanying three-view drawingwasclosetowhatairlineswanted.Intended to be powered by four 9,500 pounds thrust civil derivatives of the Pratt & Whitney J57-P-1, the aircrafthadwingswithspanof130feet,areaof2,510 squarefeet,andthirty-fivedegreesofsweepatthe quarterchord.Itsfuselagewas121feet3incheslong and had a 132-inch diameter to accommodate 76 first-classpassengersinafour-abreastarrangement and to incorporate an eight-seat aft lounge. Performancepromisedtobesubstantiallybetterthan thatoftheDeHavillandComet1withwhichBOAC wasabouttostartjetservice.
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ChapterFour
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What’sinaName? The Boeing jet transport prototype finally emergedthroughtheC-97developmentlinealthough muchusehadbeenmadeofB-47andB-52design elements. By this time the basic Model 367 had reachedthe80thstudyconfigurationanditboreno resemblance whatever to the original C97/Stratofreighterairframeeventhoughtheoriginal modelnumberhadbeenretained. Thedesignwasnotnew,foritcontainedmanyof theaerodynamic,structuralandengineeringfeatures introducedtoBoeingpracticebytheB-47andB-52, as well as the standards of passenger comfort establishedwiththeModel377Stratocruiser.Itwas a new model number that combined all the best featuresofBoeing'smanyyearsofexperiencewith performanceandpassengercomfort,alliedtoabasic structure that was highly adaptable but easy to produce and thus economic in mass-production terms. Popularbooks,televisionprogrammes,andeven some specialized aviation publications have all fosteredandpropogatedthemyththattheBoeing707 airliner and KC-135 tanker were the miraculous resultsofan‘immaculateconception’followinga requestfromWilliamM.Allen,theBoeingpresident. Thatwassimplynotthecase. Aswehaveseen,Boeinghadbeenconducting conceptualstudiesofjetairlinerssince1946while, from1948on,italsocontemplatedturbine-powered tankerversionsofitsModel367.Inthespringof 1952,theBoardalsohadtoconsiderthecompany’s overallcompetitivepositionandfinancialhealth.On thecivilside,activitieshadcometoagrindinghalt withthedeliveriesofthelastModel377Stratocruiser toBOACinMay1950.Onthemilitaryside,the company had experienced a growing number of disappointments, especially when the turboproppowered Model 495 had lost theAir Force 1951 medium transport competition to the Lockheed Model 082/YC-130, and the company suffered a stringoffailuresinfightercompetitions.However,
these disappointments were more than offset by numeroussuccesses. NotwithstandingDouglas’attemptstoattractAir Forceinterestinitsturboprop-poweredKC-124B, Boeingwasgettingadditionalproductioncontracts forpiston-enginedtankers,thefinalKC-97Gcontract beingapprovedbytheAirForceinJune1953.The firstof399B-47Bmediumjetbomberswereabout tobedeliveredtotheStrategicAirCommand,and morecontractswereexpected.TheXB-52prototype wasrolledouton29November1951,nine-and-ahalfmonthsafteralettercontracthadbeenawarded toBoeingforthirteenpre-productionB-52As,and confidenceranhighthattheB-52wouldbecomea major production programme. Large-scale productionofB-52s-whichwereknowntorequire air-to-airrefuellinginordertoincreasetheirrange asndendurance-wouldalsomeanthattheAirForce would have to order tankers with compatible performance. Another myth that also has been almost impossibletodispelisthenotionthattheKC-135A wassomehowamilitaryversionoftheBoeing707 airliner.Itwasandisnot.TheKC-135A(orBoeing 717)preceded,andpavedthewayforthecommercial machine which became so successful with the world`s civil carriers. Of course, both shared a commonheritageinthevisionofBoeing’sengineers and finance people, and both are progeny of the privateModel367-80prototype. Thisone-of-a-kindaircraftwasreferredtobythe press, and even by Boeing’s own house organ, Boeing News astheBoeing707,butitwasnot. InexternalappearancetheModel367-80was verysimilarinappearancetotheBoeing707civil airlinerandtheKC-l35Atanker.Asaprivateventure, arisk-theconsequencesofwhichcouldnothave beenpredictedforcertain-theDash80turnedoutto be a bold and successful move by Boeing and a milestoneinthehistoryofaviation. The Model 367-80, with the civil registration
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A head-on shot of one of the B-52 prototypes - note the fighter-style tandem cockpit (USAF)
N70700,wasrolledouton14May1954andsoon embarked on an exhaustive, company-financed. proof-of-concepttestprogramme. TogettheDash80tothispointissupposedto haverequired432,000directdesign-engineermanhours.The707-120,thefirsttrue707,wastorequire afurther772,000,demonstratingjusthowfarfrom beingacommercialairlinerthe367-80reallywas. FromthenuntilitsretirementtotheSmithsonian Institution,oneofthekeyrolesofthebasicBoeing designhasbeenasatestaircraft-initiallyforthe purposeofitsowndevelopmentandproving,and much later as the platform for a variety of experimentsinadvancedtechnologyincluding‘Star Wars’research. ByOctober1956,asapartoftheBoeingtest programme, the Dash 80 was retrofitted with a flyingboomformid-airtankercouplingtrials,but theUSAirForcesharedBoeing’sboldnessanddid notwaitforproofthatair-to-airrefuellingbyjet tankerwasfeasible.Atthestartofthe1955fiscal year-11July1954-theAirForceplacedanorder forfor29airframesintheKC-135Aseries,starting withaircraft55-3118. TheK-135Afleweighteenmonthsbeforethefirst genuine707,however,anddifferedfromitinseveral importantrespects,havingamorenarrowfuselage andentirelydifferentcross-section,sothatthetwo couldnotbeproducedonthesamefactoryjigs. Inaerodynamictermsthe‘Dash-80’-asthetype wasfamiliarlyknownbythoseconcernedwiththe project-wassimilartotheB-47andB-52series,with characteristicallyshapedtailsurfacesandawingof 35° sweep. Consideration had been given to the mountingoftheenginesintwinpods,ashadbeen usedfortheinnerenginesoftheB-47andforallthe
enginesoftheB-52,butsafetyconsiderationsfora civiltypepersuadedthedesignerstoadoptsingleenginepods.Themainproblemwithtwin-engine podslayinthefactthatundercertaincircumstances, suchasthedisintegrationofacompressorstagein one engine, both engines could be rendered inoperative. Thusitwaswisetoseparatetheenginesasfaras was possible, and the use of four singly-podded engines also had benefits for the wing structure, where the cantilevering of the pods forward and below the wings on special pylons allowed the enginestobeusedasmassbalancestopreventflutter. It also permitted the outer engines to be used to unloadtheouterpanelsofthewings,sothattheroots wouldthusnotbesubjecttosuchseverebending momentsinflight.Thefuselageandundercarriage wereentirelynew.Thefuselagewasdesignedtothe fail-safephilosophyessentialforpressurisedairline operations,andfeaturedprovisiononly,inthe‘Dash80’austereprototype,foralargenumberofwindows; aflightcrewofthreewascarriedinthenosesection, which was comprehensively instrumented and providedwithspaceforweatherradar.Thetandem type of undercarriage used on the company's jet bombershadbeenrejectedasbeingimpracticalfor commercial operations, so a more conventional arrangement was installed, with four-wheel main unitsretractingintothelowersidesofthefuselage, andatwinwheelsteerablenoseunitretractinginto thelowerfuselagejustaftoftheflightdeck.Fuelwas accommodatedinsixmaintanks,locatedthreetoa wing. The Model 367-80 was intended solely as a prototype, the company designation Model 707 having been allocated for the production version,
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whichwasalsogiventhenameJetStratoliner. AsMaynardLPennell,the367-80ChiefProject Designerexplained:‘In the case of the Boeing 707 jet tanker-transport design, the objective may be stated broadly as a desire to create a vehicle which could transport people or things more safely, more economically and faster than is possible by any other form of air transport today. As a result of preliminary studies, we convinced ourselves that improvements in safety and economy were achievable goals for a jet transport. Since this was contrary to the then common assumption that speed was the principal virtue of a jet transport and perhaps was achieved only at the expense of safety and economy, we scrutinized these preliminary studies carefully before proceeding. Today we are more than ever convinced that our conclusions were correct. Since it is perhaps the most controversial subject, let’s look first at the economics of a jet transport. Can it compete on the basis of economy with the best of today’s airplanes, carrying boxed goods or machinery, spare engines or spare fuel, combat
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troops, litter patients or commercial passengers as cheaply and as reliably as these jobs are being done today? The answer in our opinion is, emphatically, ‘yes’. The predicted direct operating cost of the 707 is below ten cents per ton mile, compared with commonly accepted operating costs of thirteen to fifteen cents for the most economical of the presentday transports. How does one account for this remarkable improvement in economy, with all the signs pointing to further improvements in years to come? The answer is in the work capacity of this new type of airplane. It can carry more payload, at more miles per hour. The work capacity as expressed in ton-knots (the product of payload times block speed in knots) is three to four times that of current transports. Another interesting aspect is the distribution of costs. For instance, fuel costs are found to be moderate, at least by today’s standards. Other costs are consistently less than those of today’s planes except for engine maintenance, which includes
Boeing constructed a full-scale wooden mockup of the Model 367-80 in secrecy at Renton during 1952.
Two very important men in the KC135 and 707 story are (left) Wellwood Edmeston Beall ( b. 28.10 1906. d. 28.1.1978) Boeing’s VicePresident, Engineering-Sales and Edward Curtiss ‘Ed’ Wells, (b. 26 August 1910 , d. July 1986) Boeing’s Chief Engineer. (both DGR Image Library)
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spares and overhaul on a very conservative basis. Crew costs, although higher per hour in accordance with Air Line Pilots Association formulas, are divided by the larger work capacity of the new plane and show how much more can be accomplished with the same people. In safety, the jet transport appears to offer definite improvements in such performance matters as climb after takeoff, en-route climb and terrain clearance. Approach and landing problems likewise appear to be easily solvable by available means. In fact, to the extent that the numerical approach can prove safety, the jet transport meets all available criteria. On another aspect of safety, it seems obvious that the structure of a jet airplane can be made fully as safe as that of any other airplane. True, this involves the acquisition of knowledge concerning the behavior of thin, sweptwing structures which change shape and airload distribution under load, but such information or the means of obtaining it is available from earlier sweptwing bombers and fighters. It also
requires a carefully designed pressure structure for the body -one which will not allow failures even under adverse maintenance or operating conditions or after years of continuous service. This might well appear to be an extremely difficult problem were it not for the fact that earlier Boeing airplanes, such as the B-29, B-50, C-97 and Stratocruiser, have been operated successfully for many years with a pressure differential of 6.5 pounds per square inch. Only slightly more - 7.5 to 8.5 - is desired for jet transport operation. Extra precautions against explosive decompression can and will be taken, but the problem is fully solvable. Clearly from this statement Boeing were heavily relying on data flowing back from a number of militaryprojects. However,earlyin1952theconstructionofthe prototypetanker-transporthadnotstarted,largelyfor lackoffinance.In1951thecompanyhadtriedto floattheprojectwithordersfromtheUSAF,towhich
‘See more in ‘54!’ Model Eddie Albright poses with a covered over model of the Dash 80 in late 1953. (via Peter M Bowers)
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ithadpromotedthetypeasajet-powered‘Advanced KC-97’tanker.TheUSAFreadilyconcededthatsuch anaircraftwasideallysuitedtothesupportofthe StrategicAirCommand'sB-47fleet,offeringexact compatibilitywiththebombersintermsofspeedand altitudeforrapidoperationalrefuellings;butatthe sametimetheservicepleadedlackoffinanceina periodwhenburgeoningappropriationswerebeing gobbledupbyanexpandingneed fortacticalaircraftdemandedin theKoreanarena,andforthenew generation of strategic aircraft such as the B-52 already under finaldevelopment. Boeingrightlyappreciatedthat fewairlineswouldbepreparedto putmoneyintosoambitiousbut unprovedaproject,andalsothat suchamethodoffinancingwould be unsuitable for its planned developmentofparallelmilitary Two views of the sole 367-80 in its assembly dock in Renton, Seattle. The aircraft is at the stage of having the vertical and horizontal stabilizers fitted, along with the two military-style cargo doors. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)
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andcivilaircraft. ln April 1952, William Allen distributed a questionnairetofiveofhisseniorengineeringand financeexecutives;WellwoodBeall,FredCollins, FredLaudan,EdWells,andJohnYeasting,toelicit their comments regarding the feasibility and desirability of proceeding with the design, manufacturing,andtestingofajettanker/transport
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demonstrator.Positiveanswerswerereceivedon21 Apriland,withconfidenceboostedbythesuccessful maidenflightoftheYB-52pre-productionprototype oftheStratofortressstrategicbombersixdaysearlier, WilliamAllenrecommendedtotheboardofdirectors thattheprogrambeinitiated.Reactingfavourably, boardmembersauthoriseda$16millionprogramme on22April1952. Eversince,muchhasbeenmadeoftherisktaken bytheBoeingdirectors.Itiscertainlytruethat$16 millionin1952dollarsrepresentedtwoandaquarter timestheprofitrealisedbyBoeinginthepreceding year.However,whenexpressedin2016dollarsthat amountwas$143millionorapproximately50%of the current quoted price of a single Boeing 787 Dreamliner-whenlookedinthatway,itwasanot soformidablesum! Moreover,Boeingcouldexpecttochargesome of this expenditure to the US government as ‘IndependentResearchandDevelopment’.Itdid,in
fact,dosowhenin1957,underanAirForcecontract, theXB-52wasmodifiedbyreplacingtheoutboard pairs of J57s by single J75s to help in the developmentoftheJT4AinstallationforBoeing707 Models220and320. WhentheBoeingBoarddecidedtoproceedwith the367-80demonstrator,itwaswiththeintention thatproductionmilitarytankersandciviljetliners wouldbecloselyrelatedandwouldthereforebebuilt using similar if not identical tooling. This led to protractednegotiationsbetweentheAirForceandthe manufacturer,asthegovernmentsoughttorecover someofthemoneyseeminglyspentforthebenefit ofcommercialderivatives.Intheend,however,the 707 and the KC-135 only had some 20% commonalityascompetitivepressuresforcedBoeing toadoptawiderfuselagecross-sectionandwingsof greaterspanandareaforproduction707models. Moreover,designedforalongerservicelife,the707 used2024aluminumalloyinsteadofthelighter7178
By March 1954 Boeing were prepared to release pictures of the Dash 80 under construction, along with the build team. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)
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The insulated but almost empty cabin of the Dash 80. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)
alloyadoptedfor‘shorter-lived’AirForcetankers. Thiswassomethingwhicheventuallyprovedtobea costlymistake,asKC-135sandderivativesremained in service long after the last 707s were cut by blowtorchesofmetalsmelters. Althoughthetanker/transportdemonstratorwas basedonthe707-6preliminarydesignlayout,itwas giventhemisleading367-80designationtomakeit to appear as being merely a jet derivative of the C/KC-97series. Withthepassingoftime,onemustnowwonder
howBoeingcouldseriouslyexpecttosucceedwith this bit of disinformation - during the 1950s the Sovietswerenotthesoleexpertswhenitcameto disinformatsiya - as aeronautical engineers freely moved from Boeing, to Douglas, and then to Lockheed,insearchforbetterjobs.Intheprocess, theytookalongknowledgeofwhatwasgoingonat Boeing. It is doubtful that their rivals were long fooled into believing that the 367-80 was a mere developmentoftheKC-97insteadofbeingtheall newdesignitwas. Bythetimethe367-80wasofficiallyannounced inSeptember1952,somethreeweeksafterDouglas hadannounceditsintenttodeveloptheirDC-8jet airliner,Boeinghadswitchedfromtwin-enginepods tosingle-enginepodstomeetATArecommendations. Detaileddesignalsoresultedintheadoptionofmultisurfaceflightcontrols.Forcontrolathighspeeds,the 367-80wasprovided(aswereitsKC-135and707 derivatives)withinboardaileronsbetweeninboard andoutboardtrailing-edgeflapsandfour-segment upper-surfacespoilers.Forcontrolatlowspeeds, these surfaces were supplemented by outboard aileronswhichwerelockedinneutralpositionwhen flapswereup.Quitesurprisingly,theteamledby ChiefDesignEngineerMaynardL.Pennellelected todispensewithservo-hydraulicboostforallprimary flyingcontrolsinfavourofaerodynamicallybalanced
The Dash 80 is readied for the rollout ceremony, and appears to be undergoing undercarriage retraction tests. One of the two cargo doors is also open. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)
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Mrs William E Boeing breaks a bottle of champagne over the nose of the Model 367-80 at Renton on 14 May 1954 while Boeing President William M Allen looks on. According to Boeing Magazine, she christened it Boeing Jet Stratotanker Stratoliner. The aircraft started ground running tests four days later. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)
andmanuallyoperatedcontrolswithspringtabs. Later,however,Boeingadoptedpoweredrudder controlsforthe707andKC-135andretrofittedthe 367-80 with 707 powered-rudder controls in ]anuary1958. The overall project leader was Ed Wells; the aerodynamicdesignwastheresponsibilityofateam ledbythebrilliant,yetdemandingGermanengineer GeorgeSSchairer,himselfmentorandtaskmasterto draughtsmanJackSteiner,whoturnedtheoriesinto plansforthestructuralengineers,ledbyMeynard Penneltoturnintoblueprintsandthenmetal. Theall-importantcabindesign,includingthe doors and seating arrangements, were the responsibility of former systems engineer Milt Heinemann.HeinturnedhiredFrankDelGuidice from the company DorwinTeague to design the lookoftheinterior. Beforemanufacturingofthe367-80-alsoknown asthe707-7-gotmuchunderwayBoeingevaluated
alternative configurations and powerplant installations. A 707-7-27 configuration dated 17 August 1952 featured wingtip tanks and T34 turbopropsmountedaboveandforwardofthe35degreesweptwings.Afewdayslater,a707-7-39 configurationretainedthewingtiptanksbutwasto bepoweredbysixJ57sintwotwinpodsandtwo single pods. Thereafter only minor configuration changesweremadeasthe367-80slowlyproceeded fromconcepttoreality. The707'sswept-backwingsmayhavereduced drag, but they came with a high price in other directions-fortheydisplayanundesirableflying characteristic that is termed ‘Dutch roll’, an occurance that manifests itself as an alternating yawing and rolling motion. Boeing already had considerableexperiencewiththisontheB-47andB52,andhaddevelopedtheyawdampersystemonthe B-47 that would be applied to later swept-wing configurationslikethe707.However,manynovice 707pilotshadnoexperiencewiththisphenomenon, as they were transitioning from straight-wing propeller-drivenaircraftsuchastheDouglasDC-7 andLockheedConstellation. Ononecustomer-acceptanceflight,wherethe yawdamperwasturnedofftofamiliarisethenew pilotswithflyingtechniques,atraineepilot'sactions violently exacerbated the Dutch roll motion and causedthreeofthefourenginestobetornfromthe wings. The plane, a brand new 707-227, N7071, destinedforBraniff,crash-landedonariverbednorth ofSeattleatArlington,Washington,killingfourof theeightoccupants. In his autobiography, Tex Johnston: Jet-age Test Pilot testpilotJohnstondescribesaDutchroll incidentheexperiencedasapassengeronanearly commercial707flight.Astheaircraft'smovements didnotceaseandmostofthepassengersbecame
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The Dash 80 is tugged slowly out of the factory onto the ramp on 14 May 1954. According to Boeing Magazine, 8,000 employees and 500 visiting community leaders crowded onto the ramp to watch the proceedings. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)
ill,hesuspectedamis-settingofthedirectional autopilot.Hewenttothecockpitandfoundthe crew unable to understand and resolve the situation.Heintroducedhimselfandrelievedthe ashen-faced captain who immediately left the cockpit feeling ill. Johnston disconnected the faultyautopilotandmanuallystabilisedtheaircraft ‘...with two slight control movements’. The first metal for the Dash-80 was cut in October1952,withtheintentionthatthisaircraft wouldbeanaerodynamicandstructuralprototype thatwouldvalidatetheanticipatedperformanceof thetype,butstillbeavailableasacompany-owned aircraftforthelargenumberofmajorandminor development programmes that would hopefully emergeasthetypeproveditsworthasaciviland military transport.After steady progress on the Dash-80, the prototype was rolled out nineteen monthslater. InMarch1954Boeingpublicallyrevealedthat they were targetting the Dash 80 at three distinct ‘customers’. The first was as a military tanker, designedforStrategicAirCommand(SAC)ofthe USAFhavingdualdutiesforaerialrefuellingand groupmovementtransportation. The second - also for the USAF - was as a military troop and cargo transport tailored to the
needsoftheMilitaryAirTransportService(MATS). Thethird,andmentionedalmostasanafterthought, wasasalongandmediumrangecommercialairliner. Bythetimethe367-80flewinJuly1954,all pretencehadbeendroppedandtheaircraftcarried the707designationonitsfin. The Dash-80 emerged from the construction facilitydoorson14May1954,completeincompany livery of bare metal under surfaces, cream upper surfacesandchocolatebrowntrimalongthefuselage sides, wing leading edges and engine pods. The speciallychosenregistrationwasN70700,pickedout in brown on the vertical tail and along the upper surfaceofthestarboardwing. The Model 367-80 could be regarded as a combinationofthefuselagecapacityofferedbythe C/KC-97serieswiththeaerodynamicsandstructure oftheB-47andB-52,togetherwithaconventional tricyclelandinggeararrangement.TheDash-80was poweredbyfourPratt&WhitneyJT3Cturbojets,the civilversionoftheJ57usedintheB-52bomber,and ratedatasimilar10,000poundsthrust.Thetailunit wasverycloselymodelledonthatoftheB-52in designandbasicstructure,andsotoowasthewing, whichwasconsiderablymorerigid,however,and providedwithapronounceddihedralangleslightly reducedfromthatofthetailplane.Fieldperformance
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wasimprovedbytheprovisionofFowlertypeflaps alongthetrailingedgesofthewingsbetweenthe rootsandtheailerons,withagaptotherearofthe inboard nacelles to remove the possibility of interferencewiththeexhaustsofthesetwoengines. Lateralcontrolwasensuredbytwopairsofailerons, asmallinboardpairlocatedbetweentheflapsections beingusedathighspeeds,andalargeroutboardpair locatedintheconventionaltippositionsbeingused at low speeds, an interconnection with the flaps ensuringthattheselatteraileronsbecameoperative onlywhentheflapswerelowered.Extrarollcontrol wasaddedbyupper-surfacespoilers,whichoperated inconcertasairbrakesordifferentiallyasailerons. Thefuselagewasagainadouble-bubble(vertical figure8)asusedintheC/KC-97series,butwiththe inwardcreaseatthejunctionofthetwolobesfaired outtoasuperioraerodynamicprofile.Alsoretained wasthefuselagewidthoftheC/KC-97,exactly12 feet; the cabin area was 90 feet long. But as the Model 367-80 was intended solely for flight and experimentaltrials,thefuselageinteriorwasbareto providespaceforbatteriesofinstrumentation,and thoughfacilitieswereprovidedforgalleys,lavatories andthelike,thesewerenotfitted;neitherwasthefull rowofwindowsalongthesidesofthefuselage.The useoftheDash-80forexperimentalpurposeswas greatlyfacilitatedbythefittingoftwolargecargo doorsintheportsideofthefuselage,oneateachend ofthecabinarea.Therewasalsoprovisionofcargo tie-downsandaerialrefuellingequipment. ThefirstflightoftheDash-80wasdelayedbya near-disasterwhentheportmainlandinggearleg collapsedduringtaxyingtrialson22May.ltwassix weeks before the damage was repaired, and
Above: Tex Johnson signs for the Dash 80 from the projects flight engineer L A ‘Bert’ Binegar.
Below: Johnson and Loesch climb into their flight gear and prepare to board the aircraft. (both Boeing via Peter M Bowers)
Boeing President William M Allen poses for photographs with Tex Johnson and Dix Loesch before the first flight of the Dash 80.
Legend has it that Allen is supposed to have told them ‘She’s in your hands boys. Good luck and we’ll be looking for you in a lttle while!’ (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)
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It flies! The Dash 80 climbs away from Renton. Alongside the runway are a number of KC-97 tankers and, lining the side of Interstate 5, literally hundreds of vehicles. (Robert Winans via Peter M Bowers)
examinationofthebrokenunitrevealedthatthebasic steelstockhadbeendeliveredwithaflaw;Boeing thusaltereditsqualitycontrolprocedurestoinvolve closer examination of raw materials before the expensivemachiningprocess.Allwasreadyon15 July1954. At2.14pmAlvinM.‘Tex’Johnson,thechiefof flighttest,lineduptheDash80onthethresholdof runway13andopenedupthethrottles;thirtyseconds laterhereleasedthebrakesforthetake-offroll.With InterstateFiveonhisleft,seventeensecondsandtwo thousands one hundred feet later the aircraft was airborne. Thefirstflighthadbeenscheduledfor7am,but thisbeingSeattle,thedaydawnedwithawatery,low overcastThursdaymorning.Daylightwasdiluted with gray mist. The weather bureau promised clearingbynoon.Theflightthereforewaspostponed until 2 pm.The gathered press grumbled and sat downtoafive-gallonjugofhotcoffee.Manyofthem hadbeenupsince3:45thatmorningtopreparefor the7amflight.
By noon the weather was starting to clear.At 12:52pmanaircrafttugwasattachedtothenosewheelunitandtheaircraftbeganathree-quarter-mile towtotheRentonfieldapron. William M. Allen, president of the Boeing AirplaneCompanyandthemanmostresponsiblefor Boeing’sentryintothejettransportfield,wasanearly arriverattheairport.HewaiteduntilJohnstonand co-pilot Richard L. ‘Dix’ Loesch had posed for camerasandansweredreporters’questionsbeforehe caughtJohnston’sarminafirmgripandcheckedon theprogress. Interestingly,nowhereinanyofthecontemporary reportsordocumentationrelatingtotheearlyflights of the Dash 80 is there any mention of the third crewmember-theflightengineerbeingcarried.This issomewhatsurprisingfortheaircraft-alongwith itssuccessorstheKC-135/717andthe707-allhad flightdecksarrangedforthreemanoperation,indeed, muchoftheaircraft’sfuelsystemmanagementcould onlybedonefromtheflightengineer’sstation. Accordingtosomesources,theseearlyflights
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A spectacular low-level head-on picture of the 367-80 taken during one of the early test flights. (Vernon Manion via Peter M Bowers)
wereflownwithoutaflightengineersoastokeepthe flightcrewtoaminimum-thereason?theaircraft hadnoescapehatches! The occasion was definitely a media circus white-overalledgroundcrewbeganaskingthecrowd tomoveback.Carsofotherspectatorslinedthehills aroundandalongsideInterstate5thatranalongone sideoftheairport;somehadbeenwaitingmorethan eighthours. Letusletacontemporarynewsmanpickupthe story:‘Tex and Dix entered the plane and the hatch closed behind them. Engine No. 1 was started. The time was 1:58. The wind was west northwest 7 knots. A small plane came in just as Tex began to wheel out on the runway. He pulled the big transport to a stop and waited for the ‘puddle-jumper’ to get out of the way. Then the sound of jet engines echoed off the valley walls as the takeoff roll began. The airplane gathered speed. Sunlight glinted on the bright yellow skin. Along the sidelines, it was time for the customary holding of breath. Spectators were as motionless as the new plane’s older sisters, the KC-97 tankers which flanked the runway in two rows. Twenty-one hundred feet from the start of her run, the
plane lifted off the ground. ‘Shewantedtogoupalittlebeforethat...’Tex wasreportedtohavesaidlater,‘...butIheldherdown toslightlyexceedminimumcontrolspeed’. ‘Onlookers, expecting a gradual climb-out, were loudly surprised. For the new jet took to the air like a seal to water - with almost an eager leap. Her angle of climb was sharp’. Aboard the aircraft, the two-man crew settled quicklyintotheroutineoftestflying.At5000feet Loeschclimbedoutofhisseatandwentdownto-the lowercargodecktomakesurethelandinggearwas upandlocked.At195knots,theundercarriagewas retracted,takingtwelvesecondsforthemains,seven secondsforthenose. Tocheckcontrolcharacteristics,Johnsonturned thecontrolwheelfulloverwithonehand,thenletgo. TheDash80righteditselfandlevelledoffquickly. The first flight constituted a preliminary evaluationofthemachine’sflightcharacteristics.Its maximumspeedduringthisflightwasabout355 milesperhour.Mostoftheflyingwasdoneat10,000 feet,butsomeat18,500. The tests included checking the aircraft’s characteristicsinroll,pitchandyaw.
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To learn the landing characteristics of the machine, Johnston went through stall tests and established data used in computing best landing attitudeandspeed.Thepilotswere,ineffect,writing anoperator’smanualontheprototypeatthesame timetheyflewtheaircraftsothattheycouldusethe informationforthelanding.Thisfirstflightlastedone hour,twenty-fourminutes. Acontemporarynewsreportagain:‘Newsmen, anticipating a landing at Boeing Field in Seattle, several miles away from Renton, again waited patiently. Across the runway’s south end from them, the usual complement of first-flight fire trucks were stationed for possible emergency. A wind shift changed the plan to come in from the south. The first indication the newsmen had of the change was at 3:30 p.m., when they saw the fire-trucks turn and race for the other end of the runway. ‘Where are they going?’ asked a cameraman. ‘The plane isn’t in yet’ ‘That’s too bad...’ cracked an Air Force major without smiling. ‘...The fire department quits at 3 :30.” But there was time for everyone to catch up with the fire trucks at the north end before Tex and Dix brought the big ship in.
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Throats still aching from the pre-takeoff tension were again swallowing dryly as a sweptwing shape settled on the horizon and began to get larger. The plane touched down on the eight wheels of the main landing gear first and then settled to the two nose wheels. With light to moderate braking, she pulled up easily, turned and taxied off the 10,000-foot landing strip at the 5000-foot mark. Bill Allen let his elbows relax against his sides, breathed deeply and wiped a drop of perspiration from the tip of his nose. The first flight was over and he could be proud. Boeing’s new baby had performed gracefully. Tex Johnston felt the same way, and summed his thoughts thus: “This is a very good airplane. So far it meets all of our expectations. I have always had great confidence in both Boeing engineering and Boeing manufacturing. This airplane has not only confirmed’ that confidence—it has increased it.”
Inthecourseofthisandanothersevenflightsduring thefollowingweek,theDash-80wasintheairfora fraction under seventeen hours. Officially and publically,theaircrafthadexcellentperformancein thepartsoftheflightenvelopeexploredaswellas
The Dash 80 is towed past a line-up of KC-97s for the US Air Force - the jet would be the forerunner to the design that replaced them. (Vernon Manion via Peter M Bowers)
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impeccable handling characteristics. The longest flightlastedthreehoursfifty-fiveminutes. Thentheflightprogrammewasagaindelayedby landinggearproblems,whenon5August1954the Dash-80careeredstraightovertheendoftherunway andbrokeitsnoselegwhenthepilot's,co-pilot'sand emergencyhydraulicbrakingsystemsallfailed.It happened after Johnston had been heating up the brakeswithaseriesofhigh-speedgroundrunsand stops,thentakingofftoseewhathappenedinthecold temperaturesaloftaprocesscalled‘coldsoaking’by theengineers.Whathappenedwasanexpansionof thehydraulicfluidonthegroundandacontraction intheair.Johnstondidnotrealisethatthehydraulic system had responded by forming bubbles in the lines,whichsensorsinterpretedasabrokenbrake line.Performingasdesigned,thesensorspromptly shutofffluidflowtothebrakes. Johnstonlandeddaintily,steppedonthebrakes, thenrealisedhehadnone.Ononesideofthefieldsat arowofprivateaircraft;ontheother,alineofB-52s. Johnston had one place to go: a grassy median betweentherunwayandtaxiway.Hehopedthesoft earthwouldslowDash80enoughtolethimswing theairplanearoundandrolltoastop.Herecallsa suddencrunch.Contractorsmakingrunwayrepairs hadleftabigblockofconcreteexactlywhereDash 80wouldfindit.Itknockedthenosegearoffand damagedthebelly,butBoeinghadDash80flying againinaboutthreedays.Aredesignofthebraking systemsensorssolvedthehydraulicsproblemandthe Dash-80returnedtothetrialsprocess. Notlongafterthat,Dash80chalkedupamidair
landinggearexplosionandfirewhenthenewantiskidbrakesturnedouttobespectacularlyefficient heatreservoirs.Johnstonhadheatedthebrakesdoing aseriesofgroundruns,thenhadflownaroundwith thewheelsdownforfifteenminutestocoolthem.But assoonasthelandinggearwasretracted,therewere severalloudexplosionsaccompaniedbythesmellof burningrubber.AsJohnstonwastorecall:‘There was smoke everywhere, so I speeded up, put the gear down, and blew the fire out.’ Hedidn’tneedbrakes tostopafterlanding:fiveofthetentyreswereflat! Publicly,TexJohnstonpraisedtheperformance oftheDash80.‘...Without going into specifics, ‘this airplane [was] not likely to be outperformed by anything this side of the supersonic era’. InhisflighttestreporttoBoeing,however,he criticisedthestabilityas‘marginal’insomeflight regimes.Unfortunately,thisfindingwassomewhat forgotten in the aftermath of the undercarriage collapseincident,andnocorrectivemodifications weremadeuntilafterseveralearly707accidents. FlighttestingalsoshowedthattheDash80could take off too soon at too high an angle of attack, resultinginanover-rotationandamuch-increased take-offrun.Asmallleading-edgeflapcuredthis problem and was introduced into the early 707 production line. Fixed and moveable flaps were testedontheDash80andasuddenapplicationofthe latterwasfoundtoconvertatake-offrolltoaclimb of700-800feetperminutewithoutapplicationof elevatorortrailingedgeflaps. ThefinalthrillinvolvingDash80’sundercarriage occurredduringatestofthethrustreversers.Aftera
General Albert Boyd in the left hand seat of the Dash 80, with Tex Johnston in the right. It seems that the early flights may have been done without a flight engineer, but by the time this mission was flown, someone was clearly in that role. The tubular-frame seats are a clear sign that this is indeed the Dah-80 airframe. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)
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Left: the forward end of the main cabin of the Dash 80, with flight test equipment and engineers.
Below: ground running. (both Boeing via Peter M Bowers)
seriesoflandings,ahydrauliclineletgoandthe flammablefluidleakedoutontoahotbrake.The resultingblazecausedthecrewtocallforthefire truckandabandonship.Boeingreplacedtheentire hydraulicsystemwithonethatusedlessflammable liquid.Flighttestingresumedon20September.
Air Force interest. Sofarthewholedevelopmentandtrialsprogramme had netted Boeing precisely nothing. But the breakthroughofsortscameinAugust1954.Boeing hadextendedeveryfacilitytotheUSAFforthe examinationoftheDash-80onthegroundandin the air, even allowing General Albert Boyd, commanderoftheWrightAirDevelopmentCenter, totakeaturnatthecontrolsofthenewBoeingjet tanker-transport in October 1954. Since General BoydwasoneofthetopAirForcepilotsofthejet
era, what he had to say after his flight was of particularinteresttothecompany. ‘This airplane...’ saidthegeneral,‘...is one of the most important projects for the Air Force today. I am pleased with its simplicity and impressed with the rapid progress made in the short time the airplane has been flying. From a pilot‘s standpoint it is a simple, straightforward plane and very delightful to fly.’
ItseemsthatGeneralBoydwasnottheonlyonewho wasimpressed.OthermenintheBoeingflightcrew who completed Phase I tests of the Dash 80 expressed similar reactions. Tex Johnston: ‘On September 28 we flew the plane from Seattle to Portland in thirteen minutes. That was a distance of 138 air miles at the rate of 636 mph. At this speed it was entirely smooth riding.
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Boeing President William M Allen was aboard for this check-out flight, and so were E C Wells, vicepresident engineering, and William G Reed, a Boeing director. I doubt that any airplane has had three more enthusiastic passengers, and it wasn’t only the speed that impressed them. What they liked most were the quietness and smooth riding characteristics of the plane. I remember Allen’s words after the flight: ‘I don’t see why anyone would want to travel any other way.’ We made some outstanding discoveries about the ‘707’ during these Phase I flight tests. In the first place, the plane had better lateral control at most speeds than any airplane of this size previously built. One of the most unusual features of the Stratoliner-Stratotanker prototype is the air brake furnished by the spoilers. By raising the spoilers on both wings, the wing lift is decreased and the drag is increased. This feature makes possible a fast rate of descent if required. As far as the crew is concerned, the ‘707’ is very comfortable to fly and has excellent pilot vision. Cockpit controls are greatly simplified compared to the control and instrument arrangements of pistonengine transports. This is made possible, of course, by the greater simplicity of the jet engines, but it took some design skill to capitalize so thoroughly on the advantage The four jet engines which power the ‘707’ are JT3s, commercial adaptations of the J57 engine presently used in the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress and certain other military airplanes.
Checking the brake system - the knobbly tyres are ‘interesting’! (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)
Engine performance during 100 hours of flight-testing provided essential date for later production. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)
Soonotherswerecheckedoutasfirstpilotson theDash80,includingLoeschandLtColGuyM Townsend,AirForcerepresentativeattheBoeing FlightTestCenter.Othersservingasflightcrewfor thePhaseIprogrammeincludedLABinegar,flight test project engineer; Bell Whitehead, lead test engineer;PLClarkandRRLarson,testengineers, andWBMengel,leadgroundoperationsengineer. Inaddition,severalstaffandprojectengineerswere carried. Instruments on the aircraft recorded all the pertinent data that was brought back to the flight centre and reduced to their most useful form by specialequipmentandspeciallytrainedemployees, beforebeingturnedovertoBoeingaerodynamicists foralmostimmediateevaluation. TheDash80’sPhaseIprogrammeincludedtests of longitudinal stability and control, lateral and directional stability and control, stalls, airspeed calibrationandvents,performance,power-plantand equipmentfunction. Asmanytestsaspossibleweremadeoneach flight-whichdidnotstraymorethan250milesfrom Seattle.Itwasonthisbasisthattheaircraft’sloading andotherfactorswereestablished. All this hard work was rewarded with an announcementfromAirForceSecretaryHaroldE Talbott,whostatedthattheAirForceintendedto buya‘limitednumber’oftheBoeingjettankers basedontheDash-80andintendedascargoand tankeraircraft,primarilyforuseinsupportofthe
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thebasictype'ssuitabilityforthetankerandtransport rolesdemandedbytheUSAF,andpavedthewayfor one of the most important USAF procurement programmessincetheendofWorldWarTwo.This whole programme, centred round the airframe designatedModel717byBoeing,isdiscussedin detaillater.
The quintessential test pilot: basball cap, shades and headphones. Tex Johnston at the controls of the Dash 80. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)
B-52 fleet of the Strategic Air Command. In making his announcement, Talbott declared that ‘...aerial refueling of jet bombers with compatible jet tanker aircraft will vastly increase the range, flexibility and capability of the Air Force’s bomber force.’ Talbott gave no indication of how many Stratotankerswereinvolvedinthe‘limitednumber’ theAir Force had decided to order, nor of when production was expected to begin. He did say, however, that the tankers would be produced at Boeing’sRenton,Washington,plant. NeithertheAirForceorBoeingrevealedwhen deliveriesofthejettankerwouldstart.TheBoeing companydidpointout,though,thatitsbuildingand flight experience with the Dash 80 would make possibleaproductionmodelmanymonthssooner thanwouldotherwisebethecase. Meanwhile,accordingtoTalbott,theAirForce wouldgoaheadwithajettankerdesigncompetition which it recently initiated among major aircraft manufacturers.Theresultsofthiscompetition,he said,wouldbeusedinconnectionwithdetermination oftotaltankerrequirements.Boeingwasamongthe biddersenteringdesigns. Theorderfor29KC-135Aaircraftwasplaced on5October1954,andmarkedthebeginningofthe Boeingdesign'sgreatsuccessstory.Aspartofthe validationprogrammefortheKC-135Aseries,the Dash-80 was rapidly converted into an in flightrefuelling tanker configuration, a Boeing ‘Flying Boom’systembeingaddedundertherearfuselage andhook-upswithaB-52beingmade(thoughno fuelwastransferred)beforethecontractwasfinally signed.Theinflight-refuellingtrialsfullyconfirmed
Shake, rattle and Roll Despite the tentative faith shown in the Dash 80 designbytheUSAF,therewereongoingproblems withthedesignofDash80’stail.Allthreetestpilots hadbeenawareofthemfromthestartofthetest flights,andapparentlytheywerenoticeabletoothers aswell. Flutter is a vibration in the airframe that is inducedathighspeedinresponsetoaerodynamic forces.Itusuallyarisesonanextremity,and,ifleft unchecked, it can intensify until it breaks up the strongestairframe.Dutchroll—socalledbecauseof itsresemblancetotherollingside-to-sidegaitoficeskatingDutchmen-occursinallaircraft,butisharder tocheckinthosewithsweptwings.Asthemachine yaws from side to side, one wing advances and developsadditionallift,causingtheairpcrafttoroll totheoppositeside,whichresultsinacombined rollingandyawingmotion.Ifthismotioncontinues, itcreatesacycleofalternating,increasingyawangles thatcanresultinuncontrollableroll. The Dash 80’s original tail fin was short comparedwiththefinoftheB-52,andnotmuchof ayawinhibitor.Itssize,coupledwiththelackofa powerboostfortherudder,mayhavecontributedto Left to right : Loesch, Johnston and Binegar aboard ground transportation. The forward cargo door of the Dash 80 doubled up as a crew door. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)
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itstendencytoflutter.‘Flutter was a black science then...’ DixLoeschisreportedtohavesaid.’...When the flutter guys started talking to their bosses, everybody else just sort of looked at the ceiling.’ JohnstonhuntedforflutterinDash80earlyon, andhefounditwhereitcouldbeexpectded-atnear maximumspeed.Eventhoughtheflightengineer’s instrumentpanelwasshakingsohardthemounting bolts broke, Johnston coolly reported, ‘We’re experiencing an appreciable vibration up here’. Later Loeschencounteredflutterduringnormalclimb:‘I did the normal things to fight it - leveled out, throttled back. They didn’t work. I thought the airplane was going to shake itself to pieces. All of a sudden the rudder froze, and the flutter stopped.” Theywereextremelylucky-astructuralfailure savedthedayforabalanceweighthadbrokenloose andjammedtherudder. WhateveritwasthatcausedtheDash80toshake, rattle,androll,itwasnotgreatenoughtoprevent Johnstonfromdoingaseeminglyimpromptubarrel rollinfrontof200,000ormorespectators.Then,for anyonewhohadmissedit,herolledDash80again. The legend that had grown up around the demonstrations have reached almost mythical proportions - over the years the story has been embellishedwiththetellinguntilitbecameapart
ofaviationfolklore. It started from the second National TurbinePoweredAirTransportationmeetingoftheInstitute ofAeronaticalSciencesheldinSeattle.Delegates gatheredtohearapanelsymposiumonthefirstyear ofDash80flyingdeliveredbytheteamfromBoeing whoweredirectlyinvolved.BoeingChiefengineer GeorgeCMartinpresentedthepanel.Joseph‘Joe’ Sutter, in charge of aerodynamics work on the prototype;TexJohnston,CalvinE.Pfafman,assistant projectengineer-systems,andDonaldWFinlay, Boeingchiefofpreliminarydesign. Thereportscoveredtheyear’sactivities;bynow Boeingwascallingthe367-80the‘707’-notethe inverted commas, meaning pseudo 707. They detailedhowthetestingprogrammehadinfluenced productiondesign,whatuseshadbeenmadeoftest resultsandhowthetestswerecontributingtothe ongoingprogrammesinthegrowthofthisfamilyof aircraft. The two phases of the test programme were outlinedbySutter.Thefirsthecalledacheckofbasic design concepts and objectives of the aircraft, togetherwithanalysistodiscoverfurtherneeds.In PhaseII,fixeswereincorporatedintheprototypeand theaircraftreflowntochecktheirvalidity.‘We have done a year’s flying. In June of this year we have been
Delegates to the National Turbine-Powered Air Transportation meeting of the Institute of Aeronatical Sciences watch a flyby of the Boeing 367-80, by now termed the ‘707’. Just visible under the tail is the dummy refuelling boom fitted for formation trials with a B-52. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)
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The Boeing 367-80 with a dummy refuelling boom in formation with a B-52. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)
able to finalize the airplane’s configuration; the airplane can be pinned down so production can go ahead and meet delivery schedules.’ Suttershowedachartdetailingtestareaswhich, as he pointed out, covered checks from ground handlingthroughacompletehighspeedprogramme. Pfafman provided insights into systems and structural dynamics. He told of problems encounteredandcorrectionsmade.Hebroughtout several specific items in which complete information could be obtained only through prototypetesting.Flighttestresultsonthelateral controlsystemwasoneinstancecited.Thesystem consistedoffouraileronsandeightspoilers.The aileronswereinterconnectedbyacablesystemand weretabpowered.Thespoilers,connectedinpairs, werehydraulicallypoweredand,attheoutset,were actuatedbyonecontrolvalveineachwing. AmongitemswhichPfafmansaidcouldnotbe evaluatedwithoutflighttestingwerecontrolloads, spoilersynchronisation,controlsensitivityandthe up-floatloadsofaileronsandofspoilers. Asaresultofflighttest,itwaspossibletolower lateral control centering force since satisfactory centeringoftheaileronswasobtainedinflighteven thoughcentreingwasnotpositiveontheground. The simplified single-valve control for the spoilers in each wing was found to be erratic in groundcheck,duetodifferencesinlinelengthand systemfriction.Individualcontrolvalvesforeach pairofspoilerswereinstalledtosolvetheproblem. In lateral control sensitivity, he went on, the characteristicswithoutdivebrakesweregood,but withthedivebrakespartiallyupitwasnecessaryto addamechanicallinkagetoreducethesensitivity. Up-floatloadsontheaileronswerefoundtohave beenpredictedaccurately,requiringonlyadjustments
withthetab.Spoilerup-floatloadsprovedtobeless than had been determined in wind-tunnel tests, greatlysimplifyingthedesign. TexJohnstonspokeof‘707’flightcharacteristics and safety aspects. ‘We have had considerable experience with swept-wing aircraft, the B-47 and the B-52, and have had no adverse problems from the handling characteristic standpoint. This airplane is as good in all respects, and better in some.’ ItseemsthatJohnstonwasparticularlypleased with the lateral control system which gave excellenthandlingcharacteristicsinlowspeedor cross wind operations. The plane’s high speed capability,newtocommercialtransportaircraft, calledforthelateralcontrolspoilerconfiguration inconjunctionwithailerons.Usedasdragdevices onapproach,hesaid,theypermitttedpractically anyangleofapproachdesired. Johnston characterised takeoff, climb-out and cruise conditions as entirely normal save that the pilot’s duties were considerably reduced by the engine,andthusresultantflightdeck,simplicity. Rudder,aileronandelevatorcontrolsonthe‘707’ weremanualand,inJohnston’sterminology,‘...very light. In either low or high-speed range it is possible to actuate full control with one hand and without experiencing muscular exertion.’ In high speed tests Johnston said a Mach numberandairspeedplacardhadbeenplacedonthe aircraftwhenhefeltithadexceededthemaximum flightspeeditmighteverapproachinuse.Thiswas whereneitherstabilitynorbuffetingproblemshad intruded.Trimchangesnecessaryinallhigh-speed aircraftathighMachnumbershedescribedaseasy tomakeonthe‘707.’ ‘At these (high)speeds the airplane can be flown hands-off. The airplane is solid. We have no flutter
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problems and no stability problems.’ Hewentontodescribeletdowncharacteristicsat highspeedwithlateralcontrolspoilersusedasdive brakesasverygood.‘With this configuration, we can make descents at as much as 12 to 13,000 feet per minute from altitude to the deck.’ DonaldWFinlay,whosupervisedthestructure ofthe‘707’fromitsinceptionandnowheadedthe preliminarydesignsectionatBoeing,presented someaspectsoffutureplanningtoconcludethe panelpresentation. ‘We believed that there was a place in the world for a whole family of airplanes of this type. The ‘707’ family concept showed a wide range of weight from a basic commercial model to the heaviest military transport and tanker ultimately desirable from the fundamental design. A growth parallel to such weight spread, had been achieved with the B-47.’ Theprototypewasbuiltlighterthantheultimate objectives,butheavyenoughtorevealintestsall aboutlarge,high-speedjetaircraftnotavailablefrom contemporarydataorthroughmodelwork. ‘We recognized the physical problems of changing the strength, changing space for cargo and fuel as the airplane grew. We had to plan ahead, with a tooling philosophy. Anumberofotherpaperswerepresentedtothe conference.Ayearearlieratthefirstone,Boeing’s
‘707’hadjustmadeitsinitialflight;nowthefactsof 200hoursairbornewereavailable. Totheinitiate,therewasasoundbackgrounding allsessionsoftheturbinemeeting.Thisroarofjet engineswasbroughtintotheopeninanaddressby ViceAdmiralCharlesE.Rosendahl,Ret.,executive directoroftheNationalAirTransportCoordinating Committee.Hechallengedindustryandairlineswith thestatementthatthenoiseprobleminconnection withjetaircraftcouldnotbeignored.‘You cannot persuade people that the industry which has produced so many miracles cannot control sound.’ Anticipated economics of the projected DouglasDC-8jettransportwerepresentedbyIvar L.Shogran,chiefprojectengineeroftheseries.Of particularinteresttodelegateswasthestatement thatthejetairplane’seconomyincomparisonto thecurrentDC-7wasexpectedtobebetterdown torangesaslowas500miles. Raymond D Kelly, United Air Lines’ superintendentoftechnicaldevelopment,reported onthegroundhandlingofjettransportswhichhe called ‘a new machine tool for the airlines.’ Cuttingofgroundtimehelistedasamajorfactor intheeconomicsofjettransports.‘...Each wasted minute of ground time deprives a jet of almost nine flight miles.’ ItwasduringthisconferencethatTexJohnson
The famous - or should that be infamous? - barrel roll of the Dash 80 over Lake Washington.(via Peter M Bowers)
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heardrumours:‘I’d heard that Douglas was telling people our prototype was an unstable airplane, and I believe that when you fly for a company, you sell the product by demonstrating what it can do.’ On7August1955conferenceattendeesmoved totheshoresofLakeWashingtonfortheGoldCup hydroplane races. The American Power Boat AssociationChallengeCup,knowntoallastheGold Cup,istopowerboatracingwhattheSuperBowlis to football, what the Kentucky Derby is to horse racing,whattheWorldSeriesistobaseball,andwhat theIndianapolis500istoautomobileracing,andis theultimateprizethateverycompetitorstrivestowin atleastonce,andtheracewaswatchedbytensof thousandsaroundathreemilecourse.WilliamAllen askedTexJohnsontoflytheDash80overthecourse asakindofdemonstration. Johnston, wearing a flight suit and his trademarkcowboyboots,wasinthepilot'sseat. Alongside him, in the co-pilot's seat, was Jim Gannett.A Boeing engineer, along for the ride, wasinthecabinwithacamera. Co-pilot Gannett had an inkling of what was comingseveralhoursearlier,whenJohnstonflewthe aircraftthroughacoupleofrollsduringatestflight. Allen,however,hadnoidea.Whenhelookedupand sawhiscompany’sbiggestinvestmentonitsback,he lookedlikeaclinicalexampleofapoplexy,according topeopleseatednearhim.Afterrollingtheaircraft forthefirsttimeashepassedovertheracecourse, Johnston made a wide turn and then returned repeatingtheroll. Thecrowdsbelowoohedandaahed.Theyhad justwitnessedaviationhistory.CarlCleveland,then headofBoeingpublicrelations,saysthatatthetime Piling on the flight time! As the Dash 80 entered its third one hundred hours of flying, on one week it was flown flown by pilots of four American and one foreign airlines. Here is Captain ‘Gus’ Sommermeyer of United Airlines in the captain’s seat with Tex Johnson alongside. Given the positioning of Tex’s ‘bone dome’, this must have been taken pre-flight! Pilots from American, KLM, Northwest, Pan Am and United took turns at the controls. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)
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of the manoeuvre, he was on a yacht in Lake Washington with assorted bigwigs in the airline industry,includingBillAllen:‘After the first barrel roll, Bill Allen turned to me and said, ‘I don't think we should have anything in the papers about that.’ But I said, `All those people just saw it. I don't know how we can stop it.’ ItwasrumouredthatBoeingsurpressedthestory, but Cleveland always claimed that the reporters coveringtheracesimplyforgottomentionit‘...for somedamnedreason.’Hethoughtthatmembersof the press - mostly sports writers - were more interestedintheoutcomeoftheracethaninwhatwas happeningoverhead. Everyone loved the stunt, but WilliamAllen, Boeing’s President, never got over it. He fired Johnstonatleastathousandtimesbeforetheymet the next morning and cooler heads prevailed. Nonetheless, the infamous manoeuvre was a forbiddensubjectinAllen’spresenceformanyyears. Athisretirementdinnerin1980,hewasgivenahuge photographtakenfromoneofDash80’swindows whiletheDash80wasupsidedown.Heleftitbehind. Thestuntmayhaveimpressedairlineexecutives, butitdidn’tcuretheproblemsinDash80’stailfin. Boeingeventuallydiscoveredthatchangingthefin’s internal balance weights, increasing its size, and addinganelectronicyawdamperandahydraulically boosted rudder control ended the problems with flutter,yaw,andDutchroll. IthasoftenbeensaidthatsinceTexJohnstondid thiswiththeDash-80,noonesincehaddeliberately rolledajetairliner.Itispossiblehowever,thatthe lossofaLufthansaBoeing720-D-ABOP-on15 July1964duringatrainingflightwasanothersuch
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occasion,butthistimewithtragicresults.Itseems thatthepilot-in-commandwas‘provingitcouldbe done’tohiscompanionsonboard;hesucessfully accomplishedoneroll,butonthesecondattemptthe aircraft lost control when inverted, broke up and crashednearNuremberg,killingthethreeonboard.
Initial Airline discussions HavingsuccessfullyattractedordersfortheC/KC135A variant from USAF, Boeing moved their attentiontowinningordersfromtheairlinesfor the707.TheDash-80,however,sufferedthesame fateastheModel247-thecabinwasnotlarge enough.Boeingthentriedtosavemoneybygoing on a charm offensive to the airlines, trying to justifytheuseofthesame144inchwidthfuselage (andthereforemakinguseofthesamefuselage tooling)astheKC-135whichtheythoughtwas sufficientforfourFirstClass,fiveStandardClass or six Tourist Class seating but the airlines demanded even more room and eventually the fuselage width was increased by another four inches over the KC-135 and the length was extendedbyafurthertenfeet. A series of protracted discussions with the airlinesbegan,andPanAmericaninparticular,due totheirtransatlanticservices,totryandconvince themoftheirneedfor jetaircraft.Sincethe existing piston enginedaircraftwere capable of flying NewYorktoLondon direct,PanAmerican and the other major airlines were unwilling to accept lessrangeinthenext generation of airlinersandthe707,
as originally proposed, was marginal in this respect. Boeing were reluctant to modify the design, while Douglas, who had a much better relationshipwiththeairlines,hadrecognisedthe importanceofthe707onairtravelandannounced the launch of their DC-8 competitor on 7 June 1955. The original DC-8 was also marginal on rangebutwasstillapaperexercise,soDouglas offeredmodificationstoproduceaheavier,longer range variant to meet the airline's requirements poweredbyPrattandWhitneyJT4As. As a result, Juan Trippe and PanAmerican decidedontheDouglasDC-8andorderedtwentyfivefortransatlanticservicesbut,becausethe707 hadanunassailableleadintermsoftime,theyalso orderedtwenty707stoprotecttheircommercial interestsandtoactasinsuranceacrosstheAtlantic untiltheDC-8swereavailable. Thesehistoricorderswereannouncedon13 October1955.PanAmintendedtousethenew type on tran-Atlantic and trans-Pacific services fromDecember1958,thelastofthe20beingin servicebyNovember1959. BothBoeingandPanAm'sSalesandPublic Relationspeoplemademuchofthereductionin flighttimes. ‘Transoceanic non-stop flights will be made in about half the present scheduled time. Jet
Above: Walt W Braznell, Director of Flying Operations, American Airlines in the right hand seat of the Dash 80.
Left: C R Smith, President of American Airlines (left) and William Allen of Boeing sign the contract for Boeing 707s to be delivered in 1959. (both Boeing via Peter M Bowers)
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flight will carry the passenger above the weather. The Boeing 707 Jet Stratoliner will provide soothing, vibration-free travel to the far reaches of the earth.’ Juan Trippe went on record as saying: ‘The planes will provide a new high standard in speed and in passenger comfort in Pan American’s pattern of non-stop over-ocean service. ‘The vibration and noise caused by propellers will be eliminated. In fact, there is complete absence of all vibration and the sound of the jet turbine engines is audible only to passengers in the very after part of the cabin.’ PanAmericanlaterdisposedoftheDC-8sand continued to operate 707s right up to the introduction of 747s and beyond; they ordered theirlastonesinlate1967andwithdrewthemin early1981,afull22yearsofservicebythetype. Boeingreactedtothedisappointmentofbeing second-best in the eyes of Pan American by announcingnewvariantsofthe707-theoriginal versionorderedbyPanAmericanwaspoweredby theJT3Cengineof12,500lbsthrust,andtheynow announcedthatthiswastobeknownasthe707120andtherewouldbeJT4Apowered707-220 and707-320variants. The 707-120 was offered with two fuselage lengths,thestandardandaspecialshortversion while the 707-220 was offered with the JT4A turbofans of 15,800lbs thrust, again in both fuselage lengths and the 707-320 was the long rangeversion,ithadalengthenedfuselage,greater wing span, more fuel capacity but the same enginesasthe-220. WhenRolls-RoyceConway508engineswere specified in place of the JT4A, the 707-320 becamethe707-420.thisproliferationofmodels meantthatthebreak-evenpointforthe707was pushed a long way back. As a result of these improved versions, Pan American decided in December1955toamenditsorderfromtwenty 707-120stosix707-120sandfourteen707-320s. FollowingPanAmerican'sdecisiontotakeair travelintothejetage,otherairlineswerefaced withthedecisionoffollowingsuitandremaining competitiveorfallingbehindthepacemakersand asaresultsalesteamsfromBoeingandDouglas werebusywithpotentialcustomers. Boeingreceivedtheirnextorders,however,not from another transatlantic carrier, but from a domestictrunkairline,namelyAmericanAirlines, whoorderedthirty707-120son9November1955. The last five of this order were subsequently cancelledwhen720swereorderedintheirplace.
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The early JT-3C engines were incredibly noisy, so various styles of noise-reducing nozzles were experimented with. A least ten different styles were flight-tested after more than two hundred paper designs were studied. This one, in front of test pilot Jim Gannet and flight test engineer Bruce Mengel was not accepted. (DGR Photo Library)
WaltWBraznell,DirectorofFlyingOperations, took part in some of the demonstration flying aboardtheDash80on15September1955,aswas reported in Flight Deck, American Airlines publicationforpilotsandflightengineers:‘I had been asked to take a look at the Boeing 707 cockpit as part of an evaluation team looking over new airplanes. En-route to Seattle I was informed there might be a ride in the 707 in store for us. I visualized the usual bucket seat, windowless flight associated with prototype demonstrations, with the added attraction of a glimpse of the instrument panel over someone’s shoulder - if you were lucky. In Seattle I read in the paper that Boeing was demonstrating the 707 and some of the airline people would be permitted to occupy the righthand pilot’s seat. Tex Johnston welcomed our group aboard the 707. I noticed immediately the right cockpit seat was filled - with Tex Johnston. Motioning to the left seat, Tex asked of Dan Beard and myself, who wanted the first go at it. The thought immediately occurred to me that
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In a Manhatten NY warehouse Boeing and the Teague organisation built a mock-up of the Boeing 707 airliner. Walter Dorwin Teague Associates was one of the USA’s leading industrial design companies and, under the direction of Frank J Del Giudice, came up with the design and layout of not only the mock-up but also equipment for the interiors of the actual aircraft. They also produced a brochure for perusal by potential airline buyers.
☜ ‘...Four lavatories are available in the 707, styled to duplicate the effect of a small power-room in a private home’
☟‘...Five abreast seating provides seat-widths equalling those of conventional four-abreast airliners. Versatility permits change to either four or six-abreast configuration while retaining comfort.’
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☜ ‘...Cantilevered seats permit unobscructed legroom, armrests fold up. Opaque window shades provide restful darkness. Smoke-tinted shade cuts glare, permits view’.
☟‘...Dual galleys permit greatest flexibility in food service. As many as 180 meals can be served.’
☝‘...Galleys on the 707 are equipped to serve the most tempting of cuisine, in the best tradition of every airline’ A stream of airline executives and such luminaries as Charles Linbergh - at the time an advisor to TWA - were led through the interior mock-up. Boeing added some Hollywood style effects, such as recordings of engine noise and cabin announcements in order to give the impression of jet flight.
☝‘...While a lounge is available fore or aft, it may be removed and replaced with additional seating.’
☜ ‘...The possibilities for color and decor is evident in one version of the 707 club-like lounge.’
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(a) Johnston considered Dan and me finished jet pilots or (b) he knew his craft was so easy to handle that even a couple of desk pilots could not get into trouble with it. The answer of course was that Johnston knew Dan had little experience on jets, I had none at all, and both of us were desk pilots. I bowed to age and Dan took over first. For the next hour-and-a-half we really had fun. For myself the flight was easily the most exhilarating of my flying career, and I’ll include my solo ride in this statement. To me, a most remarkable part of the experience was that I felt so at ease in a completely strange airplane. The operational simplicity was obvious and invited quick confidence. While weather threatened to close the field (which had neither GCA nor ILS) and thus held our flight to low altitudes, 2000 and 3000 feet, Tex had no reluctance to demonstrate engine and engines out (on the same side) performance. As a matter of fact, we did slow flight and stall nibbles with gear
and flaps down while 2000 feet above terrain. My impression from these maneuvers was that the airplane has the greatest forgiveness factor of any I have ever flown. I had heard stories about the complexities of air starts. Had gathered such was like betting on the Irish Sweepstakes. Tex demonstrated the simplicity of air starts by flicking a switch and
Above: Braniff officials aboard the Dash 80: J H Alexander, R V Carleton and Robert E ‘Bob’ Sawyer. In the right hand seat is Dix Loesch of Boeing. (Braniff) Below: Three SABENA vice presidents fly aboard the Dash 80. From left to right: M C Stainler, Anselme Vernieuw and Fecicen Pirson. (SABENA Belgian World Airlines) From the lack of view out of the windows, it is thought that both these were posed pictures taken on the ground.
Above: Henri J Lisieur and Max Hymans of Air France appear delighted with their trip aboard the Dash 80. (Air France)
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Left: The ice machine flown on the Dash 80 to test the effects of ice formation on the engine pylons.
placing the throttle in the Idle-Start position. The simplicity of this operation is a good example of many such comparisons of the jet operation versus present-day airplane operation. Tex had us chuckling like a bunch of kids watching a magician pulling rabbits out of a hat. The acceleration and deceleration capabilities of the 707 were of course very impressive, but even though expecting great things in the way of a quiet, vibrationless cockpit, I wasn’t ready for what I found. You must experience it to believe it. The only thing disturbing the churchlike quiet of the front end was the ‘clacking’ of the fuel totalizer, a sound problem that must be brought to the attention of the instrument manufacturer. Branifffollowedon1December1955withan orderforfive707-220sforuseonitshotandhigh South American routes, then Continental announced an order for four 707-120s on 12 December1955. OverseasorderscameinfromAirFrancewho wantedtenIntercontinental707s,withoptionson more; SABENA Belgian World Airlines announceditsorderforthree-laterincreasedto fourIntercontinental707s-onthesameday;28 December1955. Onthedownside,theexpectedUnitedsales werelosttoDouglas,theyorderedthirtyDC-8-21s on 25 October 1955 and were followed by National and Eastern. Both United and Eastern later ordered 720s however, and all three subsequentlyoperatedlarge727fleets. Bytheendof1959,ahundred707shadrolled offtheproductionlineatRenton,andthefirstof severalhundredKC-135shadbeendeliveredto the USAF’s StrategicAir Command.The Dash
Below: the fifth engine fitted to the Dash 80 for 727 design trials so as to test the effects of an aft mounted engine.
80’scareerasaprototypeanddealerdemowas finished,butBoeingwasnotyetreadytoputitout topasture.Althoughitwasverydifferenttoanyof the707s-orKC-135sforthatmatter-andwasby nomeansajetairliner,itwastobecomeinvolved inagreatnumberoftestprogrammestoimprove thesafety,efficiencyandcomfortofcommercial aircraft. Mostofthesetrialsbeganafterthe707sstarted torollofftheSeattleproductionlineandincluded noisereduction,cabininteriorlinings,Boundary LayerControlandslottedflapstudies. A number of design studies involved major changes in the Dash 80’s appearance. By all accountsitseemsthatforaperiodin1959itwas fitted with a large nose radome for the Bendix AN/AMQ-15weatherreconnaissanceradarthat waslaterusedonWC-135Bs.TheDash80was alsofittedwithaddtionalequipmenttocollecthigh altitudedataandtomonitordropandrocketsonde weatherprobes. Intheearly1960s,Dash80wasusedtotesta
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By the time this picture was taken in 1959, the Dash 80 had grown all sorts of lumps and bumps, and a new nose. There are different engines and pylons on the inboard positions, and the airframe carries a few roughly patched up marks. (DGR Picture Library)
modificationthatwouldlatershowupinthe727, withafifthenginefittedattherearofthefuselage tovalidatethislocationforthe727’sengines. These tests led in turn to a long stint with NASA and Boeing testing wings that could generate enough lift for the aircraft to remain airborne at extremely low speeds. Dash 80 had averaged612mphduringatranscontinentalspeed recordflightin1957.Nowitwascreepingaround Seattleskiesat80mphandlandingat92mph. DismayedcommuterairlinepilotshadtoS-turn theirDouglasDC-3sonfinalapproachtoBoeing Fieldtoavoidoverrunningwhatappearedtobea 707.Topreservecontrolatsuchridiculouslylow speeds, the Dash 80 sprouted a profusion of leadingandtrailing-edgedevicesonitswings. GannettcontinuedtoflyDash80throughout thelow-speedtests,butJohnstonandLoeschhad movedonandwerereplacedbyS.LewisWallick, andThomasEdmonds.Intestofleading-edgeslats for the wing, engineers experimented with the curve of the slats by applying fibreglass to the devices and shaping them between flights. Leading-edgesymmetrywascritical—withoutit, theaircrafttendedtorolluncontrollablyinastall. This imprecise shaping of the wing made for occasionalimbalanceandsomeverysportyflying. Edmonds recalls a day when one flight was enough: ‘We stalled, rolled over to about 90 degrees to the horizon, did a split-S, and ended up headed in the opposite direction. We looked around, kind of startled, and decided there was no point in doing any more stalls that day.’ TheDash80woreitshigh-liftwingstotheend of its career, and Boeing and NASA engineers testedaseriesofdesignideasthatdependedon solidcontrolatslowspeeds.Theagingaircraftwas landedongrass,dustylakebeds,softearth,and
even mud, using a landing gear system being considered for what would become Boeing’s ultimately unsuccessful submission for what would eventually become the Air Force’s enormous C-5A Galaxy transport. The landing gearspreadtheweightoftheaircraftovertwenty tyresinsteadofDash80’sten.Thetyres’flotation allowedtheaircraft tolandondust-coveredmud onlymarginallymoresupportivethanyogurt. In1965,withalongneedle-likesensingunit, acomicalfacepaintedonitsnoseinhonourofits 11thanniversary,andcomputer-mediatedcontrols, itimitatedthelandingcharacteristicsofaseriesof supersonic designs for NASA.A second set of controlsenabledthecopilottotakeoverandfly theairplanenormally,aprecautionthatallowed the computer to crash without the Dash 80 followingsuit.TheDash80alsotestedscoresof cockpitinstrumentsandcontrols,someofwhich latershowedupinthevideodisplaycockpitsof the757and767. On22January1970,aftercompletingthelast ofaseriesofflightsdesignedtotestanautomatic landingsystemforthespaceshuttle,Dash80went intoretirement.Itslogbookshowed1,691flights oversixteenyearsforatotalof2,349hoursand46 minutes,butitwasnotquiteclosed. Asacompany-ownedaircraftitplayedavital partinthesuccessoftheModel707andrelated C/KC-135families,butwasalsomodifiedinan almost unbelievable number of ways to test featuresforlaterversionsofitsownfamily,and also structural, aerodynamic and power plant aspects of other Boeing aircraft. with the developmentofheavymilitarytransportscapable ofoperationsfromrelativelysmallandunprepared airfieldsclosetocombatareas. After2,350hoursand1,691flightstheaircraft
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Blown flaps and high lift wings (above), and highfloatation landing gear that could not be retracted (left) were just some of the devices tested on the Dash 80.
Below: A needle nose sensing unit - with a comical face painted on it in honour of the 11th Anniversary of the Dash-80s first flight - was used to test computermediated controls for the landing characteristics for a number of supersonic designs. (all DGR Picture Library)
waswithdrawnfromusein1969andplacedin storage at Davis-MonthanAir Force Base near Tucson, Arizona. In 1972 there was a huge international aviation trade fair planned for Washington Dulles Airport under the title of Transpo‘72.AstarattractionwastobeN70700 andsotheDash80wasferriedbacktoSeattle, whereBoeingemployeesrefurbishedtheairframe, fitteda707noseandrepainteditintheoriginal house colours. On 26 May Boeing donated the 367-80totheSmithsonianAirandSpaceMuseum, whichhaddesignateditoneofthetwelvemost significant aircraft of all time.At that time the National Air and Space Museum had not even openeditsnewbuildingontheMallinWashington and the Dulles exhibition centre and resoration facilitywasonlyadistantdream,sotheDash80 returnedtotheArizonadesert. For the next eighteen years the aircraft was storedatthe309thAerospaceMaintenanceand RegenerationGroup(AMARG).In1988itwas
noticed that the condition of the machine was startingtodeteriorate,soarrangementswasmade withtheSmithsonianforBoeingtoconductafull analysisoftheaircraft'sstructuralandoperational condition.beforebeingretrievedbyBoeing.The arrangementwassimple:theaircraftwouldreturn toSeattleandBoeingwouldactasitscustodian untilthemuseumcouldbuildanannex. EarlyinApril1990,withBoeingprojectpilot PaulBennettatthecontrols,itwasflownfrom ArizonatoBoise,Idaho,forrefuelling,thenfrom BoisetoMosesLake,Wash.,toprepareforthe
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N70700 - the famous Boeing 367-80 - The Dash 80 On display at the Steven F. UdvarHazy Center, an annexe of the Smithsonian Institution's he National Air and Space Museum near Washington DC.
Right: the flight deck area can be seen through a bulkhead displaying part of the aircraft’s history. This area is not usually open to members of the public.
briefflighthometoSeattleon19May. OverthenextyearorsoBoeingusedtheDah 80innumerouspubliceventsandflewitafew times,includingon15July1991,tocommemorate the75thbirthdayofTheBoeingCompany. In 1996 the Smithsonian finally found someonetosupporttheannexeconcept:StevenF Udvar-Hazy, the CEO of International Lease FinanceCorporationandagoodBoeingcustomer, butitwasnotuntil2002thatplansweremadeto returntheDash80tothemuseum. In the spring of 2003 a completely new restoration team was selected, the aircraft was takenoutofstorageinPlant2andthemachinewas preparedonceagainforflight. Thisoccurredon2August,andthenextdayit flewatSeafairoverthesamehydroplanecourse
whereTexJohnstonperformedhisbarrelrolls48 yearsearlier. Threeweekslater,on24August,theDash80 left Seattle for the last time. The flight plan included stopping for fuel, first in Rapid City, SouthDakotafollowedbytwodaysatWrightPattersonAirForceBaseinDayton,Ohio.Sitting onthetarmacinDaytonnexttotheaircraftwas aKC-135,thefirstderivativeoftheDash80. The Dash 80's final flight was to Dulles InternationalAirportnearWashington,DCon27 August 2003, where it was met by crowds of specatorsandmedia.Theaircraftwasthenputon display in the Steven F Udvar-Hazy Center, an annexoftheSmithsonianInstitution'sNationalAir and Space Museum, located adjacent to Dulles AirportinChantilly,Virginia.
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ChapterFive
‘Passin Gas’... and so much more. The 135 series.
Boeingmaywellhavebeenbusybothdesigningand building a jet tanker/transport as well as the next generationcivilairlinerintheshapeoftheModel 367-80asacompanyfundedprototype,butthatwas nottheonlymachinewhichtheUnitedStatesAir Forcewasinterested. TheUSAFconsideredseveralotherproposals including a tanker version of the Douglas DC-8 airliner,aproposedDouglasturbopropdesign,their owndesignaswellastwofromBoeing-oneata take-offweightof261,00poundsandoneat295,00 pounds.Theturbopropoption,althoughslow,was initiallyfavouritebutwaslaterdropped. At Strategic Air Command’s Requirements Conference in November 1953, General Curtis LeMaycalledfortwohundredjettankers.TheAir Forceannouncedadesigncompetitionforajettanker
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on5May1954,invitingBoeing,Convair,Douglas, Fairchild,Lockheed,andMartintoparticipate.At thatpointBoeing’sleaderscouldonlyforgeahead withtheDash-80,whichhaditsfirstsuccessfulflight test on 15 July, and pray that it would win the competition. Fromasearlyas1949,theLockheedAircraft Corporationhadbeenquietlyworkingontheirown jet airliner design, the Model L-193, named the Constellation II, with a swept wing and engines mountedatthetail.Lockheedproposedthesameas Boeing-bothanairlinerandtankerversion. LockheedsoughtinputfromHowardHughes’ TransWorldAirlinesfortheairline'srequirements andseveralsub-variantsweredeveloped.Technically, they were quite advanced. Notably, they featured unconventional engine installations such as a
The Dash 80 being formated on by a B-52 during a simulated tanking, watched by a T-33 chase aircraft.
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staggeredconfigurationwithfourturbojetsmounted ontheaftfuselagesides,withtheinboardengines mountedaftoftheoutboardpairbutfedbyside-bysideintakes.Anotherconfigurationhadeitherfouror five turbojets mounted side by side beneath the fuselage.Othershadasweptwingwiththeengines mountedatthetailsimilartoanIlyushinIl-62or VickersVC-10.Itwasdesignedtobeslightlysmaller thantheBoeing707andDouglasDC-8ofthetime. Lockheedusedfeaturesseeninitspreviousdesigns, including tip tanks similar to the Lockheed Constellationandadouble-deckfuselagesimilarto the Lockheed Constitution. A modified L-193 supposedlydesignatedtheCL-291-wasenteredinto theSACtankercompetition, OntheDash80’sseventhflightinJuly1954it practisedamockrefuellingsortiewithaB-52andon 3August1954,withthejet-tankerdesigncompetition stillinprogress,theAirForcedecidedtobuyinterim tankers.TheAirForceSecretary,HaroldE.Talbott, announcedanordertobuytwenty-ninetankersfrom Boeing.LessthantwoweekslatertheAirForcesaid itwouldbuyafurthereighty-eightBoeingtankers.It lookedasifBoeingwassettowinthecompetition, butitdidn’t. InFebruary1955theAirForceannouncedthat Lockheedhadwonthecompetitionandatleastone ofitstankerswouldbefundedforconstruction.In theverysameannouncement,however,Talbottsaid theAirForcewouldbuyanadditional169tankers from Boeing. By some accounts the aircraft was designated KCX-LO, - presumably standing for ‘TankerCargoExperimental-Lockheed’andwasredesignatedtheCL-391totakeintoaccountanumber ofUSAFchanges.Thesameaccountssuggestthat firstprototypewouldhavebeentheXK-1. BynowBoeingwassuggestingthattheKC-135 could be delivered two years earlier than the Lockheed design, and was able to be put into squadronservicefouryearsearlier.Sodespitehaving won the aerial refueling competition and was apparentlypreferredbytheUSAFovertheBoeing KC-135Stratotankerorders,theLockheedproposal wascancelled. Afewmonthslater,inJune,theChattanooga Times uncoveredthatTalbottwasusingAirForce stationerytosolicitbusinessfromcontractorswho soldtotheAirForceforanengineeringfirmofwhich heownedfiftypercent.AfteraswiftCongressional investigation,Talbottresignedfromhispositionas SecretaryinAugust.
Right: Boeing employees installed insulationsoundproofing material in the interior of the first KC-135. (DGR Picture Library)
General Curtis Emerson LeMay, Head of Strategic Air Command, who did so much to promote the KC-135 and the B-52, one of the prototypes of which he is seen in here. Upon receiving his fourth star in 1951 at age 44, LeMay became the youngest four-star general in American history since Ulysses S. Grant. (USAF)
Possibly as a result of the Congressional Investigation,extremepoliticalpressurewasbrought tobeartoattempttooverturnthepurchaseofKC135Asandevencanceltheprogramme.Protracted contractnegotiationseventuallyledtotheplacingof orders for 810 aircraft but only 732 tankers were delivered-eighty-eightwerebuiltasvariantsafter SACrealiseditspotentialforotherdutiessuchas Airborne Command Posts and Reconnaissance platformsaswellasatransportforMATS. Somemythsdiehard,anditisimportanttodispel thesuggestionthattheKC-135Awassomehowa militaryversionoftheBoeing707airliner.Itwasnot. TheKC-135A(orBoeing717)preceded,andpaved thewayfor,thecommercialmachinewhichbecame sosuccessfulwiththeworld’scivilcarriers.Without doubt,bothsharedacommonheritageinthevision
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ofBoeing’sengineersandfinancepeople,andboth areprogenyoftheprivateModel367-80prototype. TheK-135Afleweighteenmonthsbeforethefirst genuine707,however,anddifferedfromitinseveral importantrespects,havingamorenarrowfuselage and completely different cross-section. It was so differentinfactthatthetwocouldnotbeproduced onthesamefactoryjigs. BoeingeventuallyreceivedUSAFapprovalto usetheKC-135assemblyprocessforthe707models sinceUSAFdidnotpayanydevelopmentcosts,and provided Boeing assured that the 707 would not causeproblemswithKC-135production,andthey wouldpaya‘royalty’per707airframebuiltwithKC135tooling. Publically, Boeing credited the major role in drivingthespeedofKC-135productionthroughon scheduletoaplanningcommittee.Meetingoncea week,itgraspedproblemsasthey aroseandsetouttosolvethem. For instance, when a report came that certain forgings were notgoingtobeavailableontime, thecommitteeacted.Acommittee memberrepresentingthemateriel department contacted the subcontractor making the rough forgingsandpersuadedhimtogo on a seven-day work week. Another member representing traffic arranged for high-speed shipments. A quality control member established priority for thereceiptandinspectionofthe forgings on arrival. A member representingtheBoeingmachine
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shopsetupanacceleratedscheduleofmachinework ontheroughforgings.Result:thefinishedforgings weredeliveredtotheassemblylineontime. Awiderangeofproblemswerebroughttothe committeeastheKC-135productionpickedup.Each itemwastackledfromtheviewpointthatnodelayin productionwouldbetolerated.Inconsequence,the firstproductionKC-135wasexpectedtorolloutof theRentonfactorydooronscheduleinthesummer of1956. Clearly, however, other factors besides the planningcommittee’sdeterminationcontributedto the KC-135 programme. Harvey Kent, factory managerofthetransportdivision,wentonrecord sayingthattheaircraftwasengineeredtothehighest degreeofgoodproductionpracticeshehadeverseen. This,heclaimed,notonlymadeproductioneasier, but held costs to a minimum, with consequent
Above: The first KC-135 wing section is prepared for joining to the fuselage. Just visible is the assembly line rails on which the major aircraft components moved to bring them all together.
Left: The assembly line for the KC-135. It was extended in the winter of 1956. (both DGR Picture Library)
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The first KC-135, 55-3118 ‘City of Renton’ nears completion at Renton, with the KC-97 production line behind. (USAF)
savingstobepassedontotheAirForce. Havingaprototypemachinebuiltandflyingwas of great value to both KC-135 production and commercialairlinerproduction.Bylate1956,the Dash80hadundergoneextensivetestsontheground and more than 400 hours of flight test, so Kent estimatedthattheexperiencegainedcutproduction timeonthefirstKC-135byatleast20percent. The horseshoe-shaped KC-97 final assembly trackwasreducedtoasinglelinewithanassembly linefortheKC-135establishedalongsideit.Aircraft onthetwolinesstoodalmostwingtiptowingtip,so thetransferofskilledemployeesfromoneoperation to the other could be done with a minimum of expenseandwastedmotion.Intheautumnof1956, thelastKC-97wascompleted,theKC-135final assemblylinewaslengthenedintoanSshapeand productionaccelerated. OneofmanyeffectivestepstakentoaidKC-135 production was the construction of a full-scale
The static test ‘airframe’, part of 45 feet wide, 100 feet long and 24 feet high KC-135 aircraft was taken from Renton, Washington, to a ‘torture chamber’ at Boeing’s Seattle Plant. (DGR Picture Library)
mockupofthetanker/transport.Themockupwas constructed from engineering drawings which included design refinements made as a result of experience building and flying the Dash 80. The mockupprovedthefeasibilityofallinstallations. Even before any aircraft flew, Boeing began testingastaticairframeatSeattle.Toachievethis resultapartialfuselage,completewithwingcentre sectionandfrontandrearsparfittings,wassubjected tovariousforcesinawatertankandafterasimulated 70,000 hours flying it was damaged to check for potentialproblems.ItseemsBoeinghadlearnedtheir lessonfromtheDeHavillandComettragedy. Thistestairframe,builtbetweentheseventhand eighth aircraft, was not allocated a construction numberbyBoeing.Thereweresomeminordesign changes as a result of the tests and these were incorporatedinactualproductionaircraftwhiledata fromthetrialsandthelatercyclictestairframewere usedinthereskinningprogramme.
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Thefirstorderoftwenty-nineaircraftwerebuilt undertheBoeingdesignationofModel717-100A with constructors numbers 17234 to 17262 and USAFserials55-3118to55-3146.Unsubstantiated rumoursaboundabouttheUSAForderingtheKC135followingarollbytheDash80duringatest flight-thefeelingbeingthatthisdemonstratedthat theaircraftwascapableof‘combatmanoeuvres’;but thatmythhasneverbeenproven! FollowingtheinitialorderBoeinghadtomodify thedesignconcepttoreflecttheUSAFrequirements; thesewereincreasingthelengthbyeightfeetthree inchesandmakingthefuselagetwelveincheswider andtwoinchesdeeper,to164inches.Therearcargo doorwasdeleted,leavingjusttheforwardfuselage door which opened upwards and outwards and increasingthegrossweightto316,000pounds,which was68,000poundsmorethanthefirstcivilian707s. ThousandsofBoeingemployeesobservedthe roll-outofthefirstKC-135-aceremonythatwas accompaniedbyalow-levelflyoveroftheDash80 andaB-52bomber.Apredictablegroupofdignitaries wasassembledfortheoccasion,includingBoeing PresidentWilliamAllen,AirForceLt-GenClarence SIrvine(deputychiefofstaffformateriel),Renton’s MayorJosephRBaxter,andKarenMcGarriglewho had the distinction of being ‘Miss Renton 1956’. MissMcGarriglechristened55-3118City of Renton,
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althoughitwasthemayor’swifewhoswungabottle ofCedarRiverwateragainstmetalfortheevent, assistedbyRentonfactorymanagerHarveyKent. Engineering ground tests of engines and preflightworkonCity of Renton beganduringtheweek of 23 August 1956. Kent reported satisfactory progress with Boeing’s ‘shakedown’, Air Force inspectionsandtaxiruns,andindicatedthatthefirst eightproductiontankerswouldtakeofffromRenton andlandatBoeingFieldinSeattlefordeliverytothe AirForce.Theninthairframewastogotothenearby MosesLakeFlightCenterfordelivery. DixLoesch,nowtheprojectpilotontheKC-135 programme,toldthegatheredpressthatthefirstnine productiontankerswouldundergoanestimated1,380 hours of flight testing, with one airframe to be subjectedtothreemonthsofsub-zeroinvestigations insimulatedArcticconditionsintheclimatichangar at EglinAFB, Florida.Aircraft 1, 2, and 3 were scheduledforflighttestingbythecompanyatBoeing FieldwhileAircraft5through9werescheduledfor theAirForceatEdwardsAFB,California;Loring AFB,Maine(anoperationalSACbase);Eglin;and aspecialadverse-weathertestinglocationatLadd AFB,Alaska. AttheendofAugust1956,AirForceSecretary DonaldAQuarlesannouncedthattheproductionof Stratotankerswouldbespeededup,apreviouslyplanned production rate of 20 per month to be realised‘substantiallysooner’.GeneralLeMayhad toldtheSenateArmedServicesSub-committeeof SAC’sneedformorejettankers.‘We [can]increase our intercontinental strike capability considerably from our planned base structure and with the same Left: Mrs Joseph Baxter breaks a bottle of Cedar River water over the nose of City of Renton.The Cedar River provides drinking water for the greater Seattle area and drains into Puget Sound via Lake Washington and the Lake Washington Ship Canal.
Below: 55-3118, the first KC-135, is rolled out alongside the last KC-97, 53-3616, built. (USAF)
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size bomber force if we [have] more jet tankers than we are now programmed to have’. LeMaycomparedtheKC-135AtothepistonengineKC-97: ‘The slower conventional tanker, in order to make proper contact with its bomber, must depart several hours before the bomber. The bomber, forced to wait on the ground, is then exposed to enemy attack. The airplanes we are now refuelling are jet airplanes. ‘A jet tanker has the same general performance characteristics as the bomber, and therefore can accompany the bomber, eliminating the rendezvous problems. In addition, the performance of the jet tankers is such that the refuelling altitude is at a height above most of the weather ...and adds to range because the bomber does not have to descend to piston-engine altitudes to receive its load of fuel’. Ten days ahead of the planned schedule, just before 1pm on 31August 1956, ‘City of Renton’ madeatrialtaxi-runatRentonandtookpositionat thesouthendoftherunwayforitsmaidenflight. Aboard were Boeing’s chief of flight test, Tex Johnston, and senior experimental test pilot Dix Loesch, the latter occupying the left-hand seat as pilot-in-command.LoeschtooktheKC-135Aaloft andafteronehournineteenminuteslandedatBoeing FieldinSeattle.AlsoonboardwasBoeingPresident WilliamAllen.Hecommentedonthetrouble-free flight:‘In the first place it was remarkable that the plane was in the air about a week and a half ahead of schedule and in the second place, it was my first time to fly a new-type airplane on its maiden flight’. From the outset of its rigorous flight test programmeitwasapparentthattheKC-l35Ahad been designed to a standard of performance consistentwithLeMay’shighexpectations.Powered byfourPratt&Whitneyturbojetswhichwereas advancedasanythingintheirday.Itwasaheavier and more solid aircraft than its 707 civilian contemporaryandthusneededarunwayaslongas 13,700ftintropicalweather,adistancewhichwould havebeencompletelyunacceptableforanairliner. Afterthreetestflightsandthreehoursthirty-eight minutes in the air, City of Renton was laid up at BoeingFieldforinstallationofadditionalequipment andflighttestinstrumentation.ByOctober1956the KC-135A was flying again, and made its first successfuldeliveryoffuelinflight,toaB-52. ‘The KC-135 has had fewer systems problems than any plane I know of’, Loeschwasquotedinone pressstatement. Loeschcouldnothavepredictedhowsuccessful theKC-135Awouldbe,buttheflighttestprogramme continued through the end of 1956 with so little
difficultythatallschedulinggoalswereexceeded.On 24 January 1957 City of Renton was officially deliveredtotheUSAirForce,MajErichSchleier signingitsacceptance. Inearly1957‘City of Renton’ tookpartinPhase IIflighttestingwhichshowedthatitcouldoff-load nearly80%morefuelthantheKC-97ataltitudesup to35,000feet-comparedtotheKC-97'sceilingof 18,000 feet. It was not all roses however, as the aircraftsufferedfromsevererudderflutterathigh speed,itexperienced‘DutchRoll’-exactlythesame aswiththeDash80-especiallyduringlandingand refuelling,theboomrequiredhighstickforcesand theaircraftsufferedfrom‘unsafe’take-offcontrol withanengineout.Boeinghadintendedtofitayaw damperaspartoftheautopilotbutitsdevelopment wasdelayed‘sotheDutchRollremainedaproblem even when the yaw damper was fitted as it was consideredineffective.‘City of Renton’ hadJ57-P29A’s of 10,500 pounds of dry thrust or 12,100 pounds with water injection while all subsequent aircrafthadJ57-P/F-43W’sof12,925poundsthrust withwaterinjection. Take-offpowerwasmarginalwhenfullyloaded andinanattempttoincreasepowerademineralised waterinjectionsystemwasinstalledtoboostpower by2250poundsofthrustperengine,buttheoriginal systemwasdesignedthatonepumpcontrolsystem poweredthelefthandenginesandonetherightwith catastrophicresultswhenoneside'ssystemfailedon take-off.Itwaslaterredesignedsothatoneprovided
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powertotheinnerenginesandonetotheouterpair. The engine-out performance on take-off and climboutremainedcriticalandwasonlyreallycured with the KC-135E and KC-135R/T re-engining programmes.Laterthe-43Wwasreplacedbythe59Wwhichwasidenticalexceptthatthetitanium partswerereplacedbysteelonesasacostsaving move(in1950'scoststhesavingwasintheorderof $100,000perengineeventhoughtherewasaweight penaltyof400poundsperengine).Incidentally,the letterPrelatedtoenginebuiltbyPratt&Whitneyand F meant it was assembled by Ford Aerospace, otherwisetheywereidentical. Therudderflutterproblemwhichplaguedboth theDash80-andtheKC-135designwashelpedby addingextralayersofaluminiumtothetopofthefin andfittingdualrudderdamperswhileahydraulically poweredboomimproveditsoperationbutwasnot perfect.Thefittingofatallfin-increasingitsheight byfortyinches-andpoweredrudderboostreduced thepilot'sinputduringinstancesofengine-outand wasintroducedonthe583rdKC-135Aproduced(623532)andsubsequentlyrefittedtotheremainder.
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Thesecondaircraft,55-3119,wasusedforstatic airloadsurveytestswhilefiveotherswereinvolved inover1000hoursofacceptancetesting.55-3121 was flown to Wright-Patterson AFB for adverse weatherteststhatwouldtakeittoElgin’sclimatic hangarandthenincludedArcticicingtrialsandcold temperaturesoaksdownto-65°Fahrenheitfollowed byhightemperaturetrialsinArizona;55-3122in performanceevaluation;55-3124instabilitytestsand 55-3125and55-3126City of Moses Lake bothtook part in functional tests and 56-3591 was used by Boeingforrefuellingcompatibilitytesting. Normal flight crew was four; pilot, co-pilot, navigator and boom-operator or ‘boomer’, while powerwasprovidedbyfourPratt&WhitneyJ57P/F-43WB non-afterburning turbojets of 11,200 poundsthrustdryand12,925poundsthrustwetwith water injection. This meant that the aircraft was restrictedtoaminimum13,000footlongrunway whenfullyloadedevenwhenusingwater/methanol injectionastake-offrunwas9,250feetatnormal operating weight when at sea level and 59° Fahrenheit.AlthoughtheoriginalUSAFrequirement
KC-135 55-3118 in flight with the Dash-80 and T-33 chase aircraft. (DGR Picture Library)
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The classic water-methanol ‘smokey-joe’ take-off is demonstrated by this unidentified KC-135. The smoke stopped as soon as the water-meth was switched off. (USAF)
wasamaximumtake-offweightof295,000pounds, Boeing showed that the airframe was capable of operatingat325,000pounds,buttheengineshad insufficient power for this weight.At hot or high elevationairfieldstheaircraftcouldnottakeofffully laden!TheJ-57enginesgavetheKC-135Aatop speedofabout600mph,aceilingof45,000ftanda rangeof9,942milesusingallinternalfuel.Mission range was 2900 nautical miles with a transfer of about 95,000 pounds of fuel. The use of water/methanolinjectionledtoacharacteristicblack smoketrailontake-offbutassoonastheinjection wasswitchedoffthetrailceased,KC-135Ascarried a700gallonwatertankfortake-off,butsuppliesof sufficientlypurewaterwassometimesaproblem, especiallyonoverseasdeployments. Initiallyfuelwascarriedinsixwingtanksas well as an integral centre wing tank and two fuselagetanks,oneforwardandoneaftofthewing
although later a rear upper deck tank was also fitted-thebodytankswerebeneaththemaindeck andcomprisedseveralcellsineach.Therewere tworefuellingpumpsinstalled(oneforward,one aft)andfuelcouldbemovedfromtanktotankin flight.TheKC-135Acouldeitheruseallthefuel itself or off-load it to a receiving aircraft (a minimum300USgallonsisretainedineachmain wingtank)andthemaximumfuelloadis30,000 US gallons - or 195,000 pounds - while comparativefiguresfortheKC-135Rare31,725 USgallons.or203,300pounds. There was a distinct difference in service-life idealsbetweenthecivilandmilitaryvariants;thecivil 707sweredesignedtobefail-safewhiletheKC-135, whichwouldprobablyflyalotless,wasdesignedto asafe-liferequirementincludingtheuseofdifferent aluminiumalloysinthefuselageandonthelower wingsurfaces(7178inthemilitaryversionand2024 in the 707). The original specificationwasforalifeofonly 10,000hourswhichwasreached bysomeoftheaircraftintheearly 1970s. Theuseofthe7178aluminium alloy led to fatigue problems caused by engine exhaust impingingontherearfuselage,but this was cured by the fitting of twenty-five stiffeners around the fuselage between the rear of the The boomer’s position in the rear of a KC-135. The centre couch, complete with head/chin rest belonged to him, those either side was for either Instructors or observers. (USAF)
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Above: The boomer’s position from outside and below showing the three windows there and the aerodynamic visor raised. The rear fuselage also clearly shows the additional stiffeners fitted to the KC-135s to help prevent damage caused by engine exhaust efflux. Below: the business end of the high speed refuelling boom, showing the probe in the retracted position. (both USAF)
wingfilletandthedorsalfin.Usingdatafromthe cyclictestairframeandin-servicehistoriesitbecame apparent that wing underskins were an area of concernsofrom1975onwardstheentiretankerforce wasmodifiedwithnewlowerwingskinstoincrease theexpectedlifetoapproximately30,000hours. Absolute maximum fuel capacity of the KC-
135Awas31,200USgallons,carriedeitherinthe wingsorunderthemaincabin-allofwhichcould be used by the tanker to extend its own range or transferredtoreceiveraircraftatarateofupto1,000 USgallonsperminute.Thefuelinthewingwas usuallyfortankerusewhilethefuelintendedfor transfer was normally carried in the lower unpressurisedfuselagecompartments. The initial means of transfer was the Flying Boomnozzlebutthiswaslaterchangedtoallow probeanddroguerefuellingfromtheboomsincethe majorityofUSNavyandNATOairforcesusethis method’.TwotypesofFlyingBoomcouldbefitted, oneforuseatallspeedsandonethatcanonlybeused upto330knots.Theboomisnormallyagainstthe undersideoftherearfuselagewhennotinuseand operatedinconeofmovement;plus12.5°,minus50° verticallyand30°horizontallyeithersideoftheflight datum. Operationoftheboomisfromapodunderthe fuselage, where the boom operator lays on their stomachfacingrearwardswiththecontrolsinfront ofthem,alsofittedareadditionalpositionsforuseby instructors,studentsorobservers.Theboomcontains a probe which extends to make contact with the receiver'srefuellingreceptacle,whencontactismade fuelistransferred. ByJune1957,testinganddeliveriesoftheKC135Awereproceedingsosmoothly,withsolittle difficulty, that Boeing could only get their achievementsintolocalnewspapersbytrottingout anotherbeautyqueen-MargeryBarr,whoheldthe titleMiss West Seattle -andposingherwitha135. Likemanystoriesinaviation,theKC-135Awasnow somethingofanon-story.Themediaonlycarried reports when an aircraft splattered against a mountainsideordisintegratedaboveacrowdedcity, notwhenaflightdevelopmentandproductioneffort proceededwithminimaldifficulty. EvenattheendofJunewhenthefirstthreeKC135AstoreachSACweredeliveredtothe93rdAir RefuelingSquadron,partofthe93rdBombWingat CastleAFB,California(thefirstofthesebeing553127),theeventwasnewsworthyonlybecauseofthe presence of Colonel Winston Close, the Wings deputy commander. Close, by all accounts, had scored a hat trick, picking up the first B-29 manufacturedbyBoeinginWichitain1943andalso thefirstB-52D! A myriad of variants WhenisaKC-135notaKC-135?Withwellover sixtyvariantsofthebasicaircraftaKC-135maynot beatankeratallbutmaybe,instead,atransport,a
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The refuelling boom was far more than just a tube within a tube, as this picture of six booms undergoing deep maintenance shows. The boom adjacent to the one being worked on shows some of the mechanism involved in controlling it via the flying ‘vanes’. (USAF)
commandpostorareconnaissanceaircraft.Oneof theKC-135’smanyrolesisthetestfunction.Others carryoutfull-timeorpart-timedutieswhichmayor maynotrequiretheaircrafttobemodified. Itmayseemobvious,butthefirstthingistolook atthedesignation.KCaircraftareusuallytankers,but not always. C aircraft - for cargo - are always transports,notjustusually,butsomeofthetimeVC aircraftaretransports,too,usedtocarrydignitaries. ECaircrafthaveanelectronicroleofsomesortand areusuallyflyingcommandposts.RCaircrafthave thereconnaissancerole. EverymachineintheKC-135Stratotankerseries has such a prefix, but machines derived from the Boeing 707 airliner have wholly different designations. The US Air Force’s system for designating its aircraft dates to 1924 and is straightforwardenoughbutisfarfromperfect,so thereareinconsistencies. Fuselage differences: A narrower double-lobe fuselage 128 feet 10 inches long with very few windowsidentifiesoneofthemanymachinesinthe KC-135 series.A fuselage with larger width, full double-lobecross-section,windows(sometimes)and greaterlengthidentifiesamilitaryderivativeofthe Boeing707airliner. OtherexternalfeaturespeculiartotheKC-135 seriesandnotfoundonderivativesoftheBoeing707
airlinerincludetheplainpylonstrutswhichsupport the engines (the 707 having some or all struts terminating in a ram air inlet for cabin, air-cycle conditioning)and,ofcourse,theboomoperator’s position and high-speed refuelling boom pivoted undertherearfuselage. Powerplant differences: AllKC-135Atankers and some other members of the family were originally powered by the annular-intake Pratt & Whitney J57 (civil designation JT3C) two-spool, axial-flowturbojetenginewithwaterinjectionwhich producedabout13,000poundsthrustat8,200rpm and was notorious for smoky take-offs. Thrust reverserswerenotfitted.Thisengineweighed3,870 poundsandhadadiameterof38.90inches.Itwas the same powerplant employed by the B-52 Stratofortress. AllC-135Bvariants,allBoeing707derivatives (except the E-6A and Saudi KE-3A) and many rebuildsoftheKC-135serieswerepoweredbythe Pratt & Whitney TF33 (civil designation JT3D) turbo-fan engine which produced about 18,000 poundsthrustat8,700rpmandwasdevelopedfrom theJ57throughremovalofthefirstthreecompressor stagesandreplacementbytwofanstages,theresult beinganacellewhichwaslongerandmoreperfectly cylindrical in appearance. Thrust reversers were employed.Thisengineweighedfrom4,130pounds
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to4.570poundswithadiameterof53inches. NewerKC-135RandFrenchC-135FRaircraft employedtheF108-ascalledinUSmilitaryuse,and known in civil use as CFM56-2B-1 and manufacturedbyCFMInternational,aconsortiumof General Electric and France’s Sociefe Nationale d'EtudeetdeConstructiondeMoteursd'Aviation (SNECMA).SaudiKE-3AsandtheE-6Ahadthe almostidenticalCFM56-2A-2.Thisengineweighed 4,612poundsandis95.7inchesinlength.Asubsonic turbofaninthe20,000poundsthrustclass,itwas shorter and, more importantly ‘fatter’ than other powerplants.ltisnotanexaggerationtosaythatthis engineontheKC-135Rgivestheillusionofalmost draggingtheground,thesimpleresultofitsgirth. Vertical fin differences: EarlyKC-135Atankers
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were delivered with a manually-operated rudder. Theseso-called‘short-finned’aircrafthadaheightof thirty-eightfeetfiveinchesandwereidentifiableby thefincapbeingmounteddirectlyabovetherudder. Theywereretrofitted,andlaterproductionKC-135s weredeliveredwithapoweredrudder.Thisproduced afortyinchfinextensionandwasidentifiedbyafin extensionabovetherudderwiththefincapinstalled ontop,theheightoftheaircraftbeingincreasedto forty-onefeeteightinches. Firstly,letuslookatthenew-buildaircraft,as supplied from the original Boeing C/KC-135 productionline.Thiscomprisedof732KC-135As, 4RC-135A,10RC-135Bs,15C-135As,10C-135Bs and12C-135Fs.
KC-135A Thefirstorderof29aircraftwerebuiltunderthe Boeing designation Model 717-100A with constructorsnumbers17234to17262andUSAF serials55-3118to55-3146.Theorderwasplaced bytheUSAFon5October1954. Thefirstthreeaircraftweredeliveredto93rd ARSatCastleAFB,CAon30April1957andthey began KC-135A operations in June 1957. EventuallydeliveriesoftheKC-135Aspeakedat 15aircraftamonthandall732werecompletedby 12January1965,when64-14840wasdeliveredto 380thARS. C-135A Both Boeing and Douglas proposed swing-tail cargoaircrafttoUSAFinthelate1950stoupdate their strategic airlift capability.This resulted in forty-fiveBoeingC-135Aaircraftorderedwithout therefuellingsystemascargoortrooptransports with the Model number 717-157 following PresidentKennedy'sdecisiontocreateaquickThe classic Strategic Air Command photograph - a B-52 tanking with a KC-135A.
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Boeing C-135A-BN Stratolifter 60-0376 of MATS landing at Prestwick in 1961. The aircraft has dayglo red areas by the cockpit and at the base of the vertical fin.
response capability. The C-135A was not as advanced as the proposed designs and was basicallyaKC-135Aminustherefuellingboom, astrengthenedfloorandfueldumpingfacilitiesnotaspecifictransportaircraftalthoughtheywere seen as an interim aircraft before the C-141 Starlifter was delivered. Seating capacity was increasedto126troopsuptoapossiblemaximum of160,andadditional‘passenger’facilitieswere installed, such as toilets and increased soundproofing. C-135shadacargohandlingsystembuiltin but this reduced the capacity of the cargo compartment and was seldom used. The requirementforaforklifttruckwithtenfootreach alsocausedsomeloadingproblems.Thelastthirty were completed as Model 717-158/C-135Bs. FollowingdeliveryoftheStarlifterstheC-135s wererelegatedtoothermissionssuchascommand support,airbornecommandpostsandtestbeds.
RC-135A NineRC-135Aswereoriginallyorderedin1962 to replace a fleet of RB-50 Superfortresses althoughthiswaslaterreducedtofourduetocost overruns. These aircraft were built as Boeing Modelnumber739-700forreconnaissanceduties but were the last of the variants of C/KC-135s deliveredtotheUSAFinthemid60s,although theywerenotdeclaredfullyoperationaluntilabout 1971.TheywerebuiltwiththeJ57-Pturbojetsof theKC-135Asbutcarriedcamerasjustaftofthe nose undercarriage bay in place of the forward fuselagefueltankwhiletherefuellingsystemwas omittedwithafueldumptubereplacingit.They wereusedforphotographicandsurveyingwork and their cameras could distinguish ten foot objectsfromaheightof40,000feet.In1972they wererelegatedtosupportaircraftstatusthen,inthe late70s,theywereconvertedtotankersasKC135D.Missioncrewwasnominallytenbutnotall crewmembersflewallmissions.
63-8061 was one of four RC-135As and was used by the 1370th Photo Mapping Wing. Note the camera bay under the lower front fuselage. (author’s collection)
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Boeing C-135B-BN Stratolifter 62-4137 of MATS gets airborne from Prestwick, Scotland in 1963.
C-135B TheoriginalorderforC-135Aswasforforty-five aircraftbutonlythefirstfifteenwerecompleted as such, the remaining thirty being built as C135Bs.ThepowerunitswerePratt&Whitney TF33-P-5turbofans(themilitarydesignationof theJT3Dsof16,050poundsthrustusedtopower civilian 707s) and this extra thrust required modificationstothehorizontalandverticaltail surfaces resulting in the new Boeing Model number717-158. Like the C-135A they retained the boom operators pod but the refuelling probe was deleted. Maximum load was 89,000 pounds or 126combattroopsor44littersand54seatsin med-evac role but they were used mainly as transportsuntilsupersededbytheLockheedC141Starlifter.Somewereusedastransportsfor middle ranking staff, others were converted to weatherreconnaissanceaircraftasWC-135Bs.On 20-21February1963aC-135BflewfromClark AFB in the Philippines to McGuire AFB, a distanceof9,868milestosetanewworldrecord for transport aircraft. The last C-135Bs were convertedtoRC-135Wsinthemid1990s,Most oftheC-135Bsweremodifiedtoreconnaissance
variantsorotherdesignationsbutthreewerelost whilestilloperatingasC-135Bs,oneduringthe Cuban missile crisis while supplying the GuantanamoNavalBaseinCuba.
KC-135B Thesewerefittedwiththeflyingboominstallation but were also provided with air refuelling receptaclessotheirnormaleightandahalfhours endurance could be extended by in-flight refuelling.KC-135BswerepoweredbytheTF33Pturbofans(butwithoutthrustreversers)asthe C-135B and were used asAirborne Command Posts. The cargo deck was divided into office, communications and living compartments; the planbeingthatatanyonetimeacommandpost aircraftwouldbeairborne(withoneonstandby) withastaffofficer-thatisageneralorabovecapableofmaintainingcommunicationswiththe Armed Forces in case of war. This operation ceasedinearly1990followingtheendingofthe Cold War and they now stand runway alert. Shortlyafterdeliverythemajorityoftheaircraft werere-designatedEC-135CwithSACwhilethe remainingthreebecameEC-135JwithNational CommandAuthority.
61-2667 was originally built as a C-135B Stratolifter, but was converted to WC-135B standard in 1965. (author’s collection)
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63-8054 was built as a KC-135B and was later converted to an EC-135C (author’s collection)
RC-135B SimilartotheRC-135AsbutfittedwithTF33-P turbofans without thrust reversers, these were electronicintelligence(ELINT)aircraftandwere the first variant specifically built for use as a reconnaissance platform. They were the final aircraftproducedfromtheoriginalC/KC-135A familywiththelastdeliveriesmadein1965and weredelivereddirecttoGlennLMartinCofor storagepriortoconversiontoRC-135Cs.
C-135F TheFrenchAirForce(Armeedel'Air)ordered twelvetankersin1962torefueltheirMirageIVA strategicnuclearbombersandtheyweredelivered in 1964. They were originally ordered with turbofan engines but the French accepted J57 enginesbecauseofcosts.Theydonothavethe‘K’ tankerprefixastheywereplannedtobeusedln thedualtanker/transportrole,butarepermanently fittedwiththeprobeanddrogueadaptersincethe French employed this refuelling system. They weretestflownusingUSAFserialsandreserialled with the last five of the USAF serial in French
service.TheywerepoweredbyJ57-Pturbojets, elevenbeingconvertedtoC-135FRandoperated byERV.93.
Modifications ThebasicdesignoftheC/KC-135wassoonseen as being highly suitable for a number of specialisedmissionsthatspawnedaproliferation ofdesignationswhichemanatedfromthechanges ofrolefromoneusetoanother,orinsomecases alsoswitchesbetweenservices. Thefollowinglistingisanalphabeticalorder byprefixletter.
C-135A ‘Falsies’ Three KC-135As were built to partial C-135A standardpriortodeliveryoftheproperaircraft;these were 60-0356, 60-0357 and 60-0362 and were referredtoasC-135A‘Falsies’duetotherefuelling system. The C-135As were built with the boom operatorspodinplacebutnorefuellingprobewhile thethreeconvertedtankerscouldbereconvertedto tankersifrequired.TheywereconvertedintoKC135A-II‘OfficeBoy’byLingTemcoVought(LTV)
12739 of the French Armee de l'Air coded ‘CK’ formerly 61-2739 of the USAF. (author’s collection)
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Scenes from inside an EC-135 in the role of Airborne Command Post . Top left, the Intel Team, top: the Data Operator. Above and left: the Battle Staff. Below: the lumps, bumps and aerials are clearly visible on this ‘Looking Glass’ aircraft flying ‘on station’
For fifteen years, SAC's airborne command post fleet remained constant in numbers, mission, and organisation. Centred around a EC-135C ‘Looking Glass’ operated by the 2nd ACCS, the fleet included two on 15 minute ground alert. The 4th ACCS provided ALCCs No. 1, 2 and 3, and the 70th AREFS supported Radio Relays No. 1 and 2. All were on satellite alert at Minot AFB, and Radio Relay No. 2 was on alert at Rickenbacker ANGB, Ohio (formerly Lockbourne AFB). (2AACS/USAF)
(all 2AACS/USAF)
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NKC-135A of the US Navy's Fleet Electronic Warfare Systems Group (US Navy)
fromSeptember1961-April1963andre-designated asRC-135DsbyJanuary1965. EC-135A TheseaircraftwerefourteenKC-135Asconverted withadditionalavionicstoactasradiorelaylink aircraft in support of the SAC Post-Attack CommandControlSystem,anairbornecommand andcommunicationsystemwiththecapabilityto take over from destroyed ground installations followinganuclearattack.Thefirstmachine,623579, was delivered to Andrews AFB on 2 September 1964 followed by two more in Novemberandtheotherelevenwereredesignated on1January1965.Theairrefuellingsystemwas retainedbuttheaircraftcouldalsoberefuelledto enable an extended flight envelope of up to seventy-twohoursduration. TheywerepoweredbytheJ57-Pturbojetsbut receivedextraantenna.Allwereeitherreconverted totankers,withdrawnfromuseormodifiedtoEC135Ps.ThefiveFY58aircraftweretransferredto USCINCPACas‘BlueEagle’airbornecommand posts in 1965 while the remainder operated as ‘Looking Glass’ machines, so called as they mirrored SAC’s underground command post. Thoseconvertedwereknownas(RT)aircraft.
GKC-135A The82ndTWatSheppardAFB,TXusedoneretired
tanker for training on the heavy airframes in the USAF'sinventory.Theaircraftwashandedoverin October1992andreceivedtheabovedesignation.
GNC-135A Thisex-testaircraftwaswithdrawninJune1976and transferredtoChanuteAFB,lLasaninstructional airframe,andbrokenupinOctober1991withtheaft fuselagemovingtoWright-PattersonAFB,OH. GNKC-135A 55-3124wasaretiredtanker,previouslyusedasatest airframe.LocatedatSheppardAFB,TXitwasused asagroundinstructionalairframebythe82ndTW.
JNKC-135A SixteenearlyKC-135Aswerededicatedtofull-time testingrolesandweregiventheJ-prefixtoshowtheir statusastestaircraft.ThoseconvertedtoNKC-135A statuswereintendedtobelongtermtestairframes andnotbeconvertedbacktotankerconfiguration.
NC-135A 60-0377 started out as a standard C-135A Stratofreighter. It was converted to the NC-135A configuration when it was adapted to be the B-2 avionicstestbed,onwhichtheradarandnavigation systems were tested and validated with over 300 sorties, before the B-2 took to the air. (In some sources,it'sreferredtoasanNC-135AandaC-135E,
At some stage in its life 717-148 60-0377 was used as an avionics test aircraft for the B-2 ‘Spirit’ stealth bomber. (author’s collection)
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USAF NKC-135 ‘Big Crow’ with oversized nose at a forward deployed operating base. (TSgt Robert J Horstman USAF)
butthere'snoindicationthatthesearecorrect).After theB-2programcametoanend,theaircraftwas retiredandputintostorageatEdwardsAFB.
KC-135A Relay DuringtheconflictinSouthEastAsiatheUSAF convertedtwoKC-135Atocommunicationsrelay roletoprovideairbornecommunicationscapability for tactical aircraft conducting combat operations wheretheyoperatedas‘CombatLightning’aircraft. Theyactedascommunicationsrelaybetweenthe EC-121Tairbornewarningandcontrolaircraftand thegroundprocessingstationforoperationalcombat missionsaswellasMEDEVACandrescueops,and couldalsopassinformationbetweengroundunits. Modificationsincludednumeroussmallantennaeon boththeupperandlowerfuselageandtheycarried anAN/ARC-89communicationsrelaysetinternally. FollowingconversionbyLTVElectrosystemsthe firsttwo,(61-0271,61-0280),arrivedinJapanin September1966andoperationsbeganinOctober. They were later supplemented by two EC-135Ls untilfivemoreconvertedKC-135Asweredelivered. Whiletheprimaryrolewasradiorelaytheycould also act as tankers in an emergency. Following withdrawal from SE Asia in 1973, two were convertedbacktotankerswhiletheotherslostsome oftheradiorelayequipmentandwerealsousedas
tankers but retained their antennae as well as provisionforrelaygear.AtleasttwootherKC-135As wereconvertedtoRelayroleinthelate1970s.
NKC-135A ThreeC-135AswereconvertedtoNC-135Aforthe AtomicEnergyCommission,theyweredeveloped under the ‘Rivet Digger’ programme to monitor Nuclear Test Ban Treaty violations. Following conversionbyGeneralDynamics,onewasassigned toeachoftheAEClabsandwereusedtomonitor atomicfireballs,opticalandspectraldatacollection andradiationanalysis.Theywerelaterreassignedto AirForceSystemsCommand. Theseweremodificationstotheoriginaltanker aircraftthatwouldproveuneconomicaltoreconvert tothatpurpose.Differentaircraftwereconvertedfor differentpurposes,somebyalternativeservicessuch astheUSNavy.Theywereusedinawiderangeof trials ranging from weightlessness training for astronauts,throughECMandrelatedfields,ALL, airframe icing trials, communications research, advanced air refuelling techniques to some reconnaissancesystemtestingincludingsomehighly classifiedprogrammes.AllwerelaterassignedtoAir ForceSystemsCommandexcepttheUSNexamples. Someofthemanyprogrammesundertakenby theNKC-135AfleetincludeHighEnergyLaserand
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AirborneLaserLab(55-3123);winglettesting(553129);celestialnavigationtesting(55-3134);‘Big Crow’ICBMvulnerabilityprogramme(55-3132); andALOTS(AirborneLightweightOpticalTracking System)testing.ThepodwasmountedontheaC135cargodoorandcouldbefittedtotheaircraft when needed. 55-3123, the aircraft in the USAF Museum,wasusedastheoriginalAirborneLaser Lab and is credited with shooting down five Sidewinderair-to-airmissilesandatargetdrone!553129 was employed by NASA to test Whitcomb winglets to determine fuel cost savings but the programme was not proceeded with while others havebeenusedforvariousECMequipmenttesting. Inthecaseof55-3135,convertedtoTF33-PW-102 (JT-3D)turbofanenginesandusedforrefuellingtests withnewaircraftwhilethe‘BigCrow’aircraft(553132)wasalsore-enginedinJanuary1991having beenfittedwithIFRin1986.55-3134and56-3596 were transferred to the US Navy for the Fleet ElectronicWarfareSupportGroup(FEWSG)which was later named Fleet Tactical Readiness Group (FTRG)inSeptember1994thenFleetInformation WarfareCenter(FIWC)inOctober1995.Theywere allocated US Navy serials 553134 and 563596 respectively and used for ECCM (Electronic Counter-CounterMeasure)trainingandtestingand resultedintheservice'slaterorderforE-6Aaircraft. OneoftheFTRGaircraft,dueamajorservice,was flowntoDavis-MonthanAFBinmid-1995following a period of storage at Greenville, TX and was followedbytheothereightmonthslater.
EC-135B Two aircraft from the original C-135B T/RIA (Telementry/Range Instrumentation Aircraft)
The ARIA nose with its ten foot diameter cover off, revealing a seven foot diameter steerable radar dish. (USAF)
conversionswerethemselvesconvertedin1979/80 to EC-135B ARIA configuration following the installation of PMEE (Prime Mission Electronic Equipment)fromtwoEC-135NARlA’s(60-0372, 62-41333), when they were demodified for other uses.SubsequentlythePMEEwasinstalledinC18A’s 81-0891/6 respectively when they were convertedtoEC-18BARlAs.TheEC-135Bretained theTF33-P-5enginesof18,000poundsthrust. The two EC-18B Advanced Range Instrumentation Aircraft were retired 24 August 2001.BothEC-18BsassignedtoEdwardsAFBwere transferred to the Air Force's Joint STARS programmebySeptember2001.Thecostsassociated with maintaining the aircraft and its capability became a major factor in ending the ARIA programme. The452ndFlightTestSquadronatEdwardsAir Force Base operated a variety of unique, highly modifiedC-135andC-18aircrafttoplanandexecute DoD,NASA,andoperationalflighttestprogrammes. Missions supported include worldwide telemetry gathering,internationaltreatyverification,spacecraft launches,ballisticmissiledefence,electroniccombat andvulnerabilityanalysis,aircrafticingtests,and aerialrefuelingcertification. The452FTSaccomplisheditsprimarymission usingtheAdvancedRangeInstrumentationAircraft (ARIA) and the Cruise Missile Mission Control Aircraft (CMMCA).TheARIA, which originally stood forApollo Range InstrumentationAircraft, travelledtheglobeandservedasairbornetracking andtelemetrydata-recordingandrelaystations.They flewoverlandwheregroundtrackingstationsare limitedbygeographicalconstraintsandoverbroad oceanareaswheretrackingstationsdonotexist.The
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OC-135B from the 55th Wing, Offutt AFB, Nebraska, seen arriving for Royal International Air Tattoo 2000 held at RAF Cottesmore in the UK (author).
unitsupportedavarietyofnationalandinternational customers,bothmilitaryandcommercial,including NASA and Department of Defense missions supportingunmannedspacelaunches,cruisemissile tests,Army,NavyandAirForceballisticmissiletests andspaceshuttlelaunches. TheAdvancedRangeInstrumentationAircraft (ARIA-pronouncedAh-RYE-ah)wereEC-135E and EC-18B aircraft used as flexible airborne telemetrydatarecordingandrelaystations.These aircraft were designed and developed to supplementlandandmarinetelemetrystationsin support of DOD and NASA space and missile programs. The ARIA have the capability to acquire, track, record, and retransmit telemetry signals,primarilyintheS-band(2200-2400MHz) frequencyrange.ARIApossessesasaggingand misshapennoseasitsmostdistinguishingfeature, earning it the nicknames ‘Droop Snoot’ and ‘SnoopyNose.’Thebird'sbulbousbeakisactually aten-footradomehousingaseven-footsteerable dishantenna. OC-135B ThreeWC-135Bswereconvertedby4950thTWat 62-4125, one of five VC-135Bs. (USAF)
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WrightPattersonAFB,OHtoOC-135Bstandardfor operationunderthe‘OpenSkies’treaty.Underthis treatytheUSwasallocatedupto42flightsannually overformerEasternBloccountries.Theyarefitted withvariouscameras(onepanoramic,twooblique mountedframedcamerasandoneverticalmounted framedcamera)andthefirstexamplewasrolledout on30June1993andwasdeliveredto55thWon19th November93.TheyarepoweredbytheTF33-PW102(JT-3D)enginesremovedfromairliners,butone oftheproposedairframeswasplacedinstorageat Davis-MonthanAFB,AZon28September1993and replaced by another. Since they are operated in civilianairspacetheymustcomplywithICAOStage 3noiseregulationsandtheUSAFannouncedplans tohush-kittheaircraftwithnewQNCStage3hushkits,thefirstoneflewwiththehushkitinearly1996 althoughtherequirementsfortheothertwowaslater dropped. A programme to remove the flight engineer’sstationfromtheOC-135B’sledtotheir redesignation as OC-135Ws. The aircraft had provisiontocarryuptothirty-eightcrew,thefirst trainingflightstookplaceoverUSAbetween2431August 1994 with a team of American and Ukrainianobserversonboard.
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TC-135B OneWC-135Bwhichhadbeenutilisedbyseveral unitsasaflightdeckcrewtrainerwasconvertedto thisdesignationandwasknownasthe‘SilkPurse’ trainer, and used to train OC-135B ‘Open Skies’ crewsunderthedesignationWC-135Wfollowingthe removalofflightengineer’sstation. VC-135B FiveaircraftfromanoriginalC-135Borderwere convertedasVIPtransportswithspecialfacilities justifyingtheV-prefix.Theywereoriginallyusedfor highrankingstaffbutthisperkwasreducedduring the Carter administration and the aircraft were downgradedtoC-135Bagain.
C-135B (T/RIA) FouraircraftfromtheC-135Bproductionlinewere convertedbyDouglasatTulsa,OKfrom1967with atenfoot‘platypus’noseextensiontohouseaseven footdiameterradardishforspecialelectronicwork; theyalsocarriedatheodolitepatternonthestarboard fuselage side just behind the cockpit to aid in tracking.TheywereusedasApollosupportaircraft designatedT/RIA(Telemetry/RangeInstrumented Aircraft)andalthoughsimilartotheARlAsdidnot carrytheALOTSpod.TheyretainedtheTF-33-P-5 turbofans and remained as C-135Bs until the remainingthreeaircraftwereconvertedfrom1980 onwards. Ten C-135Bs were converted by Hayes International in 1965 to WC-135B for weather reconnaissanceroleforoperationbytheAirWeather Service. Used to provide low to medium altitude weatherreconnaissance(andcomplementedbyhigh altitudeU-2s)theyreplacedWB-50sandwereeasily identifiedbythesamplingpointsmountedonthe over-wingescapehatcheswhichwereusedtogather ambientairforsubsequentanalysis.Theyretained the fuel dump facility and had the ARR system installed.TwooftheaircraftwereconvertedtoC-
135CsforMilitaryAirliftCommandandoneforAir ForceSystemsCommand.OneoftheMACaircraft wasloanedtoTacticalAirCommandforuseasanE3AtraineratTinkerAFB,OKuntilreplacedbytwo converted707soperatedbyBoeing.Threemorewere convertedtoOC-135B,onetoWC-135Wandthe remainderwerestored. 61-2666 and -2672 provided atmospheric samplingmissionsaroundtheworldduringApriland May1986followingtheChernobylnuclearreactor accidentintheUkraine,thenanotherwasusedin 1993 to collect data that confirmed the Peoples RepublicofChinahadperformedanucleartestat LopNoron5October.Theywerealsousedduring NASASpaceShuttlelaunches. C-135C Threeaircraft-61-2668,61-2669and61-2671-were demodified in 1974 from WC-135B back to a transportrole.Theyretaintheair-refuellingcapability and were the only C-135 transports to have this facility.AlsooneoftheC-135Bswasconvertedto C-135C status and operated as a VIP aircraft for PacificAirForcesbasedatHickmanAFB.HI. EC-135C SeventeenKC-135Bs,eitheralreadydeliveredor onorder,wereredesignatedEC-135Con1January 1965 and were equipped with communications gear to allow them to operate in the ‘Looking Glass’AirborneCommandPostrolereplacingKC135As.TheyretainedtheTF33-P-9turbofansand werefittedwiththerefuellingprobeinthenose, interestinglytheycouldalsodrawfuelthroughthe flyingboombyreverseactioninanemergency. These aircraft carried a variety of antennae including a ‘saddle’ antenna, various blade and dipole antennas. HF probes and a VLF trailing wireantenna.Theyreceivedseveralupdatesand were equipped with AFSATCOM UHF communicationsequipment.Threewereconverted
This KC-135D was previously an RC-135A before conversion (via Simon Peters)
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An RC-135 Rivet Joint reconnaissance aircraft moves into position behind a KC-135T/R Stratotanker for an aerial refuelling over Southwest Asia 14 March 2006. (US Air Force photo by Master Sgt. Lance Cheung)
to EC-135J ‘NightWatch’ machines in the mid 1960'swithafourthconversionundertakenfrom May 1979-February 1980. Up to 1990, and the ending of the Cold War, one EC-135C was airborneatanyonetimeflyingeighthourmissions -nowtheystandrunwayalert.BesidetheStaff officerinchargeasAirborneEmergencyActions Officer,thereishis10-manstaffonboardaswell asthestandardfive-manflightcrew.Fouraircraft (62-3581,62-3585,63-8046and63-8054)were fitted with the MILSTAR system from 1990 onwards, but this was removed and used to upgrade E-6As to E-6B standard for the USN. FollowingtheintroductionoftheE-6Aintothe ACP function, the EC-135Cs were retired to Davis-MonthanAFB,AZbyOctober1998when the E-6Bs become operational (the similar last remainingEC-135JwasretiredinOctober1993). Thetypewasofficiallyretiredinaceremonyat OffuttAFB,NEon25September1998.
RC-135C ThetenRC-135BsorderedbyUSAFweredelivered directtoGlennLMartinCo.atBaltimore,MD(later Martin-Marietta) and placed in long term storage pendingtheinstallationofreconnaissanceequipment. Thefirstonewasdeliveredon27January1967and alltenwereinservicebytheendoftheyear,allowing theRB-47HsoperatedonSIGINTmissionstobe retired.The refuelling boom was replaced by the dump tube and the boom operator's position was turned into a camera bay occupied by a KA-59
camera. Modified and re-designated RC-135B aircraftwereusedforstrategicreconnaissanceduties, equippedwiththeAN/ASD-1electronicintelligence (ELINT)system.Thissystemwascharacterisedby the large ‘cheek’ pods on the forward fuselage containingtheAutomatedELINTEmitterLocating System(AEELS–notSideLookingAirborneRadar –SLAR,asoftenquoted),aswellasnumerousother antennaeandacamerapositionintherefuellingpod areaoftheaftfuselage.Theaircraftwascrewedby two pilots, two navigators, numerous intelligence gathering specialists, inflight maintenance techniciansandairbornelinguists.WhentheRC135Cwasfullydeployed,SACwasabletoretireits fleet of RB-47H Stratojets from active reconnaissance duties. All ten continue in active serviceaseitherRC-135VRivetJointorRC-135U CombatSentplatforms. KC-135D The RC-135As delivered to Military Airlift CommandwereturnedovertoSACin1972,initially as command support aircraft but were quickly convertedintoKC-135Dtankers,theyweregivena uniquedesignationbecausetheywereoriginallybuilt withaflightengineerontheflightdeck.Theyhave sincebeenupdatedwiththeretrofitofTF33-PW-102 turbofans without further change of designation. Theyunderwentacockpitupdatetobringthemin linewiththeKC-135Esalsooperatedbytheunit, theywereduetobere-enginedwithCFM.56-2As andthenoperatedundertheKC-135RMDS.
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RC-135D ThreeKC-135Aswereredesignatedon1January 1965asRC-135Ds‘OfficeBoy’forusein‘Rivet Brass’SIGINToperations-laterusedon‘Burning Candy’missions.Therefuellingboomwasreplaced bythefueldumptubeandair-refuellingequipment installed;theyalsohadSLARantennafittedina cylindershapedfairingbelowandslightlyforward of the wing on both sides of the fuselage and an elongatedHognoseradomeaswellasfenceaerials abovethefuselage.TheyretainedtheJ57-Pturbojets sohadrestrictiverange,thelast‘BurningCandy’ missionbeingflown13March1975whentheywere replacedbyRC-135MsandVs.TheRC-135Dswere declaredsurplusandwereconvertedbacktoKC135A tankers, later KC-135R and they retain the abilitytoair-refuelled.Afourthaircraft(59-1491,the ‘WandaBelle’airframe)wasoperatedwiththeRC135DsbutretaineditsRC-135Sdesignation. C-135E ThreeC-135AswereretrofittedwiththeTF33-PW102 turbofans and redesignated EC-135Ns later C-135Esforuseincombatsupportroles.
C-135E E This designation refers to surviving C-135N conversionsthatwerere-enginedwithTF33-PW-102 turbofans.Theyhavebeenreplacedintheiroriginal A/RIArolebyex-airline707sconvertedtoEC-18B standard and are now used as test aircraft with 412thTW. One was ALOTS capable while two supportedcruisemissiletesting. KC-135E ANG and AFRes (later AFRC) units usually operated from noise sensitive civilian airports ratherthanremotemilitarybasesandthenoiseof awaterinjectedfullyladenKC-135Awaslouder thanmostfighterswithafterburnerson.Also,the safety implications in densely populated areas fromanenginelossontake-offwasenormous(and some,suchasSaltLakeCity,UTandPhoenix-Sky Harbor,AZ also suffered from altitude or high temperatures) so the USAF had to look at alternatives.Withthedemiseofmanyairline707s theUnitedStatesAirForcetooktheopportunity tobuythesurplusairframesandusetheenginesto re-enginetheKC-135AswiththecivilianJT3D
A KC-135A is re-engined with JT3Ds from former civilian Boeing 707s at MASDC, Davis-Monthan Az, 1984. (USAF)
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(designated TF33-PW-102). Over 150 aircraft weremodifiedandtheformerKC-135AwereredesignatedtheKC-135E. Inanattempttoimprovetheperformancethefirst contractwassignedwithBoeingon18September 1981withascheduleddeliveryofthefirstaircrafton 30January1982.Thefirstaircraft(59-1514.onethat wasair-refuellable)wasdeliveredtoBoeingon30 Septemberandafterre-enginingflewagainon10 January1982andwasreturnedtoUSAFfourdays aheadofscheduleon26January.Thefirst18aircraft convertedwereallspecialpurposeairframes(EC135s,RC-135splussomeNKC-135sandC-135Ns). Donor 707s were flown to AMARC at DavisMonthanAFB,AZwheretheywerestrippedandthe parts shipped to the BMAC conversion line at Wichita, KS. Changes were the JT-3D engines (redesignated the TF33-PW-102 by the USAF) including thrust reversers, removal of the water injection system, new brakes plus the horizontal stabiliser.Inthecockpittherewerenewthrottlesand variousinstrumentsfromthe707-besidesthenew engines the provision of a yaw damper with the increasedsizeofthenewstabiliserfinallyeliminated theproblemof‘DutchRoll’onfinalapproach. Improvementsincludedanincreaseinavailable take-offthrustfrom13,750to18,000Ib.perengine meaningafully-ladenKC-135Erequired2000feet lessrunwaythanaKC-135Atogetairborne.Thenew enginesalsogave12%betterfuelconsumption,60% noisereduction,90%reductioninpollutionandan amazingestimated400%increaseinreliability. Theinitialcontractcovered128airframesbut was extended to 161 airframes and this option provided USAF with a cost effective and quick programmeforupgradingtheunderpoweredKC135A airframe. Two KC-135Es (57-2589 and 59-1514)wereoperatedby55thWinginadditionto theANGandAFRCaircraft.In1996thefirstKC135E from 196thARS/CAANG was delivered to Boeing-Wichita for conversion to KC-135R standard. The-135Efleetwasslowlymodernisedover afifteenyearperiod,largelyasaresultoffunds addedbyCongressfortheKC-135EtoRengine conversion programme. The Air Force initially replaced the TF33 engines on 20 Guard and ReserveKC-135EaircraftwithCFM-56enginesat a cost of about $436 million. These aircraft represent the last of the KC-135s for which reengining funds were approved. The last four aircraftwerecompletedinfiscalyear1998.Bythe completion of the programme, it had installed CFM-56engineson410KC-135s.However,the
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March2004DefenseScienceBoardTaskForce ReportonAerialRefuelingRequirementsfound that'...Usage, which induces material fatigue, is not the driving problem. Total flying hours are relatively low for the KC-135s: the current airframe average is about 17,000 hours. Fatigue life is estimated to be 36,000 hours for the E, 39,000 hours for the R. Cycles are commensurately low on average (3800 for the R and 4500 for the E). Thus, the airframes should be capable to the year 2040 based on current usage rates.’ TheKC-135AssessmentReport.publishedby theAirForceFleetViabilityBoard.Wright-Patterson AFBinSeptember2005estimated,withnumerous caveats,thatKC-135Eaircraftupgradedtothe'R' configurationwouldremainviableuntil2030. The E-model economic service life was markedlydifferentbecauseofthedifferenceinage andtechnologyofsomeofitsmajorcomponents, most notably the engines. The basic airframe should,intheory,lastaslongastheR-model,but theageoftheenginespointstothelikelihoodthat upkeepcouldbecomeexpensiveintermsofparts andmaintenanceman-hours.TheTF-33(E-model) engineswerepreviouslyusedbutrefurbishedtoan expected6,000hourservicelife.TheTF-33began toneedanothermajoroverhaularoundtheturnof thecentury.Additionally,sincetheTF-33didnot meetFAAStageIIInoiserequirementsfortheyear 2000, more time and money would have be expendedtoensurecompliance. TherewasalsoamajorproblemwiththeKC135Eenginestrutsobtainedfromretired707and720 airframes.Becauseoftheirexposuretoengineheat, severe heat-induced corrosion and fatigue have occurred.TheOklahomaCityAirLogisticsCenter atTinkerAirForceBasedepotdevelopedaninterim strut repair for about $100 thousand per strut, awaitinganFiscalYear06programinitiationofa fullyreworkedstrutrepairwithacostofabout$1 millionperstrut. TheMarch2004DefenseScienceBoardTask Force Report on Aerial Refueling Requirements foundthat'Thestrutsthatattachtheenginetothe wingsoftheKC-135Emodelsareaprimeexample oftheproblemsofagingandenvironment.Thestruts areneartheendoftheirservicelifeduetoexposure tohightemperaturesandcorrosiveenvironmentsand, assuming the KC-135Es are not retired, a major structuralrepairtotheKC-135Estrutsisplanned.' On 16 September 2004 Gen. JohnW. Handy, commander of Air Mobility Command, directed twenty-nineKC-135Eswithidentifiedenginestrut problemsberemovedfromtheflyingschedulewhile
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AirForceleadersevaluatedareportfromtheFleet Viability Board and recommendations of the Oklahoma City Air Logistics Center's KC-135 systemprogramoffice.
NKC-135E Twooftheoriginaltestaircrafthavebeenre-engined withex707JT3Dengines,thefirstbeingthefully instrumented tanker used in refuelling trials (553135) in March 1982 while the ‘Big Crow’ NKC-135A was retrofitted with TF33-PW-102 enginesfromOctober1990toJanuary1991andthen returnedtothesametestdutieswith412thTW.Ithad beenfittedwithARRin1986toextendtheaircraft's range and mission capability which had been curtailedbytheremovalofmostofthefuselagefuel tankstoallowECMequipmentinstallation. RC-135E OriginallydesignatedC-135B-II,projectnameLisa Ann,theRC-135ERivetAmberwasaone-of-a-kind aircraftequippedwithalarge7MWHughesAircraft phased-arrayradarsystem.Originallydeliveredasa C-135B,62-4137operatedfromShemyaAirForce Station,Alaskafrom1966to1969.Itsoperations wereperformedinconcertwiththeRC-135SRivet Ballaircraft.Theradarsystemaloneweighedover 35,000poundsandcostoverUS$35millionin1960 dollars,makingRivetAmberboththeheaviestC-135 aircraft flying and the most expensiveAir Force aircraftforitstime.Theradiationgeneratedbythe radarwassufficienttobeahealthhazardtothecrew, and both ends of the radar compartment were shieldedbythickleadbulkheads.Thispreventedthe forwardandaftcrewareasfromhavingdirectcontact afterboardingtheaircraft.Thesystemcouldtrackan objectthesizeofasoccerballfromadistanceof300 miles,anditsmissionwastomonitorSovietballistic
missile testing in the reentry phase. The power requirement for the phased array radar was enormous,necessitatinganadditionalpowersupply. ThistooktheformofapoddedLycomingT55-L5 turboshaftengineundertheleftinboardwingsection, drivinga350kVAgeneratordedicatedtopowering missionequipment.Ontheoppositewinginthesame location was a podded heat exchanger to permit cooling of the massive electronic components on boardtheaircraft.Thisconfigurationhasledtothe mistakenimpressionthattheaircrafthadsixengines. On5June1969,RivetAmberwaslostatseaona ferry flight from Shemya to Eielson AFB for maintenance,andnotraceoftheaircraftoritscrew waseverfound. EC-135G ThreeKC-135AsandoneEC-135Awereconverted byTEMCOtoEC-135Gsandalthoughredesignated in1965theywerenotfullyoperationaluntil1967. TheyweremodifiedtoALCCin1968andoffered radio relay service between NCA (National Command Authority, a euphemism for the US President) and SAC's command structure. They retainedthestandardboomrefuellingsystemand werealsofittedwithaerialrefuellingreceptacles. FollowingtheendingoftheColdWarintheearly90s theywereretiredinMay1992andstored.
EC-135H Commencinginlate1964LTVconvertedfourKC135Astankers/ACP'stoEC-135Hsincorporatingthe ‘SilkPurse’ACProle,allowingtheDouglasC-118s toberetired.Afifthaircraft(61-0274)wassimilarly modifiedin1968asatleastoneEC-135Hwason aerialalertuntilDecember1969whentheybegan full-timegroundalert.Theyhadadorsal‘saddle’ antenna on the fuselage spine and various blade
62-4137, ‘Rivet Amber'. The aircraft was originally called Lisa Ann, after Lisa Ann O'Rear, daughter of Big Safari program director Mr. F E O'Rear prior to changes in 1967. The additional underwing pods used to create the extra power required for the radar array are visible in this picture. (USAF)
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62-4137 was a model RC-135E and the only one of its kind. Rivet Amber and Rivet Ball operated together as a team from Shemya. The location of the phased radar array within the fuselage is clearly visible. (USAF)
antennae as well as trailing wire antenna while improvements were made to the radio and communications equipment. The interior was originallyfittedoutforsixteenbattlestaffpersonnel, thirteen command staff, two radio operators, two switchboard operators and one secure communicationsteletypeoperator,butlaterthiswas changed to nine CINCEUR personnel and four Supreme Allied Commander Europe battle staff. Theyretainedtheboomrefuellingequipmentand alsohavetheaerialrefuellingreceptaclesystemand werere-enginedin1982withTF33-PW-102engines fromretiredairliners.TheywereoperatedbyUSAFE (USAFEurope)priortodeactivationin1991.
GEC-135H TworetiredElectronicvariantswerehandedoverat SheppardAFB,TXasgroundinstructionalaircraft withtheTTC,later82ndTW. EC-135J FourKC-135BsthatweremodifiedtoEC-135Cs
werelaterconvertedtoEC-135Js-thefirstone from 1965, two more were redesignated on 31 May1967andafinalonewasconvertedfromMay 1979 to January 1980 as Airborne National Command Posts for the National Command Authority and are fitted with a dorsal ‘saddle’ antenna. They were modified with fifteen operatingstationsandexpansionoftheEC-135Cs communications capability. The mission suites were removed and installed in E-4As and the aircraftweretransferredtoPACAFas‘BlueEagle’ EC-135Preplacementsinshortterm.Twowere retiredfromserviceinMarch1992whileoneof the remaining pair crashed days before being placed in storage, the final one was retired in October1993. C-135K Inlate1996oneoftheremainingEC-135Kswas redesignatedasC-135KandisoperatedasaVIP aircraft for CINCPAC by 89thAW from Hickam AFB,HI.
59-1491 was a RC-135S and operated in concert with 62-4137, ‘Rivet Amber'. On 13 January 1969 59-1491 was returning from a reconnaissance mission when it landed back at Shemya. The aircraft hydroplaned and slid off the ice covered runway, plunging into a 40 feet ravine and was written off. (USAF)
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EC-135K OriginallytwoKC-135AswereconvertedtoEC135Kstandardtoprovidecommunicationslinksand accuratenavigationaldatatoTACaircraftonlong deployments,(witheffectfrom1June1992thename oftheoperatingcommandwaschangedtoACC). Theywereoriginallyknownas‘HeadDancer’for theirroleinfighterdeploymentstoEuropeandAsia. Theboomrefuellingwasreplacedbythefuel-dump pipe.Followingthelossofoneoftheoriginalaircraft, athirdconversion(59-1518)wasmade-boththe survivors were retrofitted with TF33-PW-102 turbofans. One of these aircraft was the first productionaircraftwhichfirstflewon31August 1956andwasdeliveredon24January1957,they weretransferredto89thAWinlate1995.Thefirst production aircraft was finally retired in October 1996,over40yearssinceitsfirstflight.
EC-135L Eight KC-135As were converted to EC-135L PACCSstandardbyLockheedfrom1965to1967 andreplacedEB-47Lsasairborneradiorelayradio and amplitude modulation dropout capability platforms.Their role was to provide secure radio linksandhadbladeantennaeaboveandbelowthe fuselageforcommunicationsrelay.Theyretainedthe boomrefuellingequipmentandalsohadairborne radiorelaybutwerestillpoweredbytheoriginalJ57Pengines.Threeweredemodifiedtotankerstatusbut twoofthesewereredesignatedEC-135Lagainon6 January1971thenbacktoKC-135Aagainon14 September1971!Normalcrewwasfouronflight deckandthreemissionstaffandtwowereinvolved duringOperation‘DesertStorm'.
RC-135M SixC-135BswereconvertedbyLTVElectrosystems to RC-135Ms from early 1966 and received the extendednoseoftheRC-135Dtocoverradarantenna aswellasteardropblistersoneithersideoftherear fuselage, they were used for ‘Rivet Card/Rivet Quick’operations. TheRC-135Mwasaninterimtypewithmore limitedELINTcapabilitythantheRC-135Cbutwith extensiveadditionalCOMINTcapability.Theywere convertedfromMilitaryAirliftCommandC-135B transports,andoperatedbythe82ndReconnaissance SquadronduringtheVietnamWarfromKadenaAB, gatheringsignalsintelligenceovertheGulfofTonkin andLaoswiththeprogrammenameCombatApple (originallyBurningCandy)ThereweresixRC-135M aircraft,62-4131,62-4132,62-4134,62-4135,624138and62-4139,allofwhichwerelatermodified byE-Systemsintheearly‘80sandwereredesignated RC-135W, still with TF33-P-5 engines. They continuedinactiveserviceasRC-135WRivetJoints bytheearly1980s. EC-135N Converted by Douglas, the EC-135N had the ‘platypus’noseextensionaswellasprovisionforthe NorthropA-LOTSpod.Thiswascarriedbyfourand wassuspendedfromthecargodoorandcontained bothatelescopeandcameras.Thefistflightofthe ARIAaircraftwason19September1966andtheir maintaskswerevehicletrackingandtwo-wayvoice relay between astronauts and mission control in Houston,TX.Theywereoriginallyemployedduring theApollolunarlandingprogrammeandalleight wereinvolvedintheApollo6missionin1986.Total
58-0022 was an EC-135P that formed part of Operation Blue Eagle that provided five EC-135J/P command post aircraft to the Commander in Chief, US Pacific Command (USCINCPAC), which were based at Hickam AFB, HI. (USAF)
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USAF RC-135M 62-4138 seen from a KC-135 tanker. (USAF)
crewcouldbe23including18or19missionstaff. After theApollo flights finished, four of the EC135Ns were redesignated Advanced Range Instrumentation Aircraft (ARIA) still with J57-P engines,buttheywerelaterre-enginedwithTF33PW-102s,convertedtoEC-135E,andassignedto special test programmes. The aircraft have been replacedinthetrackingrolebyEC-18Bs. EC-135P Five KC-135As that were the original EC-135As wereredesignatedEC-135P‘BlueEagle’Airborne CommandPoststatuson31March1967withthe reverse refuelling system as well as the ARR equipment for extending their endurance. These aircraftwereoriginallyusedbyCommanderinChief, Pacific Command but later transferred to Commander in Chief, Atlantic Command and retainedtheJ57-Penginesalthoughtwo(55-8109, 55-8022) were retrofitted with the TF33-PW-102 turbofans. Two extra aircraft have also been convertedtothisdesignation(61-0274in1988and 55-3129toreplace58-007)
KC-135Q OriginallyconsideredforrefuellingtheLockheed A-12highspeedandhighaltitudereconnaissance aircraftwithitsPF-1fuel,theKC-135Qwasalso modified to handle the JP-7 fuel of the SR-71 Blackbirdwhichwasthefollow-onfromtheA-12. Fifty-sixKC-135AswerethenmodifiedtoKC135QstosupporttheSR-71inUSAFserviceand wereoperatedbytwosquadronsattachedto9th SRWbasedatBealeAFB,CA.Internallytheyhad a modified fuel system to handle the JP-7 fuel while externally they had a single antenna for securecommunicationwiththeBlackbirdpriorto refuelling,whichwasconductedattheextremes ofeitheraircraft'soperatinglimits.Theyalsohave
theabilitytohandlethestandardJP-4fuelusedby theremainderoftheUSAFfleet,justanairpurge isrequiredbetweenthetwo.Withtheretirement oftheSR-71theremainingaircraftwereusedto refueltheF-117Afleet.Fromlate1993theKC135Qs were fitted with the F108-CF-100 (CFM.56-2A-2) engines and Aerial Refuelling Receptacles and redesignated as KC-135T. 580099wasthelastaircrafttoundergoconversionto KC-135T standard when it departed Fairchild AFB,WAon29September1995forBoeingat McConnellAFB,KS.
KC-135R Three original reconnaissance KC-135As were redesignatedKC-135Ron1June1967andafourth (58-0126)wasconvertedin1969;theirprimaryrole remainedassociatedwithnucleartestingbyforeign nations under ‘Burning Light’ but they had a secondary SIGINT role and supported RC-135M operationsinSEAsia.Eachoneappeareduniquebut theyallhadanantennaalongthetopofthefuselage andweretheonlyreconnaissancevariantstoretain the refuelling boom. The elongated nose first appearedontheKC-135R,asdidtherearfuselage tear drop fairing. 55-3121 was modified with an ELINTcapsulethatwasreeledoutfromtheaircraft inflight;iteventuallyreceivedfiverowsoffence aerialsontheupperfuselage.55-3121wasusedin theClA's‘BriarPatch’and‘IronLung’programmes whiletwoaircrafthadcamerabaysinstalledinthe fuselagecargodoor.Tworetainedtheirrefuelling booms. C-135T C-135R55-3121wasmodifiedin1969byLockheed AirServicestotheuniqueKC-135Tconfiguration undertheCobraJawprogrammename.Externally distinguishedbythe‘hognose’radome,theaircraft
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alsofeaturedspinning‘fang’receiverantennasbelow thenoseradome,alargebladeantennaabovethe forwardfuselage,asingle‘towelbar’antennaonthe spine,teardropantennasforwardofthehorizontal stabilizersoneachside,andthetrapeze-likestructure inplaceoftherefuelingboom.Theaircraftbriefly carried nose art consisting of the Ford Cobra Jet cartooncobra.ItwaslatermodifiedintoanRC-135T RivetDandy. KC-135R ThisisthedefinitiveupdateprogrammefortheKC135A series. USAF evaluated various engines, including the TF33. JT-10D (which became the PW2037)andCFM.56aswellaspossiblyrefitting retired707-320wingstotheexistingfuselage.The requirementwastobeabletoflyfullyladentoa rendezvouspoint2,000nauticalmilesaway,offload 91,000poundsoffuelandthenflyanother1,000 nauticalmilesbeforelanding.Numerousproposals wereputforward,withthefive‘finalists’being: KC-135P-7 This involved fitting TF33-P-7 enginesthatwouldincreasethrustby8,000pounds perengine,increasethefuelloadto202,800pounds andall-upweightto315.400pounds.Thisoption would also have the 707 stabiliser fitted and strengthenedundercarriage. KC-135ME A hybrid scheme involving the useoftwoenginetypes,the‘MixedEngine’proposal involvedtheuseofCFM.56turbofansontheinboard pylonswhileretainingtheJ57turbojetsontheouter ones.Fuelcapacitywouldremainthesameasthe KC-135-P-7 with a maximum all-up weight of 317,800 pounds and would again require
strengthenedundercarriageandwiderstabiliser. KC-135H This involved the KC-135-P-7 modificationswiththeadditionofthe707-320wing, leadingtoanall-upweightof374,400pounds. KC-135X Thefirstoftwoproposalsusing fourCFM.56sorJT.10Ds,theKC-135Xalsoused the707-320wingandsawallupweightincreaseto 376,400pounds.Italsoincludedthewiderstabiliser andstrengthenedundercarriage. KC-135Y This also used the CFM.56 or JT.10DsandtheotherchangesfromtheKC-135X butwithanewmoreefficientwingleadingtoanallupweightof424,000pounds. AsithappenedUSAFsettledforanewengine (theCFM.56)butnotthewingmodificationasthe aircrafthadalreadyundergonemodificationstotheir stabilisers.BMACrolledoutthefirstKC-135Ron 22June1982withaproposedservicelifethroughto 2050andwhileoriginalintentionsweretore-engine 642 aircraft by 1993, budget restrictions kept the numbersdown.Thecostwas$16.3mperaircraftbut BMAC estimated fuel saving to be $1.1 bn over fifteenyears.Theincreasedpowerandmoremodern technologyoftheCFM.56meantthattheKC-135R wascleanerandquieterthanitspredecessorsaswell asmorefuelefficient-inatypicalflightprofileof 2000 nautical miles to off-load point then 2000 nauticalmilesreturntheKC-135Acouldoffload 40,000poundswhiletheKC-135Rcoulddispense 70,000pounds-whileatextremedistancesfrombase itcouldoffloadmorefuelthanaKC-10Asinceit burnedlessfueltoreachtherendezvouspoint.Two Turbomach T-62T APUs were fitted as were strengthenedundercarriage,yawdampers,brakesand
A KC-135T refuels NASA’s two-seat SR-71B trainer in 1995 (USAF)
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A KC-135R Stratotanker from the 434th Air Refueling Wing provides mid-air refuelling to a F-22 fighter aircraft. (USAF)
majorinstrumentationupdateswhileaspinemounted refuellingprobeallowedtheKC-135Rtoberefuelled itselfbyotherboomequippedtankers.Maximum unrefuelledrangewasincreasedto11,309milesand maximumweightto322.000pounds-surprisingly only6,500poundsmorethanthestandardKC-135A. Initialdeliveriesto384thARWwereinJuly1984. The USAF planned to re-engine all existing KC135AstoKC-135Rsandtheoriginalbatchwasfor 397aircrafttobesoconverted,buttheUSSenate dropped funding from the project in Fiscal 1994 DefenseBudget-alsotheendingoftheColdWar meantthatthenumberoftankersplacedinstorage increased and the programme was completed. Boeing-Wichitahadalsoconductedthesameupdates ontheKC-135Qandwasduetostartasimilarone onsomeoftheRC-135variantsalthoughsomeANG and AFRes KC-135Es began conversion at the beginning of 1996. Plans to introduce wing tip droguere-fuellingsystemwereinitiallydroppeddue tolackoffundingbuttheaircraftwerebeingfitted withthepallet/rollersystemtoenabletheaircraftto operateinthecargoroleduetoafleetshortagecaused by the late introduction into service of the C-17 GlobemasterIIIandalsothepossiblereductioninthe C-17'sinventory. TheMulti-PointRefuelingSystemProgramwas anefforttoenhancetheefficiencyandflexibilityof the Air Force's air refuelling fleet, 45 KC-135R Stratotankeraircraftwereoutfittedtoacceptwingtip, hose-and-drogue and air refuelling pods for refuelingNATOandUSNavyaircraft.USNavyand manyNATOaircraftcannotberefuelledusingthe boomandreceptaclerefuelingmethodofAirForce aircraft,andinsteaduseaprobe-and-droguesystem whereprobesonthereceiveraircraftmakecontact
withahosethatisreeledoutbehindatankeraircraft. KC-135shavebeencapableofrefuellingprobe-anddrogueaircraftforyears,byfittingahose-and-drogue attachmenttoatanker'srefuellingboom.However, whentankersareflyingwiththisconfigurationthey are incapable of refuelling boom-and-receptacle aircraft.With the number of worldwide joint and combined military operations on the rise, the Department of Defense directed theAir Force to outfitpartofitsKC-135fleetwiththecapabilityof refueling both probe-and-drogue and boom receptacleaircraftonthesamemission.Thisalso allowsrefuellinguptotwoprobe-and-drogueaircraft atthesametime. Thepodswereverysimilartothewingpodsthat wereaddedtoKC-10Extenders.Theycontaineda collapsible,funnel-shapeddrogueontheendofa hosethatcanbereeledouttoanawaitingaircraftwith arefuellingprobe.Thehosewasconnectedwitha springtoprovideconstanttension,andthedrogue wasoutfittedwithsmalllightsaroundittoaidnight operations.Additionalfuelcontrols,indicators,and circuitbreakershadtobeinstalledintheflightdeck. Modifications to valves and a bladder cell in the fuselagewerealsonecessary.Tubes,valves,anda vent system had to be modified in the wing fuel systemtoaccommodatethenewsystem.Thewings weremodifiedaswell.Theywerestrengthenedto support new fuel tubes and wire bundles being installedontheaircraftfortheinstallationofthe pods,hardpoints,fittings,andpylons.Floodlights wereaddedtoenginepylons,wingpods,andboom areatoassistinnightrefuelling.Anaerialrefuelling pod controller was added to the boom operator's station,soboomoperators,inconjunctionwiththe copilot,couldmonitorwing-podrefuelling.
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Thirty-threepodsetsweremanufacturedtooutfit 45KC-135Raircraft.Thepodscouldbemovedfrom one wing-pod-outfitted tanker to another, thereby remaining mission-ready, even when a particular aircraft was not. Managed by the KC-135 DevelopmentSystemOfficeatAeronauticalSystems Center,Wright-PattersonAirForceBase,Ohio,the programme completed the engineering, manufacturing and development portion of the programme in 1998 year and began follow-on operationaltestandevaluationearlyin1999.The programmeincludedaninstallationrateofaboutsix aircraftperyear,andinitialoperationalcapabilityin February2000withtwelveaircraft.Allforty-five aircraft were expected to be operational by September 2008. The forty-five modified Stratotankersweretobeassignedtoactiveunitsat McConnell and Grand Forks Air Force Bases; MacDillAirForceBase,Fla.;FairchildAirForce Base,Wash.;guardandreservebasesatMarchAir ReserveBase,Calif.;andoverseasatKadenaAir Base,Japan,andRoyalAirForceMildenhall,inthe UnitedKingdom. The C-135Rs were also subject of the Pacer CRAG (Compass Radar and Global Positioning System)Programwhichwasdesignedtoextendthe functional life to 2040, the airframe's projected decommissioningdate.ThePacerCRAGavionics
upgradetotheKC-135fleetwasacommercialoffthe-shelfmodificationprogramthatwouldeliminate the need for a navigator on most missions. Pacer CRAGupgradesallowedtheaircrafttobeflownby apilot,co-pilotandboomoperator.Thenewdesign couldalsoquicklybereconfiguredforanavigatorif themissionrequiredit. The existing cockpit consisted of electromechanical equipment of 1950s technology with individual control panels and instrumentation distributedthroughout.Failurerateswerehighand repaircapabilityhadbeenrestrictedsignificantlyas technologyhaschanged.Notonlywererepairstothe KC-135'sexistingavionicssuitecostlyfortheAir Force,buttheyalsomeantmoredown-timeforthe tankerwhilerepairsweremade. Theprojectprovidedforamajoroverhaulof theKC-135cockpittoimprovethereliabilityand maintainability of the aircraft's systems. In addition,theprogrammemetthecongressionally mandated requirement to install the global positioning system in all Defense Department aircraftbytheturnofthecentury. Other modifications included state-of-the-art colourweatherradar,improvedcompassandradar systemsandanon-boardglobalpositioningsystem. Anadditionalsafetymeasure,thetrafficcollision avoidancesystemorTCAS,wasalsoinstalledwhich
Doing the elephant walk! Twelve KC-135Rs line up on the taxiway, just before takeoff, at the Kadena Air Base in Japan (USAF)
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1 2
KC-135R57-1439walkround McDillAFB,2March2017 (allpicturesDennisCole)
1. The crew access door, along with the access ladder.
2. The view up the access ladder into the area immediately aft of the flightdeck.
3 USAF tankers now have reasonably low-visibility markings applied. The cargo door is open, with a pick-up truck mounted airstair in position.
3 4
5
4. Nose gear details. Many airframes bear ‘scars’ in the shape of patches as testiment of nearly 60 years of use. 5. Wing mounted lights.
6. 1439 6 AMW 927 ARW denotes the aircraft’s tail number - 57-1439 - 6th Air Mobility Wing, 927th Air Refuelling Wing. 6
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7 8
7. From the rear, with tail support in place
8. Refuelling boom capped, with vortex generators under the tailplane.
9 The boomer’s main and side windows, with the fairing in place. The apparent yellow stripe on the glass is a reflection of the taxi-line on the ground! 10. The rear fuselage strenthening strips, and aft body tank refuelling point on the right.
11. The back end of 57-1439, showing the MacDill fin stripe. All these images were taken during a school event focusing on Science, Technology, Engineering and Math on base.
9
10
11
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12
12. The ‘front office’ the flight deck of KC-135R 571439, showing the semi-glass cockpit, with CRT screens for the main flight displays. Later, KC-135R Block 45 Upgrade aircraft have been fitted with fully digital displays.
13. The main landing gear, showing the intricate array of elements that go into the doors.
13
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14 14. From the somewhat gloomy rear fuselage, looking forward, showing the myriad of pipes and trunking in the roof.
15. Entry to ‘the hole’, otherwise known as the boomer’s position. There are two hatches, either side of the rack of oxygen bottles. 16, 17, 18, 19 Four views taken down in the boomer’s position, with the aerodynamic visor - the zincchromate yellow item - in the lowered psition. The panels and gauges show their age and amount of use.
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16
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17
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20. The area immediately aft of the flight deck, with the cargo door in the raised position. 21. KC-135s were designed with three roles in mind: tankers, cargo and people carriers. The main cabin floor is fitted with a pallet roller system, and each side of the fuselage has seats for the carriage of troops. The main fuel tanks for the tanking role are underfloor in the aircraft’s belly.
21
helpswithformationflying.ThePacerCRAGdigital system includeD a more accurate and reliable altimeter, compass, airspeed indicator, and other navigational equipment, replacing the KC-135's outdatedinertialnavigationanddopplernavigation systems. Oneofthebiggestbenefitswasthatthesystem allowed pilots to view several functions through multifunctionglassdisplays.Asaresult,pilotscould
concentrateononeareatoviewcertainfunctions ratherthanlookingatanumberofinstrumentstoget the same information. Using the improved radar, pilotscoulddetectcloudformations,windshearand other weather hazards. With GPS, pilots could identifytheirpositionanywhereintheworldwithin afewmetres. AMC developed an integrated programme to enhance KC-135 cockpit avionics and reduce or
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eliminatethenavigatorrequirementinKC-135s.The initialprogrammewastoreplaceCompass,Radar andinstallGPSsystems.Operationaltestingledto the addition of Traffic Advisory and Collision AvoidanceSystem(TCAS).TCASwasanoff-theshelffixtoproblemswithformationstation-keeping. Thecostincreasedfrom$426.3Mto$686.5Mdueto theTCASrequirement.Otherrecentadditionstothe Pacer CRAG program include StandbyAir Data Indicator(ADI)andanAdvancedCentralAirData Computer(CADC)forReducedVerticalSeparation Minimums (RVSM) certification an Enhanced GroundProximityWarningSystem(E-GPWS),and a Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM) CompliantAirDataComputer.Thesesystemswill serveasthefoundationforfutureGlobalAirTraffic Management(GATM). Growthinairtrafficvolumespurredoninitiatives to manage increasingly congested airspace and improve safety. Global Air Traffic Management (GATM) technology was needed to comply with proposedchanges;aircraftwithoutGATMequipment wouldbepreventedfromusingheavilytraveledair corridors.ExclusionofUSstrategicmobilityaircraft fromtheworld'sbusiestairrouteswouldincreasefuel costs and travel time while decreasing allowable cabinloadsanddelayingforcedeployments.GATM elements included data links replacing voice communication,integratedglobalpositioningand flightmanagementsystems,andautomaticaircraft positionreportinginsteadofradarmonitoring. Asanaddedsafetymeasureforformationflying, TCASgavepilotstheabilitytoseeotheraircraftand provided advance warning of possible mid-air collisions. GPS receivers provided aircrews with near-pinpoint navigational accuracy. These new systems are primarily controlled through flightmanagementcomputersthatautomatemanyaircrew functionsandreducetheoverallworkload. Theprogrammewasstructuredintwosegments, Block 10 and Block 20. Both blocks underwent stringent testing to assess the new systems' operationaleffectivenessandsuitability.Production kitsbegandeliverybythecontractorinmid-1997, with installations immediately following at the OklahomaCityAirLogisticsCenter. Block 10 replaced the APN-59 radar with a Collinscommercialcolourweatherradaron128Air National Guard aircraft.These aircraft eventually transitionedtotheBlock20upgrade. Block 20 was a fleet-wide modification. It includesthesameCollinsradar,newaircraftheading references,andinstallationofGPSequipment.The N-1andJ-4compasssystemswerereplacedbya
GPS inertial navigation system and the existing CarouselIV-Einertialnavigationsystem.Twoflightmanagement, system-control display units also providedaccesstothefuel-savingsadvisorysystem. Adata-transferandstoragesystemallowedcrews toaccess50flightplanswithupto200waypoints each. Information was viewed on the same multifunctional displays used in Block 10, but in Block 20 the displays replace the horizontal situational indicators and attitude directional indicatorsatthepilots'stations.Informationprojected onthedisplayswasselectablebyeachoperatorand includedradarandroute-of-flightmapping,andorbit patternsforairrefuelling.Allaircrafthadwiringto thenavigatorstationforplacementofthesesame units,shouldthemissiondictate.Anewglareshield housestheradarandmultifunctionaldisplaycontrol panels.Someoftheoldround-dialinstrumentsand warninglightswereremovedandtheirdataviewed onthenewdisplays.Theupgradesprovideacleaner layouttotheentireinstrumentpanel. Some KC-135Rs were fitted with Reduced VerticalSeparationMinimum(RVSM)equipment, knownasthePacerCRAGBlock25configuration. Inanefforttodealwiththetremendousgrowthofair traffic, International Civil Aviation Organization membernationshaveagreedtocomplywithRVSM as one of many planned air traffic management changes. RVSM reduces the vertical separation betweenaircraftfrom2,000to1,000feetataltitudes between 33,000 and 37,000 feet. The RVSM kit consists of Group B components and Group A hardware including wiring harnesses, pitot static tubingandmetalfabricatedparts.Duetoreceptacle typevariations,modificationsrequiredtotheGFP RVSMkitswillvaryfromaircrafttoaircraft.With thehighutilisationoftheseaircraft,minimumaircraft downtimeandflexibleschedulingofmodification dateswerenecessarytomeetacriticaloperational requirement. InordertomaintaintheKC-135fleet,in1999Air Mobility Command developed a new 'block 30' programmetoperformadditionalmodificationsto the fleet at the same time as Pacer CRAG modifications.Someadditionalmodificationsunder theblock30programmeincludedenhancedground proximity warning system, which uses aircraft positionandadigitalterraindatabasetoprovidelookaheadawarenesstotheaircrew.TheReducedVertical SeparationMinima,equippedthefleettooperatein reducedverticalseparationairspace.Thisincluded anadditionaldigitalairdatacomputer,newdigital altimeters and digital airspeed indicators. The navigationandsafetymodificationinstalledaflight
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The earlier NKC-135A AIT 55-3128 with spray rig extended and right, a close up of the spray ‘head’. Its use gave rise to a crazy decades-long conspiracy theory that ‘the establishment were using aircraft to spray chemicals into the atmosphere to alter the weather or reduce the population known as ‘chem-trails’. (USAF)
datarecorder,cockpitvoicerecorderandemergency locator transmitter.This initiative brought a large packageofmodificationstogether,essentiallyintoa singlemodification,termedtheblock30airplane. This programme had the effect of reducing the amountoftimethateachaircraftisunavailabletothe KC-135fleet.
KC-135R AIT TheAirborneIcingTanker(AIT)isamodifiedKC135RStatotankeraircraft,thatsimulatesrainandice, allowingthemilitarytodeterminetheireffectson aircraft.Suchanaircraftallowstestingtooccurat EdwardsAirForceBaseratherthanhavingtodeploy otherlocationsthroughouttheworld. TheAirForcesonlyAITwasmodifiedbyBAS Systems in Mojave, CA, after receiving modificationstoitsnavigationsystemthatwillbring itinlinewithoperationalKC-135aircraft.
The$12millionAITprogramme,whichbegan inFebruary1999,reinstitutedanenvironmentaltest capabilitytosimulateairbornerainandiceconditions undercontrolledconditions. TheAITconductedtestingonanumberofDOD aircraft,aswellasFederalAviationAdministration certificationtestingoncommercialaircraft. It was a multi-service project, Edwards AFB havingleadresponsibilitiesfortheproject,theArmy providing system and user requirements and the Navyheadingupateamtodesignandbuildthe sprayarraysystem.TheAirForcewasresponsible fortheinstrumentation,water,boomandbleedair systems,aswellasintegrationofallthecomponents onto the airframe. The 412th Logistics Group instrumentation division designed the on-aircraft systemandinstalleditontheaircraft. C-135FR In a programme approved in January 1980 and starting in 1984, the eleven remaining C-135Fs deliveredtoFrancewereconvertedwiththeCFM InternationalCFM.56-2A-2tomakethemidentical (engineandsystemswise)totheKC-135Rsusedby theUSAF,thefirstdeliverybeinginAugust1985. Problemswithcorrosionandpossiblecracksinthe undercarriage resulted in three USAF KC-135Rs beingloanedtotheArmeedeI'Airwhilerepairswere conducted.Theyweredeliveredon19December 1992withaprojectedstayofeighteenmonthsand werenotedatBirmingham,ALinJune1994awaiting attentionbuttworeturnedonextendedloanandwere
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A stunning picture of a re-engined ‘Combat Sent’ aircraft (USAF)
replacedbypurchasedaircraft,thistimestoredKC135AsbeingconvertedtoKC-135Rstandard.After repairsoneoftheC-135FRs,(12736/93-CH),was returnedtoBoeinginMay1993andfittedwithwing mountedhoseanddroguepodsaswellasretaining the flying boom installation, thus enabling three aircrafttoberefuelledsimultaneously.Firstflightwas inOctober1993andtheremainingtenaircraftwere convertedbyAirFrance.
RC-135S TheRC-135SswereconvertedfromNKC-135Aor C-135B for Telemetry Intelligence (TELINT) to gather information on Soviet missile tests and to confirm compliance with the SALT treaty. From 1958thismissionwasflownbyEB-47E(TT)aircraft but these lacked optical collection capability so NKC-135A 59-1491 was allocated to the ‘Nancy Rae’programmein1962toassistinthedevelopment ofthisoption.ItwasredesignatedRC-135Son1 March1963whentransferredtoSAC.Thefirstone waslaterrenamed ‘Wanda Belle’ butwaslostin1969 (itretainedtheJ57-PengineswhileotherRC-135S wereconvertedC-135BswithTF33-P-5turbofans). Theconfigurationvariedbetweentheaircraftand also at different stages of their operational life. ConsistentwastheelongatednoseandIFRbutthere werevaryingnumbersofantennaeontheforward fuselageandtheadditionofroundcircularwindows with sliding covers. Initially used for ‘Rivet Ball/CobraBall’operations,theylaterhadcameras fittedandthenflew‘BurningStar’missions-during
themid-1970stheyhadthestarboardwingpainted black(includinginsidesofthenacelles)foranti-glare projects.TheywereonstandbyatShemyaAFB,AK until31March1975,whentheybeganworld-wide deploymentswithatypicalcrewoffourontheflight deck and twelve mission specialists. Plans were proposedtore-enginewiththeF108-CF-100butthis was later dropped due to Congressional Budget Restrictions. In 1995 the decision was taken to convertthestoredRC-135X‘CobraEye’aircraftinto aRC-135SbyRaytheonE-Systems.On1June1998 theUSAFannouncedthatallRC-135variantswould bere-enginedwiththeF108enginesbetweenAugust 1998and2002. TC-135S FollowingthelossoftheRC-135T,anEC-135Bwas convertedbyE-Systemsfromearly1985toserveas atrainingaircraftfortheRC-135Screwssincethe aerodynamiceffectsdifferfromthestandardaircraft. Itdidnotcarrythesophisticatedelectronicequipment oftheRC-135Ss,waspoweredbyTF33-P-5engines, andhadIFRsystemsbutnoboom.On1June1998 USAFannouncedthatallRC-135variantswouldbe re-enginedwiththeF108enginesbetweenAugust 1998and2002.
KC-135T Following retirement of the SR-71 Blackbird the remaining KC-135Qs, which were used to refuel thesehighflyingreconnaissanceaircraftwiththeir specialJP-7fuel,wereadaptedbythefittingofF108-
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Two Cobra Ball aircraft on the flightline at Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska in 2001.(SRA Jeremy Smith, USAF) Right: the interior of the main cabin of a Cobra aircraft. (USAF)
CF-100(CFM.56)enginesandARRtoKC-135T standardforuseasgeneraltankers(theycanalso handlethestandardJP-4fuel).AllsurvivingKC135Qswereconvertedbytheendof1995,thelast aircraft,58-0099enteringtheprocessattheendof September1995.
RC-135T OneofthefirstKC-135Rs(andlaterRC-135Rs)was redesignatedinMay1971andoperatedas‘Rivet Dandy’missionaircraftwithflightcrewoffourand mission crew of eleven. It was de-modified to a trainerinJuly1973andthePMEEtransferredto580126.Itretainedthehognoseandwingtipstaticboom whiletheIFRwasinactivated.Itwasretrofittedwith TF33-PW-102 turbofans in 1982 then used as a trainingaircraftforRC-135pilotsandnavigators.It was due to be replaced in mid 1985 by a newly converted TC-135S and move to 55thSRW as a trainerbutwaslostbeforethetransfer. RC-135U Three RC-135Cs were converted by General DynamicstoRC-135UsstartingJuly1970andthe onlyoriginalexternaldifferencewastheadditionof
aextendedtailconeandafairingonthefinabovethe rudder.Latermodificationsincludedthefittingofa chinradome,alargeSLARfairingoneachsideof thefuselagejustbehindthecockpitand‘RabbitEars’ antenna arrays above. Aircraft flew ‘Combat Sent/CombatPink’missionsduringthelatterstages oftheVietnamconflict. RC-135V Commencingin1972E-SystemsconvertedoneRC135BandsevenRC-135CstoRC-135Vstoprovide
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IcannotletthischapterontheKC-135passby withoutmentioninganalleged‘incident’atthe 1987FinninglyBattleofBritainAirshow.Atthe time it was the fashion for units or groups to ‘zap’-thatistoapplyasticker-toeachother’s aircraft.One‘group’althoughnotofficial,wasa squadofgirlscalled‘Pilot’sPals’organisedby former RAF member Joseph Merchant, who ownedandranapublishingorganisationofthe samenamethatproducedspecialistcalenders. Joe’sgirls-whowereallintoseriousfun,chaos andmayhem-werespecialguestsattheshow. Withtheirblackflyingsuitsandwhitebootsand beltsdrewalotofmediaattention. LegendhasitthatJoewasdeterminedthathisorganisationwasgoingtomakeitsmarkwiththe biggest,boldestzapever-anditwouldbeappliedtothebiggestaircraftattheairshow. OneoftheparticipantsonstaticdisplaywasKC-135E63604oftheKansasAirNationalGuard. Therewererumoursthatcertaindisplayroutinepatternschalkedonthedisplaybriefingboardsbore astrangeresemblancetotheerectmaleorgan,butthatwasvigorouslydisputedbyacertainYUGO Cars-sponsoredwing-walker,claimingthataBoeingStrearmancouldnotflythatpattern!Onthe Saturdayeveningafterthefirstdayoftheshowtherewasa barbequeonbase,hostedbytheDominieSquadron.Thegirls andJoewerethecentreofattentionamongsttheairandground crewalike. AsdawnbrokeontheSundaymorningtherewasmuch attentionaroundthetailoftheKC-135-whichnowborea threefootdiameter‘zap’ofthepuppyinabone-domethatwas thelogoofPilotsPals.WordhasitthattheStationCommander ‘was not amused’ having such a thing done to an aircraft guestingonhisairfield,andsothezapwasquicklyremoved, andjustasquicklyvanished,allegedlytosurfaceagainina crewroomintheUSA.Joeandthegirlsofcourse,deniedall knowledgeofit-andnopicturesseemtohavebeentakenof theevent-oriftheywere,theyhavebeenkeptquiet!
COMINT and ELINT. Both the large SLAR fairingsreferredtoaboveintheRC-135Usandthe elongatednoseofotherreconnaissancevariants were fitted and there were also other blade antennaeunderthefuselage.TheRC-135Vscould alsobeusedasanAirborneCommandPostandas combatsupportaircraftonmissionslikepolicing theno-flyzoneinIraqorpatrollingoverBosnia. OneRC-135U(63-9792)wasconvertedtoRC135VstatusbyE-Systemsin1976/77.Powerwas fromTF33-P-9enginesbutbudgetapprovalwas grantedtore-enginewithF108-CF-100salthough nothingwasfinalisedandBoeing,inassociation
withRolls-Royce/AllisonEnginesputforwardan unsolicitedproposaltore-enginethewholeRC135fleet(aswellasAWACSandJ-STARaircraft) withenginesleasedfromthesupplierstosavethe USAFmoneyovertheirplannedservicelife.On 1 June 1998 USAF announced that all RC-135 variants would be re-engined with the F108 enginesbetweenAugust1998and2002. OC-135W Followingtheremovaloftheflightengineer'sstation fromthethreeOC-135B‘OpenSkies’aircraftthey wereredesignatedOC-135W.
Opposite page: an unusual vertically down view of a Türk Hava Kuvvetleri (the aerial warfare service branch of the Turkish Armed Forces) KC-135R in formation with the Turkish Stars aerobatic display team, flying Northrop NF-5s. The THK operate seven KC-135Rs that received the Pacer CRAG upgrade. The aircraft were operated by the 101st Squadron, stationed at Incirlik Air Base. (Türk Hava Kuvvetleri)
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RC-135W ThesixRC-135MswereconvertedbyE-Systems andredesignatedasRC-135Wstandardfollowing rebuildinthe1980sandwereequippedtoasimilar standard to the RC-135Vs but with additional antennae.CurrentlypoweredbyTF33-P-5engines theywereduetobere-enginedwithF108-CF-100s butthisoptionwasatercancelled.ThreeC-135Bs weremodifiedbyRaytheonE-Systemsfrom1996/97 toRC-135Wstatustojointhehardpressed‘Rivet Joint’fleet.On1June1998USAFannouncedthat allRC-135variantswouldbere-enginedwiththe F108enginesbetweenAugust1998and2002.
TC-135W One C-135B was converted to the TC-135W, a similaraerodynamicplatformtotheRC-135W,but withoutthedelicateavionics,toserveasatraining aircraft,itwasalsopoweredbyTF33-P-5enginesbut reenginingwasplannedbutnotcompletedinitially althoughUSAFgaveapprovalon1June1998for reenginingofallRC-135variantswithF108s. WC-135W In1995,toconsolidatedisparateairframes,allformer WC-135Bsnototherwiseconvertedandredesignated weregiventheWC-135WMDSeventhougheach undertookdifferentmissions!61-2665wasusedasa trialaircraftfortheOC-135fleetandwasfittedwith Stage3hush-kitsbeforebeingretiredtoAMARC, 61-2666wasleasedto(Raytheon)E-Systemsfrom May1995asatrialsaircraftandatrainerwhilethe third aircraft, 61-2667, was used as a flight deck traineroperatedby55thWingforEC/RC-135crews andwasknownastheSilkPursetrainer.
RC-135X The sole RC-135X Cobra Eye, 62-4128, was convertedtoRC-135XforuseintheSDI‘StarWars’
projecttogatherinformationonSovietmissiletests. Thiswasdoneduringthemid-to-late-1980smaking use of a C-135B Telemetry/Range Instrumented Aircraft. When the funding for its project, titled ‘OpticalAircraftMeasurementProgram’,finished the aircraft withdrawn from use. In 1993, it was convertedintoanadditionalRC-135SCobraBall.In late 1995 it began conversion to RC-135S configurationbyRaytheonE-SystemsandwasreenginedwithF108engines.
EC-135Y TwoEC-135NswereconvertedtoEC-135Yswith additionalequipmentforusebyCINCENTCOM. TheyarepoweredbyTF33-PW-102sfromretired airliners and were both active during Operation ‘DesertStorm',bothassupportforGeneralNorman Schwarzkopfand,occasionally,asatankerasthey retaintheboom. RC-135W Rivet Joint (Project Airseeker) TheUnitedKingdomboughtthreeKC-135Raircraft for conversion to RC-135W Rivet Joint standard undertheAirseekerproject.Acquisitionofthethree aircraft was budgeted at £634m, with entry into serviceinOctober2014.Theaircraftformedpartof 51SquadronRAF,basedatRAFWaddingtonalong with the RAF's other ISTAR assets. They are expectedtoremaininBritishserviceuntil2045. TheRAFhadgatheredsignalsintelligencewith threeNimrodR1s,convertedinthe1970sfromthe NimrodMR1maritimepatrolaircraft.Whenthetime cametoupgradethemaritimeNimrodstoMRA4 standard,ProjectHelixwaslaunchedinAugust2003 tostudyoptionsforextendingthelifeoftheR1to 2025.TheoptionofswitchingtoRivetJointwas addedtoHelixin2008,andtheretirementoftheR1 becameinevitablewhentheMRA4wascancelled under the UK's 2010 budget cuts. The R1's
A Royal Air Force Rivet Joint aircraft arries at Mildenhall before taking up duties from RAF Waddington. The aircraft carries the 51 Squadron ‘droopy goose’ emblem on the fin. (USAF)
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ZZ664 with the 100th Anniversary markings of 51 Squadron on its fin. This version of the ‘droopy goose’ appears to be not quite so droopy! Although the aircraft retains the boomer’s position, it does not carry the full refuelling boom. ( USAF)
involvementoverLibyainOperationEllamydelayed itsretirementuntilJune2011. Helix became ProjectAirseeker, under which three KC-135R airframes were converted to RC135W standard by L-3 Communications, who provideongoingmaintenanceandupgradesundera long-termagreement.Thethreeairframesareformer UnitedStatesAirForceKC-135Rs,allofwhichfirst flewin1964butweremodifiedtothelatestRC135Wstandardbeforedelivery.Thethreeairframes aretheyoungestKC-135sintheUSAFfleet. 51 Sqn personnel began training at Offutt in January2011forconversiontotheRC-135.Thefirst RC-135W(ZZ664)wasdeliveredaheadofschedule totheRAFon12November2013,forfinalapproval andtestingbytheDefenceSupportandEquipment team prior to its release to service from the UK MAA.The second one was once again delivered ahead of schedule on 4 September 2015 at RAF MildenhallinSuffolk.Thethirdisscheduledtobe deliveredandfullyoperationalbyDecember2017.
Extending the life - KC-135R Block 45. ItwasthroughtheactivitiesofAMARCthatthe 418thFlightTestSquadronatEdwards,alongwith amultitudeoftesters,theKC-135Block45test teamwereabletocompleteaseriesofteststohelp extendtheaircraft’sservicelifefordecades. “There are currently around 400 KC-135s that enhance the Air Force’s capability to accomplish its primary mission of Global Reach while providing aerial refueling support to Air Force, Navy, Marine Corps and allied nation aircraft. These aircraft also provide mission support including cargo, aeromedical evacuation, personnel transport, and a variety of other specialized missions,” said Major John Mikal, 418th FLTS KC-135 Block 45 lead project test pilot. ‘Increasing the life expectancy of the current
Air Force tanker fleet is critical. Ongoing upgrade programs help to ensure there is no gap in these mission capabilities, while the new KC-46 program starts replacing the aging KC-135 fleet.” The Block 45 modification was needed to extend the KC-135 aircraft as a viable weapon system through fiscal year 2040. The Block 45 systems mitigate capability gaps and improve overall KC-135 shortcomings in reliability, maintainability and supportability. At the initial start of the KC-135 Block 45 program,itwasoriginallyestimatedthattesting would end in March 2011, but the technical challengeofintegratingthenewdigitalsystems provedtobeverychallenging,accordingtothetest team. ‘It took an amazing amount of ingenuity and hard work by the collective KC-135 Block 45 upgrade team, due to the program experiencing a two-month stop in test in early 2012 to determine the cause of a structural coupling event which occurred during flight test. While clearing the aerial refueling envelope, the performance of the new autopilot altitude hold was so good, readjustment was required to improve stability during aerial refueling coupled flight.’ Alongwiththe418th,themassive,multi-year task required support from more than ninety memberstoovercometechnicalhurdlesandprevent theveryrealthreatofprogramcancellation.Ofthose included,individualswereacquiredfromthe412th TestWing,412thOperationsGroup,412thTestand EngineeringGroup,773rdTestSquadron,775thTest Squadron,370thFlightTestSquadron,445thFlight TestSquadron,theKC-135SpecialProgramsOffice, RockwellCollins,AirMobilityCommandTestand EvaluationSquadronDetachment3,AMCAir,Space andInformationOperations(A3),andMcConnellAir ForceBase,Kan. ‘There were only two KC-135 aircrew in the
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The old, and the new!
The KC-135R Block 45 Upgrade required a massive update to the flight deck, moving from analogue instrumentation in the pilot’s centre console above, to a fully digital verson, as seen on the right. ( USAF)
A flight test crew from Edwards AFB evaluate the glass cockpit of a Block 45 KC-135R. (USAF)
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418th FLTS when the program started. Eventually, the 418th FLTS KC-135 aircrew numbered four; even so, Test Operations was largely instrumental in supporting the program with their KC-135 aircrew,’ saidMajorJohnMikal. MostnotablythoughwastheEdwardsteam, which was able to complete the final testing $200,000 below cost and three weeks ahead of newschedulethroughextremelyefficienttesting andtestexecutionflexibilitydespiteregularscope changes, priority changes, funding rebaseline, weather cancellations, maintenance issues, resourcerescheduling/constraints,andtheultimate challengeofaddressingtheARoscillationissue withnoadditionalscheduleorfundingimpacts. MajJohnMikal:‘In the end, the Global Reach Combined Test Force test team proved to be a pivotal contributor, bringing this challenged program to a successful completion. Successful completion of this program has secured the opportunity to field Block 45 to the KC-135 fleet, while preventing the otherwise inevitable reduction in overall mission effectiveness due to avionics obsolescence and CNS/ATM airspace access issues. Without the KC-135 Block 45, 88percent of the USAF tanker assets would eventually be unable to complete their mission. The Block 45 modification was needed to extend the KC-135 aircraft as a viable weapon system through fiscal year 2040. The Block 45 systems mitigate capability gaps and improve overall KC-135 shortcomings in reliability, maintainability and supportability.’
Tanking with the 100 ARW In1976,duetobudgetreductions,StrategicAir Command consolidated its Strategic Reconnaissance assets. The 99th Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron and its U-2s were returnedfromU-TapaoinThailandandassigned tothe9thStrategicReconnaissanceWing(9SRW) on 1 July 1976. This brought all the Strategic ReconnaissanceassetsofSACunderonewingat Beale AFB, California. The 9th SRW already controlled the 1st Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron,whichoperatedtheSR-71Blackbird. TheU-2Rsofthe349thSRSandtheAQM-34 Firebee/DC-130Herculesdroneoperationsofthe 350th SRS were discontinued, the squadrons becomingKC-135tankersquadronsofthe100th AirRefuellingWinginsupportofthe9thSRSSR71Blackbird.TheU-2RsinSouthKoreabecame the 9th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing Detachment2.TheAQM-34s,associatedDC-130
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Hercules launch aircraft and CH-3 Jolly Green Giantrecoveryhelicopterswerereassignedtothe Tactical Air Command 22nd Tactical Drone SquadronandremainedatDavis-MonthanAFB. Withtheredesignation,the100thandits349th and350thAirRefuelingSquadronsweremoved administrativelytoBeale,takingovertheassetsof the 17th Bombardment Wing, which was inactivated.The349thand350thassumedtheKC135s of the 903d and 922d Air Refueling Squadrons. With the re-designation, the 100th ARW assumed responsibility for providing worldwideairrefuellingsupportforthe9thSRW's SR-71sandU-2son30September1976. The100thARWwasinactivatedon15March 1983 when its two KC-135 squadrons were reassigned to the host 9th Strategic ReconnaissanceWingatBeale,whichbecamea composite wing under the one-base, one-wing concept. Afteraninactivestatusforoversevenyears, SACagainreactivatedthe100th,butthistimeas the 100th Air Division at Whiteman AFB, Missouri, on 1 July 1990, an intermediate commandechelonofStrategicAirCommand.It assumedhostunitresponsibilitiesatWhiteman.In addition, the division controlled the 509th BombardmentWing,whichwasnotoperational while waiting for production B-2 Spirit stealth bomberstoarriveandappropriatefacilitiesforthe B-2stobeconstructed.Italsocontrolledthe351st MissileWing,anLGM-30FMinutemanIIICBM wingatWhiteman. Air Force reorganization put the 351st MW underthereactivatedTwentiethAirForceon29 March1991,andthe509thBombWingtookover host duties at Whiteman. As a result, SAC inactivatedthe100thADagainon1August1991. Six months after its inactivation as an Air Division,andover46yearsafterleavingEngland at the end of World War Two, the Air Force activated the 100 ARW, stationed at RAF Mildenhall,UnitedKingdom,on1February1992. It was assigned to Strategic Air Command, FifteenthAirForce,14thAirDivision.Itwasthen reassignedtoThirdAirForceon1February1992. Fromthetimeofitsreactivation,the100ARWhas servedastheUnitedStatesAirForcesEurope's loneairrefuellingwing.Italsoservesasthehost unitatRAFMildenhall,whereitdeployedaircraft and managed the European Tanker Task Force. OneoftheWing'shonoursisthatitistheonly modern USAF operational Wing allowed to display on its assigned aircraft the tail code
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(Square-D)ofitsWorldWarTwopredecessor. At the 100ARW operations centre, the premission briefing reviewed once again all the pertinentfeaturesoftheday’staskandroundedoff theplanningsessionswhichhadbeenheldearlier intheweek.Thebriefinggotunderwaywitharoll calltoactasafinalchecktoconfirmcallsigns, theaircrafttobemannedandtheirlocationsonthe airfield. ‘Capt Smith?’ ‘All present’. ‘Astra Eight One, 0267, Hardstand 28’. ‘Capt Jones?’ ‘Present’. ‘Astra Eight Two, 01 17 Q model, Hardstand 16’. The customary time check followed: ‘In 40 seconds, Gentlemen, it will be zero six zero two Local; 15… 10… 5, 4, 3, 2, 1- Hack! 0602 — is anyone for 03 ?’ The resume of the day’s mission, was straightforward. The Mildenhall Tanker Task Forcewastoprovideairrefuellingsupportforthe redeployment of twenty-four F-16 Fighting FalconsfromSpangdahlemAB,GermanytoShaw AFB,SC.Atotaloftwentyaircraftwouldcovering air refuelling sectors 1-5 and there would be twenty-fourtankersfromPeaseAFB,NHcovering ARS 6-10. The crews were referred to their
‘Square D’ 61-0267 of the 100 ARW at RAF Mildenhall. ( USAF)
mission document packages containing all the relevant paperwork on timings, fuel offloads, communicationsfrequencies,abortbases,etc.The informationcoveredallfourfive-tankercellsso thatanycrewwouldbeabletoflyinanyoneof the twenty mission slots should last-minute changesnecessitateaswitchoftankersbetween formationsorwithincellsequences. Next, the all-important weather forecast: in general,theoutlookwasfavourable.Europewas coveredbyanareaofhighpressurewhichoffered the prospect of another fine day, but there was some uncertainty about the time at which the missioncouldgetunderwayasfogwascovering all the bases in Germany. Spangdahlem was reportingthree-tenthsofamilevisibilitywith200 feetobscuredandnotexpectingittoliftbefore 08.00-09.00hrs,sotherecouldbeadelayinthe fightersdeparture.Somemistandfogpatchesat Mildenhallwereexpectedtodisperseaftersunrise, givingfourmilesvisibilityinhazefortheearly tankertake-offs.AttheabortbasesintheUK, everything was good, similarly at Lajes in the Azores, but Keflavik in Iceland was reporting strongwindsgustingto40knotsormore,withrain showers. Thebriefingthenturnedtotheairfieldstatus andpre-departureprocedures.Theactiverunway was29,allthenavigationaidswereoperableand
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therewerenorestrictions.Inassessingtake-off performance,thecrewswereremindedthatthere was a downhill slope on runway 29, and if the action should switch to runway 11, a correspondingslightuphillgradeinthatdirection. Alltaxiandtake-offclearancesweretobecalled by the cell leaders with the rest of the cell acknowledging the leader’s radio calls. The SupervisorofFlying’slastchancecheckswould beconductedontheholdlinetoonesideofthe threshold and, once cleared, the aircraft could proceedontotherunway. Exploitingalltheavailablesurface,take-offs atMildenhallweretobeinitiatedfromtheendof theover-runbeyondthethreshold,sothattankers hadtotaxitotheextremityoftherunway,pick-up the180°guidedturn-roundlineandline-upfor departure. BackinthedaysbeforetheKC-135werereenginedwiththeCFM-56s,itwouldhavebeenat this point that crews using water injection for assistedtake-offswouldberemindedtogetwater on all engines before brake release rather than attemptingtobringupthewaterontheroll. ‘The old water technique’, substantially increasedthetake-offpoweravailablefromthe KC-135’s four J57 engines. At maximum dry power,thesewereratedatsome15,500pounds thrust each, but with water injection the thrust rating is increased by about 4,000 pounds per engine,ausefulgainforhighweighttake-offs.The various methods for coping with water supply problems were outlined, including throttle adjustmentsandapplicationofpowerandwaterto twoenginesatatime. Althoughthetake-offswerescheduledattwo minuteintervals,itwouldtakesometimetoget thefive-aircraftformationstogether;theflightplan calledinitiallyforafiftymilesectortothenorth andbacktoMildenhallduringwhichthecellswere to form-up using differential airspeeds and, if necessary,somecut-offsontheturns. Aftertake-offfromrunway29theaircraftwere to turn right to intercept the 335° radial from Mildenhall,proceedingoutonthiscoursetothe fifty mile mark near Coningsby, then arcing eastwardsovertheWashtomaintainthisdistance from base until crossing the 010° radial from Mildenhall,atwhichpointarightturnwouldbe madeontothereciprocalheadingof190°tobring the cells southwards and back to a position overheadMildenhall. Thebasisoftheairrefuellingplanwasthatthe third,fourthandfifthtankersineachcellwouldbe
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solelyresponsibleforthefirstthreehook-ups,AR l-3,eachKC-135takingtwooftheF-16sinthe six-aircraftreceiverformations.Attheconclusion ofAR3,thethreetankerswhichhadworkedAR 1-3wouldbreakawayfromthecell,leavingthe leadandnumbertwotankerstotakethreeF-16s each through AR4 and 5 to the mid-Atlantic rendezvouswiththePeaseTTF.Thispatternof operationensuresthattherearetankerswiththe receiversthewholewayacrosstheAtlantic,with a definite hand- off to the US-based KC-l35s takingplaceatmid-ocean,whiletheearlybreakawayofpartoftheEuropeanTTFeasesthetraffic controlsituationduringthetankerhandover. AccompanyingthemissionwouldbeanEC135, call sign Chine 99, tasked as Tactical Deployment Control Aircraft (TDCA) with an airborne movement control team aboard. The TDCAwouldjointhestreamatLand’sEndand
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positionfivenauticalmilesbehindthefifthtanker inthesecondKC-l35cell. Interspersedthroughthebriefingwerere-caps onthealtitudereservations-or‘ALTRV’asthey are known in the trade - for each phase of the mission, the communications frequencies to be usedandtheproceduresforensuringcorrectfuel offloadsandtransmissionofthelatterinformation totheWing’sstaffpersonnelflyingineachcell whowould,inturn,reportthenumberstoTDCA. Beforethegatheringdispersedtoindividual tankercellbriefings,thefloorwasgivenoverto theTTFCommander:‘It’s been a long briefing and an early morning, and we’ve all got to go to work - so I’ll keep this quick. Five-ship - its been a long time maybe since some of you have flown Five-ship cells; may I remind ya’ll of the benefits of a good tight formation, especially if the weather gets tricky en-route. ' Wejoinedthecrewof‘AstraSevenThree’,the third tanker in the second cell, to sit in on the ‘Astra Seven One Flight’ briefing.There was a finalcheckthroughthegroup’sstart-up,taxi,takeoff,radio,en-routeandtankingprocedures,the
objective being to ensure that the formation functioned as a cohesive unit and that airborne communications were kept to the minimum necessary.Thecellleaderwassuccinct:‘...as long as you’re on your timings and have no problems, don’t give me any calls at all. Try and hold the chatter down to an absolute minimum’. Thenit was out to the crew buses for the ride to the flightlinesontheothersideoftheairfield. Travellingroundtheperimeterroadinthepale light of the sunrise, it became evident that Mildenhall was unusually well occupied that morningwithabouttwenty-fivetankersdistributed onparkingspotseithersideofthetaxiway.Asthe buspassedalongtheflightlines,thedistinctive Boeing 707-like shapes of the Stratotankers loomedoutofthemist. Whiletheothermembersofthecrew,co-pilot, navigatorandboomoperatorcontinuedwiththe preliminarychecklists,theaircraftCommander left the aircraft to run a pre-flight eye over the Stratotanker’sexteriorincompanywiththecrew chief.Startingupfrontwiththenosewheeltyres, lights,doorsandactuatingpanel,theyproceeded
A Polish air force F-16 pilot receives fuel from a US Air Force KC-135 from the 100th Air Refueling Wing during a NATO exercise on 7 April 2009. The KC-135 Stratotanker is capable of delivering fuel to more than 20 F-16 aircraft in a single mission. (USAF photo by Staff Sgt Jerry Fleshman)
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A KC-135 from the 100th Air Refueling Wing, RAF Mildenhall, England, refuels a pair of F-16 Fighting Falcons from Spangdahlem Air Base, Germany, during a multinational exercise on 7 April 2009. (USAF photo by Staff Sgt Jerry Fleshman)
via the nose-mounted pitot tubes and angle of attackindicatorprobetothemaingearbay.The right main gear was examined for any sign of hydraulicleaks,tyrewear,strutdamage,andthe engines for any post maintenance debris in the inletsorforloosecowlingpanels.Thewingflying surfaceswerescrutinisedforanyuntowardsigns andlikewisetherearfuselageandtail;andthen thereversesequencefollowedontheleftsideof theaircraft.Allwasinorderandwassignedoff accordingly. Backinthecockpit,thepilotsmadecontact withthegroundcrewbelowtochecktheresponses ofthemovingsurfacesagainstthestickandrudder pedalmovements.Arunningcommentarycameup through the ground intercom as the cockpit controlsandtrimdeviceswerepositionedandrepositioned: 'Stabiliser leading edge moving up... inboard tabs following’. 'Stabiliser leading edge moving down... inboard. tabs follow’. ‘Rudder left... tab right’. ‘Rudder right... tab left’. ‘Rudder left... tab left’. ‘Rudder right... tab right’. The most noticeable feature of the cockpit layout was the absence of a flight engineer’s station,theright-handseatimmediatelyaftofthe
co-pilotbeingoccupiedbythenavigator.Sothe fuelmanagementtaskamongotherextrasisalso a front seat responsibility, and as the Aircraft Commanderexplained,it’sreallytheco-pilotwho istheflightengineerandwhodevelopstheknack ofbeingabletolookinseveraldirectionsatonce! Thespacebetweenthecentralinstrumentpanel andthethrottlequadrantwasoccupiedbyafuel panel. Criss-crossed by solid and broken lines, representingfuellinescontrolledbyboostpumps andgravityfeedrespectively,andwithamyriad ofvalvecontrolsandswitches,thepanelcontained tengauges-oneforeachtank,plusatotalaircraft fuel gauge. That morning the Stratotanker was loadedwith145,000poundsoffuel,considerably morethantheaircraft’sownweightof108,000lb. Also included in the fuel panel instrumentation was a totaliser showing the cumulative fuel quantityoffloadedandanindicatorwhichmarks theflowratetothereceiver.Theoffloadflowrates vary a good deal between different types of receivers-withaB-52ontheboomthedelivery isnormally6,500lb/minbutit’sabouthalfthatfor anF-16. Thefuelvalvesenablethepilotorco-pilotto selectthefuelroutingsbetweenthetanksandthe engines,ortotherefuellingaircraft.Fuelcanbe takenoutofanyofthewingorfuselagetanksto supplytheboom,butitismostfrequentlygivento
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the receiver from the aft body tank as this simplifiestheinternalfuelmovementneededto maintaintheKC-l35’scentreofgravity. Afterthecompletionofthevariouspre-start checkliststherewastimeforthecrewtorelaxorsowethought.Themissiontimingshadbeen putbackbyanhourasthefogatSpangdahlemwas holdinguptheF-16departuresand,inaddition, Astra73andtherestofthesecondcellwouldhave towaitafurtherthirtyminuteswhileAstra81-85 got away.As the first cell started up and made ready to taxi, the temporary lull in ‘1475’ was interruptedbythenewsthatAstra83wasunable togowiththefirstcellandAstra73wouldhaveto takeitsslot.Suddenlyitwasallactivityagain,and werecalledthebriefingremarksaboutanycrew being able to refer to the mission document packagesandflyinanyoneofthetwentytanker positions. Now the new Astra 83 sortie was off and running;airwasductedfromthegroundpower unit to No 4 engine, its RPM rose to 15%, the throttlewasadvanced,ignition,andthepowerwas brought up to flight idle.All four engines were startedinapromptsequenceandthegroundcrew wereworkingfasttocleartheaircraft. GroundCrew:‘Ground calling’. Astra83AircraftCommander:‘Go ahead’. GroundCrew:‘Roger sir; external power and air removed; chocks removed; all panels and hatches and secondary structures secure’. Astra83AircraftCommander:‘And Ground, are we in a taxi configuration now?’ GroundCrew:‘Roger sir’. Astra 83 Aircraft Commander: ‘OK, you're cleared off. Thank you very much !’ GroundCrew:‘Roger sir’. Aquickcheckroundthecrewtomakesurethat all was ready for the move out, and then the aircraft started to taxi. Once established on the taxiway,therewasasteadyflowofpre-departure information.FirstwasAstra81,theleadtankerin thecell. Astra81:‘Astra Eight One Flight? ...are you ready to copy numbers?’ Astra82:‘Two’... Astra83:‘Three’ Astra84: ‘Four’. Astra85:‘Five’. Mildenhall Tower: ‘Astra Eight One Flight, Roger. Temperature four two degrees; dewpoint three niner; pressure altitude minus two four two; altimeter three zero two one; wind calm, unstick wind calm. Visibility is three miles in fog; ceiling two zero thousand feet; and the visibility to the east through the south is two miles’.
ThenacallfromtheMildenhallConsolidated Command Post (callsign ‘Banner’ to the Mildenhall Supervisor of Flying (callsign ‘Foxtrot’) enquiring as to the status of the American-basedKC-135s: Mildenhall Consolidated Command Post: ‘Roger sir, be advised Pease Tanker Task Force take-off times are 24,25, 26 and 27'. It was then just past 09.30hrs Local at Mildenhall so the first cell of tankers had got airbornefromtheUSAasscheduled,sometwentyfive minutes before the initial European TTF take-offs.Attheheadofthequeueonthetaxiway, Astra81wasbeingclearedoutofthelastchance checktobefollowedbyAstra82. MildenhallSupervisorofFlying:‘Eight One? Fox. Cleared the aircraft in take-off configuration, your APU doors are closed. Have a good flight! Break! Break! Astra Eight Two? Foxtrot. Turn in’. Astra82:‘Eight Two, cleared in. Momentslater,theCommandPostwasadvising thedepartureofthefirstcellofsixF-16Fighting FalconsfromSpangdahlemat09.40hrsLocal.Astra 83wasgivenafinallook-overfromthegroundand thecrewproceededthroughthepretake-offchecks whilewaitingfortheprecedingtankerstostartthe take-offstreamat09.50hrsLocal.Onthebutton, Astra81taxiedoutoftheholdarea,turnedright downtheover-run,madeaU-turnatthefarendand lined-upfordeparture.Astheaircraftpassedthe threshold on its take-off roll, Astra 82 moved forwardtorepeattheprocedureandthentheTower clearedustotherunway. MildenhallTower:‘Astra Eight Three? When airborne, change departure control frequency. Wind calm, clear for take-off’. Established at the end of the over-run, the throttleswereadvanced,andtheengineinstrument needlesspunroundthegaugesasAstra83wound uptotake-offpower.Andthenwewererolling, pastAstra84ontheholdarea,overthethreshold, acceleratingdowntherunwaycentrelineas‘1475’ pickedupspeedandthethousandfootmarkers werepassedatprogressivelyshorterintervals.A slightbackpressureonthecontrolcolumnaswe passed160knotsandtheaircraftrotatedtolift-off aftera7,000foot-plusrun.Thegearcameupas wecrossedtherunway11threshold,andthe20° take-offflapsettingwascancelledatl,000feetand 186knots.Timetoconfirmourdeparture: Astra 83: ‘Honington Radar? Astra Eight Three is airborne Victor Mike’. HoningtonControlZone:‘Astra Eight Three? Honington. Loud and clear and identified. Advise
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A Mildenhall 100 ARW KC-135 refuels an F-15C Eagle over Iceland during a training mission on 9 November 2013 (USAF Photo by Airman 1st Class Dana J Butler)
any change in flight conditions, climb Flight Level two four zero, report passing four thousand feet'. Astra83:‘Roger sir, cleared initial two four zero, report passing four’. Settledonthe335°coursefromMildenhall,the navigator had the lead tanker,Astra 81, on the radar20milesaheadandAstra82wasreporting in trail six miles behind Lead. Between the scattered cloud tops, the black smudges in the distancewereresolvingintoKC-l35sasweclosed onthefirsttwotankersofthecell.Asweskirted theWashat15,000feet,Astra81turnedrighton tothefiftymilearc,followedbytherestofthe Flight.OntheinboundlegtoMildenhallthecell closed up with two to three mile separations betweenthefirstfourtankersandwithAstra85, under Eastern Radar’s guidance, cutting the cornersatthereartocatchupthetrail.The‘inthe green’boomcallshadbeenmadetoAstra82for relaytoMildenhallwhere,shortlyafterwards,the formationturnedrightheadingforBrizeNorton and levelling the climb at 27,000 feet. Ground controlswitchedfromEasternRadartoLondon Military and then at two-mile separations, the tankerswereclearedundertheirownnavigation fromBrizeNortontoYeovilton. Astra81:‘Astra Eight One Flight, let's go left
- Heading 230°.’ Astra82:‘Two’. Astra 83: Three’. Astra 84: ‘Four’. Astra 85: ‘Five’. LondonMilitaryControl:‘Astra Eight One? London Military’. Astra81: ‘Roger Mil, Astra Eight One. We're at Flight Level two seven zero at this time’. LondonMilitaryControl: ‘Roger Eight One, you're identified, radar control Flight Level two seven zero. Confirm all tankers Flight Level two seven zero. And you read me loud and clear?’ Astra81:‘That's affirmative sir. Read you loud and clear. We've got five KC-135s, all level two seven zero'. Onaconvergingcourseforarendezvouswith thetankersnearYeovilton,andthenjustpastthe southernfringesofLondonheadingwestwardsat 26,000 feet, were six F-16 Fighting Falcons. Behindthem,againatthirtyminuteseparations, threemoresix-aircraftformations. Nearly250aircrewinsomeseventyaircraft wereabouttomakearealityofseveralhundred hoursofflightplanningintheUS,Germanyand theUK;theywoulddemonstrateoncemorethe vitalbutroutine,natureoftheaerialtankerlifeline whichaccomplishestherapidanddirecttransfer of tactical fighter aircraft between the US and
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A KC-135 from the 100th Air Refueling Wing supporting Saudi Arabian-led coalition forces during operations against extremist groups like al-Qaida in Yemen since February 2016. (USAF photo)
Europe. Asthetankersswungroundtothesouth-west, contactwiththeleadF-16formation,usingthecall signsEpson11-16,wasimminent. LondonMilitaryControl:‘Astra Eight One? London Military. The fighters are at fife fife miles range, just about to come on this frequency’. Astra81:‘Astra Eight One copies’. Epson11:‘Epson One One, check’. Epson12:‘Two’ . Epson13:‘Three’ . Epson 14:‘Four’ . Epson15:‘Five’ . Epson16:‘Six’. Epson11:‘London Mil? Epson One One, Flight Level two six zero, looking for Astra Eight One’. London Military Control: ‘Epson One One, Roger. You're identified, radar control Flight Level two six zero. Maintain two six zero. The tankers are right, in your one o'clock, range of fife zero miles at the moment. They are all at two seven zero - keep me advised’. Epson11:‘Roger. We're maintaining a heading of two seven fife degrees at this time, and say the tankers heading please’. London Military Control: The tankers are heading southwest for Yeovilton at the moment. I'll put them in an orbit overhead Yeovilton... just maintain your present heading’. Epson11:‘Epson One One. Roger. Thank you sir’. ApproachingYeoviltonandthejoin-upwith thefighters,Astra81Flightsecuredclearancefor
altitudeseparationinthetrail,andtheformation wentto500ftintervalsinthe26,000-28,000foot band. At the same time, Epson 11 Flight was instructedtodropathousandfeettoFlightLevel 250. Obliquely crossing the course of the F-16s, fromrighttoleftand35milesahead,theKC-135s turned left from their 230° heading on to an easterlycourseof090°.Thischangeofdirection setupthereciprocallegofaracetrackpattern,and ittookthetankerstowardstheoncomingfighters whichwerestillmaintainingtheir280°westerly track.Astherangedecreased,Epson11calleda radar contact ‘on the nose at 12 o’clock’. The tankerswererequestedtobeginagradualU-turn at25mileswhichwouldrollthemoutona255° heading,afewmilesaheadofthefightersandon anearparallelcourse. Epson11:‘Astra Eight One? Epson One One. How do you read?’ Astra81:‘Roger, sir. I've got you Five by how many?’ Epson 11: ‘Roger, Five by Five. Say your distance off to Yeovilton’. Astra81:‘Roger, we're in a left turn, currently crossing zero fife zero degrees on our heading. We are looking for three four zero and are continuing it all the way around, and we are fifteen miles west of Yeovilton at the present time’. Epson11: ‘Okay, I think I have a tally on all
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five of you'. LondonMilitaryControl:‘Epson One One? They're now left at eleven o'clock, range eleven miles, crossing left to right’. Epson11:‘Roger, One One has got a contact at my left, eleven o'clock, slightly high. Rest of Flight call contact.’ Epson11: ‘Astra Eight One? Epson One One’. Astra81:‘Roger Epson One One, this is Astra Eight One’. ‘Epson11:Roger we have contact with all the tankers; we'll be going to our appropriate tankers’. Astra81:‘Roger, sir’. Therendezvousofthefirstcelloftankersand theirreceiverswascompleted,andthecombined formationproceededwest-southwesttowardsthe first air refuelling sector. It had been an impressively smooth join-up reflecting the thoroughnessofthemissionbriefings. After the two cells were established on the sametrack,whichwouldtakethemacrossDevon andCornwallandoutoverthecoastnearLand’s End,thetankersmovedoutfromtrailtoa20°right echelon formation with one mile lateral separations and maintaining the 500ft vertical
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intervalsintheFlightLevel260-280‘ALTRV’. AstheAR1sectorapproached,Astra83’sBoom Operator reported the fighters in sight, got the boomcleareddownandswitchedtothe‘Comm1’ channeltomakecontactwiththeF-16s. Astra 83 Boom Operator: ‘Epson One One, One Two? This is Eight Three Boom, how copy?’ Epson11:‘One One's loud and clear’ . Epson12:Two's loud and clear’. Astra83BoomOperator:‘And I read you loud and clear, One One, One Two’. Epson11:‘And One One cleared in?’ Astra 83 Boom Operator: ‘One One, you're cleared in pre-contact’. Bothhalvesoftheairrefuellingequationmade acloseinvisualcheckoneachother,whileCapt WartburgnotifiedtheF-16sthathewasincreasing theairspeedslightlytorestorethecorrectdistance fromAstra82,whichhadpushedouttotwomiles aheadofus.ThenEpsonOneOnewasclearedin totheboom. Astra 83 Boom Operator: ‘Eight Three, Contact!’ Epson11:‘Yes, One One's contact’. Astra83BoomOperator:‘Taking gas now’.
Looking like a bandit! The lean mean look of some KC-135s has been enhanced over the years by extending the matt black paint of the anti-glare nose up and around the flight deck windows to give the machine the ‘look’ of wearing a bandit’s mask. (Simon Peters Collection)
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‘And One One you're taking gas’. Epson11:‘Roger’. Afteraboutthreeminutestheboomoperator advisedanunscheduleddisconnectlight,though Epson 11 was reporting his fuel gauges were readingalmostfull.Areconnectionwasquickly effectedforatop-upuntil: Epson11:‘And One One ‘s now showing full all the way across. How are you reading Eight Three ?' Astra83Co-pilot:‘Boom? . . . no flow 11.5’. Astra83BoomOperator:‘And One One, we've got no flow at 11.5’. Epson11:‘All right to disconnect?’ Astra 83 Boom Operator: ‘Eight Three, disconnect’. Epson11:‘One One, disconnect’. Astra 83 Boom Operator: ‘And One One, you're clear dry’. TheprocedurewasrepeatedwithEpson12, andthereplenishedF-16stookupacloseescort formationonbothsidesofAstra83.Towardsthe endofAR1,twoofthefighterspulledaheadfora systemscheckhook-uponAstra81andAstra82, tomakesureallwouldbeinorderforAR4and AR5,andthenreturnedtotheAstra83-85areaof theformation.TheAR1legwascompletedsome fiftymilesoutfromformationandwasestablished alonga50°Northlatitudetrack,havingturneddue Westsometimeearlier.AfterARIthe‘ALTRV’ moveddown4,000feetandtheaircraftdescended toFL210-230,withAstra82goingintotrailon Astra81,and83,84and85flyinga20°echelon off82.TherearthreetankersthenconductedAR2 startingat50°N10°Wfollowedbythelengthier AR3 which took the mission out beyond 50°N20°W.At the conclusion ofAR3, the KC135s returned to trail formation prior to the divisionofthecell,whichwastoseeAstra81and 82takingthefightersouttomid-oceanwhileAstra 83-85turnedbackforMildenhall. First,acheckonthecoordinatesattheturn: Astra 83 Navigator: ‘Eight One? . .. Eight Three, say your present position’. Astra81:‘Roger Eight Three, we're showing Fifty Zero Four North, Eighteen Twenty-One West’. Astra83:‘Roger, thank you’. Astra81:‘Have a good flight back!’ Astra 83 Navigator: ‘Zero eight one is the heading’. Astra83Pilot:‘Eight Four and Eight Five? Eight Three is turning right now to zero eight one’. AsweflewbacktowardstheBristolChannel
andtheUKWestCoast,thecrewsettledintosome paperworkandBoomtookordersfortheirown fuelsupplyintheformoflunch.Awaytotheright, theAstra 81 and Epson 21 Flights were on the westerlytrackandcouldbeheardoveroneofthe Commchannels. AcalltoLondonMilitarycontroltoconfirm Astra83Flight’srouteviaBrecon,BrizeNorton andDaventryalsobroughtconfirmationthatthe Flightcouldmovetotheten-mileseparations,as pertheflightplan,forindividualrecoveriesback at Mildenhall. The separation was effected by speedvariationwithAstra83goingto330knots, Astra84establishingat310knotsandAstra85 droppingbackto285knots. Beforeinitiatingthedescentfromouren-route height of 22,000 feet, theAircraft Commander briefed the crew on the approach and landing procedures, and then called up the Mildenhall CommandPosttoadviseofourestimatedtimeof arrivalandfuelremaining‘overthefence’,andthe maintenancewrite-upswhichwouldneedtobe actionedafterourreturn.BannerControllogged the details and provided the base weather and landingdetails. ‘Wind two four zero degrees at fife knots; six miles visibility; six-eighths Alpha Q at eight thousand; ceiling measured at temperature fife six degrees. QNH three zero decimal one seven; pressure altitude minus two zero fife; and the active runway two nine. Be advised, sir, the ILS is inoperative at this time. Your parking spot is fifteen'. Initiallycleareddowntoeleventhousandfeet by London Military, Astra 83’s descent was authorisedtofivethousandfeetafterhandoverto Eastern Radar; past the former airfield at Alconbury,weturnedfurtherrighttotransitsouth ofMildenhallonthedownwindleg,beinggiven renewedclearancedownto2,200ftbyHonington Zone. Another change of control brought instructionsfromMildenhallApproachtoturnleft ontothebaselegandfinallywetoucheddown almost imperceptibly, and rolled out along the centreline;itwas14.06hrslocal,andthemission hadlastedjustoverfourhours.Theworkingday, however,wasalreadyeighthoursoldandforthe crewitwouldlastagoodwhilelongerastheywent throughamissiondebrief. Replacement - the KC-X saga. Aroundtheturnofthecenturymoveswerestarting to be made inWashington DC andWashington Statetofindareplacementfortheageingdesign.
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Northrop and EADS based their design for the KC-X on the A330, while Boeing baased theirs on their 767. After losing out on the contract, they then claimed if they knew the Air Force wanted a larger aircraft, they would have based their scheme on the 777.
The initial plan was for the USAF to lease BoeingKC-767tankersonasole-sourcebasis;at that time Boeing was claimed to be the only Americancompanywiththerequisiteindustrial capabilitytomanufacturelarge-bodyaircraft.As such,theKC-767wasselectedin2002andin2003 wasawardedaUS$20billioncontracttoleaseKC767tankerstoreplacetheKC-135. Led by Senator John McCain, several US governmentleadersprotestedtheleasecontractas wasteful and problematic. In response to the protests, theAir Force struck a compromise in November2003,wherebyitwouldpurchase80 KC-767aircraftandlease20more. Yet in December 2003, the Pentagon announcedtheprojectwastobefrozenwhilean investigationofallegationsofcorruptionbyone ofitsformerprocurementstaffers,DarleenDruyun (whohadmovedtoBoeinginJanuary2003)was begun. Druyun pleaded guilty of criminal wrongdoingandwassentencedtoprisontimefor ‘…negotiating a job with Boeing at the same time she was involved in contracts with the company'. Druyun,wouldserveninemonthsataminimum security prison and another seven months at a
halfwayhouseoronhomedetention.Shealsowas fined$5,000andorderedtoperform150hoursof communityservice. As part of the plea bargaining, Druyun admitted that she did ‘…favor the Boeing Company in certain negotiations as the result of her employment negotiations and other favors provided by Boeing to the defendant.’ Previously,Druyunhadadmittedtonegotiating apost-governmentjobwithBoeing,butsteadfastly maintainedthatshehadneverfavouredthematthe negotiatingtable. ProsecutorssaidDruyunadmittedtofavouring thedefencecontractorafterfailingaliedetector test. She also confessed to altering a personal journal to make it appear that there were no conflictswithBoeing. Her plea agreement outlined four specific contractnegotiationswhereshefavouredBoeing: Druyunagreedtoahigherpricethanappropriate for a proposed deal to lease 100 tanker aircraft fromBoeing,whichshecalled‘apartinggift’to herfutureemployer.Shealsosharedacompetitor's proprietary data with Boeing. In 2000, Druyun agreed to pay $412 million to Boeing as a
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settlementoveraclauseinaC-17aircraftcontract. Sheadmittedtofavouringthepaymentbecause herson-in-lawwasseekingajobwithBoeing.In 2001, Druyun oversaw a $4 billion award to Boeing to modernise the avionics on C-130J aircraft.SheadmittedshefavouredBoeingover fourcompetitorsbecausethecompanyhadgiven herson-in-lawajob.In2002,Druyunawarded $100milliontoBoeingaspartofarestructuring of the NATO Airborne Warning and Control Systemcontract.Shesaidthepaymentcouldhave beenlower,butshefavouredBoeingbecauseher daughterandson-in-lawworkedthereandshewas consideringworkingthereaswell. On30JunetheDepartmentofJusticereleased the result of its own and other departments investigations. ‘Deputy Attorney General Paul J. McNulty announced today that the United States reached final agreement with The Boeing Company on a record $615 million settlement to resolve criminal and civil allegations that the company improperly used competitors’ information to procure contracts for launch services worth billions of dollars from the Air Force and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Assistant Attorney General Peter D. Keisler, and the US Attorneys for the Central District of California and the Eastern District of Virginia, Debra Wong Yang and Chuck Rosenberg, joined Deputy Attorney General McNulty in the announcement. Boeing has agreed to pay a total of $615 million dollars to resolve the government’s investigations and claims relating to the company’s hiring of the former Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Acquisition and Management, Darleen A. Druyun, by its then Chief Financial Officer, Michael Sears, and its handling of competitors information in connection with the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) Program and certain NASA launch services contracts. “The American people rightly expect government officials and contractors to act with integrity,” said Deputy Attorney General Paul J. McNulty. “The outcome of these investigations sends a clear message to those doing business with the government: harsh consequences await anyone whose conduct falls short of the highest legal and ethical standards.” The $615 million settlement includes a $565 million civil settlement and a $50 million monetary penalty according to a separate criminal agreement. The amount is a record for government
procurement fraud, for the Department of Defense (DOD), and for NASA. Under the agreement with the US Attorneys’ Offices, the United States agrees not to bring criminal charges related to the conduct that is the subject of the settlement agreement in part because the company is fully cooperating with the government’s investigation. Boeing has agreed to accept responsibility for the conduct of its employees in these matters, continue its cooperation with federal investigators, pay a monetary penalty of $50 million, and maintain an effective ethics and compliance program, with particular attention to the hiring of former government officials and the handling of competitor information. The US Attorneys’ Offices may seek to prosecute Boeing for charges relating to the Druyun conduct, or to assess a further penalty of up to $10 million, if during the two year term of the criminal agreement, an executive management employee of Boeing commits federal crimes as outlined in the agreement, and the company fails to report the misconduct to the Department of Justice. The settlement with the Justice Department’s Civil Division provides for Boeing to pay $565 million in exchange for a complete release from any civil liability arising from the Druyan matter as well as the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle Program (EELV) and certain NASA launch services contract. The government’s investigation focused on Boeing’s relationship with the former Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Acquisition and Management, Darleen A. Druyun. Druyun was the Air Force’s top career procurement officer before she retired from the Air Force in 2002. In that position, she wielded influence over billions of dollars in contract awards, modifications, and settlements. In 2000, Boeing, at Druyun’s request, hired Druyun’s daughter and future son-in-law. Then in 2002, Boeing’s then Chief Financial Officer, Michael M. Sears, recruited Druyun for an executive position with Boeing following her retirement. During this period (2000 - 2002), Druyun was responsible for dozens of Boeing contracts, as well as for the controversial $23 billion procurement to lease a fleet of KC-767 aerial refueling tankers that has since been canceled. Sears and Druyun both pleaded guilty to violations of the conflict of interest statutes. In documents filed with the criminal court, Druyun admitted that Boeing’s favors in hiring her
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children and in offering her a position influenced her contracting decisions. The government’s investigation also focused on the EELV program, with which the Air Force sought to usher in a new generation of space launch vehicles to serve the government’s critical satellite needs through 2020. Air Force strategy called for two sources to reduce the risk of failure and cost through competition. Those sources ended up being Boeing and Lockheed, with Boeing’s low pricing leading the Air Force to favor Boeing in awarding it 19 of the original 28 launch services contracts awarded in October 1998. The United States alleged that, prior to this award, Boeing obtained more than 22,000 pages of documents from Lockheed Martin, certain of which contained confidential competition-sensitive or other proprietary information that related to Lockheed’s EELV program and that some of this information was used to unfairly assist Boeing in the EELV competition. When this was subsequently discovered by the Air Force, it sought to ‘right the wrong’ by re-balancing the contracts, at great expense. Boeing’s conduct resulted in a record 20month suspension of three of its business units from government contracting. NASA also had launch services contracts with Boeing and Lockheed that required the contractors to compete for missions. The United States alleged that Boeing’s possession and use of Lockheed’s proprietary information, including additional documents obtained through different channels than the EELV documents, plus the unfair advantage the company had gained in the EELV, enabled Boeing to persuade NASA to award 19 missions, known as the 19 Pack, on a sole source basis. The United States further alleged that the
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lack of competition plus Boeing’s false claims for certain costs, resulted in Boeing charging NASA much more for the 19 Pack than NASA should have paid. NASA Inspector General Robert W. Cobb expressed his appreciation for the ‘superb efforts of the DOJ, DOD, and NASA team that brought about this historic settlement. In addition to fulfilling our statutory mandate to protect the public’s and NASA’s fiscal interests, this settlement also serves as a testament for holding accountable those who abuse the government’s procurement system. Indeed, the settlement represents a significant accomplishment in our continuing fight against fraud, waste, and abuse.’ “Now, the Boeing settlement is behind us,” said Dr. Ron Sega, Under Secretary of the Air Force. “It wasn’t a proud time in their history and in some ways it wasn’t a proud time in our history, but Boeing is a competent and capable contractor and we look forward to a positive working relationship.” “This settlement sends a clear message that integrity in DOD contracting is indispensable and that the American public deserves no less than honest government and aggressive vigilance over the expenditure of the nation's resources,” said Acting Department of Defense Inspector General Thomas F. Gimble. The Druyun investigation was conducted by the US Attorney’s Office for the Eastern District of Virginia, the Mid-Atlantic Field Office of DCIS (DOD OIG) and the Air Force Office of Special Investigations. The EELV and 19 Pack investigations were conducted by the US Attorney’s Office for the Central District of California, the Air Force’s Space and Missile Systems Center at Los Angeles Air Force Base, the Western Field Office of the Defense Criminal Investigative Service (DCIS) within the Defense Department’s Office of the Inspector General (OIG), the
Deputy Secretary of Defense William Lynn speaks about KC-X at a press conference at the Pentagon on 24 September 2009.
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Air Force of Special Investigations, and the NASA Office of the Inspector General at the Kennedy Space Center. The civil investigation and negotiations were conducted by the Civil Division of the Department of Justice, with the assistance of the US Attorneys’ Offices’ civil attorneys and the investigative agencies.
The USAF then began the KC-X tanker replacementprogram.TheDoDpostedarequest for proposal on 30 January 2007. The US Air Force'smainrequirementswere‘fueloffloadand range at least as great as the KC-135’, airlift capability, ability to take on fuel in flight, and multi-pointrefuellingcapability. Two manufacturers expressed interest in producing this aircraft. The team of Northrop GrummanandEuropeanAeronauticDefenceand SpaceCompanyNV(EADS)/Airbusproposeda version of theAirbusA330 Multi Role Tanker Transport(MRTT),basedontheAirbusA330-200. BoeingproposedaversionoftheKC-767,based ontheBoeing767. Both competitors submitted their tanker proposalsbeforethe12April2007deadline.In September2007,theUSAFdismissedhavinga mixedfleetofnewtankersfrombothBoeingand NorthropGrummanasbeingunfeasiblebecause ofincreasedcostsfrombuyinglimitednumbersof twotypesannually-afterall,theywerealready operatingamixedfleetofBoeingKC-135sand McDonaldDouglasKC-10s.InDecember2007, itwasannouncedthattheKC-Xtankerwouldbe designated KC-45A regardless of which design winsthecompetition.TheDoDanticipatedthatthe KC-45Awouldstarttoenterservicein2013. On3January2008,thecompetitorssubmitted finalrevisionsoftheirproposalstotheUSAF.On 29 February 2008, the DoD announced the selectionoftheNorthropGrumman/EADS'sKC30. Afewdayslater,on11March2008,Boeing filedaprotestwiththeGovernmentAccountability Office(GAO)oftheawardofthecontracttothe Northrop Grumman/EADS team. Boeing stated that there are certain aspects of the USAF evaluation process that had given it grounds to appeal. The Air Force responded with a somewhat terse statement: ‘Air Force officials received a copy of Boeing's formal protest March 11 on the KC-45A contract award, recently submitted to the Government Accountability Office. It is the company's right to formally submit a
protest. Air Force members will carefully evaluate the protest, defend their source selection decision and allow the GAO to make its final decision, officials said. In order to protect the integrity of the procurement process, Air Force officials do not publicly comment on the merits or specifics on any issues under review. Proposals from both offerers were evaluated thoroughly in accordance with the criteria set forth in the Request for Proposals. The proposal from the winning offerer is the one Air Force officials believe will provide the best value to the American taxpayer and to the warfighter. Air Force members follow a carefully structured process, designed to provide transparency, maintain integrity and promote fair competition. Air Force members and the offerers had hundreds of formal exchanges regarding the proposals throughout the evaluation process. Air Force officials provided all offerers with continuous feedback through discussions on the strengths and weaknesses of their proposals. Several independent reviews assessed the process as sound and thorough. TheprotestwasupheldbytheGAOon18June 2008,whichrecommendedthattheAirForcerebid thecontract. ‘The Boeing Company protested the award of a contract to Northrop Grumman Systems Corporation under solicitation No. FA8625-07-R6470, issued by the Department of the Air Force, for KC-X aerial refueling tankers to begin replacing its aging tanker fleet. Boeing challenged the Air Force’s technical and cost evaluations, conduct of discussions, and source selection decision. Our Office sustained Boeing’s protest on June 18, 2008. The 69-page decision was issued under a protective order, because the decision contains proprietary and source selection sensitive information. We have directed counsel for the parties to promptly identify information that cannot be publicly released so that we can expeditiously prepare and release, as soon as possible, a public version of the decision. Although the Air Force intends to ultimately procure up to 179 KC-X aircraft, the solicitation provided for an initial contract for system development and demonstration of the KC-X aircraft and procurement of up to 80 aircraft. The solicitation provided that award of the contract would be on a “best value” basis, and stated a
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detailed evaluation scheme that identified technical and cost factors and their relative weights. With respect to the cost factor, the solicitation provided that the Air Force would calculate a ‘most probable life cycle cost’ estimate for each offerer, including military construction costs. In addition, the solicitation provided a detailed system requirements document that identified minimum requirements (called key performance parameter thresholds) that offerers must satisfy to receive award. The solicitation also identified desired features and performance characteristics of the aircraft (which the solicitation identified as ‘requirements,’ or in certain cases, as objectives) that offerers were encouraged, but were not required, to provide. The agency received proposals and conducted numerous rounds of negotiations with Boeing and Northrop Grumman. The Air Force selected Northrop Grumman’s proposal for award on February 29, 2008, and Boeing filed its protest with our Office on March 11, supplementing it numerous times thereafter. In accordance with our Bid Protest Regulations, we obtained a report from the agency and comments on that report from Boeing and Northrop Grumman. The documentary record produced by the Air Force in this protest is voluminous and complex. Our Office also conducted a hearing, at which testimony was received from a number of Air Force witnesses to complete and explain the record. Following the hearing, we received further comments from the parties, addressing the hearing testimony as well as other aspects of the record. Our decision should not be read to reflect a view as to the merits of the firms’ respective aircraft. Judgments about which offerer will most successfully meet governmental needs are largely reserved for the procuring agencies, subject only to such statutory and regulatory requirements as full and open competition and fairness to potential offerers. Our bid protest process examines whether procuring agencies have complied with those requirements. Our review of the record led us to conclude that the Air Force had made a number of significant errors that could have affected the outcome of what was a close competition between Boeing and Northrop Grumman. We therefore sustained Boeing’s protest. We also denied a number of Boeing’s challenges to the award to Northrop Grumman, because we found that the record did not provide us with a basis to conclude that the agency had violated the legal requirements with
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respect to those challenges. Specifically, we sustained the protest for the following reasons: 1. The Air Force, in making the award decision, did not assess the relative merits of the proposals in accordance with the evaluation criteria identified in the solicitation, which provided for a relative order of importance for the various technical requirements. The agency also did not take into account the fact that Boeing offered to satisfy more non-mandatory technical ‘requirements’ than Northrop Grumman, even though the solicitation expressly requested offerers to satisfy as many of these technical ‘requirements’ as possible. 2. The Air Force’s use as a key discriminator that Northrop Grumman proposed to exceed a key performance parameter objective relating to aerial refueling to a greater degree than Boeing violated the solicitation’s evaluation provision that “no consideration will be provided for exceeding [key performance parameter] objectives.” 3. The protest record did not demonstrate the reasonableness of the Air Force’s determination that Northrop Grumman’s proposed aerial refueling tanker could refuel all current Air Force fixed-wing tanker-compatible receiver aircraft in accordance with current Air Force procedures, as required by the solicitation. 4. The Air Force conducted misleading and unequal discussions with Boeing, by informing Boeing that it had fully satisfied a key performance parameter objective relating to operational utility, but later determined that Boeing had only partially met this objective, without advising Boeing of this change in the agency’s assessment and while continuing to conduct discussions with Northrop Grumman relating to its satisfaction of the same key performance parameter objective. 5. The Air Force unreasonably determined that Northrop Grumman’s refusal to agree to a specific solicitation requirement that it plan and support the agency to achieve initial organic depot-level maintenance within two years after delivery of the first fill-rate production aircraft was an ‘administrative oversight,’ and improperly made award, despite this clear exception to a material solicitation requirement. 6. The Air Force’s evaluation of military construction costs in calculating the offerers’ most probable life cycle costs for their proposed aircraft was unreasonable, where the agency during the protest conceded that it made a number of errors in evaluation that, when corrected, result in
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Boeing displacing Northrop Grumman as the offerer with the lowest most probable life cycle cost; where the evaluation did not account for the offerers’ specific proposals; and where the calculation of military construction costs based on a notional (hypothetical) plan was not reasonably supported. 7. The Air Force improperly increased Boeing’s estimated non-recurring engineering costs in calculating that firm’s most probable life cycle costs to account for risk associated with Boeing’s failure to satisfactorily explain the basis for how it priced this cost element, where the agency had not found that the proposed costs for that element were unrealistically low. In addition, the Air Force’s use of a simulation model to determine Boeing’s probable non-recurring engineering costs was unreasonable, because the Air Force used as data inputs in the model the percentage of cost growth associated with weapons systems at an overall program level and there was no indication that these inputs would be a reliable predictor of anticipated growth in Boeing’s non-recurring engineering costs. We recommended that the Air Force reopen discussions with the offerers, obtain revised proposals, re-evaluate the revised proposals, and make a new source selection decision, consistent with our decision. We further recommended that, if the Air Force believed that the solicitation, as reasonably interpreted, does not adequately state its needs, the agency should amend the solicitation prior to conducting further discussions with the offerers. We also recommended that if Boeing’s proposal is ultimately selected for award, the Air Force should terminate the contract awarded to Northrop Grumman. We also recommended that the Air Force reimburse Boeing the costs of filing and pursuing the protest, including reasonable attorneys’ fees. By statute, the Air Force is given 60 days to inform our Office of the Air Force’s actions in response to our recommendations.
On9July2008,DefenseSecretaryRobertGates put the tanker contract in an ‘expedited recompetition’withDefenseUndersecretaryJohn Younginchargeoftheselectionprocessinstead oftheAirForce.Adraftoftherevisedrequestfor proposal(RFP)wasprovidedtothecontractorson 6August2008forcommentswiththerevisedRFP tobefinalizedbymid-August.Proposalswouldbe dueinOctober2008andselectionwastobedone by the end of 2008. In mid-August, there was speculationthatBoeingwasconsideringa‘nobid’
position. On 21August 2008 Boeing asked the DoD for an additional four months to submit a proposal centered on a larger aircraft, but they opposed further delay. Then on 10 September 2008,DefenseSecretaryRobertGatesdecidedthat thenewcompetitioncouldnotbefairlycompleted before the end of 2008. The DoD canceled the requestforproposalsanddelayedthedecisionon when to issue another request until the new presidentialadministrationwasinoffice. On 16 September 2009, Secretary Gates announced a renewed effort for the KC-X programme.Theselectionprocesswastobeunder theAirForcewitha‘robustoversightrole’bythe Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) to preventarepeatedfailure.On25September2009 the USAF issued a draft request for proposals seeking comments for the official tanker replacement RFP. The RFP for a fixed-price contractspecified373requirementsforthenew aircraft,andstatedthatthepriceofeachtanker wouldbeadjustedtoreflecthowmuchitwould cost to operate over 40 years and how well it wouldmeetvariouswar-fightingneeds.Theinitial contract would be for 179 aircraft for $35 billion.NorthropGrumman/EADSteamclaimed the requirement was advantaging Boeing and threatenedtowithdrawfromthecompetitionon1 December2009. Thefiscal2011DefenseDepartmentbudget relegated $864 million in research and development money. A contract award was expectedinsummer2010.On24February2010, theUSAirForcereleasedtherevisedrequestfor proposalforKC-X.TheRFPcalledfortheKC-X tankertofirstflyin2012andaircraftdeliveriesto beginin2013. On 8 March 2010, Northrop Grumman followed through with their earlier threat and decidedtonotsubmitabidfortheKC-Xtanker, stating that they believed the new evaluation methodology favoured Boeing's smaller tanker. EADS,howeverannouncedon20April2010that itwasre-enteringthecompetitiononastand-alone basis and intended to bid the KC-30 with final assembly to take place in Mobile, Alabama as plannedunderitspriorteamingarrangementwith NorthropGrumman.On18June2010theUSAF announcedthatthedecisionwouldbedelayeduntil November2010. On 1 July 2010, a surprise third bidder, consistingoftheteamofUSAerospaceandthe Ukrainian manufacturerAntonov announcedits intentiontobidinthecompetition.Thetwofirms
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announced that they would be interested in supplyinguptothreetypesofaircrafttotheUnited States Air Force. The types reportedly being offeredwerethefour-enginedAn-124andatwinenginedvariantoftheaircraft,theAn-122.The thirdaircrafttobeofferedwasknownastheAn112,aversionoftheAntonovAn-70,exceptwith twojetengines.Thistankerwasproposedinthe team'sbid. By9July2010bidsfromBoeing,EADSand USAerospace/AntonovweresubmittedtotheAir Force. However, theAir Force rejected the US Aerospacebidforallegedlyarrivingfiveminutes afterthedeadline,whichUSAerospacedisputed. USAerospacefiledseparateprotestswiththeUS GovernmentAccountabilityOfficeon2August and 1 September. The USAir Force proceeded withsourceselectionwhileGAOinvestigated.The GAO dismissed US Aerospace’s protest on 6 October. InNovember2010,theUSAFmistakenlysent technicalreviewsoftheotherside'sbidstoeach ofthetworemainingteams.Atthistimecontract selectionwaspostponedfromlateDecember2010 untilearly2011. BoeingandEADSsubmittedtheirfinalbidson 10February2011.On24February2011Boeing's KC-767 proposal was selected as the winning offer. The tanker would be designated the KC46A. EADS North America chairman Ralph Crosbydeclinedtoprotesttheaward,sayingthat Boeing'sbidwas‘...very, very, very aggressive’ andcarriedahighriskoflosingmoneyforthe company.DrLorenBThompsonoftheLexington Institute agreed that Boeing's bid was very aggressive due to the Air Force's fixed-price contractstrategy.
Further delays? At the end of March 2017 the US Government AccountabilityOffice(GAO)statedthattheKC-135 replacement programme was at risk of further scheduledelays. Intheirlatestreport,itstatedthattheKC-46A manufacturer, Boeing, had struggled to meet key milestonesthroughoutthedurationoftheprogramme andwasatleastoneyearbehindbymostmeasures. The company faced an uphill battle to keep the programmeontime,evenasitcontinuedtomeetcost andperformancegoals,theGAOsaid. Themostimportantdeadlineonthehorizonisthe October 2018 target date for ‘required assets available,’ which contractually binds Boeing to deliverthefirst18tankersandnineaerialrefueling
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pods. The company has already slipped too far behindtomeetitsinitialAugust2017benchmark. Becauseofdelays,Boeingwillhavetocompress itsoriginaldeliverytimelineforthose18aircraftfrom 14monthsto6months. ‘This delivery period assumes Boeing will deliver three aircraft per month, a greater pace than planned during full rate production,’ thereportstated.Twelve of those aircraft are already over seventy percent complete,GAOadded,butthecompanywasfarfrom beingintheclear. Twomajorchallengesstoodintheway.First, Boeing may not be able to conduct an electromagneticeffectstestscheduledforMay2017. Thetest,whichisheldataspecializedfacility,will evaluate whether the KC-46 creates any electromagneticinterference.However,becausethe FederalAviationAdministrationhasyettoapprove the aircraft’s aerial refueling pod design, theAir Forcewillhavetodecidewhethertotesttheaircraft andpodsseparatelyorriskpushingthetesttoalater date. GAOalsohasquestionsaboutwhetherBoeing canfinishdevelopmentalflighttestsasquickasit plans,notingthatthecompany ‘...is projecting that it can complete test points … at a rate higher than it has been able to demonstrate consistently.’ Boeingmustfinishanaverage1,713testpoints permonthtoenablethefirstaircraftdeliveriesin September2017,butithasexceededthatnumber onlyonce,whenitcompleted2,240testpointsin October2016,thereportsaid.Whenlookingatdata fromMarch2016toJanuary2017,theagencyfound Boeing’saveragecompletionratewasabout800test pointspermonth. Andsothestoryrumbleson. Beyond Block 45 - Will the USAF be flying 100year old tankers? ByMarch2017rumoursstartedtoappearthatthe USAirForcewasstrappedforcashtobuymore than179ofBoeing’sKC-46tankertofullyreplace thelegacyKC-135fleet,andthattheAirForce waslookinginsteadtorefititssixty-year-oldKC135Stratotankerwithstate-of-the-artsurvivability upgradessoitcanflyforanotherfortyyears. TheAirForcewassettobuyonehundredand seventy-ninenext-generationKC-46sasthefirst stepinanambitiousefforttorecapitalizeitstanker fleet. But even after Boeing’s Pegasus is fully fielded in fiscal year 2028, the remaining three hundredKC-135swouldbethebackboneofthe forceuntilthefutureKC-YorKC-Zcomesonline inthe2030-40timeframe.Infact,thejointforce
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will rely so heavily on the Stratotanker in the coming decades that the aircraft could be one hundredyearsoldbeforeitissenttotheboneyard, accordingtoGen.CarltonEverhart,chiefofAir MobilityCommand(AMC). QuestionswerebeingaskedastowhytheAir ForcestudyinghowtomakeKC-135survivable outtoage100.AnalystswarnedthattheAirForce shouldnotbetootiedtooldplatforms,butwhy spendtimeandresourcesupgradinga1950s-era weapon system instead of simply buying more fifth-generation KC-46s? It all comes down to budgetlimits,Everhartexplainedduringa2March 2017 media roundtable at the Air Force Association’sairwarfareconference. ‘It’s all about the money, it’s all about the resources, it’s all about the continuing resolution (CR)’ Everhart rold the media, referring to the stop-gapspendingmeasureCongressusedtofund thegovernmentthroughAprilpendingagreement onafullappropriationsbill.OperatingunderaCR foratleastpartofthefiscalyearhasbecomethe newnormalforthePentagon,eventhoughaCR limits funding levels for existing and new-start programmes and wreaks havoc on long-term budgetplans. ‘It’s all about what can we afford to do in the timeframe we have.’ Everhartsaid. ‘Retiring KC-135s would not automatically mean more cash for KC-46s because the Defense Department could not easily transfer money between its operations and maintenance (O&M) and procurement accounts,’ said Richard Aboulafia,ananalystwiththeTealGroup. ‘The fundamental conundrum of Defense Department procurement is [that] procurement and O&M accounts don’t talk to each other,’ Hewentonto explainthatGeneralEverhartwas‘...just being realistic.’ Modernising the KC-135 instead of buying moreKC-46swouldalsoallowtheAirForceto addcapacityinthenearterm,notedToddHarrison of the Center for Strategic and International Studies. ‘If the Air Force needs more tankers right now, adding KC-46s will not help because the additional aircraft will not be available until near
the end of the current production schedule in the 2020s’ hesays. Inthemeantime,theAirForcewantedtomake sure the KC-135 workhorse could survive on a dynamic future battlefield. ‘The service is currently remodeling the flight deck with new liquid-crystal displays, as well as a radar altimeter, autopilot, digital flight director and other computer module updates as part of a $910 million Block 45 upgrade program. But AMC is also beginning to look into what is needed for the next block upgrade’, Everhartsaid. Everhart wants to add Link 16 and beyondline-of-sightcommunicationssothatKC-135scan exchangeimageryandotherdatainnear-realtime withotheraircraftinthefleet-ahugestepupfrom currentcapabilities.Healsowantstoincorporate a layered defense approach, adding electronic countermeasurestoprotectagainstjamming,selfdefense systems and maybe even signature management. ‘We are going to be flying the KC-135 for quite a while, and it is going to have to participate in that networked, multi-domain command-andcontrol environment where the enemy is going to come after our tankers’ said Brig Gen Jon Thomas, AMC director of strategic plans, requirementsandprogrammes. Inaddition,theAirForceisequippingtheKC135withtheFAA-mandatedautomaticdependent surveillance-broadcast(ADS-B),whichusesGPS technology to determine an aircraft’s location, airspeedandotherdata. ‘KC-135 is a great platform, [but]it needs to be modernized...’ saidEverhart.‘...We will use that capable airplane to get us to bridge across [toa futureKC-Z], along with the KC-46, and then as KC-46 brings on new electronics, brings on new things that it has, can that spin off and go back down to KC-135 to keep it just as viable” HarrisonwarnedhoweverthattheAirForce shouldbecarefulnottoboxitselfintoacorner, because upgrading the KC-135 may ultimately comeattheexpenseoflong-termcapability. As he said; ‘How much longer does the Air Force really want to be flying a 707 platform?’
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ChapterSix
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‘Big Ol’ Jet Airliner’…
Fromthesong‘Jet Airliner’ composedbyPaulPenain1973andpopularizedbythe SteveMillerBandin1977.
HavingsuccessfullyattractedordersfortheC/KC135A variant from USAF, Boeing diverted their attentiontowinningordersfromtheairlinesforthe 707.Thebig‘problem’howeverwasthesizeofthe Dash-80’scabinwhichwasjustnotlargeenoughfor theairlines.Boeing’scharmoffensivetoconvince themthatthesame144inchwidthfuselageasthe KC-135wasmorethansufficientforfour,fiveorsix acrossseatingfellondeafearsandBoeingeventually capitulatedandincreaseditbyfourinchesoverthe KC-135,atthesametimeextendingthelengthbyten feet. There then began a series of protracted discussionswiththeairlinesandslowlytheorders startedtotricklein.Giventhespeedthattheorders werecomingin,thedecisiontosecuremilitaryorders beforeseekingairlinecontractsseemstohavebeen thecorrectone.Hopestoconvertquicklythemilitary selectionoftheBoeingtankerintoordersfromthe leadingairlineswerefrustratedbythecautionwhich carriersshowedtowardjetlinersfollowingthetragic anduntimelydemiseoftheDeHavillandComet1. Lessthansixmonthsafterenteringservicewith
British Overseas Airways Corporation, the first Comet 1 had been damaged beyond economical repairinatake-offaccidentinRome,Italy.Overthe nextseventeenmonths,fivemoreCometlswerelost, thelasttwodisintegratinginflightandpromptingthe groundingofthepioneeringBritishjetliner. Alarmed,airlinesadoptedawaitandseeattitude pending results from a thorough accident investigationbytheRoyalAircraftEstablishmentat Farnborough. However, Boeing did appear to have an unbeatablelead,forbyFebruary1955itcouldboast AirForcecontractsfornofewerthan286KC-135As. The DouglasAircraft Company meanwhile were unwillingtoconcedeits20-yearleadastheworld’s foremostmanufacturerofmediumandlongrange airliners,andsodecidedtochallengeBoeing. On 7 June 1955, before Boeing was able to secure a singleorderforitsjetliner,Douglasconfirmedthatit would proceed with the development of a jet transportwithperformancesurpassingthatofthefirst Boeing 707 civil derivative of the 367-80 demonstrator.
The comparative fuselage widths of the Dash 80, KC-135/717 and the 707.
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The Douglas DC-8 - this example being EC-ARB for the Spanish national airline Iberia. (author’s collection)
TheDouglaschallengewasmadeevenmore dangerousforBoeingbythefactthattheSouthern Californiamanufacturerhadanintimatein-depth knowledge of what airlines needed as it had successfully developed its pre-war-designed, unpressurisedDC-4intothepressurisedDC-6and DC-7serieswithever-increasingspeed,range,and payload that made them very commercially successful. DouglasdesigneditsDC-8jetairlinertooutperformtheinitial707variantbeingmarketedby Boeing.Douglasadoptedawiderfuselagecrosssectioninordertoincreaseseatwidthinfirstclass and,moreimportantly,toofferbetterthanspartan six-abreast seating in economy class versus the fiveabreastseatingofferedbyBoeing.Douglas wasquicktorealisethatairlinescompetingover the‘BlueRibbon’NorthAtlanticroutewouldwant to offer nonstop jet service, as a multi-stop jet service would only be marginally faster than
nonstoppiston-engineDC-7Cservice. Convair,thedominantAmericanmanufacturerof short-tomedium-rangeairliners,wasalsointenton challengingBoeing’sleadbydevelopingjetliners optimizedforUSdomesticandshorterinternational routes.Thecompanyfeltthatacruisingspeedhigher thanofferedbyeitherthe707orDC-8wouldbethe keytosuccess.Accordingly,inJanuary1956,theSan Diegomanufacturerannouncedthedevelopmentof itsModel22Skylark,ajetairlinerslightlysmaller butfasterthantheBoeing707. With the initial configurations of its 707 challenged at the lower end of the market by the smallerandfasterConvair880anditsturbofan— poweredderivative,theConvair990,andattheupper endofthemarketbythelarger,heavier,androomier DouglasDC-8variants,Boeingwasforcedtodepart fromitsoriginalplanstoofferthe707onlyinlong andshortbodyversionspoweredbyJT3Cturbojets. TomeetthechallengefromDouglas,Boeingwas
The Convair 880 in the colours of Japan Air Lines. Initially the design was called the Skylark, but the name was later changed to the Golden Arrow, then Convair 600 and then finally the 880. (author’s collection)
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The fuselage of the 707/720 was made up of four sections. QEA502 was the nose section - from forward pressure bulkhead to aft of the passenger entrance door - for QANTAS Empire Airways (hence QEA) which became a -138, registered VH-EBB. (DGR Picture Library)
forced to offer larger and heavier JT4A turbojetpowered, Rolls Royce Conway and JT3D turbofan-powered707models;atthesametime,it addressedtheConvairchallengewithsmallerand lighter720variants.Inaddition,insomethingofa seriesofunsuccessfulattemptstoregaintheinitiative, Boeingstudiedstilllargerandheaviervariants,but nonewerebuilt. Productionofthefirst707sproceededatRenton while Boeing was attempting to satisfy airline requests,butneworderswerefairlyslowcomingin, Thefirstproduction707,N708PAc/n17586, wasrolledoutoftheRentonplanton28October 1957 and took to the air for the first time on 20 December;theotheraircraftusedinthecertification programmewereN707PAandN709PA-allfromthe Pan American order. Performance guarantees as promisedincontractsweremetandtheFAAissued
PAA002 was the nose and forward fuselage barrel of the second 707 for Pan American Airways. As N707PA ‘Clipper Maria’ the machine was rolled out in February 1958 and delivered that December. Its first revenue services however were for National Airlines, who leased it for New York - Miami work early in 1959. (DGR Picture Library)
aprovisionalcertificateon15August1958toallow crewtraining,routeprovingandfamiliarisationof airport personnel with the new generation of air transports.PanAm thentookdeliveryofN709PA, temporarilynamed‘Clipper America’, andstarted crew training and route proving, the first visit to Londonbeingon8September1958. Therouteprovingandcrewtrainingcontinued butBOAC,withtheredesignedComet4,werenot preparedtoletPanAmericanstartthejetageacross theNorthAtlanticwithoutachallengeand,infact positionedaComet4atNewYork'sldlewildAirport tostartservicesassoonasNewYorkPortAuthority noiseapprovalwasgranted. Thepriceondeliveryofthefirst707-100swas saidtobeabout$6million,althoughthedeclared valueforinsurancepurposesofPanAm'sfirstaircraft was$4.5millionandBOAC’s-436scostabout$5.1
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The 707/720 line operated alongside the 717/135 production line for a number of years at Renton; final assembly of KC-135s can be seen top left. (DGR Picture Library)
million. The actual price paid depended on the numberordered,theamountoftrainingandsupport purchasedfromBoeingandotherfactors. TheApprovedTypeCertificate(ATC)forthe 707wasissuedbytheFAAon18September1958 following noise measurements conducted at Le Bourget,Paris-theJT3Chadmulti-pipenozzles tomaketheaircraftquieterbuttheenginenoise problemwasnotresolvedtoanacceptablelevel until high by-pass engines were introduced. Boeing, in association with the engine manufacturers,spentalotofresourcesontrying tocure-oratleastimprovetheproblem. Thefirst707-121toactuallybesuppliedtoPan AmericanwasN710PA.Itwasdeliveredonon29 September 1958 and was officially named ‘Jet Clipper America’ on16Octoberbythewifeofthe President,MrsMamieEisenhower. ThehistoricClipper nameswithPanAmdated fromthedaysoftheSikorskyflyingboatsofthe 1930s.Mostofthe707sreusedhistoricClipper (or Jet Clipper)namessuchasBald Eagle, Constitution andFriendship. Specialoccasionswerealsomarked:
Atleastone707wasrenamedforanewdestination; Clipper Beograd,andfortheBeatles’UStourin February1964oneaircraftwastemporarilyredubbed Clipper Beatles. Sincethe707-121swereunabletoflytheAtlantic non-stop, fuel stops were planned at Gander in NewfoundlandorShannoninEirewithproposed flight times of eight hours forty-five minutes westbound and six hours thirty five minutes eastbound - the speed increase was due to the prevailingjetstream. Thefirst707revenueearningserviceacrossthe NorthAtlanticwasmadebyN711PAoperatingas PA114 on 26 October 1958 between New Yorkldlewild(nowJohnFKennedyAirport)andParis-Le BourgetcontinuingtoRome;howeverBOAChad already started non-stop Comet services in both directionson4October1958betweenNewYorkldlewildandLondon-Heathrow. DespitetheprestigeofoperatingontheNorth Atlantic,PanAmericanleasedtimeonsomeofits 707stoNationalAirlinesfortheirMiami-NewYork servicesfrom10December1958to15May1959
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duringthewinterpeaktrafficonthisroute.Inreturn Pan American leased Douglas DC-8 time from Nationalinthesummerof1959andthisexchangeof 707s was repeated from 1 November 1959 to 24 April1960.Anattempttoexchangestockaswellas aircraftwasnotpermittedbyFAA. Ayearafteropeningtrans-Atlanticservices,Pan Aminauguratedthefirstround-the-worldjetservice withits707-321s,flownon10OctoberbyN717PA Clipper Fleetwing.TheroutestartedinSanFranciso, headingtoManilaviaHawaii,thenManila-Karachi -Rome-andthenovertheNorthPoleviaAnchorage backtoSanFrancisco.Theflighttookfiftyfivehours andsixteenstopsoverthreedays,butthiswasmore ofapublicityflightthanaroute-provingexercise. Untilthearrivalofthe707,Douglas’sDC-7C wastheprideofthePanAmfleet,butthejetsoon showeditssuperiorityineveryrespect.The707 couldflynearlytwiceasfastwithnearlytwicethe passengerload,andatalowercostperseat-mile. Soon PanAm was achieving 100 per cent load factorsonthetransatlanticroutesandwaspaying off or amortising the cost of one 707 with the profitsofeachmonth’soperations.
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The707-321Intercontinentalversion,delivered from July 1959, extended Pan Am’s non-stop destinations from New York as far as Frankfurt, RomeandRiodeJaneiro.Bybuyinglargenumbers of -321C convertible cargo versions when they becameavailablefrom1963,PanAmstoleamarch on its competitors with its ‘cargo Clippers’ and capturedalargepartofthecivillong-haulfreight market.DuringtheVietnamWar,theairlinereceived lucrativecontractstoshiftmilitaryequipmenttothe warzoneasUSinvolvementincreased.Thiswas somethingofadouble-edgedsword,forthemilitary tasksimpededthegrowthofPanAm’scivilfreight businessuntilthiswasreorganisedin1966. Introduction of the 707 led to problems at airports,notonlyduetoa50%increaseinpassengers carried over the DC-7Cs and Lockheed Constellationstheyreplaced,butalsobecauseoftheir weight,runwaylengthrequiredandnoise. Theearlynon-turbofan707srequiredextra-long runwaysovertheaircrafttheyreplacedandmany citieswerereluctanttoextendtheirmunicipalairport runways,causingdelaysintheintroductionofnew services.Thisrunwaylengthwasnotonlyfortakeoff
The final assembly production line for the 707 at Renton. (author’s collection)
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Mamie Eisenhower christens Pan Am 707 N710PA ‘Jet Clipper America’ at Washinton’s National Airport on 16 October 1958, watched by Juan Trippe. Four aircraft carried this name: N707PA (January to December 1958), N709PA (AugustNovember 1958), N710PA (1958-1970) and N711PA (October- November 1958). It seems Boeing was uncertain over which aircraft would be ready on time for the naming ceremony and the transatlantic flight to follow directly afterwards, and so the manufacturer was hedging its bets. (Pan Am)
butalsoforlanding;indeedatonestagedeceleration parachutesasusedbythemilitarywereconsidered buttheintroductionofthethrust-reverserovercame thisproblem. Anotherproblemwastheweightoftheaircraft, which were nearly twice as heavy as their predecessors so taxiways and parking areas also needed to be strengthened, while their increased lengthledtoproblemsinparkingatterminalgates. Uptothistimeaircraftusuallyparkedside-ontothe terminalsbuttofitthesamenumberofjetsinthe equivalentspaceitbecamenecessarytousenose-in parking, which was less convenient in terms of loadingandunloadingforonlytheforwarddoors could be used for passengers, slowing down the entire process. This soon became the recognised parkingposition-alsoneededthenwasatugvehicle
Two views supposedly taken on the first Pan American service across the Atlantic to Paris on 26 October 1958.
Above Stewardess Hope Ryden offers a newspaper to a passenger. Left: A Pan American stewardess pours coffee for a passenger. The PAA logoed trolley and the artwork on the bulkhead somehow does not quite feel ‘right’! There is some thought that these were shot in the Teague cabin mock-up in New York (both Pan Am)
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Above: N712PA at Terminal 3 Idlewild - otherwise known as Pan American Worldport. Below: a pair of Pan Am Stewardesses pose with a board promoting the new jet services. (both author’s collection)
topushtheaircraftback. Thesuccessofthefirstgenerationjetsandthe introductionoftouristclassledtomorepeopleflying whichledtoterminalsaturationatmanyairports. Aircraft noise also became an issue, the introduction of the early 707s and other first generation jet airliners matching an increase in complaintsfromthepubliclivingnearairports.The silencingmechanismoftheearlyJT3CsandJT4As wasrathercrude,withasetofsoundsuppresser tubesmountedbehindthemainturbineassembly. Whenreversethrustwasselectedclamdoorsclosed and the exhaust gases were forced out forward through cascade vanes. When the later JT3D turbofanswereintroducedthenoisewasreducedon landingbutthenoiseofapproachingjetswasalsoa problem.Withflapsandundercarriagedownanda nosehighattitude,relativelyhighpowersettings wererequired,resultinginahighpitchedwhine. EventuallyregulationswereintroducedbylCAO (InternationalCivilAviationOrganisation)limiting themaximumpermittednoiselevels.Aircraftthat failedtomeettheselimitsfrom1985onwardswere thenbannedfromcertainairports,butsincethenthe regulationshavebeenprogressivelytightened. Boeing received few orders in 1958, but the USAForderedthreeVC-137s,themilitaryversion ofthe707-120s,forVIPuse,SouthAfricanAirlines ordered three 707-320s on 21 February 1958, Continentalorderedonemore707-120andAmerican ordered twenty-five 720s, five of these being convertedfromtheoriginal707-120order.
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Pan American was the first 707 customer, taking something of a gamble with the 707 - and the DC-8 for that matter - as much for Juan Trippe’s desire not to be second in anything as for any other reason. One reason airlines were initially reluctant to embrace jets was their high purchase cost. In 1953 it was thought a four-engine jetliner might cost $4 million, compared to the $1.5 million price of a new DC-7. The final cost of a 707-100 was well over $5 million. (author’s collection)
Getting orders from TWA EversinceBoeingannouncedthedevelopmentofthe 367-80variousBoeingofficialshadtriedtoestablish liaison with Howard Hughes and Trans World Airlines and periodically kept Ralph Damon, the PresidentofTWA,andRobertWRummel,whotook theroleofliasonwithHowardHughesasmajority stockholder,informedconcerningBoeing’splansto offerandproducejetsfortheairlines. Hughes, living up to his reputation of being incrediblysecretiveandofprocastinatingforaslong aspossible,refusedtomakeadecisionregarding purchasing707s,soinOctober1954KenGordonof BoeingcalledRummel,advisinghimthatBoeing washavingseriouscontractualdiscussionswithPan American and an unnamed airline. Gordon said Boeingexpectedtohavecontractualspecifications completedby15Novemberandtoshortlyworkout optionarrangementsguaranteeingrelativedelivery positionsbetweenairlines. Legend has it that Gordon told Rummel that Hughes had already contacted Wellwood Beall, Boeing’s executive vice president, several weeks earlier, but since then Hughes had not returned Wellwood’scalls.GordonreiteratedBoeing’sdesire toworkwithTWAandsuggestedearlyspecification conferences.HeinvitedTWA’sseniormanagement tovisitSeattleandinspectthe367-80prototype. Rummel then discovered that Hughes had expressedinteresttoWellwoodBeallinprocuringthe
first fifty Boeing jets, and Wellwood refused, explainingthatsuchexclusivitywasselfdefeating and contrary to Boeing policy because excluded airlineswouldlikelyturntoothermanufacturers.This was a hard-learned lesson from the days of the Boeing247! Boeing’s President BillAllen wrote to Ralph Damon,advisingthatthe707deliveryschedulefor anycustomerwouldbebasedontheorderinwhich commitments were made and would take into account the quantity purchased by each. He also invitedTWAtoundertakespecificationandcontract negotiations. Allen sent a copy to Hughes and identicalletterstoothermajorAmericanairlinesas wellassomeofthelargerforeignairlines.Shortly thereafter, PAA, AAL, and UAL commenced negotiationsinresponsetotheinvitation. Rummel urged Hughes that exploratory negotiationsbestartedwithBoeingwithoutdelay, butHughesappearedmoreinterestedincontinuing talkswithConvairfortheirSkylarkdesign.Hughes is supposed to have told Rummel that the time ‘wasn’t right’ to deal with Boeing, that he would ‘handlethat,’andthathewouldcontinuetowork withConvair‘...to design the best damned airplane for TWA that can be designed.’ Finally, in late December 1955 Hughes authorisednegotiationstobeginwithBoeingfora ‘stop-gap’fleetofeight‘domestic’707s-theJT-3 powered versions. Hughes’s belated authorisation
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triggeredanintensenegotiationinSeattlebetween Harry West and Robert Rummel for Hughes and WellwoodBeallandJB‘Bruce’Connelly,director of contract administration, cumulating in a letter agreementfortheeightaircraftandexecutedon6 January1956. These, and all subsequent 707s were actually orderednotbyTWA,butbyToolco,theabbreviated, morefamiliarnamefortheHughesToolCompany, whichhadbeenestablishedin1908. It is worth considering a snapshot of Howard Hughes’ myriad of companies and aeronautical activities. It had been established as the SharpHughesToolCompanywhenHowardRHughesSr patentedadrillingbitforoilrigs.Hepartneredwith WalterBenonaSharptomanufactureandmarketthe bit.Followingherhusband'sdeathin1912,Sharp's widowEstellesoldher50%shareinthecompanyto Howard Hughes Sr in 1914. The company was
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renamedHughesToolCompanyon3February1915. When Hughes Sr died in 1924, 75% of the companywaslefttoHowardHughesJr,whoatthe timewasastudentatWilliamMarshRiceInstitute. According to Howard Sr's will, his son was to initiallyreceivea25%share,hiswife50%,andthe remaining25%wastobedividedbetweenvarious familymembers.SinceHowardSr’swifehaddied someyearsearlierandthewillhadnotbeenupdated toreflectthat,HowardJrautomaticallyinheritedhis mother'sshares.Resentfulofhisrelatives’attempts torunthebusiness,HowardHughesJrhadhimself declaredalegaladult,beingtheageofmajorityatthe time,andboughtouthisrelatives’minoritysharein thebusiness. Under Howard Jr's ownership, Hughes Tool venturedintothemotionpicturebusinessviaHughes Productionsduringthe1920s,andintotheairline businessin1939withtheacquisitionofacontrolling
The jet age arrived at San Francisco International Airport in March 1959 when TWA introduced Boeing 707-131 jetliners with nonstop service to New York Idlewild Airport (which was renamed JFK Airport in 1963). United then constructed a large facility at San Francisco for its new Douglas DC-8 jets, which were also flying nonstop service to New York. In July 1959 the first jetway bridge was installed at SFO, which was one of the first in the United States. (author’s collection)
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interestinTranscontinentalandWesternAir(later renamedTransWorldAirlines). In 1932, Hughes formed Hughes Aircraft CompanyasadivisionoftheHughesToolCompany. HughesAircraftthrivedonwartimecontractsduring WorldWarTwo,andbytheearly1950swasoneof America'slargestdefencecontractorsandaerospace companieswithrevenuesfaroutpacingtheoriginal oiltoolsbusiness.In1953,HughesAircraftbecame aseparatecompanyandwasdonatedtotheHoward HughesMedicalInstituteasitsendowment.Hughes Aircraft's helicopter manufacturing business was retainedbyHughesToolCo.asitsAircraftDivision until1972. Foraperiodoftimeinthe1940stolate-1950s, HughesToolownedtheRKOcompanies,including RKOPictures,RKOStudios,RKOTheatres,andthe RKORadioNetwork.ForabriefperiodintheearlyThe flightline at Renton in March 1961. Visible are 707s for American, a 720 for Western, and aircraft for Braniff and Aer Lingus. The ‘final assembly’ of many 707s was carried outside at Renton, as the black and white picture shows - a number still need to have their vertical fins fitted. Flight testing could take three to ten hours of flying by Boeing, which was followed by an acceptance flight by the FAA and then it was handed over to the airline for its own acceptance tests. (both author’s collection)
1960s, Hughes Tool held a minority stake in NortheastAirlines.HughesTool'smajoritystakein TWAwassoldoffin1966.Twoyearslater,in1968, Hughes Tool Company purchased the North Las VegasAirTerminal. Inthelate-1960s,HughesToolventuredintothe hotelandcasinobusinesswiththeacquisitionofthe Sands, Castaways, Landmark, Frontier, Silver Slipper,andDesertInn,allinLasVegas.Hughes Tool also purchased KLAS-TV, Las Vegas’ CBS affiliate.Intheearly1970s,HughesToolventured backintotheairlineindustrywiththetakeoverofthe largest regional air carrier in the western United States:AirWest,renamedHughesAirwestfollowing thepurchase.HughesToolalsobrieflyownedLos Angeles Airways, a small airline operating a commuterservicewithafleetofhelicopters. Butbacktothe707order.Hughesreconsidered
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N791TW was TWA’s first 720B ‘Super]et', although originally built for Northwest Orient, which chose to delay delivery of the order. Before it wore TWA colours, N791TW spent some time as a company demonstrator, somewhat strangely wearing ‘Boeing 707’ titles. TWA only operated four 720Bs and leased them back to Northwest after a year. (]ohn Stroud Collection)
hisstopgappositionandduringthefirstweekof Januaryagreedtonegotiateforasizablefleetof international707s.Boeingtenderedanoffertosell betweentwenty-twoandthirtyinternational707s atabasepriceof$5,150,000each,subjecttocost escalation and adjustment for changes in the detailedspecification. BynowthemajorityofBoeing’searlyproduction hadbeencontractuallycommittedtoPAAandAAL, Braniff and Continental having agreed to later deliverypositions.BoeingofferedTWAsomeofthe earlydeliverypositionsithadreservedtoattractnew customers. However, PAA andAAL had already obtainedtheearliestdeliverypositions,which,of course, was exactly what the Boeing delivery allocationsystemwasdesignedtodo:rewardearly customers with the best available positions while retainingsomeabilitytoattractadditionalbusiness. Immediatelyaseriesofargumentsbrokeout. Hughes claimed preemptive understandings on delivery positions, which Boeing refused to acknowledge. Hughes also wanted the Boeing negotiationsconductedinsecret,andtheywere,at leastinthebeginning. When the detail specification development periodwasreached,secrecybecameimpossible due to TWA technical experts, in concert with representativesfromotherairlines,participating indetaildesignstandardisationactivities.Dueto PanAmericanandAmericanAirlinesspecification negotiations having preceded TWAs, Boeing’s standardspecificationwasessentiallywhatAAL had negotiated, revised slightly to take into accountPanAmerican’suniquerequirements. TWAalsohaduniquerequirements:flightdeck
instrumentationandarrangements,air-conditioning systemdesignandperformance,thedesignofcertain keyaspectsofthehydraulicandelectricalsystems, selectionofaccessoriesstandardtoTWA,autopilot selection,andothers.HadHughesbeenanearlier customer,Boeingcouldhavecompliedwithmany more TWA requirements. The conferences were useful in many areas, and, while complete standardisationwasnotexpectedorachieved,they werehelpfultoallconcernedbecauseofthesavings realised.AsTWAwasabletoconvinceotherairlines toadoptsomeofownitsrequirements,Boeingcould complywithmoreoftheirspecificationobjectives thanhadtheconferencesnotbeenheld. The definitive contract for the eight Model 707-131Boeingswasexecutedon2March1956, byAyersforToolcoandConnellyforBoeing.This was not a sufficient number to preserveTWA’s markets against the forthcoming onslaught by AmericanandUnited.Acontractforthepurchase of eighteen international Model 707-331s was executed19March1956,byCHPriceforToolco andConnellyforBoeing.Despitepressurefromhis own team of advisors and those from TWA management, Hughes took painfully long to increasehisorderinthreestages,eachinvolving extensive efforts to obtain earlier delivery positions. Thus,on10January1957,whenthefifteenth domestic707wasordered,Toolcohadonordera total of thrity-three Boeing jets. Then the bomb dropped:HowardHughessentoutashortsimple messagetohisstafftobepassedontoTWAstop management:‘TWA has no rights whatsoever to the Toolco jets’.
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Life,wantedalongtermfinancingplanforthejet order as it was becoming nervous about Hughes’ borrowingtomeetbasiccostslikepayroll. Toeasethecreditors,HugheshadToolcoaccept theobligationsforthejetorderandinturnleasethe aircrafttoTWA.Aircraftorderswereswappedwith PanAmerican,somethingthatpainedHughestohave toapproachhisrivalJuanTrippetohelpTWAout, andtheConvairorderwascuttotwentyaircraft.Juan Trippe and Raymond Holliday, executive vicepresidentofToolco,executedanagreementon25 June 1959, assigning six of Toolco’s eighteen international 707s to Pan American, subject to Boeing agreeing, which they quickly did. It still wasn'tenoughandsomeofHughes’bankscutoffhis creditinMarch1960.Withtheothercreditors,ashort termfinancingplanwasarrangedtoallowTWAto keepoperatingprovidedToolcoassumedallfinancial liabilitiesfortheairlineaslongastherewasachange inmanagementatTWA.Tofurtherputthebrakeson Hughes,hissharesinTWAwereputintoavoting trust which essentially shut out Hughes from the airline.Whileafinancingplanagreeabletoallthe parties was eventually settled upon at the end of 1960,HughesstillfoundhimselfshutoutofTWA
TWAs logo on the tails of their 707s became almost a symbol of the times... ...and also the inspiration of an icon of New York, the Finnish architect and industrial designer Eero Saarinen designed Trans World Airlines terminal.
LikeeverythingconcerningHowardHughes,the whole saga was riddled with secrecy and misinformation. Accounts give various reasons why Hughesdidwhathedid,buttheoverallconcensusof opinionwasthatitwasalltodowithHughesbeing cash-strapped. HughespushedTWA'sfinancestothelimittoget intojetsandwhilethearrivaloftheJetAgetoTWA markedthebeginningofitszenith,italsolaidthe groundworkforHowardHughes’eventualexitfrom TWAdespitethenear-limitlesscapitalthathecould accessfromhisownparentcompany,theHughes ToolCompany.InFebruary1956heorderedthe707120s,thenfollowedinJune1956withanorderfor thirty Convair 880s, and then more 707s in May 1957. The value of these three orders was $300 million.TWAraisedadditionalfundswithaone-toonestockofferingunderwrittenbyToolcothatalso gave Hughes 77% control of the airline. But the moneyraisedfromthestockofferwasn'tenoughand it seemed that TWA couldn't meet its payroll obligations for the first quarter of 1958. Hughes borrowed $12 million from the banks, but at this point,oneofTWA'soriginal1945backers,Equitable
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Above: Arrivals and departures board with information desk, TWA Flight Center, c. 1962.
Left” ‘Miss Mary Tyler Moore, please pick up the white courtesy telephone’. Actress and dancer Mary Tyler Moore in the TWA Flight Center the same year. Note the TWA seating Chart behind her with details of Boeing Super Jet Flight 1. ( both TWA)
andforsixyearslawsuitandcountersuitafteranother werefiledashetriedtoregaincontrolofTWA.He finallygaveupin1966wheninMayofthatyear ToolcosoldoffitsentireshareofTWAstockandhe wasoutoftheairlinebusinessforawhile. Back in 1959, Hughes held tight reins on the deliveryofthejets.Ithadbeenaregularpracticeto obtainauthorisationfromtheTWAboardforplant representativestoformallyacceptaircraftdeliveries oncompletionofsatisfactoryacceptanceflighttests andsignalthatfinalpaymentswerereadyfortransfer. Inthiscase,Howardtelegraphicallygrantedpower of attorney to Edwin Zak, Maintenance Head for TWA’sInternationalDivision,toacceptoneBoeing atatime,andthenonlywhenHughesconsidered appropriate.Henodoubtconsideredthisdegreeof
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controlnecessarybecauseofdifficultyinmustering thenecessaryfunds. Shortly before the flight test phase, Hughes insistedthatnoonebeallowedontheToolcoBoeings except the absolute minimum number of Boeing employeesrequiredtoaccomplishessentialworkand thoseknowntobecloselyassociatedwithHughes. ItproveddifficultforBoeingtomakethefirst Toolco707readyfordelivery.Repeatedflighttests and some time-consuming modifications were required before proper system functioning was demonstrated. Everyone, including Hughes, was keentoseethattheaircraftwasdeliveredontimeso that TWA jet services could be operated on the publiciseddate. Thestartofservicecontingencytimewasall butusedupbythetimetheairlinerwasready.The aircraft had remained Toolco’s, but last-minute arrangementsweremadetoleaseittoTWAona day-to-daybasis,arrangementsthatappliedtoall subsequentdomesticandthefirstfourinternational 707s. Afterdelivery,RobertRummelflewinthisfirst 707withTWACaptainGailStorcktoSanFrancisco, whereitwasturnedovertoFlightOperationsfor
The TWA logo on the tail of their 707s beame used for everything from travel agents to clothing manufacturers. It was around this time that the ‘If it’s not Boeing tell them you’re not going’ started to appear. (author’s collection)
FAA route proving flights. The inaugural flight occurredonscheduleon20March1959,withonly minutestospare. Remarkably,thataircraftflewdailyroundtrips between San Francisco and New York, and it performedflawlessly.Itwasoperatedanincredible twenty-onestraightdayswithoutasingleflightdelay. And it operated with full passenger loads plus oversalespassengers,whooccupiedtheloungeseats. As Robert Rummel was to say afterwards: ‘This incredible operating record is a tribute to effective jet planning and the fine TWA operations team that made it work.’
A gradual expansion. 1959 saw 707 services start to spead around the world; American Airlines started New York-Los Angelesserviceson25January1959,thengradually introduced707sonalltheirlong-haulrouteswhile TransWorldAirlinesputtheironly707-120delivered ontheNewYork-SanFranciscorouteon20March 1959followedbyNewYork-LosAngelesinApril afterdeliveryofasecondaircraft.QANTASstarted jetservicesacrossthePacificon29July1959,then becamethethirdoperatorofjetsacrosstheNorth
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A line-up of 1956-ordered 707-131s for TWA are seen at Seattle in 1959. The aircraft in the foreground is fitted with noise reducing nozzles to cut down the sound generated by the JT-3C turbojets. It consisted of two rings of eight exhaust pipes, and was first tested on the Dash-80 (right). (both John Stride Collection)
Atlanticon5September1959. PanAmericanputthe707-320intoserviceon 26August1959,initiallyfromSanFranciscoto London,followedbytheNewYork-Londonroute on 10 October 1959, negating the need for refuelling.Braniffstartedits‘ElDorado’service fromDallas-LoveFieldtoNewYorkusing707220son20December1959withservicestoSouth Americaintroducedon1April1960. Orders continued to be slow, Aer Lingus orderedatrioof720son4March1959initiallyto replacetheirL-1049HsontheDublin-ShannonNew York service with Boston added later althoughthesewerelatersupersededby707s.The mostsignificantorderoftheyear,however,was from American in November for one 707-120 poweredbyPratt&WhitneyJT-3Dturbofansof
17,000poundsthrust. On 10 October 1959 Pan American inaugurated the first all-jet around the world service when it started the San FranciscoHonolulu-Manila-Karachi-Rome-San Francisco servicewith707-321N719PA.TWAintroduced 707-320sontheNorthAtlanticon23November with services between New York, London and Frankfurt, where their Lockheed Constellations hadbeenuncompetitivealongsidePanAmerican's 707sandBOAC'sComets.
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Early problems. PanAm'sgreatrival,AmericanAirlines,wasthefirst customer to put the 707 into scheduled domestic services. The first commercial coast-to-coast jet servicewasflownbyN7502Flagship Oklahoma from LosAngeles to Idlewild, New York, on 25 January1959,returningthesameday.Thelimited rangeofthe707-120oftenledtoweatherdiversions andoccasionallytoembarrassment.InOctober1959 aNewYorktoLosAngelesflightdivertedtoPhoenix due to bad weather at the destination and was impoundedbylocalauthorities,asPhoenixhadno insurancecoverforjets.Ittookfivedaystoarrange thenecessarydocumentssothattheairlinercould continuetoLosAngeles. After two months of having four of the new airliners in service, American discovered several indirectproblemswiththenewjets.Theseincluded the difficulty of setting up a schedule based on predictedwindsatthehigheraltitudes,whichthe airline's IBM punchcard computer was initially unabletodealwith,andtheUSmilitaryoccasionally blockedoff10,000feetofairspaceatatimewhenthe jet routeings and altitudes available were already restricted. At that time there were only three transcontinentaljetroutesbetweenNewYorkand LosAngeles.Becauseoftheseandotherfactors,up to66%offlightswerelatebytenminutesormore andafurthertenpercentwereearly. Airtrafficcontrolproceduresalsoneededsome
adjustmentforjetairlineroperations.Theregular reportingpointswerethesameasforsloweraircraft, sothatthe707crewcouldbarelymakeonelocation reportbeforepassingthenextcheckpoint.American introducedathirdpilotorsecondofficertohandle navigationandcommunicationsduties.Hewould also take over the left or right seats or flight engineer’sstationifthatpilotvacatedit.Thisfourcrew arrangement was also designed to ensure a constant visual scan in the increasingly crowded airways.AmericanwastheonlyUSairlinetoadopt thiscrewarrangementanditwasfairlyshort-lived. OverinEuropethereweresimilarproblems.In Italy,thearrivalofthe707sandDC-8sseemedto catchtheauthoritiesbysurprise,eventhoughthey hadexperienceofCometoperationsin1952-4.In 1958theItalianUndersecretaryforCivilAviation refusedtoallowscheduledjetservicesasRome's Ciampino Airport was overcrowded, the new FiumicinoAirportwasnotyetfinished,andMilan’s Malpensa Airport needed enlarging. Air traffic controlwasalsoconsideredinadequateandoverall the707wasthoughttorisk‘...anunduestrainon safetyregulations’.Thesituationdidnotcompletely resolveitselfuntilFiumicinowasopenedin1960. British Certification problems. Pilotshadproblemsadaptingtotheslowerincrease inliftaspowerwasappliedduringdescentsresulting inanumberofabnormalsituations.Thepopularpress
A stunning picture of a ‘bare metal’ 707 with just ‘BOEING 707 Intercontinental’ on the fuseleage roof and tail in fact it is N714PA prior to delivery to Pan American Airways (author’s collection)
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In March 1960, the Cunard Steamship Company bought a 60% shareholding in Harold Bamberg's British Eagle Airways for £30 million, resulting in a change of name to Cunard Eagle Airways. The support from this new shareholder enabled Cunard Eagle to become the first British independent airline to operate pure jet airliners, as a result of a £6 million order for two new Boeing 707-420 passenger aircraft. The order had been placed (including an option on a third aircraft) in expectation of being granted traffic rights for transatlantic scheduled services. Cunard's acquisition of a controlling stake in Eagle resulted in Bamberg's appointment as their new aviation director, hoping that his knowledge of the industry would help them to capture a significant share of the one million people that crossed the Atlantic by air in 1960. This was the first time more passengers chose to make their transatlantic crossing by air than sea. In April 1960 the Government approved a range of new Colonial Coach fares for travel by British residents only on cabotage routes linking the UK with its remaining colonies. This was the right to transport goods or passengers between two places in the same country by a transport operator from another country. Despite opposition from IATA, British airlines - including British IATA members - were free to introduce them from 1 October 1960 as UK authorities controlled fares at both ends. Due to BOAC opposition, the aircraft were put on the Bermudan register to allow charters from London to Bermuda Via New York, but Cunard withdrew from partnership with Eagle Airlines in June 1962 and formed BOAC-Cunard instead. G-ARWD/VR-BBW served under the BOAC-Cunard, BOAC, BEA Airtours and British Airtours names until 1981. (DGR Photo Library)
werequicktoprovidecoverageoftheseincidents, includingthelossofcontrolduringsimulatedengine failureofbothenginesononesideoftheaircraft causingtheaircrafttodutchroll.Thisoftenresulted inincidentswhereenginepodswerescrapedalong therunwayonlanding-somethingthatcouldonly happenwithsevenoreightdegreesofroll!Rumour hasitthatmanyofBOAC’smostdistinguishedold pilots - many who has served during the war discoveredthatthelively,fastandlethalenthusiasm ofthe707forDutchrollingmadeitonlytoeasyto ‘scrapeapod’andthataftersuchan‘incident’they soonfinishedupinmanagement! Dutchrollwasaprobleminherentinswept-wing jets and was kept in check by the yaw damper functionoftheautopilot.Theyawdampercouldnot beusedattake-offoronthelandingapproach.Unlike pistontransports,the707hadtobe‘flown’positively ontotherunwayratherthanaimedatthethreshold and‘floated’on.Pilotswhotriedtolandthe707like apistonriskedundershootingtherunway. Asanumberofincidentsandaccidentsduring
crew training demonstrated. there were certain disconcertingcharacteristics.thatneitherBoeingnor theBritishAirRegistrationBoardwerehappyabout. Pilots found the rudder system on the 707 somewhatdifferenttowhattheyhadpreviouslybeen usedto.Theoriginalruddersystemasfittedonthe 707-120shadaerodynamiccontrolonly,butlater variantshavehadpower-boostassistanceforbigger anglesofruddermovement.Forthefirsttendegrees deflection,thepoweredtrimtabmovedtherudder aerodynamically. Betweentenandfifteendegrees the power booster began to take over and above fifteendegreesitwasfullyeffective.However,this meantthattherewasnotrimreliefathigherangles andforstructuralsafetyreasons,theboost‘gaveway’ atairloadsgreaterthan180footpoundsofforce.To usethiseffectivelyrequiredtrainingandpracticeas aheavyapplicationofruddergaveanoticeable‘lag’ as the booster became effective and then a rapid deflectiontothebooster’slimit.Thetendencywasto add aileron and spoiler inputs, leading to an overcorrectionandDutchroll.Anewboosterthat
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Right: The ventral so-called ‘ARB fin’ on BOAC 707436 G-APFB. When the marginal stability characteristics of the 707 in some modes was realised, Tex Johnston, backed up by the aerodynamicists, recommended a taller fin, a boosted rudder and the ventral fin seen here. Bill Allen and Boeing's board accepted his findings, as did the British Legend has it that when BOAC asked Johnston ‘Who pays for it?’ he replied with one word: ‘Boeing’. This may have been an answer that reassured the customers and ensured the success of the 707, but it delayed profitability even further.
workedthroughoutthefullrangeofdeflectionwas designed to meet UKAirworthiness Registration Board(ARB)certificationrequirementsandwaslater fittedtoall707s,butitwasstillnotenough. Thesituationwasunderstoodbypilotsandproper corrective action was a matter of training and practice.But,apartaltogetherfromanycriticismof generalhandling,thecharacteristicsofthesystem were such that, with the higher take-offpower availablefromtheConwayandlaterJ75marks,the unmodified707couldonlybecertificatedtoARB standardsbyraisingtheminimumcontrolspeedsand thus unsatisfactorily restricting its take-off and landingperformance. Therewasaknownrequirementforincreasing thekeelarea,indeedthiswasonedemandfromthe BritishARB;amodificationthatbecameknownas the‘ARBfin’whichnotonlyincreasedstabilitybut alsoactedasatailbumpertopreventover-rotation ontake-off.Theventralfinswereofatleastthree differentshapes,withstraightorcurvedleadingedges anddifferentareas. Thesechangesalsoinvolvedarationalisationof theentirerudder-controlsystem.Therudderwasfully poweredthroughitswholerangeofmovement.The power supply and appropriate systems were duplicatedforobvioussafetyreasons-and,more important, in order to provide maximum rudder deflection,withoutdelay,inemergencyconditions. Pressurewassuppliedat3,000poundspersquare inchforlow-speedflightand1,000poundspersquare inch for high-speed flight, thus providing two different power ‘ratios’ with the changeover controlled by a Q-operated switch.The trimming systemoperatedthroughtheQ-potmechanism,over thewholerangeofruddermovement. ‘Q’feelisrelatedtotheaerodynamicsandprecise flightconditionsthatapplyatthetimeofthecontrol demand.Astheaircraftspeedincreasessodoesthe aerodynamic load in a mathematical relationship proportional to the air density and the square of velocity.Theairdensityisrelativelyunimportant;the
squared velocity term has a much greater effect, particularlyathighspeed.Thereforeitisnecessary totakeaccountofthisaerodynamicequation;thatis thepurposeof‘Q’feel.A‘Q’feelunitreceivesair datainformationfromtheaircraftpitot-staticsystem. Infactthesignalappliedisthedifferencebetween pitotandstaticpressure,andthissignalisusedto modulatethecontrolmechanismwithinthe‘Q’feel unit and operate a hydraulic load jack which is connectedintotheflightcontrolrun. Inthiswaythepilotwasgivenfeelwhichwas directly related to the aircraft speed and which greatlyincreasedwithincreasingairspeed.Itwas usualtouse‘Q’feelinthetailplaneorruddercontrol runs;wherethismethodoffeelwasuseddepended upon the aircraft aerodynamics and the desired handlingorsafetyfeatures.Thedisadvantageof‘Q’ feelwasthatitwasmorecomplexandonlybecame ofrealuseathighspeed. There was no duplication in the yaw damper system,whichremainedinoperativeduringthetakeoff/climbandapproach/landingstagesofflight. MostofBOACs-436sweredelivereddirectto Londonwithemptycabins,buttwowerefittedwith seatsandgalleysshippedoutfromtheUKandpicked uppassengersfromMontrealontheway. Overall,problemswiththeaircraftitselfincluded damagetoskin,flapsandcargodoorsbysnowand slushthrownupbyhighertaxispeedsandtrouble withthecomplexelectricalwiring.Thephenomenon of ‘sonic fatigue’ caused by engine noise created
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problems with certain areas of the airframe, in particularthetailcone.Thiswascuredbyreplacing somemagnesiumcomponentswithaluminiumones andbyliningthetailconewithfibreglass. Sparepartsavailabilitywasanearlyproblem, madeworsebyminorchangesontheBoeinglinethat came about as part of a pre-delivery design improvementprogrammewhichsawchangesmade betweenthespecificationgiventotheairlinesand delivery itself, including everything from new doormatstoleading-edgeflaps.Americanfoundthat ifapartwastobechangedontheproductionline, subcontractors would often stop making it immediately, leaving Seattle's stocks as the only source. AmericanAirlinesFlight514wasatrainingflight from Idlewild International Airport to Calverton ExecutiveAirpark.Ontheafternoonof15August 1959,theBoeing707crashednearCalvertonairport, killingallfivecrewmembersaboard.Thiswasthe firstaccidenttoinvolveaBoeing707,whichhad onlygoneintoservicethepreviousyear. Theaircraft,a707-123withregistrationN7514A, named ‘Flagship Connecticut’ hadaccumulated736 totalflighthours.AtthattimeTheCalvertonairfield wasusedfrequentlybyAmericanAirlinesfortraining purposesforcrewmemberson707s,andwasknown thenastheGrummanAircraftCorp.field. During the 1960s American Airlines advertised under the slogan ‘ComeFlyWithMe’that heavily featured their stewardesses dress in that ‘swingin sixties’ look. Their 707s were all named ‘Astro-jets’. Below: American Airlines N7526A. (both American Airlines)
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The707departedIdlewildat1:40pmlocaltime, andaccomplishedhighaltitudeairworkaftertakeoff topermitsufficientfuelburnoffforairporttransition trainingwhichwasplannedatCalverton,andarrived intheareaaround3:11pm.Flight514accomplished several manoeuvres, including full-stop landings, crosswind landings and takeoffs, a high off-set approach,simulatedengineoutlandings,andanoflapabortedapproachtolanding.Theaircraftdidnot retract its landing gear following the last aborted approachtolandingonRunway23,butcontinuedin thetrafficpatternatanestimatedaltitudebetween 1,000and1,100feet.Thecrewreportedonleftbase
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American Airlines returned a number of their ‘Astrojets’ to Boeing for conversion to turbofan power, as the same time doing wing and tail modifications. The JT-3C was convertible to a JT-3D turbofan by adding a front fan and fourth stage turbine. This allowed the engine to handle two and a half times the air mass at takeoff, giving 50% more thrust, much better fuel consumption and reduced noise. (American Airlines)
legforRunway23,wasgivenclearancetoland, and was informed that the wind was from 230 degreesat10to15knots.Asitapproachedthe extendedcentrelineoftherunway,around4:42pm, itmadealeftbank,steepeningtoapproximately 45 degrees. The aircraft was then observed to recoverimmediatelytolevelflightandtobegina bank to the right which became progressively steeper.Therightbankcontinueduntiltheaircraft wasinverted,atwhichtimethenosedroppedand a yaw to the left was observed. The 707 then continued to roll to the right in a nose down configuration before the wings leveled. Investigation revealed the aircraft struck the ground in this attitude, in a nearly stalled condition,yawedtotheleftapproximatelytwelve degrees,withconsiderableandnearlysymmetrical power.Theaircraftcrashedinapotatofield,afire eruptedonimpact,andallfiveaboardwerekilled. The crash occurred only a few miles from the BrookhavenNationalLaboratories,asiteofsecret nuclearwork. Thefirecontinuedtoburnforoveranhourafter thecrash,hamperingemergencycrewsintheirefforts toremovethebodiesofthecrew.TheAirForcesent
several pieces of fire equipment to the scene. Eventually,alargecrowdgatheredatthecrashsite aswordspreadoverradioandtelevisionnewscasts, andpeopledrovefromresortsandtownsinthearea toseethewreckage. Theprobablecausesuggestedwasthat‘...the crew failed to recognize and correct the development of excessive yaw which caused an unintentional rolling manoeuvre at an altitude too low to permit complete recovery.’ After the accident, the Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) discontinued the requirement that Boeing 707 aircraft make actual landings with simulated failure of 50 percent of the power units concentrated on one side of the aircraft during training flights, type ratings, and proficiency checks.Thesemanoeuvrescouldnowbesimulated atanappropriatehigheraltitude.On5February 1960, Boeing issued a service bulletin for an improvedruddermodificationwhichaddedboost power to the wider ranges of directional movement,andgaveincreasedcontrolcapability atlowairspeedsandminimumgrossweight.This modificationalsoreplacedtheoriginalrudderwith animprovedversion.
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Braniff Airways was to become famous for its more extreme fashion ideas worn by its stewardesses. Left is Emilio Pucci's Bubble Helmet designed supposedly in the days prior to the air-bridge to protect the coiffure from wind and rain on the walk from the terminal to the aircraft. A Braniff International stewardess models the plexiglass headgear at John F, Kennedy Airport, New York in 1965. Braniff 720 N7077. (both author’s collection)
Then BraniffInternationalAirwayslostitsfirst Boeing707-227El Dorado Super Jet inapredelivery crashatOso,somethirtymilesnorthnortheastof Everett,Washington,nearSeattle.Theaircraftcame torestonthebanksoftheStillaguamishRiver. ShipN7071wasthefirstoffiveBoeing707's orderedbyBraniffon1December1955.Dubbedthe ElDoradoSuperJet,thebigBoeingwastheonlyone ofitskindwiththemorepowerfulJT4Aturbojet engines commonly found on the 707-320 series Intercontinental long range jet. The big Braniff enginesdidnotrequirewaterinjectionontakeoff. TheSeries-227featuredthestandardBoeing707120 fuselage which, combined with the powerful engines,createdalonghaullowerdensityairlinerthat wasperfectlysuitedforthecarriersUSMainlandto SouthAmericaroutes. Thismixofpowerandlowercapacityallowed Branifftooperateoutofthehigherelevationfields ofSouthAmericawherethejetwastobeaplanned mainstay.Thesmallercapacityalsoallowedforan increased profit spread, giving the fast 707 a
financialadvantageoverotherjetaircraft.Itwas alsothefastest707,allowingittobeoperatedat topspeedsof636milesperhour.Initialseating capacity was slated at 106 passengers but was increasedto112seatswiththirty-eightFirstClass andseventy-fourCoachconfiguration. N7071wasrolledouton30April1959andfirst flewon11June.Overthenextfourmonthsnumerous training and test flights were conducted in the Washingtonskies. Theflightproceededasnormalafterdeparture fromRenton.Onboardwereeightpersonsincluding aFAAInspector,aBoeingFlightEngineer,aBoeing InstructorPilot,andanotherBoeingPilot,andtwo additionalBraniffpersonnelthatincludedaFlight EngineerandTechnicalTrainingInstructor.There weretwoBraniffpilotsupfrontincludingCaptain M.FrankStaleyandCaptainJohnA.Berkeaswell astheBoeingFlightInstructorandFlightEngineer. The Boeing Instructor executed a number of manoeuvres and then had the Braniff Captain demonstratethesame.TheBoeingInstructorthen
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beganaseriesofDutchRollsandtheBraniffCaptain executedrecoveriesfromeach. BoeinghadinstitutedamaximumDutchRoll bank angle of 25 degrees during any training manoeuvre on 707s. The Boeing instructor far exceededthisminimumwithwitnessesstatingthat thebankexceeded45degreesandupwardsof60 degrees.TheBraniffpilottriedtorecoveroutofa noserightangleandappliedrightaileronwhilethe rightwingwasstillmovinginadownwardmotion andtheaircraftimmediatelywentintoa90degree bankandyawedrightatthesametime. The Boeing Instructor took control and immediately applied full left aileron and the aircraftbeganaviolentrolltotheleftatwhich timetheNumber1,2,and4engineswereripped from their pylons. The Instructor began an emergency landing on the banks of the Stillaguamish River where N7071 ultimately crashed.BraniffCaptain'sStaleyandBerkealong with the Boeing Instructor and Boeing Flight Engineerwerekilledonimpact.Theotherfour personnel on board had shrewdly moved to the rearoftheaircraftpriortoimpactandsurvivedthe accident.N7071wasacompletelossandthecost wasabsorbedbyBoeing. TheCivilAeronauticsBoard,whoconducted airline accident investigations at that time, concluded that the aircraft engine pylons and nacelles had been overstressed and failed as a result of the improper inputs by the Braniff Captaintrainee.TheBoeingInstructorwasfaulted for exceeding the Boeing mandated 25 degree maximumbankangleduringDutchRolltraining manoeuvres and it was pointed out that the Instructorhadevenbeenwarnedjustpriortothe accident by the Boeing Flight Engineer of the maximumbankangleduringthetrainingmission. TheBoeingInstructorwasalsocitedforallowing apilotonhisfirsttrainingflightintheBoeing707 totrytorecoverfromsuchextremegyrations. BraniffwouldbeallowedtouseaBoeing707124orderedbyContinentalAirlinesforitstraining missionsuntilBraniff'ssecond-227couldbemade readyfordelivery.TheSeries-124wasnotpainted and was registered as N74612 and dubbed the Silver Ghost because of its lack of paint. The deliveryoftheSilver Ghost toContinentalAirlines wasdelayedwhileBraniffwasusingtheaircraft. ThreemonthsafterPanAmericanhadstarted jetservice,businesswasboomingandtheairline hadalreadyincreasedtheaccommodationinits 707-121sbeyondtheoriginal111seat,two-class layout.However,theairlinestillfacedproblems
asithadnotyetresolveditsdisputewithmembers oftheAirLinePilotsAssociation(ALPA).Thus, when on 3 February 1959, 707-121 N712PA (Clipper Washington) tookoffasPanAmFlight 115,onthesecondlegofthedailyParis-LondonNew York flight, its two pilots were from management. Captain W Waldo Lynch, who had logged 11,185 hours including 350 hours in 707s, was assistantvicepresidentofcommunicationsforthe airline.ThecopilotwasCaptainSamuelTPeters, thenchiefpilotofPanAm’sPacificDivision,who hadlogged14,952hoursincluding269hoursin 707s. These two veterans were assisted in the cockpit by John Laird, navigator, and George Sinski,flightengineer.Inthetwo-classcabintwo pursers and four stewardesses attended to the needsandcomfortsof119passengers,including thenotedactor/dancer/choreographerGeneKelly. Bound for New York, with an intermediate fuelingstopinGander,flightPA115hadtakenoff fromLondonHeathrowat18:45GMT.Twohours later,theaircraftwascruisingat31,000feetwhen Captain Lynch requested and obtained authorisation from Oceanic Control to climb to 35,000feetbeforeenteringafrontalsystemwith thunderstorms. As fate would have it, those additional4,000feetprobablysavedthelivesof passengers and crew, changing the course of historyforthe707andBoeing. Aftertheaircraftreachedflightlevel35while cruisingatMach0.82,CaptainLynchleftthecockpit totalkwithNormanT.Blake,theVicepresidentof PanAm’sAtlanticDivision,whowasonboardasa passenger/observer.Threehoursand20minutesafter takeoff,theaircraftwasat52.5degreesNand40.5 degreesW,some500mileseastofGander.Stillin the cabin, Captain Lynch noticed a trim change, accompanied with buffeting, followed by a rapid build up of acceleration forces. In the cockpit, Captain Peters, who was checking notes on his clipboardafterturningleft20degreestogetonthe new course requested by the navigator, also felt buffetingandpositiveaccelerationforcesbuildingup rapidly.Buffetingincreased,thelightsonthecopilot panelwentout,andClipper Washington wentintoa nose-downspiraltotheright.PA115wasinserious trouble. WhileCaptainPetersstruggledtoregaincontrol byapplyingleftaileronandruddertostoptheroll, CaptainLynchhadadifficulttimenegotiatinghis waybacktothecockpitduetotheGforces.Once backinthecockpit,thefirstthinghedidbeforeeven tryingtogetbackintohisseatwastopullallthe
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The Societé Anonyme Belge d'Exploitation de la Navigation Aérienne, better known internationally by the acronym Sabena or SABENA, was the national airline of Belgium from 1923 to 2001. Here is one of their 707-239s, OO-SJA.
Left: a period luggage label promoting ‘Fly Boeing Jet Intercontinental’ (author’s collection)
throttlesbacktoidle.WhenCaptainLynchfinallygot intotheleftseathesawthealtimeterunwindingfast astheaircraftwaspassingthrough17,000feetafter alreadylosing18,000feetofaltitude.Hecouldnot seetheMachmeter,whichwashiddenbythecontrol wheel.Theartificialhorizonwasuselessasithad toppledandtheturn-and-bankindicatorwasfullto therightwithitsballleftofcentre.Thehorizontal stabilizerwasinthefullnosedownpositionandthe electrictrimbuttonrefusedtowork. Takingoverthecontrol,CaptainLynchwas assisted by the navigator, who kept calling the altitudes,andtheflightengineer,whodeactivated the stabiliser system and rolled up the two
stabiliser wheels to the ‘up’ position. First succeeding in getting the wings level, Lynch pulled back on the yoke as the aircraft passed through8,000feet,stillgoingdown.Finally,at 6,000 feet there were a few seconds of violent buffeting, but descent stopped and Clipper Washington pulledupintoafairlysteepclimb.At 9,000feetthecrewrealisedtheyhadthingsback undercontrolandtherateofclimbwasreduced. Flyingtheaircraftmanually,CaptainLynchand hiscrewlevelledoutat31,000feetandcruisedto GanderatMach0.79.ThelandingatGanderwas uneventful. Althoughknockedaround,passengersandcrew memberssufferednoseriousinjuries.Theaircraft, however,hadsufferedwhattheCivilAeronautics Boarddescribedas‘extensivestructuraldamage.’ Thelistofdamagewasimpressive:wrinklesinthe lowerskinofbothhorizontalstabiliserwithbuckles inthecentresectionwebanduppersurfacedoubler; damagetobothwingpanels,includingshearwrinkles intherearsparwebs;damagetooutboardailerons and their control rods; damage to the wing-tofuselagefairings,withathreefootsectionoftheright fairinghavingseparatedinflight;smallamountof permanentsettoboth.wingpanels;bucklingtoall fourenginenacellestrut-to-wingfairings;andpartial failureoftheshearboltsinNo.2andNo.3nacelles andelongatedfittingholesofallfrontspar-to-wing bushings. The CAB concluded its investigation by
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ascertainingthatprobablecauseswere: ‘…inattention of the copilot in the absence of the captain; the selfdisengagement of the autopilot; autopilot disengagement light left i.n the ‘dim’ position and therefore not easily seen; and Mach trim switch not turned on’. Although not cited as a contributory factor, pilotfatiguemostlikelyplayedasignificantrole. Management pilots had excessively long duty hoursandinsufficientresttimeasPanAmerican struggled to maintain a full schedule while its ALPApilotsrefusedtofly707spendingresolution oftheirpaydispute. Onecannothelpbutwonderwhatwouldhave happened if Captain Lynch and his crew had not succeededinregainingcontrol.ThelossofClipper WashingtonintheAtlanticwouldlikelyhavebecome anAmericancounterparttotheCometdisasteroff ElbainJanuary1954.Atbest,the707wouldhave hadtobewithdrawnfromusependingresultofan accident investigation, a process that would have beenmadelengthybythedifficultyofrecovering wreckagefrommid-NorthAtlanticwaters. After the events of 3 February, Clipper Washington wasferriedfromGandertoSeattlefor thoroughinspectionbyBoeing;Oncerepairshad beenmade,theaircraftwasreturnedtoservice. Then,inEurope,SabenaFlight548,operatedby 707OO-SJB,crashedenroutefromNewYorkCity toBrussels,Belgium,on15February1961,killing seventy-threepeople,includingtheentireUSfigure skatingteam,whichwasonitswaytotheWorld Figure Skating Championships in Prague, Czechoslovakia. The flight originated at Idlewild International Airport and crashed on approach to Brussels's Zaventem Airport. The Boeing had to abort its landingatBrusselsbecauseofanaircraftblocking oneoftherunways,andtriedtoclimbandcircle towardsanotherone. Underclearskiesatabout10:00a.m.Brussels time,thejetwasonalongapproachtorunway20 when,neartherunwaythresholdandataheightof 900feet,powerwasincreasedandthelandinggear retracted.Theairlinerattemptedtocircleandlandon anotherrunway,butnevermadeitbacktotheairport. Theairlinermadethree360degreesturnstotheleft, during which the bank angle increased more and moreuntiltheaircrafthadclimbedto1,500feetand wasinanearverticalbank.The707thenlevelled wings,abruptlypitchedup,lostspeedandstartedto spiral rapidly nose down towards the ground. It crashedandcaughtfireinamarshyareaadjacentto afarmfieldnearthevillageofBerg,lessthantwo
milesfromtheairport,at10:04a.m.BrusselsTime. The wreckage burst into flames, though it is believedthatallseventy-twoonboardwerekilled instantly.TheodeLaet,afarmerwhowasworking inhisfields,waskilledbyapieceofaluminumdebris from the aircraft, and another farmer's leg was severedbyflyingdebris. Thecauseofthecrashwasneverestablished,but isbelievedtohavebeenafailureofthestabiliseradjustingmechanism.
Further incidents and accidents 1962and1963werenotgoodyearsforBoeing,with severalaircraftcomingtogrief.Thefirstonewas AmericanAirlines707-123BN7506Awhichcrashed shortly after take-off from ldlewild, New York, killingalltheoccupants. American Airlines Flight 1 was a domestic, scheduled passenger flight to Los Angeles InternationalAirport.On1March1962,theaircraft -havingtakenofftwominutesearlier-rolledover andcrashedintoaswamp,killingalleighty-seven passengersandeightcrewmembersaboard. TheflightcrewconsistedofCaptainJamesHeist, First Officer Michael Barna, Jr, Second Officer RobertPecor,andFlightEngineerRobertCain.Also aboardwerefourstewardesses:ShirleyGrabow,Lois Kelly,BettyMoore,andRosalindStewart. The aircraft received instructions to taxi to Runway 31L at 9:54 AM EST, and clearance to
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proceedtoLosAngelesnon-stopunderinstrument flightrules(IFR)at10:02AMEST.Flight1became airborne at 10:07AM EST. FollowingAmerican Airlines procedures and Departure Control instructions, the aircraft initiated a left turn to a headingof290.Inthecourseoftheturn,at1,600feet, theBoeingbankedtoofar,flippedpast90degrees, andbegananupside-down,nose-firstdescentina nearlyverticaldive.
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Flight1crashedintoPumpkinPatchChannel, JamaicaBay,at10:08:49,whileangledat78degrees and on a magnetic heading of 300 degrees. PassengersaboardaMohawkAirlinesplanebound forAlbanythattookoffimmediatelyafterFlight1 watchedtheaircraftplungeintothebay.Theairliner explodeduponimpact,ageyserofbrackishwaterand blacksmokeeruptedfromthesite,andthescattered debrisandfuelcaughtfire.LongIslandresidents described hearing explosions which shook the foundationsofnearbyhouses,thoughnooneonthe groundisknowntohavewitnessedtheaircrafthitting theswamp.However,afewmenatNavalAirStation NewYork/FloydBennettFieldsawthemassive geyserofwaterrisingabovethehangars,andone guard-athispostonabridgethattheaircraftflew over-sawitrollover. AnumberofnotablepeoplewereaboardFlight 1whenitwentdowninJamaicaBay.Theyincluded: AdmiralRichardLansingConolly,USN(retired),
In many respects Continental Airlines followed the theme of flying that was an adventure and a luxury.
Operating under the advertising slogan of ‘The Proud Bird with the Golden Tail’ their stewardesses followed the First Lady Jackie Kennedy chic.
Below: Continental Airlines ‘Golden Jet’ 707 N70773. (both author’s collection)
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president of Long Island University and Deputy ChiefofNavalOperations;JohnnyDieckman,world championfly-castingfisherman;GeorgeT.Felbeck, vice president of Union Carbide and operations managerofOakRidge,Tennessee.W.AltonJones, multi-millionaireformerpresidentandchairmanof Cities Service Company. Jones was found to be carrying$55,690incash,includingasingle$10,000 bill.ArnoldKirkeby,millionairerealtorandformer headoftheKirkebychainofluxuryhotels;Louise LindnerEastman,whosedaughterLindaEastman wouldlatermarryBeatlePaulMcCartney;Irving Rubine,TVwriter;EmelynWhiton,1952Olympic sailinggoldmedalistandPeterF.Masse,president ofCHSprague&Son,anintegratedcoalcompany ofNewYorkandBoston.Inaddition,intheaircraft’s hold were fifteen abstract paintings by the artist ArshileGorkythatwereenroutetoLosAngelesfor anexhibition-thesewerealsodestroyed. The aircraft impacted into a remote area of marshlandusedasawildlifesanctuary.Overthree
hundredpolicemenandfirefighters,including125 detectivesattendinganarcoticsseminaratthePolice Academy,aswellasCoastGuardhelicopters,were mobilizedtothesitewithinhalfanhourofthecrash for rescue operations, only to find there were no survivors.Thefirewasundercontrolby10:50AM EST,bywhichpointonlywreckageremained.Low tides aided search personnel in their attempts to recoverbodiesfromthedownedaircraft,butonlya fewbodiesremainedintact. The Civil Aeronautics Board received notificationoftheaccidentat10:10AMESTandsent representativestoJamaicaBaytostartinvestigations. Theflightrecorderwasfoundon9Marchandsent toWashingtonforanalysis. Investigatorswereunabletorecoversufficient bodytissuetodeterminewhetherthecrewhadbeen physically incapacitated at the time of the crash. Toxicology reports conclusively ruled out toxic gases,alcohol,anddrugsaspossiblecauseforthe crash.MiltonHelpern,theChiefMedicalExaminer,
Above: 707 F-BHSB of Air France.
Left: Fifteen crew about to board an Air France Intercontinental 707 flight. The stewardesses uniforms were designed by Marc Bohan at Christian Dior for Air France in 1962, replacing a design by Georgette de Trezes. (both via Air France)
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Above: Viação Aérea RIo-Grandense’s (VARIG) 707 PP-VJA.
Right: like many airlines using the 707, VARIG pushed the glamour and ‘executive exclusiveness of their jet service’. (author’s collection)
decided that having relatives attempt visual identificationofthecrashvictimswasinhumaneand ordereddentalandfingerprintcomparisons.Inearly July,theCABannouncedtheirinvestigatorsbelieved thatacotterpinandaboltmissingfromtherudder mechanism might have caused Flight 1's crash. Thoughconsideredtobea‘...mechanic'soversight’, the CAB nevertheless wired all 707 operators to informthemofthepotentialdangeroftheassembly. In January 1963, the CAB released a Civil AeronauticsBoardAircraftAccidentReportstating thatthe‘...mostlikelyabnormality’tohavecaused thecrashwasashortcircuitcausedbywiresinthe automaticpilotingsystemwhichhadbeendamaged inthemanufacturingprocess. CAB inspectors had inspected units at a Teterboro,NewJersey,BendixCorporationplantand discovered workers using tweezers to bind up bundles of wires, thereby damaging them. The BendixCorporationissueddenials,statingthatthe units underwent sixty-one inspections during manufacturing, in addition to inspections during installationandmaintenancework,andinsistedthat hadtheinsulationonthewiresbeenbreachedatsome
point,itwouldhavesurelybeendetectedandtheunit replaced. On22May1962ContinentalAirlines707-124 N70775operatingtheirFlight11explodedinmidairwhilecruisingat37,000feetinthevicinityof Centerville, Iowa, while en route from O'Hare Airport,Chicago,Illinois,toKansasCity,Missouri. TheaircraftcrashedinacloverfieldnearUnionville, inPutnamCounty,Missouri,killingall45crewand passengersonboard.Remarkably,theairlinerhad beenhijackedtoCubathepreviousyearasFlight54. Theinvestigationdeterminedthecauseofthecrash wasasuicidebombingcommittedasinsurancefraud. PassengerThomasG.Dotyarrivedatthegateat ChicagoO’HareaftertheContinentalairliner’sdoors hadbeenclosed.Althoughairlinepolicyisthatonce thedoorsareclosedtheyarenottobereopened,the
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Above: N721US was a 720B of Northwest.
Left: Advertising agencies were quick to latch on to both the power of the jet and the mini-skirt in the 1960. It became common practice to put a stewardess in the air intake of a 707, as here with this Northwest girl. (both NWA)
doorswerereopenedandDotywasallowedtoboard. Flight11departedat8:35p.m.Theflightwas routineuntiljustbeforetheMississippiRiver,when itdeviatedfromitsfiledflightplantothenorthto avoid a line of thunderstorms. In the vicinity of Centerville, Iowa, the radar image of the aircraft disappearedfromthescopeoftheWaverly,Iowa, FlightFollowingService.Atapproximately9:17p.m. an explosion occurred in the right rear lavatory, resultinginseparationofthetailsectionfromthe fuselage. The flight crew initiated the required emergency descent procedures and donned their smokemasksduetothedensefogwhichformedin thecabinimmediatelyafterthedecompression.At separationofthetail,theremainingaircraftstructure pitchednosedownviolently,causingtheenginesto tearoff,afterwhichitfellinuncontrolledgyrations. ThefuselageoftheBoeing707,minustheaft38feet, andwithpartoftheleftandmostoftherightwing intact,strucktheground,headedwesterlydowna10degreeslopeofanalfalfafield.
WitnessesinandaroundbothCincinnati,Iowa andUnionvillereportedhearingloudandunusual noisesataround9:20p.m.,andsomesawabigflash orballoffireinthesky.AB-47Stratojetbomber flying out of Forbes Air Force Base in Topeka, Kansas,wasflyingatthealtitudeof26,500feetin the vicinity of Kirksville, Missouri. The aircraft commandersawabrightflashintheskyforwardof andabovehisaircraft'sposition.Afterreferringtohis navigation logs he estimated the flash to have occurredat9:22p.m.nearthelocationwherethelast radartargetofFlight11hadbeenseen.Mostofthe fuselagewasfoundnearUnionville,buttheengines andpartsofthetailsectionandleftwingwerefound uptosixmilesawayfromthemainwreckage. Oftheforty-fiveonboard,forty-fourweredead whenrescuersreachedthecrashsite.Onepassenger, 27-year-oldTakehikoNakanoofEvanston,Illinois, wasalivewhenrescuersfoundhiminthewreckage, buthediedofinternalinjuriesatSaintJosephMercy HospitalinCenterville,Iowa,anhourandahalfafter beingrescued. FBIagentsdiscoveredthatDoty,amarriedman withafive-year-olddaughter,hadpurchasedalife insurance policy from Mutual of Omaha for $150,000,themaximumavailable;hisdeathwould alsobringinanother$150,000inadditionalinsurance (somepurchasedattheairport)anddeathbenefits. Dotyhadrecentlybeenarrestedforarmedrobbery
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andwastosoonfaceapreliminaryhearinginthe matter. Investigators determined that Doty had purchasedsixsticksofdynamitefor29centseach, shortlybeforethecrash,andwereabletodeducethat abombhadbeenplacedintheusedtowelbinofthe rightrearlavatory.Dotywentintothelavatorywith hisbriefcaseandblewhimselfup,killinghimselfand everyoneonboard.Hismotivewassothathiswife and daughter would be able to collect on the $300,000oflifeinsurance.Hiswidowattemptedto doso,butwhenDoty'sdeathwasruledasuicide,the policywasvoidedandthewidowwasonlyableto getathreedollarrefund. This was followed Air France Flight 007, a charterflightoperatedbyF-BHSM,carryingtheelite ofAtlanta,Georgia'sartscommunity,crashedon3 June1962whileattemptingtodepartParis'sOrly Airport.The707carried122passengersand10crew andonlytwosurvived.Thecrashwasatthetimethe worstsingle-aircraftdisaster,thefirstsinglecivilian jetairlinerdisasterwithmorethan100deaths. Accordingtowitnesses,duringthetakeoffrollon runway8,thenoseofFlight007liftedofftherunway, butthemainlandinggearremainedontheground. Eventhoughtheaircrafthadalreadyexceededthe maximumspeedatwhichthetakeoffcouldbesafely aborted within the remaining runway length, the flight crew had no other choice and attempted to abortthetakeoff. Stewardess recruitment, as advertised by Pan American.
N709PA in Boeing house colours before it was delivered to Pan American, only to crash on 8 December 1963 at Philadelpha, PA. (author’s collection)
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Withlessthan3,000feetofrunwayremaining, thepilotsusedwheelbrakesandreversethrustto attempttostopthe707.Theybrakedsohardthey destroyedthemainlandinggeartyresandwheels,but theaircraftranofftheendoftherunway.Theleft undercarriagefailedandafirebrokeout.Threeflight attendants initially survived the disaster. Two attendantsseatedinthebackofthecabinsurvived, butthethirddiedinthehospital. Laterinvestigationfoundthatamotordrivingthe elevatortrimhadfailed,leavingpilotCaptainRoland HocheandFirstOfficerJacquesPitoisetunableto
The frenetic glamour of the swinging sixties is probably best captured by The Beatles arrival in New York in 1964. Seen here with their manager Brian Epstein on the left are John Lennon, Paul McCartney, Ringo Starr and George Harrison in front of Pan Am’s 707 N704PA. The smell of the kerosene and the roar of the jets created a glamour and ambience that surrounded air travel - and nowhere was it more noticable than with the stews - and Pan American Airways certainly played that card to perfection! This is one of their ‘graduation ceremonies’. (both author’s collection)
completerotationandliftoff. Thereasonsforthecharterflightwasthatthe AtlantaArtAssociationhadsponsoredamonth-long tourofthearttreasuresofEuropeand106ofthe passengerswereartpatronsheadinghometoAtlanta. ThetourgroupincludedmanyofAtlanta'scultural andcivicleaders.AtlantamayorIvanAllenJr.went to Orly to inspect the crash site where so many Atlantansperished. DuringtheirvisittoParis,theAtlantaartspatrons hadseenWhistler'sMotherattheLouvre.Inlate 1962,theLouvre,asagestureofgoodwilltothe
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peopleofAtlanta,sentWhistler'sMothertoAtlanta tobeexhibitedattheAtlantaArtAssociationmuseum onPeachtreeStreet. The crash occurred during the civil rights movementintheUnitedStates.Civilrightsleader MartinLutherKing,Jr.andentertainerandactivist HarryBelafonteannouncedcancellationofasit-inin downtownAtlanta-plannedasaprotestofthecity's racialsegregation-asaconciliatorygesturetothe grieving city. However, Nation of Islam leader MalcolmX,speakinginLosAngeles,expressedjoy overthedeathsoftheall-whitegroupfromAtlanta, saying‘...I would like to announce a very beautiful thing that has happened...I got a wire from God today...well, all right, somebody came and told me that he really had answered our prayers over in France. He dropped an airplane out of the sky with over 120 white people on it because the Muslims believe in an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth. But thanks to God, or Jehovah, or Allah, we will continue to pray, and we hope that every day another plane falls out of the sky.’ These remarks led Los Angeles Mayor Sam Yortytodenouncehimasa‘fiend’andDr.Kingto voicedisagreementwithhisstatement.MalcolmX laterremarkedthat‘...The Messenger should have done more.’ This incident was the first in which
Air India introduced the 707 on Bombay New York service on 14 May 1960, as shown here by VT-DJI. They marked the occasion with a First flight cover depicting the Maharaja of Air India giving a hookah to fellow Maharaja. The route and date of inaugural flight is printed in the top strip . (via Air India)
MalcolmXgainedwidespreadnationalattention.He later explained what he meant: ‘When that plane crashed in France with a 130 white people on it and we learned that 120 of them were from the state of Georgia, the state where my own grandfather was a slave in, well to me it couldn't have been anything but an act of God, a blessing from God’. NineteendayslaterAirFrance707-328F-BHST crashedintoamountainondescentintoGuadeloupe killing112.OperatingasAirFranceFlight117,this wasamulti-leginternationalscheduledflightfrom Paris-Orly Airport via Lisbon, the Azores, GuadeloupeandPerutoSantiago,Chileon22June. Theaircraftwasjustfourmonthsold. Theflighthadbeenuneventfuluntilapproaching Pointe-à-Pitre. The airport is surrounded by mountainsandrequiredasteepdescent.Theweather was poor – violent thunderstorms and low cloud ceiling.TheVORnavigationalbeaconwasoutof service.Thecrewreportedthemselvesoverthenondirectionalbeacon(NDB)at5,000feetandturned easttobeginthefinalapproach.Duetoincorrect automaticdirectionfinder(ADF)readingscausedby the thunderstorm, the aircraft strayed fifteen kilometreswestfromtheprocedurallet-downtrack.
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TheplanecrashedinaforestonahillcalledDos D'Ane(TheDonkey'sBack),atabout1,400feetand exploded.Therewerenosurvivors.Amongthedead wasFrenchGuiananpoliticianandwarheroJustin Catayéeandpoetandblack-consciousnessactivist PaulNiger. Theinvestigationcouldnotdeterminetheexact reasonfortheaccident,butsuspectedtheinsufficient meteorologicalinformationgiventothecrew,failure ofthegroundequipment,andtheatmosphericeffects on theADF indicator.After the crashAir France pilots criticized under-developed airports with facilitiesthatwereill-equippedtohandlejetaircraft, suchasGuadeloupe'sairport. Towardstheendof1962,VARIGlost707-441 PP-VJB. Flight RG810 departed Rio de JaneiroGaleãoat03:53hoursUTConascheduledflightto LosAngeles with en route stops at Lima, Peru , Bogotá, Colombia, Panama City, Panama and MexicoCity,Mexico. At08:09theflightreportedtoAirTrafficControl, Lima,at36,000feet,estimatingPiscoat08:13and Lima-Callao Airport at 08:36 and requested permissiontodescend.LimaATCadvisedofaDC6,whichhaddepartedLimaat07:35andwasalso estimatingPiscoat08:13,whenitwouldbecruising at13,500feet.AfterpassingPiscoat08:13,thecrew startedtheirdescent.At08:19hoursRG-810reached 26,000feet.Authorisationwasgrantedtocontinue descendingforastraight-inapproachtorunway33. At08:24itreportedtoApproachControltenminutes One airport that became synonimous with the 707 and Pan Am was Idlewild, also known at New York International. The terminal this Pan Am 707 is in front of was built in 1958 for the arrival of the jets. (DGR Photo Library)
fromthestation,at15,000feet,stillindescent.By 08:30 hours it had reached 12,000 feet over Las Palmas.Asitwastoohighforastraight-inapproach torunway33,ApproachControlsuggestedthatit makea360-degreeturnoverLasPalmasandreport againoverheadLasPalmas.Theaircraftcontinued descending.Itturnedslightlyrightofits330degree heading,passingeastofLimaAirport,thenmadea left turn and passed over Lima-CallaoAirport. It continuedturninguntilitwasheadedsouth,passing westofLasPalmasinordertoinitiatetheoutbound procedurefromtheILSbackcourse,andthenmade a180degreeturntointercepttheILSbackcourseof 327degrees.However,itkepttothenormalintercept courseforalmostthreeminutesbeforestartingits turntothenorth.Itsheadingwas333degreeswhen ithitLaCruzPeak,abouteightmileseastofthe approachtrackoftheMorroSolarILSbackcourse. The probable cause was recorded as: ‘...A deviation, for reasons unknown, from the track prescribed for the instrument approach along the ILS back course of Lima-Callao Airport’. Not surprisingly, these accidents gave the insurancecompaniesconcernbutthemajorairlines soonrealisedthepremiumsbeingrequestedwere excessivefortherisksinvolvedandbegantocarry thehullriskthemselves. 1962mayhavebeenabadyearforaccidents, butthejetpassengerfatalityper100,000milesand per1,000,000passengermilescontinuedtodrop below the piston engined era - the increased
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D-ABOB, a 707-430 of the German airline Lufthansa. Lufthansa operated a huge maintenance facility for both the 707 and 720. (both Lufthansa)
numberoffatalitiesperincidenttendedtodistort thefigures.1963wasmarginallybetterforBoeing with only two losses, the first one involving Northwest 720-051B N724US, which crashed shortlyaftertake-offfromMiami. NorthwestFlight705wasascheduledpassenger flightoperatedon12February1963whichbrokeup inmidairandcrashedintotheEvergladesshortly aftertake-offfromMiamiInternationalAirportina severethunderstorm.Theaircraftwasdestinedto Portland,Oregon,viaChicago,SpokaneandSeattle. Prior to leaving Miami, the flight crew questioned the ground controller at the airport about the departure routes being used, and he repliedthatmostflightsweredeparting‘...either through a southwest climb or a southeast climb and then back over the top of it.’ Afterthejetliftedofffromrunway27L,flown byCaptainRoyAlmquist,itmadealeftturnbased onradarvectorsfromMiamiDepartureControl,to avoidareasofanticipatedturbulenceassociatedwith thunderstormactivity.Anotherflighthadfollowed thesameguidanceshortlybeforethejettookoff. Whilemaintaining5,000feetandaheadingof 300degrees,Flight705contactedcontrollersand requested clearance to climb to a higher altitude. Afteradiscussionbetweentheflightandtheradar departure controller about the storm activity, and whileclearancetoclimbwasbeingcoordinatedwith
theMiamiAirRouteTrafficControlCenter,theflight advised ‘Ah-h we're in the clear now. We can see it out ahead ... looks pretty bad.’ At13:43,Flight705wasclearedtoclimbtoflight level250.Theyresponded, ‘...OK ahhh, we'll make a left turn about thirty degrees here and climb...’ The controlleraskedif270degreeswastheirselected climboutheading,andtheyrepliedthatthiswould takethem‘... out in the open again...’ Controllers accordingly granted the jet clearance. Following somediscussionabouttheseverityoftheturbulence, whichwasdescribedasmoderatetoheavy,theflight advised, ‘OK, you better run the rest of them off the other way then.’ At13:45,controlofFlight705wastransferredto MiamiAirRouteTrafficControlCenter.Therewere communicationdifficulties,althoughafterthejetwas
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providedwithadifferentfrequency,theflightcrew established contact with MiamiARTCC. Several minutesaftercontact,theairliner’saltitudebegan increasingwitharateofclimbgraduallyincreasing toapproximately9,000feetperminute.Following thisrapidascenttherateofclimbdecreasedthrough zerowhenthealtitudepeakedmomentarilyatjust above19,000feet.Duringthistimethejet'sairspeed decreasedfrom270to215knotsandasthepeak altitudewasapproached,theverticalaccelerations changedrapidlyfrom+1Gtoabout-2G. In the next seven seconds, as the negative accelerationcontinuedtoincreaseataslowerrate, withseveralfluctuations,toameanvalueofabout2.8G,thejetbegandivingtowardsthegroundwith increasingrapidity.Asthedescentcontinuedwith rapidly increasing airspeed, the acceleration trace wentfromthehighnegativepeakto1.5G,whereit reversedagain. Below10,000feettheforwardfuselagebrokeup duetotheforcesofthedive.Themainfailuresinboth wingsandhorizontalstabilizerswereinadownward BOAC produced a myriad of promotional material for the 707 for both public and travel industry alike. G-APFE, which when operating as Speedbird 911 crashed onto the slopes of Mount Fuji in Japan on 5 March 1966. (author’s collection)
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On taking delivery of their first 707, BOAC made much of the event, sending out a lavish brochure to travel agents. ‘Jet Powered by Rolls-Royce. The BOAC Rolls-Royce 707, biggest and fastest of the world’s jetliners, is something special. It is powered by RollsRoyce Conway jet engines. Four of these great by-pass turbo-jets drive the 707 through the sky. And what a performance they give! They sweep you along at ten miles a minute, anything from five to eight miles up and that’s high above any tricks the Atlantic weather may play! At take-off, they develop a total thrust of 70,000 pounds. With these superb engines and a fuel capacity of over 19,000 Imperial gallons, BOAC’s RollsRoyce 707 has a range, with full payload, of more than 4,500 miles - over a thousand miles farther than London-New York! Thrust reversers, one installed in the tail pipe of each engine, provide something like 50 per cent thrust in the reverse direction - massive extra braking power from the Rolls-Royce engines when landing! Each engine also has a sound suppressor, so there’s no jet roar to disturb you as you speed on your way. Flying in the Rolls-Royce 707 is supremely quiet and vibrationless!
Right: Handing over at Seattle. In front of the first BOAC 707 are, from left to right, Bill Carlyon and Tom Spalding (Boeing); Ivor Lusty (BOAC resident representative); Serge Gorney (Boeing); Charles Abell (BOAC chief engineer); J L Uncles (707 project engineer); Capt. H. J ‘Dexter’ Field (BOAC chief technical pilot); and Tom Gillan (BOAC inspector). (all DGR Photo Library)
direction,andvirtuallysymmetrical.Theforward fuselage broke upward and the vertical stabilizer failedtotheleft.Allfourenginesgenerallyseparated beforethedebrisoftheaircraftfellinunpopulated areaoftheEvergladesNationalPark,thirty-seven mileswest-southwestofMiamiInternationalAirport. Thereportonthecrashdeterminedthecausewas
theunfavourableinteractionofsevereverticalair draftsandlargelongitudinalcontroldisplacements, resulting in a longitudinal upset from which a successfulrecoverywasnotmade. The second accident in 1963 occurred on 8 DecemberwhenPanAmerican's707-121BN709PA crashed on fire at Elkton, MD while awaiting
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permissiontolandatPhiladelphia,PA.At4:10p.m. EasternStandardTime(EST),theairliner,named Clipper Tradewind, servingtheflightcrashedwhile enroutefromBaltimoretoPhiladelphia,afterbeing hitbylightning,killingalleighty-oneonboard. Theflightcrew,CaptainGeorgeFKnuth,aged 45, First Officer John R Dale, aged 48, Second OfficerPaulLOrringer,aged42andFlightEngineer JohnRKantlehner,operatingasPanAmFlight214 haddepartedIslaVerdeInternationalAirportinSan Juan,PuertoRico,landedasscheduledatBaltimore's Friendship Airport. where sixty-nine passengers disembarked. At8:24p.m.,Flight214departedforPhiladelphia with seventy-three passengers and eight crew membersonboard.Becauseofhighwindsinthe area,thecrewchosetowaitinaholdingpatternwith five other airliners, rather than attempt to land in Philadelphia. TheflightreportedovertheNewCastleDelaware VORat2042andwasinstructedtoholdat5000feet, westoftheVOR.At2058a‘MayDay’transmission washeardfromtheflight.Shortlythereafter,thepilot ofanotheraircraftradioedthat‘Clipper214isgoing downinflames’. Analysis of the debris showed evidence of a lightningstriketotheleftwing,specificallyattheNo. 1reservefueltank,andevidenceofastrikenear connectionpointsfortheHFantenna.Samplesof fuels were taken from San Juan, Puerto Rico, Idlewild,NewYork,andBaltimore,Maryland.The mixtureofTypes‘A’and‘B’fuelswasstudied,and not found to be a significant contributing factor. Testingoftheaircraft'sfueltanksandsupporting structuresshowedevidenceof‘magneticanomilies’ whichwouldbeconsistentwiththelightningstrike theory.Ofthe140groundwitnessesinterviewed,99 reportedsightinganaircraftorflamingobjectinthe sky.Seventy-twosaidtheysawlightning,andseven statedthattheysawlightningstriketheaircraft.Three otherpersonsreportedseeingaballoffireappearat thefork-endofthelightningstroke.
Numbering system and more orders. SincebothoftheoffspringoftheDash80wouldbe jettransports,theestablishedBoeingmodelnumber systemcalledforanumberinthe700stoidentifythe two new aircraft. Boeing’s marketing department decidedthat‘Model700’didnothaveagoodringto itforthecompany'sfirstcommercialjet.Sothey decidedtoskipaheadtoModel707becausethat reiteration seemed a bit catchier. Following that pattern,theotheroffspringoftheDash80,theAir Forcetanker,wasgiventhemodelnumber717as
wellastheAirForcedesignationofC/KC-135. After 717 was assigned to the KC-135, the marketing department made the decision that all remainingmodelnumbersthatbeganandorended in7wouldbereservedexclusivelyforcommercial jets. Just to complicate things however, after the Boeing-McDonnell Douglas merger in the late 1990s,themodelnumber717wasreusedtoidentify the MD-95 as part of the Boeing commercial jet family. Otherthanthe717,theonlyotheranomalytothe Boeingcommercialjetnumberingsystemwasthe Boeingmodel720.The720wasashort-range,highperformance version of the 707 and was first marketedtotheairlinesasthemodel707-020.United Airlineswasveryinterestedinthe707-020buthad previouslydecidedtogowithDouglasandtheDC8.TohelpUnitedavoidanynegativepublicrelations forgoingbacktothe707,Boeingchangedthename ofthe707-020tothe720. This,however,wasonlytheprefixpartofthe equation. Boeing introduced a further numbering system to enable any airline ordering original equipment to be identified by the sub-type designation. Since Pan American were the first customerforthe707-120(asBoeingcalledthebase model),theiraircraftweredesignated707-121and subsequentordersforlaterversionswere707-321,321Band-321C(otherBoeingtypesorderedbyPan Americanwere727-121,-221and747-121etc.thus keepingthesub-typeconsistent). Thenumbersbetween21and99wereusedfirst, includingsomeallocatedtoairlineswhodidnotorder 707s,orsomeairlineswhoneverorderedBoeing aircraft, then the numbers 01 to 19 were used followedbyanalphanumericsystemstartingA0to A9thenB0toB9etc.Thishasbeenfollowedbya numero-alphasystemstarting1Ato9Athen1Bto 9Betc. Justtocomplicatethingsevenfurther,Boeing mayhaveconsideredthebasemodelasthe-120,220etc.buttheFAA,whoissuedtheinitialtype certificates,listthebasemodelsas-100,-200etc! On23January1960SABENAoperatedtheirfirst 707 service between Brussels and New York, followed a few days later by Air France who inaugurated707servicesontheNorthAtlanticon2 February,followedbythecentralAtlanticrouteson 20JuneandthosetoSouthAmericaon16August. TheGermanairlineLufthansabegan707-430 servicesbetweenHamburg,FrankfurtandNewYork on 17 March, so placing the first Rolls-Royce powered707sinservice,followedshortlybyAir India,whostartedBombay-Londonserviceson19
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EL AL selected Rolls-Royce engines for its first three 707s. This particular aircraft (4X-ATA) served for 23 years, carrying over two million passengers more than 58 million km (36 million mi), equivalent to circling the world 1,450 times. On 7 May 1961 EL AL took delivery of its first 707 (registered 4X-ATA) in a ceremony at Boeing Field, complete with blessing by rabbis and 250 attendees. Captains Sam Feldman and Zvi Tohar commanded the delivery flight to Israel. EL AL launched an extensive advertising campaign to promote its new pure-jet 707 service. This late 1960 image appeared in advertisements and also as a postcard issued by its New York office. (both EL AL)
AprilwithanextensiontoNewYorkcommencing on14May1960. NosoonerhadPanAmericanreceiveditsfirst 321Bthanitsparkedthenextdevelopment,which wasthe707-320Cwhentheyannouncedanorder for two aircraft in April 1962. The -320C was basicallya-320Bwithalargeforwardcargodoor, strengthenedfloorandundercarriage,whilethe payloadwasincreasedto90,000pounds-with passengersthepayloadofthe-320Bwasspace limitedtoabout50,000pounds.Thismeantthe320Ccouldcarryafullpayloadcoasttocoastin theUSorthirty-fivetonsacrosstheAtlanticasthe cargocouldbeloadedfloortoceilingandwallto wall (a cargo retaining barrier net, capable of withstanding 9G protected the cockpit). The original-320Cswerebuiltasconvertibleaircraft, thelengthoftimetoconvertfrompassengerto cargodependingontheairlineandtheamountof passengerequipmenttheyleftintheaircraftwhen in the cargo mode. Later, in October 1962, American ordered four non-convertible -320Cs withthewindowsblankedout.The-320Cwing alsohadthree(ratherthantwo)leadingedgeflaps whichmadetheventralunderfinoptional-when thesemodificationswerefittedtothe-320Bsthey weredescribedas‘advanced’or-320BAs. Sincetheincreasedcapacityoutstrippedtraffic
growth,Boeingonlyreceivedtwenty-fiveordersin 1962,butoneimportantorderwasplacedbyWorld Airways,whoorderedtwo707-320Cs,thefirsttime acharteroperatorhadorderednewjets.Previously, thecharteroperatorswerethecustomerswhenthe trunkoperatorssoldtheirfrontlineequipment. BritishOverseasAirwayCorporation-BOAChadexpectedtobethefirstairlinetoputthe-420into servicebutweredelayedinintroducingthetypedue to UK Airworthiness Registration Board modifications. They started London - New York services on 6 June 1960 when their 707-436s replacedComet4s,followedbyservicestoMontreal
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andTorontoon18August1960. Suchwasthegrowingpopularityoftheseearly jetliners-andthegrowingsuccessoftheairlines publicitymachines-itwasnotlongbeforeanew phenomenonstartedtoappear;thatofoverbooking. Inthedaysbeforehighlytechnologicalcomputer reservationssystemsthatareabletoreserveseats months in advance with a very high degree of accuracy,andcouldalsopredictpassengerandfreight requirements to the same scale of accuracy and timescale,‘ressystems’wereeithermanualorcardindex based. This could lead to accidental or deliberateover-bookingtoensurefullloadstotake intoaccountpassengerno-shows. Onesucheventrecordedbyhistoryrelatestoone PanAmerican707-itisalsofromthedaysthatpredate‘politicalcorrectness’. Having originated in BuenosAires and made severalintermediatestopsonits‘milkrun’backto theUnitedStates,theaircraftarrivednearlyfullat Panama’s Aeropuerto International de Tocumen. MostpassengerswerecontinuingontoMiamiand NewYork,butafewdeplaned,whilemanymore expected.toboardforthenextlegstotheStates. Surprise,surprise,theflightwasoverbooked!The PanAm staff at Tocumen were well used to this situationattheirstation,andsowentthroughthe usual routine of offering free booking, hotel accommodation, and meals to those passengers prepared to await later flights. There were no volunteers. It was time for the next step in the prescribed overbooking procedure: offering monetarycompensationinadditiontolaterbooking, room, and board. There were still no takers. The Tocumen staff were at a loss when the Pan Am captainenteredintothefray. Unperturbed by the overbooking, he ordered boardingtocommencewhile,withthehelpofhis copilot and flight engineer, he went through the standard cockpit checklist. Midway through the boarding, the captain announced that there was a minortechnicalproblemandthatpassengerswereto returntothedepartureloungewhileanengineering solution was devised. Of course, complimentary refreshmentsweremadeavailabletohelppassengers takethedelayintheirstride. Havingnoticedthatamongthepassengersthere agroupofyoungmenonhomeleaveafterworking inVeneezuelanoilfields,thecaptainsurreptitiously passedoninstructionstohisseniorstew.Intheearly years of jetliner operations the politically correct ‘flightattendants’hadyettoreplace‘stews’when referringtostewardessesandstewards.Thecaptain wantedtheyoungerandmoreattractivestewswere
todevoteparticularattentiontotheyoungoilmen andtomakesurethattheseunsuspecting‘machos’ wouldhaveunimpededaccesstothefreebar. In the next hour, the ‘technical problem’ was fixed and boarding was resumed. This time the deviouscaptainlethiscopilotandflightengineer handlethechecklistproceduresothathecouldstand atthegatenexttotheboardingagents.Whenthe unsuspecting young men, feeling good because alcoholmadethembelievethattheyhad‘scored’ withtheattractivestewardesses,arrivedatthegate, thecaptainwasreadyforthem.Dutifullyinvoking thealmightyFARs(FederalAviationRegulations), he ordered the inebriated young men be denied boarding.Miraculously,therewerenowenoughseats foralltheotherpassengersandtheflightdeparted withoutfurtherdelay.Archetypalthestorymaybe, butproblemswereeasiertosolveinthedaysbefore politicalcorrectnesswasinvented! The 707 in popular culture It is impossible to write about the Boeing 707 withouttouchingonthegloryandglamourofa timewhen,asonewagputit‘sexwassafeand flyingwasdangerous’!Althoughtherearemany aspectsof707coverageinthemainstreammedia - usually with this or that celebrity being photographedboarding,deplaningorsittingina terminalsomewhereabouttoboarda707,there are four aspects - one very real and tragic, two blockbusterbest-sellers-oneofwhichwasmade
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intoamajorfeaturefilm-andonecurrentstage actthatcoversallaspectsofsocialmediathathas allowedtheairlinertoenterpopularculture. Thefirstwastheveryrealandverytragicevents of22November1963inDallas,Texas.Afterlanding atLoveFieldDallas,PresidentJohnFKennedyand FirstLadyJackieKennedystoodinfrontofashiny 707 for a series of live broadcasts that went nationwideoftheKennedysgreetingwell-wishers. Theaircraft-fulldetailsofwhichisfoundelsewhere - was the first of two Boeing VC-137C aircraft specificallyconfiguredandmaintainedforusebythe PresidentoftheUnitedStates.ItwasgiventheUS Air Force serial number 62-6000. and given the uniquecall-sign‘SAMTwo-Six-Thousand’,‘SAM’ standingforSpecialAirMission’ TheaircraftwasbuiltatBoeing'sRentonplant atacostof$8million.RaymondLoewy,working withFirstLadyJacquelineKennedy,designedthe The most famous photo ever taken aboard a presidential aircraft was taken aboard VC-137C 62-6000. Hours after the assassination of John F. Kennedy on 22 November 1963, Lyndon Johnson, with Jackie Kennedy by his side, is sworn in just before take off for Washington.
Below: VC-137C 62-6000 arrives at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright Field, Dayton Ohio in May 1988.
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blue and white colour scheme featuring the presidential seal that is still used today on Presidentialaircraft. Later that day in Dallas, after Kennedy's assassinationmadeVicePresidentLyndonJohnson thenewpresident,imageswereflashedaroundthe world of the VC-137C carrying the Johnsons, JacquelineKennedy,andJohnKennedy'sbodyback to Washington. To accommodate the casket, four seatsandpartofabulkheadwasremovedfromthe passengercompartment;JohnsontooktheOathof OfficeaboardSAM26000beforetakeoff. Airport wasabestsellingnovelbyArthurHailey about a large metropolitan airport and the personalitiesofthepeoplewhouse,relyandsuffer fromitsoperation.Itwasadaptedtomakeamajor motionpictureandinspiredthreesequelmovies.It originatedthe1970sdisasterfilmgenre. ThestorytakesplaceatLincolnInternational,a
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A photograph that is something of a puzzle - it was probably taken in a studio mockup of the cabin of the 707 used in the movie ‘Airport’. It is suspected that some absent cast members were represented by ‘cardboard cutouts’ in those pre-Photoshop days! 1: Vern Demerest (Dean Martin) Captain, Trans Global Airlines. 2: Gwen Meighen (Jacqueline Bisset) Senior Flight Attendant and love interest of Captain Demerest 3: Tanya Livingston (Jean Seberg) Trans Global Airlines PRO and love interest of Mel Bakersfeld. 4: Mel Bakersfeld (Burt Lancaster) General Manager, Lincoln International Airport. 5: Harry Standish (Lloyd Nolan) Chief Customs Agent 6: Inez Guerrero (Maureen Stapleton) wife of bomber. 7: Ada Quonsett (Helen Hayes) stowaway passenger. 8: D O Guerrero (Van Heflin) suicide bomber. 9: Cindy Bakersfeld (Dana Wynter) wife of Airport Manager. 10: Anson Harris (Barry Nelson) Captain, Trans Global Airlines being checked by Capt Demerest. 11: Sarah Demerest (Barbara Hale) wife of Captain Demerest and sister of Mel Bakersfeld. 12: Joe Patroni (George Kennedy) trouble-shooter engineer on loan from TWA. 13: George Seaton, Director and Screenwriter. 14: Ross Hunter, Producer. (Photograph: unknown)
fictional Chicago airport based very loosely on O'HareInternationalAirport.Chicagoisparalyzed by a snowstorm affecting Lincoln International Airport.ATransGlobalAirlines(TGA)Boeing707 flightcrewmisjudgetheirturnfromRunway29onto thetaxiway,becomingstuckinthesnowandclosing the runway. Airport manager Mel Bakersfeld is forcedtoworkovertime,causingtensionwithhis wife, Cindy. A divorce seems imminent as he nurturesacloserrelationshipwithaco-worker,TGA customerrelationsagentTanyaLivingston. VernonDemarestisaTGAcaptainscheduledto bethecheckridecaptainforTGAtoevaluateCaptain AnsonHarrisduringTGA'sFlight2toRome.Flight 2,TGA'sflagshipservicenamedThe Golden Argosy,
is being operated by a Boeing 707. Although DemarestismarriedtoBakersfeld'ssister,Sarah,he issecretlyhavinganaffairwithGwenMeighen,chief stewardessontheflight,whoinformshimbefore takeoffthatsheispregnantwithhischild. BakersfeldborrowsTWAmechanicJoePatroni to assist with TGA's disabled plane. Meanwhile BakersfeldandLivingstonalsodealwithMrs.Ada Quonsett,anelderlyladyfromSanDiegowhoisa habitualstowaway. DemolitionexpertDOGuerrero,downonhis luckandwithahistoryofmentalillness,buyslife insurancewiththeintentofcommittingsuicideby blowingupThe Golden Argosy. Heplanstosetoffa bombinanattachécasewhileovertheAtlanticso
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thathiswife,Inez,willcollecttheinsurancemoney of $225,000. His erratic behavior at the airport, includingusinghislastcashtobuytheinsurance policyandmistakingaCustomsofficerforanairline ramp agent, attracts airport officials’ attention. MeanwhileGuerrero'swifefindsaSpecialDelivery envelope from a travel agency and, realizing her husbandmightbedoingsomethingdesperate,goes totheairporttotrytodissuadehim.Sheinforms airport officials that he had been fired from a constructionjobfor‘misplacing’explosivesandthat thefamily'sfinancialsituationwasdesperate. Mrs. Quonsett manages to evade the TGA employeeassignedthetaskofputtingheronaflight backtoSanDiego,talksherwaypastthegateagent (passenger security screening did not yet exist), boardsFlight2,andhappenstositnexttoGuerrero. WhentheGoldenArgosycrewismadeawareof Guerrero'spresenceandpossibleintentions,theyturn theplanebacktowardChicagowithoutinformingthe passengers.OnceQuonsettisdiscovered,herhelpis enlistedbythecrewtogettoGuerrero'sbriefcase, but the ploy fails when a would-be helpful male passengerunwittinglyreturnsthecasetoGuerrero. CaptainDemarestgoesbackintothepassenger cabinandtriestopersuadeGuerreronottotriggerthe bomb,informinghimthathisinsurancepolicywill be useless. Guerrero briefly considers giving Demarestthebomb,butjustthenanotherpassenger exitsthelavatoryattherearoftheaircraft,andthe samewould-behelpfulpassengeryellsoutthathe shouldjumpGuerrero,whohasabomb.Guerrero runsintothelavatory,locksit,andsetsoffthedevice. Guerrerodiesinstantlyandissuckedoutthroughthe holeblowninthefuselagebytheexplosion.Gwen, justoutsidethedoor,isinjuredintheexplosionand subsequentexplosivedecompression,butthepilots retaincontroloftheaircraft. WithallairportseastofChicagounusabledueto badweather,theyreturntoLincolnInternationalfor anemergencylanding.Duetothebombdamage, Captain Demarest demands the airport's longest runway,whichisstillclosedduetothestuckairliner. EventuallyBakersfeldorderstheaircrafttobepushed off the runway by snowplows, despite the costly damagetheywoulddotoit.Patroni,whois‘taxiqualified’on707s,hasbeentryingtomovethestuck aircraftintimeforDemarest'sdamagedaircraftto land. By exceeding the 707's engine operating parameters, Patroni frees the stuck jet without damage,allowingtherunwaytobereopenedjustin timeforthecrippledGolden Argosy toland. Themovieusedjustone707:amodel707-349, N324F,leasedfromFlyingTigerLine.Itsportedan
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ElAlcheatlineoveritsbaremetalfinish,withthe fictionalTransGlobalAirlines(TGA)titlesandtail. TypicalofHollywood,therearesomememorable quotes,twoofwhichcomefromJoePatroniand relatetothe707.Onbeinginformedbythejunior engineerintherighthandseatthatthemanualsaidit wasimpossibleforPatronitohavedriventhe707out ofthesnowPatronireplies‘That's one nice thing about the 707. It can do everything but read’. And, tappingthebellyofthesafelylanded707withthe box of cigars he had won in a bet with Mel Bakersfeld‘Nice goin’ sweetheart’. Withtheadventof‘theswinginsixties’therewas somethingofasea-changeinhowthoseworkingin thepassengercabinoftheairlinerswereportrayed. In 1930, the first stewardesses inAmerica, or anywhereelse,werehiredbyBoeingAirTransport, a forerunner of United Airlines. At that time, passengers had to worry not only about frequent crashes but also about sudden drops of altitude, which,inunpressurizedaircraft,couldruptureone’s eardrums. That stewardesses were required to be registered nurses and were initially outfitted with white,hospital-styleuniformswasintendedtobe comforting,toreassurenervousfliersthattheywould notspiralintoacornfieldonthewaytoGrandma’s ortheanvilsalesmen’sconvention;thoughitisquite possible to imagine the medical motif having the oppositeeffect. Intermsofhermoreconcretefunctions,anair hostess’sdutiesintheearly30smighthaveincluded suchpre-flightchoresasloadingbaggage,dusting, makingsurealltheseatswerescreweddowntightly, andassistingtofueltheairliner.Enroute,shemight have had to restrain passengers from throwing garbageandcigarettebuttsoutofopenwindows. By the 1950s, after the introduction of faster, safer,andpressurisedaircraft,flyinghadevolvedinto amuchlesserraticproposition;passengercomplaints nowhadmoretodowithlostluggagethanwithbeing killed.Atsomepointduringthedecade,thenumber ofairpassengersinAmericafirstexceededthosewho traveledbytrain;in1957,asimilartippingpoint camefortransatlanticcrossingsbyairversussea.In those days, commercial aviation was highly regulated. Among other things, the government dictatedwhereandwhentheairlinescouldflyand howmuchtheycouldcharge;ontransatlanticflights eventheamountoflegroomandthenumberandtype of courses that could constitute a meal were prescribedbyinternationalagreement. Not only did jets offer a faster, quieter, and smootherride; ‘You’ll be able to stand a half-dollar on edge… You’ll be able to hear the ticking of a
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watch. The flower you bought when you left will be fresh when you arrive,” gushedaseriesofadvertsfor the707,jetsweresexyinthesameearly-60swaythat theKennedyadministrationandJamesBondmovies were,allkeptaloftbyanatmosphereofsleekness, power, and Cold War technology. For those who couldaffordit,jettravelmadetheworldaccessible inawaywenowtakeforgranted-andhavemaybe evenbeguntofearabit-butwasintoxicatingatthe time.Thiswaswhenthejetsetwasborn,whenthe fancifulpremiseofFrankSinatra’s‘ComeFlywith Me’ of casually floating down to Peru or sipping exoticboozeinfarBombayonawhim,becamea reality - at least for movie stars and international playboysofthejetset. Coffee, Tea or Me? anditsthreesequelsisaseries ofbooksthatrecordtheallegedmemoirsofapairof American stewardesses called Trudy Baker and RachelJones.Thebooksdepictstheanecdotallives oftwolustyyoungstewardesses,andwasoriginally presentedasfactual. The books were widely pontificated over by intellectualsandthemedia,tryingtoworkoutwhich airline they girls worked for: ‘Written in the first person voice of Trudy Baker, the books describe a kind of glamorous lifestyle from the stewardess’ point of view, working for two years for an unnamed American carrier out of a New York crewbase. They were written to emphasize the sexy parts of the job, although difficult experiences are also recounted, and reflects the shifts in society and culture then underway. It also contains content that could in later decades be deemed sexist, and dated descriptions of homosexuality’. The books contain period references to television shows such as Batman and lists of celebrities the author’s claim to have carried on their flights, as well as an incidental description of the airline introducing Boeing 727 into service. Other equipment mentioned includes the Boeing 707 and the smaller BAC 111. People's names are fictitious, excepting the famous, and there is no way to gauge the accuracy of any of the accounts. The two most likely candidates for which airline the stewardesses supposedly worked for are American Airlines and Braniff International Airways, the only carriers who purchased BAC-111s to supplement fleets of Boeing 707s and 727s in the mid1960s time frame of the novels. The airlines themselves fed into the fantasy, Thesewerethetimeswhenflightattendantswere ‘sexystews,andwhenthe‘sexsellsseats’mantra drovesomecarrierstoadorn‘trolleydollies’inhot pantsandgo-goboots.
‘We were envious of the Braniff uniforms’, admittedoneformerPanAmstewardess,whoalong with her sisters was still stuck in wool suits that lookedlikesomethingTippiHedrenmighthaveworn orJackieKennedy.TheownersofBraniff’srivals werecertainlyenviousofitsstockprice,andsoon every carrier’s stewardesses had to have modish uniforms.Hemswentup,colorsgotbolder,fabrics became more oil-based. United’s new outfit was punctuatedbyabrightorangehatthatlookedlikea crossbetweenajockey’scapandamailbox.National promoted‘uniformsthatpurr’,withhatsandjackets madeofsimulatedtigerfur-supposedlydesigned withtheinputofthestewsthemselves.Thenadir, arguably,wasthepaperuniformsTWAintroducedin 1968 to promote certain of its destinations. They came in four styles: a Roman toga, a faux-lamé miniskirt that was meant to represent Paris, ‘penthousepajamas’fromManhattan,andanEnglish ‘servingwench’outfit.Theadspromised ‘...the end of routine travel with hostesses to match.’ Thisproved toberemarkablytrue,sincetherewasnothingroutine about watching a stewardess whip out a roll of maskingtapetorepairheruniform,or,worse,catch onfire.(Theuniforms’manufacturerhadquicklyrun through its supply of nonflammable paper). The promotionlastedjustsevenoreightmonths. Possiblythispeakedin1971withtheF.William FreeadvertisingcampaignforUScarrierNational Airlines. It was Free who came up with a
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controversial1971advertisingslogan‘I'm Cheryl – Fly Me’, somethingwhichcausedwomen'srights groupstoprotestoutsidehisofficeinNewYorkCity carrying signs reading ‘I'm Bill - Fire Me’. The campaign's notoriety paid off hansomely for National,andtheysawanincreaseinrevenueper passengermile.Thenextyearhecreatedanotherad, ‘I'm Eileen - Fly Me’, thistimefeaturinganeightyear-oldgirlwhoaspirestobeaflightattendant.He also reprised the original ad, saying: ‘Millions of people flew me last year’. InfactthefourCoffee, Tea or Me? titleswere totallyfictitiousandwerewrittenbyDonaldBain whileheworkedasaNewYorkCity-basedAmerican Airlinespublicrelationsperson.Thebooksbecame spectacularbest-sellers,createdthetemplateforthe image of the racy, jet-setting airline stewardess aboard707sasglobe-trottingpartygirlinendless pursuitofrichmenandgoodtimes. ThenthereisPamAnn;andyes,youdidreadthat right! Pam Ann is the air hostess alter-ego of Australian comedienne Caroline Reid. The name PamAnnbeingaplayonwordsofthatgreat707 operator, Pan Am. In her shows - which are absolutelybrilliant,butdecidedly‘adult’incontentshereferstotheso-calledmemoriesofthe‘Golden AgeofAviation’,whichforher,istheperiodbetween thelate1950sandearly1970swhenthe707entered widespreaduse,oftencontrastingitwithmassair traveloftoday,bitingobservationsofthevisualand socialchangeslikethelackofknivesandglasson theboard.
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PamAnnisdefinitelyfromthedaysoftheFirst Classtrolley-dolliesandhasahugefan-baseamongst flight-crews with the slogan No hablo clase económia! Herperformancesfocusonthenuances ofairtravel,identifying,parodyingandsatirisingthe individual quirks of some of the world’s biggest internationalairlinesandtheirmediastereotypes.Her style leans towards camp humour, in the vein of Dame Edna Everage, Kathy Griffin and Chelsea Handler. Overall, she also plays with the stereotypical viewsofairlines,likeVirginAirlineswithmodelnymphomaniacs,Alitaliawith‘...they think they are all driving a Ferrari’. Alsogenerallyshehasatleast peekedinsideintothecurrentaviationindustry,like commentingaccidentsorairlineretakes. Around the world - from top to bottom! In1964CaptainsFredLesterAustin,Jr.,andHarrison Finch, two retired Trans World Airlines pilots, attendedoneofseveralExplorer'sClubmeetingsat theinvitationofJohnDuBois.Theworldfamous ExplorersClubhadbeenfoundedinNewYorkCity in1904topromotethescientificexplorationofland, sea,air,andspace.NotedexplorerLowellThomas, whowasatthattimethePresidentoftheExplorer's Club,hadvoicedanopinionthatallthememorable flightsintheloweratmospherehadbeendone. FinchandAustin,however,notedthatnoonehad flownaroundtheworldoverbothPoles.Thetwo experiencedpilotsknewthatpriortoadvancements inaviationthroughthemid1960sthatanaroundthe
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Above: N332F Pole Cat , the first ‘Combi’ 707 of Flying Tiger Line.
Left: A newspaper cutting after the flight, showing Flight Commander Harrison Finch second from the left; Fred Austin, is second from the right, Lowell Thomas Jr is far right. In the centre of the picture is the main sponsor of the flight, Colonel Willard F Rockwell. (both Simon Peters’ Collection)
world flight over the poles would have been impossiblebecauseaircraftdidnothavethatkindof rangeorthenavigationalsystemsneededforsuchan unprecedentedflight. Thepairbegantoinvestigatesuchaflightwould entail. They were determined to be the first to accomplishit.AccordingtoAustin,theyworkedon thedetailsofsuchaflightforaboutayearwhilein search of financing and attempting to secure a suitablemachine. Most of the airlines were very hesitant about leasing them an aircraft, but finally in early NovembertheFlyingTigerlineagreedtoleasepilots Finch and Austin a 707. The introduction of jet transports revolutionised cargo operations, for no longerwasitacceptabletoprocesscargobyhanddue tothespeedbetweenpoints,andnewmethodswere introduced.Initiallypre-loadedpalletswereusedbut weresupersededbycontainersdesignedtofitthe internalfuselagecontours. The Flying Tiger Line, also known as Flying Tigers,wasthefirstscheduledcargoairlineinthe UnitedStatesandamajormilitarycharteroperator duringtheColdWareraforbothcargoandpersonnel.
Late in 1965 the US involvement in South Vietnamincreasedsignificantly,withtheresultthat commercialairlinersfromFlyingTigersandother operators were chartered by Military Airlift Command(MAC)tosupplementitsC-135AsandBs untilitreceiveditsC-141Starlifters. HarrisonFinchknewJohnDuBois,amember of the Explorer's Club who had done aerial mappingofSouthAmericainthe1940.Thetwo pilotscamebacktoFinch’shometownofDuBois, PennsylvaniatomeetwithDuBoistodiscussthe proposedflightandtoinvitehimtojoininforall thehelphehadgiventhem. DuBoissuggestedtoAustinandFinchthatthey talk with Colonel Willard F. Rockwell, business magnate and the Chairman and founder of the RockwellManufacturingCompany. WithintwodaysofsecuringanaircraftColonel Rockwell agreed to provided $250,000 towards financingthehistoricflightthatwouldbethefirstto circumnavigatetheEarthoverthetwopoles.With Rockwell as the principal sponsor, the flight was officiallynamed‘TheRockwellPolarFlight.’ On14November1965theflighttookofffrom Honoluluona26,230-mile,57hour,27minuteflight aroundtheworld-fromPoletoPole.Thepairleased abrandnewBoeing707-349C,registeredN322F, fromFlyingTigerLine.Theairlinerhadonlybeen delivered to them on 27 September 1965. NicknamedPole Cat (somesourcesquotethenameas
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‘Polecat'). It was crewed by five pilots, all rated captains.InadditiontoAustinandFinch,therewere CaptainJackMartin,ChiefPilotofFlyingTigers Line, Captain Robert N Buck,TWA, and Boeing Senior Engineering Test Pilot James R Gannett. Three navigators and three flight engineers completedtheflightcrew.JohnLarsen,TWA’schief navigator,didmostoftheplanningandtheothertwo navigatorsandallthreeflightengineerswereFlying TigerLineemployees. Theaircraftwasfittedwithacomplexauxiliary fueltanksystemthatboosteditsrangetoover7,400 miles. Made from a rubber and nylon mix, each collapsiblebladdercarried2,000gallonsofjetfuel withinternalanti-surgemechanismsinstalledinthe aircraft'smaincabinaftoftheflightdeckandbefore thepassengercompartment.Inadditiontheaircraft carriedover5,000poundsofscientificequipmentfor space,weather,navigationalandradioresearch. Theairlinerwasequippedwithanexperimental LittonSystemsInertialNavigationSystem(INS)and the very latest Single Side Band (SSB) communicationsequipmentfromCollinsRadio. The flight departed Honolulu and flew to the NorthPolewhere,at31,000feetoverthePoleFinch andAustinwereinductedintotheExplorersClub. The707thenheadedsouthtoLondonHeathrow, wheretheystoppedforfuel.Unexpectedrunway restrictionslimitedthe707’stakeoffweight,so they had to make an extra fuel stop at Lisbon, PortugalbeforeflyingtoBuenosAires,Argentina. Afteranotherfuelstopthere,theycontinuedsouth, circled the South Pole four times, then headed northtoChristchurch,NewZealand.Fromthere, theycontinuedontoHonoluluwheretheyarrived on17November. Totalelapsedtimefortheflightwas62hours, 27minutes,35secondswithjustunderfivehours ontheground. N322FwassoldtoCaledonianAirwaysin1968 and registered G-AWTK. In 1970, Caledonian merged with British United and became British Caledonian. The aircraft was then registered GBDCN,andnamedCounty of Renfrew. 1965 through 1967 were good years for Boeing with orders flowing in, although the airlinesstartedtofeelthepinchandhadproblems financingthemassivesumsofmoneyinvolvedin orderingnewaircraft.Sostartedthenowcommon practiceofaircraftleasing,inmostcases,forten yearsorsofromafinancinginstitutionorsome othertaxadvantagesystem. High costs and service demand increased the utilisationofthe707,whichledtosomestructural
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problems.Theairframewasoriginallysoldwitha 30,000hourfatiguelifebutsomeproblemsarose beforethislimitwasreached.Thefirstwasinthetail assembly mounting when hairline cracks were detectedinApril1966,whichwerecuredbyfitting anewmountingorreamingouttheoriginalbolts. TheninMayitwasfoundthe720sneededheavier wingskinsonsmallsectionsduetotaxiingloads.It becamecommonpracticeforaircrafttohavetheir operational life extended well beyond the 30,000 hour limit; a process that required major work includingreplacingfastenersandreskinningpartsof thewingsandfuselage.Someaircrafthaveexceeded 90,000hoursinservice. In one week in November 1966 Boeing took ordersforfifty-oneaircraft,includingseventeen707320CsforAmericanaspartofathirty-eightaircraft orderandten707-320BsforQANTAS.1967looked tobearepeatof1966withtheairlinesprospering world-wide.TheUSandEuropeancharterairlines startedmakingseriousinroadsacrosstheAtlanticand themajorrouteslookedreadyfortheBoeing747. Significantly, Pan Am started to suffer from reducedearningsandthiswassoonfollowedbyother airlines-evensoPanAmorderedtwenty-six707sin 1967 as part of the total of seventy-five orders received that year. New services continued to be operated;AerolineasArgentinaswereabletostart BuenosAires-NewYorknon-stopserviceson2 February1967whilePanAmcommencedNewYork -Moscowserviceson15July1968,followedbya 15.5hrsNewYork-Tokyoserviceon1September 1969. Continental started Los Angeles-Hawaii servicesinSeptember1969,followedbyAmerican on1August1970,whileIranAirstarted707services earlyin1970. One thousand up! InJune1967,Boeingdeliveredtheir1000thciviljet when American accepted delivery of 707-123B N7584A, eight years and and nine months after deliveryofthefirst707-121toPanAmerican.1968 resultedinordersforthirtyaircraftbuttrafficgrowth wasmuchlessthanexpected,itimprovedslightlyin 1969 but not enough to give confidence to the industry. Orders for about twenty aircraft were receivedin1969followedbyabouttenineachof 1970and1971whichweretwooftheworstyearsin theindustry'shistoryuptothattimeandindeedin 1970severalairlinesrecordedlowertrafficfigures thanin1969. Theintroductionofthe747inJanuary1970 withPanAmwasbasicallythedeathknellofthe commercially configured 707 although some
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airlines continued to place repeat orders or, in some cases, like CAAC, a new order for ten aircraft, but the production rate dropped to one aircraftamonthinearly1971andthewritingwas onthewallforthe707. BoeinghadbeenassignedtobuildtheUSSST competitortotheAnglo-FrenchConcordebutthis wascancelledin1971whenUSCongresswithdrew itsfundingandtheworkforceintheSeattleareafell fromapeakof101,000inJanuary1968to37,700in late1971;indeedin1972Boeingdeliveredatotalof onlyninety-sevenjetairlinersthatincludedjustfour 707s,comparedwithatotalof376justfouryears earlierwhen111707saloneweredelivered. Boeing offered the basic commercially configured707-320BastheairframefortheAirborne WarningandControlSystemrequirementdrawnup bytheUSAFin1963toreplacetheEC-121sserving intheairborneearlywarningroleandafterevaluation wereawardedtheAWACScontracton10July1970. Thisgavetheproductionlineanewleaseoflifewith severalmilitaryversionsdevelopedover
subsequentyears(E-3A,E-6Aetc.). Aftertheintroductionofthe747Boeingoffered ‘wide body’ interiors to 707 operators, which includednewseats,biggerandsaferoverheadlockers andotherimprovements,andsomeairlinestookthe opportunitytoreducethenumberofseatstogive passengersmoreroom,buttheysoonrevertedtothe higherdensityseatingoncetrafficloadsincreased. Boeingdecidedtolookatre-enginingthe707, eitherasnew-buildairframesorasretrofits,andbuilt a prototype 707-720 powered by the General Electric/SNECMA CFM.56 turbofan of 20,000 poundsthrust-laterincreasedto23,000pounds.This aircraft first flew on 27 November 1979 and was involvedinatestanddevelopmentprogramme,but theideawasabandonedsincetheavailabilityofnew (orretrofitted)707swiththeCFM.56wouldseriously reduce the market for the new Boeing 757, the prototype of which was rolled out on 13 January 1982.TheinformationgatheredontheCFM.56/707 combination was not wasted since Saudi Arabia orderedthisengineforitsE-3Aand KE-3AtankersfollowedbytheRAF andFrenchAFfortheirSentry'sand USN for their E-6A TACAMO aircraftandthere-enginedKC-135R. Eventually,on1September1991, Boeingannouncedtheclosingofthe 707 production line - at this time JapanwereconsideringorderingE3AsbutBoeingdecidedanyfuture AWACSaircraftwouldbebasedon theModel767.Thelastaircraftfrom the707line,aSentryAEW.1forthe RAF,number1012,wasdeliveredto the UK on 21August 1991, over thirty-threeyearsafterthefirst707, while the last ‘707’ delivery by Boeing was E-3C 73-1674 to USAFon28April1994. QANTASwerethefirstairlineto dispose of 707s when, in 1967/1968, it sold its 707-120B short-body jets as they were replaced by new 707-320Bs. Easternthentradedits720sinto Boeingaspartexchangefornew 727sin1969.Astimewentonthis trade-inbecamequitecommonas theairlinesfounditdifficulttosell whole fleets. In fact the 720, whichgotBoeingontotheshort tomediumhaulrouteswerethe first aircraft to be phased out -
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VH-EBA, the first -138 model for QANTAS, on the ramp at Renton before delivery, in the company of unidentifiable TWA and American Airlines machines.
Initially the airline used the somewhat conservative ‘classic’ uniforms for their stewardesses, but as a new decade dawned, things progressed into the ‘swingin sixties’. (author’s collection/QANTAS)
replacedbytheverysuccessful727whichovertook the707asthemostpopularjetaircraftandretained thispositionuntilsupersededitselfbythe737!Some of these 720s found their way into the European inclusive tour market, while Pan American were successfulinsellingmostoftheir707-320stoUK independentairlinesandTWAsoldtheir707-120sto lsraeliAircraftIndustriesforoverhaul,refurbishment andpossibleresale. Manyairlines,notbeingabletofindabuyerfor its aircraft, kept them in service until USAF announcedin1982thatitproposedtore-engine128
KC-135As with JT3D engines removed from ex airliner707sandbothAmericanandTWAdisposed ofentirefleetstoBoeingMilitaryAirplaneCorp.for spares.Someofthesewerealsoconvertedtomilitary useandpartswereusedinKC-135Rupdates,while someexairlineairframeswerepurchasedbyOmega Air/USAF as the basis of the E-8C J-Stars programme. Someofthestoredex-civilianairframeswere involvedinteststodeterminethesurvivabilityof aircraftafteranon-boardexplosioninaprogramme ofworkrunbytheFederalAviationAdministration and Department of Defense. This programme of workcommencedafterthelossof747-121N739PA as Pan Am 103, when it crashed at Lockerbie, Scotlandon21December1988killingall258on boardaswellasatleast11onthegroundfollowing terrorist action. The work has also involved the
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QANTAS was the only operator of the short-bodied 707. This aircraft is seen taking off with a spare engine slung in a pod on a pylon between the No.2 engine and the fuselage. The QANTAS cabin staff uniform swung from the severe in the 1950s to the miniskirt in the 1960s. (both author’s collection)
USAFandUSNandfourex-USAFKC-135Aswere involvedinfurthertrialsatPatuxentRiverNAS;new freightcontainershavebeendevelopedtoreducethe riskofairframelossbasedonanexplosionsimilarto the one over Lockerbie. These new containers contain some of the blast and cause slight deformation of the aircraft skin, rather than skin rupture and consequent frame damage, and were available to airlines from late 1994. The new container is still within the ICAO weight limits althoughtowardstheupperendpresentingaweight (aswellascost)penaltytoairlinesthatusedit. Versions and variant in detail 707-120 Dated16NovemberI951,layoutdrawingsforthe firstdesigntobearaModel707designationshowan aircraftwith35degreesofwingsweepandfourJ57 engines in twin-podded nacelles, one under each wing. Intended to accommodate 72 first class passengers,this707-1hadafuselagewidthofonly 122inches,slightlylessthanfeaturedbythemost successful contemporary propliners. This shortcoming was corrected with the 707-2 layout whichprovidedforafuselagewidthof132inches. Although still less than the 139.3 inch maximum fuselagewidthoftheLockheedConstellationand SuperConstellationproplinerseries,the132inch widthwasthatoftheupperdeckoftheBoeing377 Stratocruiser,aproplinerofferingfirstclassafourabreastseatingarrangementpraisedbypassengers. Accordingly,thiswidthwasretainedforthe367-80
anditsintended707-7productionjetlinerversion until the Air Force concluded that it would not provideclearanceforefficientloadingandcarriage ofstandardmilitarypalletsontheupperdeck. Inthemeanwhile,mockupsofairlinercabinshad shownthata144inchfuselagewidthwouldnotonly provideforincreasedcomfortinfour-abreastfirst classseatingbutwouldalsoworkforfive-abreast tourist class and six-abreast economy class accommodations.Therefore,Boeingincreasedthe width of its proposed Model 717 tanker and 707 jetliners to 144 inches before negotiations with airlines began in earnest. That width was found acceptabletothefirstcommercialcustomer,since
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PanAmericanwasinitiallyinterestedinthe707only asatemporaryaircraftthatwouldenableittomatch theanticipatedintroductionoftransatlanticjetservice byBOACwithDeHavillandComet4swhilewaiting tobuildupitsjetlinerfleetwiththelarger,heavier, andmorepowerfulDouglasDC-8. Unfortunately for Boeing, because domestic trunkcarriersdidnotfacethecompetitivethreatof Comet4operators,theydidnotplanonorderingtwo types of medium- to long range jetliners as Pan Americanhadjustdone.SeeingmeritsinDouglas’ argumentsthatthe147-inchfuselagewidthofits proposed DC-8 would provide for improved six abreasteconomyseating,UnitedAirlinesselectedthe Douglasjetlineroverthe707wheninOctober1955 itbecamethesecondcarriertoorderUSjetliners. Inspiteofthegambleithadtakenwiththeprivate venture367-80jettransportdemonstrator,Boeing was threatened with seeing its efforts frustrated by Douglas’ superior understandingofairlinerequirements.The timehadcomeforapainfulreassessment bythemanagementoftheSeattlefirm. The perennial competition between AmericanAirlines,UnitedAirlines,and Trans World Airlines on US Back in the day of the 707, South Africa was under the control of apartheid, as was the national carrier South African Airways. (both DGR Picture Library)
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transcontinental routes provided Boeing with an opportunityofregainingtheinitiative.Tobethefirst toofferjetserviceacrosstheUnitedStates,American favoredthe707overtheDC-8butwantedjetliners offeringthebestpossibleseatinginallclassesof service. Putting pressure on Boeing, American AirlinesgottheSeattlemanufacturertoincreasethe fuselagewidthofits707to148inches,1inchbetter thantheDC-8and15inchesmorethantheComet4. Thewiderfuselagewasquicklyadoptedasthe new Boeing standard, with specifications for the aircraftpreviouslyorderedbyPanAmericanbeing changedaccordingly. The initial order for JT3C powered 707s was announced on 13 October 1955 when news of a twentyaircraftorderplacedbyPanAmericanwas released.Thiscontractwasforaircraftwith144inch fuselage width but was later amended to cover
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aircraftwith148inchfuselagewidth.Moreover,Pan AmericansubsequentlyelectedinDecember1955to take only six aircraft as JT3C powered 707-121s whilethebalanceoftheoriginaltwentyaircraftorder wasswitchedtoJT4A—powered707-321s. Proposalstailoredtospecificairlinerequirements were initially given sequential model numbers startingwith707-121,asfirstgiventotheJT3CpoweredaircraftorderedbyPanAmericanwith144 inch width fuselage but delivered with 148 inch width fuselage. The 707-122 designation at first identified the version proposed unsuccessfully to UnitedAirlines with JT3C engines and 144 inch width fuselage. The 707-222 and 707-322 designationsthenbrieflyidentifiedaircraftproposed toScandinavianAirlinesSystemrespectivelywith JT3CandJT4Aengines. InadditiontoJT3C-poweredaircraftwiththe standard138foot10inchlongbody,Boeingoffered ashortbodyversion,withtenfeetbeingremovedaft ofthewingstoreducefuselagelengthto128feet10 inches. This machine was tailored for overwater service.PoweredbyfourJT3C-6enginesandfitted with centre-section fuel tanks to increase fuel capacityfromthebasic13,486USgallonsto17,286 gallons.,this‘shortbody’variantfirstappearedina 120Blayoutdrawingdated7September1956. Theonlyairlinetomakeuseofthegreaterrange of this version was QANTAS, as the Australian carrierhadtocontendwithwhatthenwereunusually longoverwatersectors,suchthe2,080-nauticalmile still-airdistanceSanFrancisco-Honolululeg,the 2,269-nauticalmileHonolulu-PagoPagosector,and the2,375-nauticalmilePagoPago-Sydneyhop. Also,QANTAShadtonavigatethesesectorswithout In later years Braniff operated their four 707-220s in vivid colours of orange, yellow, blue and gold below is N7099. Right: the interior of one of the Braniff 707s not long after delivery. (author’s collection)
theluxuryofanysuitablediversionaryjetairfields. Theseven707-138sbuiltfortheAustraliancarrier becamethefirst707scertificatedtocarryaspare engineinapodmountedundertheleftwinginboard ofthenumber2engine.Earlyproductionlong-and short-body 707-120s were delivered with the socalled ‘short’ vertical-tail surfaces and manually operated rudder. However, as the result of modifications developed to obtain British certification of the 707-420 series, the fin was extended upward, the rudder was provided with hydraulicboost,and,inmostinstances,aventralfin wasaddedtoimprovehandlinginasymmetricengine conditions.Thesemodificationswereincorporated during production in late 1959, and most early productionaircraftwereretrofitted.Theventralfin, whichwasnotalwaysfittedorretrofitted,alsohelped topreventtherearfuselagefromhittingtherunway during excessive rotation on take-off. Another modificationhadbeenretrofittedtothefirst707-121s beforetheyweredeliveredtoPanAmericanandwas incorporatedearlyonduringproduction.Thiswas two segments of Kruger-type leading-edge flaps inboard of the number 1 and 4 engines, which delayedwingstallatslowspeedswhendeployedat the same time as the double-slotted trailing-edge flaps. Structural differences between models were
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N-93134 was a 707-138B and was operated by the Boeing Company for a while as their Turbo-Fan demonstrator. It later went to QANTAS as VH-EBH ‘City of Darwin’. Left: ‘Think of her as your mother’ - contemporary American Airlines advertising.
limitedtothesizeandcapacityofthecentrefuel tankandtolocalisedstructuralstrengtheningfor models certificated for operations at higher weights.Inaddition,modelsdifferedincockpit arrangements, avionics, and cabin layout and furnishingwasspecifiedbyeachcustomer.Thirty nineoftheseaircraft,includingthethreeUSAF VIPaircraft,weresubsequentlyre-enginedwith turbofansas707-120Bs.
707-320 Boeingstillhadtomeetthechallengeofthemore powerful,heavier,andlonger-rangedJT4A-powered versionoftheDouglasjetliner.Accordingly,keenon having PanAmerican move away from its initial preferencefortheDouglasjettransport,theSeattle manufacturer quickly proposed a JT4A-powered
versionoftheirownproductwithwingsofincreased spanandarea. To achieve the desired nonstop transatlantic capability without a payload penalty, not just betweenEuropeancapitalsrelativelyclosetothe eastern shores of the Atlantic (such as London, Madrid,orParis)andUSorCanadiancitiesnearthe westernshores(suchasBoston,Montreal,orNew York) but also from major metropolises further inland (such as Chicago, Frankfurt, Rome, and Zurich),requiredincreasesinfuelloadandtake-off weight. The distances between inland cities is substantiallyfurtherthandistancesbetweencoastal cities; for example, London - New York, uncorrectedforwinds,isonly3,005nauticalmiles whereasRome-Chicagois4,176nauticalmiles. Heavier take-off weights meant that to avoid downgradingairfieldperformanceexcessively,both power and wing area had to be increased while additionalhigh-liftdeviceshadtobeprovided. TheswitchtoPratt&WhitneyJT4Aturbojets withdrytakeoffthrust17-to35—percentgreater thanthewetthrust(i.e.,usingthecumbersomeand noisy water injection system) of JT3C variants went a long way to keep take-off field length requirementswithinreason.Nevertheless,Boeing stillneededtoredesignthewingstoincreasearea andprovidespaceforadditionalfuel.Thiswas accomplished by reducing trailing edge sweep betweenthewingfilletandtheinboardengines
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andbyextendingtheoutboardpanelstoincrease spanfrom130feet10inchesto142feet5inches and area from 2,433 to 2,892 square feet. The larger wings, however, retained the thirty-five degreeofsweepatthequarterchordandtwo-spar structureoftheoriginal367-80wings.Acollateral benefitfromenlargingthewingswasareduction incabinnoiseastheenginesweremovedfurther outboard,thecenterlineoftheinboardJT4Asof the-320being33feetfromthefuselagecentreline, whereasthatdistancewasonly27feet2inchesin thecaseoftheinboardJT3Cofthe-120. Toincreaselift,thelargerwingswerefittedwith split fillet flaps on the trailing-edge between the fuselageandtheinboardsectionsofdouble-slotted flapsandtwoadditionalsectionsofKruger-typeflaps on the leading-edge. This revised configuration enabledapproachspeedtobereducedfrom145knots forthe707-120to140knotsforthe-320inspiteof thegreaterweightofthelatter.Notwithstandingthe use of more powerful engines and larger wings, however,theheavier707-320-witha maximum gross take-off weight between18and28%greaterthanthe 707-120dependingonconfigurationstillendeduphavingFederalAviation Regulations runway length requirementssome12%greaterthana fullyloaded707-120. The 707-320 retained the newly adopted 148-inch fuselage diameter, butcabinlength,fromthecockpitdoor to the rear pressure bulkhead, was increased6feet8inchesto111feet6 inches.Standardseatingwasincreased from96to104first-classpassengers with40-inchseatpitchandfrom165 to180economy-classpassengerswith 34-inchseatpitch.Withspecialseats andinflatableescapeslides,the707320 was certificated to carry a maximumof189passengersinhighdensity configuration. Other structural changes included a strengthenedundercarriage,stronger skinpanels,andlargerhorizontaltail surfaces, with the span increased from 39 feet 8 inches to 45 feet inches. Briefly marketed under the ‘Intercontinental’name,the707-320 wasfirstorderedbyPanAmerican on 24 December 1955 when the original707customeramendedits
contract for twenty aircraft to cover six JT3Cpowered707-121sand14JT4Apowered707-321s. Thefirstofthelargerandheaviermodelsflew on1January1959,andthe707-321wasplacedin service by Pan American on 26 August 1959. Althoughrapidlysupplantedbyitsturbofan-powered derivatives(the707-420,707-320B,and707-320C), theJT4A-poweredintercontinentalversionofthe707 soldbetterthantheoriginalJT3C-poweredvariant. Initialdeliverieswerewithshortfinandmanually operatedrudder,butmost-320seriesaircraftwere deliveredwiththelargersurfacesandhydraulically boosted rudder. Aircraft delivered in the early configuration were retrofitted.According to their need,airlinesspecifieddifferentmodelsoftheJT4A turbojetwithatakeoffthrustof15,800poundsforthe JT4A-3and-5,16,800poundsforthe-9,and17,500 poundsforthe-11and-12models. 707-220 To match the capabilities of the JT4A-powered DouglasDC-8Series20andtomeetthe
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need of airlines operating from high elevation hightemperature airports, Boeing initially planned the 707-220asaderivativeoftheJT3C-poweredshortbodyversionofthe707-120with144-inchfuselage width.Itprogressivelyevolvedwithanincreasein fuselage width to 148 inches, lengthening of the fuselage to the standard 707-120 long body dimension,additionof340USgallonwingtipfuel tanks, installation of overwater equipment, and substitution of JT4A-3 engines for the initially intendedJT3C-6s.Thisversionwasonlyorderedby BraniffAirwayswithJT4A-3sandstandardlongbody fuselage but without tip tanks or overwater equipment. Onlyfive707-227swerebuilt,thefirstflying on11May1959,andcertificationwasobtainedsix monthslaterinspiteofthecrashofthefirstaircraft duringanacceptanceflightaswehaveseenearlier on 19 October 1959.The remaining four -227s wereoperatedbyBraniffonitsLatinAmerican network until the first quarter of 1971. After service with other operators, the last of the exBraniffaircraftwasstoredinDecember1983and brokenupinMay1984.
707-420 The moment Boeing revealed the existance of plans to develop their airlinerdesignallthemajorengine manufacturers contacted them, notably Rolls-Royce, who made it knownthatitsAeroEngineDivision had a novel ‘bypass’ turbojet, also known as a turbofan, under development. Fitted with a ducted fan ahead of its axial-flow compressor, the Conway turbofan was anticipated to have greater thrustandlowerfuelconsumption thantheJT3Cretainedforthefirst 707s.Accordingly,asearlyasthe autumn of 1954, Boeing studied variants of its projected 707-8, poweredbyRolls-RoyceConway R.Co.5 bypass engines and with takeoff weight ranging between 205,000and235,000pounds.The 707-420intercontinentalversion, which began with a preliminary layoutdated30December1955 fora296,000-poundairlinerwith R.Co.10s,evolvedinparallelwith thecompetingConway-powered DC-8Series40. Identicaltothe707-320invirtuallyallrespects, butpoweredbyConwayturbofansinsteadofJT4A turbojets,the707-420wasexpectedtobeparticularly attractivetoairlinesintheBritishCommonwealth, asthesecarrierswouldnothavetopaycustomduties onBritish-manufacturedengines. ThefirstcontractforConway-poweredaircraft wasnotplacedbyaCommonwealthairlinebutby Lufthansa,whichorderedaninitialbatchoffour707430s in April 1956. Although the first Conway-poweredhadbeenorderedbytheGerman carrier,thefirsttoflywasoneofthefifteen707-436s orderedbyBritishOverseasAirwaysCorporationin October1956. Thisflewon20May1959withatemporaryUS registration.Althoughthe-420wascertificatedinthe United States on 12 February 1960 under an addendumtotheATC4A26forthe-320,service entrywasdelayeduntilMay1960bytheneedto redesigntailsurfacestomeetBritishcertification requirements.Withtheenlargedsurfaces,the707420 was granted a British certificate by the Air TransportLicensingBoardon27April1960. Eventhere-designedtaildidnotpreventtheloss ofBOACFlight911using707G-APFEoperating
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under the callsign of Speedbird 911. This was a round-the-worldflightthatcrashedasaresultofan encounter with severe clear-air turbulence near MountFujiinJapanon5March1966.TheBoeing 707-436onthisflightwascommandedbyCaptain BernardDobson,45,fromDorset,anexperienced 707pilotwhohadbeenflyingtheseaircraftsince November1960. TheaircraftdisintegratedandcrashednearMount FujishortlyafterdeparturefromHanedaAirport,at thestartoftheTokyo-HongKongsegment.All113 passengersand11crewmemberswerekilledinthe disaster, including a group of 75 Americans associated with Thermo King of Minneapolis, Minnesota,ona14-daycompanysponsoredtourof JapanandSoutheastAsia. TheaircraftarrivedinHanedaat12:40ontheday oftheaccidentfromFukuokaAirportwhereithad divertedthepreviousdayduetoconditionsonthe ground in Tokyo. The weather there had since improvedbehindacoldfrontwithasteeppressure gradient bringing cool dry air from the Asian mainland on a strong west-northwest flow, with crystalclearskyconditions.Duringtheirtimeonthe ground,thecrewreceivedaweatherbriefingfroma company representative, and filed an instrument flight rules flight plan calling for a southbound departurefromHanedaviatheislandofIzuOshima, thenonairwayJG6toHongKongat31,000feet. At13:42thecrewcontactedairtrafficcontrol requestingpermissiontostartengines,andamending their clearance request to a visual meteorological conditions climb westbound via the Fuji-RebelKushimotowaypoints,whichwouldtakethemnearer toMountFuji,possiblytogivethepassengersabetter viewofthelandmark.Theaircraftbegantaxiingat 13:50andtookoffintothenorthwestwindat13:58. Aftertakeoff,theaircraftmadeacontinuousclimbing right turn over Tokyo Bay, and rolled out on a southwestheading,passingnorthofOdawara.Itthen turnedrightagaintowardthemountain,flyingover Gotembaonaheadingofapproximately298°,atan indicatedairspeedof320to370knots,andanaltitude ofapproximately16,000feet,wellabovethe12,388 foot mountain peak. The aircraft then encounted strongwinds,causingittobreakupinflight,and crashintoaforestnearthemountain. The aircraft left a debris field ten miles long. Analysisofthelocationofwreckageallowedthe accidentinvestigatorstodeterminethatthevertical stabiliserattachmenttothefuselagefailedfirst.Itleft paintmarksindicatingthatitbrokeofftheportside horizontal stabiliser as it departed to the left and down.Ashorttimelater,theventralfinandallfour
enginepylonsfailedduetoaleftwardover-stress, shortlyfollowedbytheremainderoftheempennage. Theaircraftthenenteredaflatspin,withtheforward fuselage section and the outer starboard wing breakingoffshortlybeforeimpactwiththeground. Severalbookedpassengershadcancelledtheir tickets at the last moment to see a ninja demonstration.Thesepassengers,AlbertR‘Cubby’ Broccoli,HarrySaltzman,KenAdam,LewisGilbert, andFreddieYoung,wereinJapanscoutinglocations forthefifthJamesBondfilm,You Only Live Twice. Althoughsomestresscrackingwasfoundinthe verticalstabiliserboltholes,itwasdeterminedby subsequenttestingthatitdidnotcontributetothis accident.Still,itwaspotentiallyasignificantsafetyof-flightissue.SubsequentinspectionsonBoeing 707and720aircraftasaresultofthisdiscoverydid revealthiswasacommonproblem,andcorrective maintenanceactionsonthefleeteventuallyfollowed. One day after the crash, speculation was that fiercewindsaboveMountFujiwereresponsible.The New York Times reported:"Despite these reports of a fire and explosion, aviation experts said that adverse wind conditions around the volcanic cone about 37 miles south of Tokyo may have caused the crash. The vicinity of the 12,388 foot peak is notorious for tricky air currents. Technicians in New York said that a condition could exist where turbulent air could have caused the aircraft to undergo a drastic manoeuvre that might lead to a crash. Such violent forces, they said, might have caused an engine to disintegrate, possibly setting fire to the wing or fuselage." The probable cause determination was: "The aircraft suddenly encountered abnormally severe turbulence over Gotemba City which imposed a gust load considerably in excess of the design limit." With the Rolls-Royce bypass turbojet rapidly overtakenbythePratt&WhitneyJT3Dturbofan, only thirty-seven Conway-powered aircraft were built. 720 Whereas the fuselage of the 707-120 had to be enlarged and the -220, -320, and -420 variants developed in response to Douglas’ aggressive marketingmoves,theBoeing720cameaboutasa hastened response to Convair’s January 1956 announcement of its Model 22 Skylark, later redesignatedtheConvair880.SmallerthantheJT3C powered707-120andDouglasDC-8Series10,the Convairairlinerpromisedtobefasterthanitsheavier competitors.WhileDouglasdidnotsucceedwithits proposedDC-9,atthattimeasmallerfour-engined
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derivative of the DC-8, Boeing responded energeticallytothechallengefromConvair. WithUnitedAirlines-acarrierwhichhadjust selectedSeries10and20DC-8sinpreferenceto707120s but was known also to need smaller, shorter—rangedjetliners-asitsinitialtarget,Boeing startedworkinearnestonthe707-020inFebruary 1956. By the first week in March, the Seattle manufacturerhadpreliminarylayoutsfornofewer thantwelvedifferentconfigurations. The baseline 707-020-1 retained the newly adopted148inchwidthfuselageand130foot10inchspanwingsofthe707-120buthaditsfuselage shortenedfrom138feet10inchesto115feet6inches andwastobepoweredbyfourRolls-RoyceRA-29 Avonturbojets.The-2hadaonefootshorterfuselage and was designed around four Pratt & Whitney JT8A-1 turbojets. The -3, -4, and -9 retained the shorter-2fuselagebutwererespectivelymatchedto four Pratt & Whitney JT3C-6, General Electric C]J80s,andRolls-RoyceRA-29turbojets.The-11 and-12wereproposedAvon-powereddevelopments withthe-2fuselagebutareducedgrossweightand wingswithdifferentaspectandtaperratio. ProposedwithfourJT3C-4turbojets,the-10had broaderwingsofreducedspan-120feet-andarea of 2,322 square feet. The more unusual variants, however,werethetwin-engined707-020-5,-6,and -7withwingsofevenmorereducedspanandarea101feet8inchesand2,100squarefeet.Thedesigns wererespectivelyproposedwithtwoRA-29,JT3C4,andJT4A-1turbojets. Inspiteoffranticdesignactivities,itappearedfor nearly twenty months that Boeing would be unsuccessful in its endeavor to block inroads by Convairintothejetlinermarket.Initialcontractsfor theConvairjetlinerwereannouncedinJune1956 withTWA,alreadya707-120and-320customer,and Delta,aDC-8customer,respectivelyorderingthirty andten880s.ByOctober1957,TWAhadordered
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four additional 880s, while the Brazilian carrier REALhadbecomethefirstcustomerforaturbofanpoweredderivativeoftheConvairjetliner(thismodel eventuallywasdesignatedthe990).Boeinghadyet toreceiveanorderforits707derivative. Thisshort-tomedium-range,reducedcapacity derivativeofthe707wasfirstcalledtheModel717, butthatprovedconfusingsincemilitaryC/KC-135 variantsalreadyusedthe717designation.Fortyyears later,thatconfusionwasfurthercompoundedwhen, followingthemergerwithMcDonnellDouglas,the Model717designationwasagainusedtoidentifythe twinjet MD-95. Finally, to satisfy the launch customer’swishtohavethenewaircraftidentified byalaternumericaldesignation,itbecametheModel 720. With inputs from the airlines, the 720 jelled progressivelyintoamoredirectderivativeofthe707120.AsfirstsoldtoUnitedAirlinesinNovember 1957,whenUALorderedaninitialbatchofeleven aircraft,theJT3C-powered720hadastandard148inchwide707fuselagewithinternalcabinlength reducedto96feet,6inchesfromthe104-foot,10inchlengthofthe-120cabin.Theshortercabinof the720providedaccommodationfor88first-class passengers, a maximum of 141 economy-class passengers,or115passengersina30/70mixed-class arrangement. The basic wing layout of the 707-120 was retainedbutthewingleading-edgeinboardofthe inner engines was extended forward to form a ‘glove,’thusincreasingthewingchordandreducing thethickness/chordratioforflightsathigherspeeds. Thenever-exceedMachincreasedfrom0.895forthe 707-120 to 0.906 for the 720-020, while fuel consumptionwasreduced. Direct weight reductions resulting from the shorterfuselageandsmallernumberofseats,galleys, andlavatoriesalsomadepossibletheuseofalighter undercarriageandthedeletionofoneofthethree
The first 720 - intended for use with United Airlines, hence the registration N7201U, in Boeing Company demonstrator colours. (DGR Picture Library)
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turbocompressorsforthecabinconditioningsystem. Thus,operatingweightemptywasreducednearly eightpercentfrom118,000poundsforthe707-120 to110,800poundsforthe720. PowerforthelighterModel720wasprovided byeitherfourPratt8CWhitneyJT3C-7swithout water injection or four JT3C-12s with water injection, take-off thrust rating being 12,000 poundsfortheformerand13,000poundsforthe latter.Airfieldperformancewasimproveddueto thelowerpowerandwingloadingsbutalsobythe additionofadditionalKrugerleading-edgeflaps outboardoftheengines. Nexttocontractfor720swasAmericanAirlines, withitsorderfortwenty-five720-023slaterchanged toincludeamixofturbojet-andturbofan-powered aircraft,bringingtheBoeing’sorderbooktoatotal of187jetlinersbythetimePanAmericanstarted 707-121operationsinOctober1958.Thatorderbook showeda39%shareofthefour-enginejetairliner business.Fourcompetitors,DouglasandConvairin theUnitedStatesplusVickersandDeHavillandin theUnitedKingdom,respectivelyreportedordersfor 138DC-8sinfourvariants,87Model880sand990s, 35VC10s,and33Comet4s.Althoughitledthepack, Boeingwasneverthelessinalessthansatisfactory positionastheproductionbreak-evenpointforits earlyjetlinershadbeenpushedfurtherintothefuture by additional costs incurred in developing four additionalmodelstofightoffthecompetition. The720prototype,intendedforUnitedAirlines, firstflewfromRentonon23November1959.Being differentfromboththe707-100and707-300already FAA-certificated, the 720 was covered by a new ApprovedTypeCertificate,4A28,issuedon30June 1960.Boeingsoldonlysixty-four720s. Thefirst720serviceswereoperatedbyUnited on5July1960betweenLosAngeles,Denverand ChicagowhileAmericanintroducedthetypeon31 JulybetweenCleveland,StLouisandLosAngeles. ThefirstscheduledSouthAfricanAirways707-320 servicewasbetweenJohannesburgandLondonon2 Octoberalthoughthefirst,route-proving,flightwas on14September. InFebruary1961PanAmerican,inoneoftheir manyrepeatorders,orderedfive707-320Bswhich werepoweredbyJT3D-3enginesof18,000pounds thrust with an improved wing featuring full span leadingedgeflaps,improvedtrailingedgeflapsand Evolution of a wing. The changes in the shape and size of the 707 wing from -120 model compared to the -320 series. The 720 wing was basically that of the -120, with a ‘glove’ fitted inboard of the engines to allow an increase in Mach number.
redesignedwingtipswhichincreasedliftandreduced drag.Theseimprovementsincreasedtherangeofthe -320Bbyabout15%overtheearlier-320s. Boeing were planning even more extensive developmentwiththe-520Bofferedtotheairlines for 1963/1964 service introduction. This had increased power engines, a twelve foot fuselage stretchandmodifiedwing,suggestingthatitcould
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Olympic Airways operated a number of both 707s and 720s, SX-DBL, ‘Evros River’ was one of six 720s obtained from Northwest for their European services.
operate a round-the-world service with only two stops,butitneverprogressedpastthedesignstage. ElAlstarted707servicesbetweenTelAvivand NewYorkon5January1961,initiallywitha707441leasedfromVARIGuntilitsfirsttwo-458swere delivered in March and May 1961 respectively. Americanintroducedthe720Band707-120Binto servicesimultaneouslyon12March1961andthey startedreturningJT3CpoweredaircrafttoBoeing immediately for conversion to JT3D power. In November 1961 one of Continenta|'s 707-124s, N70773,clockedup10,000hours,thefirst707to achievethismilestoneatanaverageutilisationof 10.8 hours per day - a usage rate that was much higherthanpistonenginedaircraftduetothereduced maintenancerequirements. Thefirst707-320Bflewon1February1962and wasdeliveredtoPanAmericanon12Aprilwitha provisionalcertificate,thefullATCbeingissuedon 13 May. This was almost a year behind the correspondingDouglasmodel,theDC-8Series50, butthe707-320Bsoonenteredserviceonlong-haul routes like the 4,750 nautical mile London-Los Angelesserviceandthe4,600nauticalmileNew York-BuenosAiresroute.Indeedduringtestsone aircraft flew 5,080 nautical miles from Seattle to overheadNewYorkandreturntoSeattlein10hours 15minuteswithalmost50,000poundsofpayload. Thingsimprovedduring1963forBoeingwith aboutfortyaircraftordered,andthecompanywere alsobusybuildingtheinitial727s.Theall-cargo707320C entered service on 17 June 1963 with Pan Americanandledtocomplaintsfromtheall-cargo operators.ThemajorUSairlineswerewellupthelist of purchasers with both PanAmerican andTrans Worldplacingseveralordersastheirexcesscapacity wastakenupduetolowerfares.
AirFrancereplacedtheirearliermodelswith328Bs on the longer non-stop services such as Madrid-RiodeJaneiroon15April1963,whilethe CAB began to certificate the supplemental - or charter-airlinesforAtlanticflights.1964againsaw an improvement in orders with approximately seventy707sor720sordered,againPanAmerican wereintheleadwithnineteen-320Band-320Cs. QANTASstartednon-stoptrans-Pacificflights on7March1965followingdeliveryoftheirfirst707320B while three weeks later a Pan American 707-320BenroutefromSanFranciscotoHonolulu sufferedanexplosionintheouterstarboardengine shortlyaftertake-offbutlandedsafely. Thelaterbuilt-320BAswerecertifiedtohigher gross weights and were fitted with the -320C undercarriages,thesewereknownunofficiallyas320BA-H. 1965sawahugemilestoneappear-theendof jetsurcharges,designedtoprotectoperatorswithout jetaircraft.Althoughsomepiston-enginedaircraft remainedinservice,themajorroutesliketheNorth Atlanticwerenowalljet.Atlanticfareswerecoming down,dueinparttothecharter/supplementalairlines andsimplecompetitionandwithoutdoubtthefare payingpassengerwasthewinner. 1965sawanincreaseinorderswithonehundred andtwentynine707sandfive720sorderedincluding fifteen707-321BsandCsforPanAmericananda hugeorderoffifty-fouraircraftforAmerican.When finalised,American ordered twenty-seven -120Bs andfive-320Csaswellastwenty-two727-200sand theproductionratewasincreasedtotenpermonth. 1965 also saw the introduction of the JT3D-3B engine,whichhadmodificationstothehotsection eliminatingtheneedforwaterinjection.Trialswere conducted with a 720B, later sold to Pakistan
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NASA’s N833NA made a number of remotely controlled approaches the final one being an overflight of the ‘crash site’ at Edwards before the deliberate crash landing.
On board the 720 were a number of adult and child crash test dummies. (both NASA)
International Airlines, into all weather landing systems.Asaresult,on5March1965,the707/720 serieswascertifiedforlandingsdowntoCategory2 limits(1200foothorizontaland100footvertical visuallimits).Anotherhugeareaofdebatewasinflightentertainmentbutthiswaseventuallyaccepted by the airlines for long-haul flights and quickly becamethenorm. Oneinteresting‘loss’wasdeliberatelycrashedat EdwardsAirForceBase,California,on1December 1984whileradio-controlledtoabellylandingshort oftherunwayandintoobstacles. TheControlledImpactDemonstration(CID,or colloquially,theCrashIntheDesert)testsinvolved theeffortsofNASAAmesResearchCenter,Langley ResearchCenter,DrydenFlightResearchCenter,the FAA,andGeneralElectric,andrequiredmorethan four years of preliminary work. The aircraft was remotelycontrolledforthetests,andnumeroustest runswereundertakenpriortotheactualimpact. TheobjectivesoftheCIDprogrammewereto demonstrateareductionofpost-crashfirethroughthe use of antimisting fuel, acquire transport crash structuraldata,andtodemonstratetheeffectiveness
of existing improved seat-restraint and cabin structuralsystems. TheBoeing720-tailnumberN833NA-was purchased new by the FAA in 1960 as a training aircraft.Aftermorethan20,000hoursand54,000 takeoffandlandingcycles,ithadcometotheendof itsusefullife.TheaircraftwasturnedovertoNASAAmes/DrydenFlightResearchCenterfortheCID programin1981. The additive, ICI's FM-9, a high molecularweightlongchainpolymer,whenblendedwithJet-A fuel,formsantimistingkerosene(AMK).AMKhad demonstratedthecapabilitytoinhibitignitionand flamepropagationofthereleasedfuelinsimulated impacttests.AMKcannotbeintroduceddirectlyinto agasturbineengineduetoseveralpossibleproblems
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Slapdown; Fitz Fulton found himself with an aircraft that was starting to dutch roll. Data acquisition systems had been activated, and the aircraft was committed to impact. The aircraft contacted the ground, left wing low, at full throttle, the aircraft nose pointing to the left of the center-line.
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It had been planned that the aircraft would land wings-level, with the throttles set to idle, and exactly on the center-line during the CID, thus allowing the fuselage to remain intact as the wings were sliced open by eight posts cemented into the runway. This never happened. The Boeing 720 landed askew. One of the Rhinos sliced through number 3 engine. The same Rhino then sliced through the fuselage, causing a cabin fire when burning fuel was able to enter the fuselage.
The cutting of number 3 engine and the full throttle situation was significant as this was outside the test envelope. Number 3 engine continued to operate, degrading the fuel and igniting it after impact, providing a significant heat source. The fire took over an hour to extinguish. The CID impact was spectacular with a large fireball created by number 3 engine on the right side, enveloping and burning the 720. FAA investigators estimated that 23– 25% of the aircraft's full complement of 113 people could have survived the crash. Investigators labeled their estimate of the ability to escape through dense smoke as ‘highly speculative’. As a result of analysis of the crash, the FAA instituted new flammability standards for seat cushions which required the use of fire-blocking layers, resulting in seats which performed better than those in the test. (all NASA)
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suchascloggingoffilters.Ithadtoberestoredto almostJet-Abeforebeingintroducedintotheengine forburning.Thisrestorationwascalleddegradation andwasaccomplishedonthe720usingadevice calledadegrader.EachofthefourPratt&Whitney JT3C-7engineshadadegraderbuiltandinstalledby GEtobreakdownandreturntheAMKtonearJet-A quality. InadditiontotheAMKresearch,NASALangley was involved in a structural load measurement experiment,whichincludedusinginstrumentedcrash dummiesintheseatsofthepassengercompartment. Beforethefinalflightin1984,morethanfouryears ofeffortwasexpendedinattemptingtosetupfinal impactconditionswhichwouldbeconsideredtobe survivablebytheFAA. Overaseriesofforteenflights,GeneralElectric installed and tested four degraders (one on each engine);theFAArefinedAMK,blending,testing, andfuelingafullsizeaircraft.Duringtheflightsthe aircraftmadeapproximatelysixtynineapproaches, toabout150feetabovethepreparedcrashsite,under remotecontrol.Theseflightswereusedtointroduce AMKonestepatatimeintosomeofthefueltanks andengineswhilemonitoringtheperformanceofthe engines.Duringthosesameflights,NASA'sDryden FlightResearchCenteralsodevelopedtheremote pilotingtechniquesnecessaryfortheBoeing720to flyasadroneaircraft.Aninitialattemptatthefullscaletestwascancelledinlate1983duetoproblems withtheuplinkconnectiontothe720;iftheuplink failedthegroundbasedpilotwouldnolongerhave controloftheaircraft. Onthemorningofthetest,theaircrafttookoff fromEdwardsAirForceBase,California,madea left-hand departure and climbed to an altitude of 2,300 feet. The aircraft was remotely flown by NASAresearchpilotFitzhugh‘Fitz’Fultonfromthe DrydenRemotelyControlledVehicleFacility.All fueltankswerefilledwithatotalof76,000pounds ofAMKandallenginesranfromstart-uptoimpact -aflighttimewasnineminutes-onthemodifiedJetA. It then began a descent-to-landing along the roughly3.8-degreeglideslopetoaspeciallyprepared runwayontheeastsideofRogersDryLake,withthe landinggearremainingretracted. Passing the decision height of 150 feet above groundlevel,theaircraftturnedslightlytotheright ofthedesiredpath.Theaircraftenteredthewellknown 707/720 situation; a Dutch Roll. Slightly abovethatdecisionpointatwhichthepilotwasto executeago-around,thereappearedtobeenough altitudetomanoeuvrebacktothecentre-lineofthe runway.Theaircraftwasbelowtheglideslopeand
belowthedesiredairspeed.Dataacquisitionsystems hadbeenactivated,andtheaircraftwascommitted toimpact. Theaircraftcontactedtheground,leftwinglow, atfullthrottle,withtheaircraftnosepointingtothe leftofthecentre-line.Ithadbeenplannedthatthe aircraftwouldlandwings-level,withthethrottlesset toidle,andexactlyonthecentre-lineduringtheCID, thusallowingthefuselagetoremainintactasthe wingswereslicedopenbyeightpostscalled‘Rhinos’ duetotheshapeofthehornsweldedontotheposts andcementedintotherunway.However,the720 landedaskew,resultinginoneoftheRhinosslicing throughthenumber3engine,behindtheburnercan, leavingtheengineonthewingpylon.Thesamerhino thenslicedthroughthefuselage,causingacabinfire whenburningfuelwasabletoenter. Thecuttingofthenumber3engineandthefull throttlesituationwassignificantasthiswasoutside thetestenvelope.Theenginecontinuedtooperatefor approximatelyonethirdofarotation,degradingthe fuel and igniting it after impact, providing a significantheatsource.Thefireandsmoketookover an hour to extinguish. The CID impact was spectacular with a large fireball created by the number3engineontherightside,envelopingand burningthe720.FromthestandpointofAMKthe testwasamajorset-back.ForNASALangley,the data collected on crash-worthiness was deemed successfulandjustasimportant. The actual impact demonstrated that the antimistingadditivetestedwasnotsufficienttoprevent a post-crash fire in all circumstances, though the reducedintensityoftheinitialfirewasattributedto theeffectofAMK. FAAinvestigatorsestimatedthat23–25%ofthe aircraft'sfullcomplementof113peoplecouldhave survivedthecrash.Timefromslide-outtocomplete smokeobscurationfortheforwardcabinwasfive seconds;fortheaftcabin,itwas20seconds.Total timetoevacuatewas15and33secondsrespectively, accountingforthetimenecessarytoreachandopen thedoorsandoperatetheslide.Investigatorslabelled theirestimateoftheabilitytoescapethroughdense smokeasbeinghighlyspeculative. As a result of analysis of the crash, the FAA instituted new flammability standards for seat cushions which required the use of fire-blocking layers,resultinginseatswhichperformedbetterthan those in the test. It also implemented a standard requiringfloorproximitylightingtobemechanically fastened,duetotheapparentdetachmentoftwotypes of adhesive-fastened emergency lights during the impact.Federalaviationregulationsforflightdata
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Lufthansa operated both the 707 and 720. Closest to the camera is D-ABOG, an intercontinental 707-430. In the distance is 720-030B D-ABOH. Lufthansa operated a huge maintenance facility for both the 707 and 720 that included full powerplant inspections. (both Lufthansa)
recorder sampling rates for pitch, roll and accelerationwerealsofoundtobeinsufficient. NASAconcludedthattheimpactpilotingtask wasofanunusuallyhighworkload,whichmight havebeenreducedthroughtheuseofaheads-up display,theautomationofmoretasks,andahigherresolutionmonitor.Italsorecommendedtheuseofa microwave landing system to improve tracking accuracy over the standard instrument landing system.Inpractice,theGlobalPositioningSystembased WideAreaAugmentation System came to fulfilthisrole.
720B Althoughprecededintotheairandinservicebythe JT3D-powered707-120B,the720Bisdescribedfirst asitwastheneedforaturbofan-poweredversionof
the720tomatchtheConvair990whichbroughtPratt & Whitney to develop the TT3D turbofan and Boeing to offer this turbofan not only for a 720 versionbutalsofor707-120and-320derivatives. Having ordered 707-123s in November 1955 when it became the second customer for Boeing jetliners,AmericanAirlinesamendeditsorderinJuly 1958,cancelingfiveJT3C-powered707-123sbut orderingtwenty-fivelike-engined720-023s. Notwithstanding its 720 orders, American Airlinesremainedinterestedintheslightlysmaller 990whichConvairwasaggressivelymarketingwith General Electric CJ-805-21 engines with a fan mountedbehindtheturbine.FearingthatAmerican Airlineswouldreduceorcancelaltogetherits720 orderifConvairsucceededinpromotingits990for luxuryhigh-speedservicetocomplementstandard butslower707-120service,Boeingfeltthatitneeded tohaveaturbofan-poweredairliner.Toachievethis goal, the Seattle manufacturer turned to Pratt & Whitneywhich,inmid-February1958,hadinitiated theself-financeddefinitionphaseforaJT3DturbofanderivativeoftheJT3Cturbojetwithatwo-stage fan and single-stage stator mounted ahead of the axial-flowcompressor. Withitsengineeringstaffreactingenthusiastically tothegreaterpower,lowerfuelconsumption,and
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reduced noise promised by turbofan engines, AmericanAirlinesorderedtwenty-fiveConvair990s inOctober1958.ItalsoforcefullypushedBoeing into accelerating its development of turbofanpoweredversionsofits707and720andoffering thesederivativesatbargainbasementprices.After hagglingwithBoeingfornearlyayear,American finallyrenegotiateditscontractstohaveits707-123s and 720-023s either re-engined with JT3Ds or deliveredwiththeseturbofans.AvailabilityofJT3DpoweredBoeingjetlinerseffectivelyendedConvair’s hopes to remain an effective participant in the transportaircraftbusiness. Onlythirty-sevenConvair990swerebuiltwhile Boeingwentontobuild644JT3D-powered707120s,-320Bs,and-320Csforairlines,tore-engine forty-nine707-120sand720s,andtodeliver126 JT3D-powered derivatives to government and militarycustomers.ForBoeing,thedevelopmentof EL AL launched an extensive advertising campaign to promote its new 707 service that later promoted its 720 flights. This late 1960 image appeared in advertisements and also as a postcard issued by its New York office. The airline also started to promote the country as a tourist destination to grab a share of the emerging affinity tour market.
Boeing 720 4X-ABB, was operating as EL AL Flight LY432 on 18 February 1969, a scheduled service from Amsterdam to Tel Aviv, with a stop at Zürich, Switzerland. The aircraft was taxiing for takeoff at Zürich when it was attacked by a squad of four armed Palestinian terrorists, members of the Lebanese-based Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine. Several of the crew members were injured during the attack and the airliner was severely damaged. The co-pilot, Yoram Peres, died of his wounds a month later. An undercover Israeli skymarshal, Mordechai Rahamim, opened fire at the attackers, killing one. (both EL AL)
the720BtomeetAmericanAirlines’demandshad provenanexpensiveundertaking,butitendedup firmingupitspositionastheworld’sforemostjetliner manufacturer. The first JT3D-powered 720-023B flew on 6 October1960,threeandahalfmonthsafterthefirst JT3D-powered 707-123B. The Approved Type Certificateforthe720,ATC4A28,wasamendedon March3,1961tocoverthe720B,andBoeingwent ontobuild89JT3D-powered720Bsfortenairlines. The720Bwentintoserviceon12March1961,and the last 720B was delivered to Western on 20 September1967. In March and April 1962 EL AL accepted delivery of two Boeing 720Bs. This acquisition directlyrelatedtotheArabboycott.Afterthe1956 SinaiWar, in order to reach Johannesburg, South Africa, without flying over or too close toArabcontrolled airspace, EL AL had to charter
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piston-engineaircraftfromotherairlinesthattooka circuitousrouteviaNorthandCentralAfrica.The 720BshadthenecessaryperformancetoallowEL ALtoresumeflyingtoSouthAfricawithitsown aircraft - via an exaggerated route stopping at Teheran,Iran-andtheywerechosenforthatreason. With powerful Pratt & Whitney engines and an improvedwingoverthatofthe707,the720Bcould takeofffrom‘hotandhigh’Teheranwithsufficient fuelandpayloadforthedesiredflights. Assoonaspossible,on14June,the720Bstook over servicefromTelAviveasttoTeheran,thenflew southwestacrossthePersianGulftoCentralAfrica, adding2,400milestothetriptoJohannesburg.A directroutesouthviathenarrowGulfofEilat,over theRedSeastraitsandthentoSouthAfricawasnot feasiblebecauseofEgyptianhostility.Thissixteen hour endurance test was one of the world’s most circuitousairroutes,withsometwenty-fiveheading changestopreventoverflyinghostileareas.Radio aidsweresparse. Highelevationandtemperatures, plusaheavyfueluplift,limitedaircraftperformance andthusthepayload.Doublecrewshadtostaffthe aircraft.Toachievethebreak-evenpoint,theroute hadtoshowan85%loadfactor. Starting with the 1962 summer schedule, the 720BalsoreplacedtheBritanniaontheTelAvivto Europeroutes. Thismovesecuredalargesliceofthe internationaltravelmarket,andthepercentageof non-Jewishpassengersedgedcloserto40%.ELAL gainedacceptancenotjustasanethnicandimmigrant carrier, but also as a successful and established internationalmoverofpassengersandcargo. In1965,toincreaseefficiencyandperformance ofits720Bs,ELALreplacedtheoriginalJT3D-1 turbofanswithmorepowerfulJT3D-3Bs.Thisalso enabledstandardisationwithtwoPratt&Whitneypowered 707-320B aircraft, ordered for delivery staringinlate1965. During the early and mid-1960s EL AL developedthepracticeofmaximizingtheutilisation
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ofeachofitsaircraft.Indoingso,ELALhadtowork with a very small fleet of only seven aircraft to serviceafar-rangingnetworkfromNewYorkinthe west to Teheran in the east, and south to Johannesburg;andithadtoovercomelimitson-and eventuallytheeliminationof-passengeroperations ontheJewishSabbathandcertainJewishholidays. EL AL achieved one of the highest aircraft utilizationratesintheindustry.Toillustrate,ona typicalscheduleforasingle720Bduringsummer 1964,theaircraftwouldoperatebetween07:00on Mondayand16:30Wednesday,TelAvivtime,four roundtrips: to Zürich, Rome, Teheran and, via a Europeangateway,toNewYork.Duringthisfifteysevenandahalfhourperiodtheaircraftaccumulated aboutfortyhoursflyingtime.Itwasthenrolledinto thehangarforanovernightmaintenancechecktobe readyforanearlyflightthefollowingmorning. Boeing707snormallyspentaboutthirtyhours awayfromTelAvivontheNewYorkrunviaEurope (except for the occasional nonstop flight). They typicallywouldleaveintheearlymorningandreturn thenextdayinthelateafternoonforanovernight maintenance check before departing again on a similarschedulethefollowingday. ELAL’saircraftutilisationwassuchthatithada reserve aircraft factor of almost zero or, as one employeeputit, ‘one-half an airplane for three days a week, and none for the remaining four’. Duringthe Jewish Passover holiday in 1964, 707/720B utilizationbuiltuptoanastonishingaverageoffifteen hoursperday.Nevertheless,ELALstillmanagedto maintainanenviableon-timerecordandhighsafety standards. 707-120B Whilethe720Bwasunderdevelopment,themerits of incorporating the ‘glove’ wing leading-edge extensionandturbofanenginesintothelarger707— 120BbecameincreasinglyobvioustoBoeingand AmericanAirlines.OtherBoeingcustomerswerenot
CS-TBT of Transportes Aereos Portugueses - TAP - named 'Humberto Delgado' in the original livery. (author’s collection)
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200 CS-TBC of Air Portugal. (author’s collection)
longtofullyappreciatethepotentialofferedbythese upgrades, especially in terms of improved field performanceandreducedfuelconsumption.Itwas notsurprisingthereforethatordersfortheresulting 707-120Bversionquicklymounted. The first of these aircraft, a 707-123B for AmericanAirlines,flewon22June1960,andATC 4A21wasamendedon1March1961tocoverthe 120B in its long body version required by most airlines.Anadditionalamendmentwasapprovedon 24 July 1961 to cover the short body 707-138B version for QANTAS. Aircraft covered by these amendments included seventy-eight new-build aircraft(thirty-one-123BsforAmerican,forty-one131BsforTWA,andsix-138BsforQANTAS)as wellasthirty-nine-120smodifiedandre-enginedfor PanAmerican(five-121sas-121Bsandone-139as a-139B),American(twenty-three-123sas-123Bs), QANTAS(seven-138sas-138Bs),andtheUSAF (three-153/VC-137Asas-153Bs/VC-137Bs).
707-320B Thegreraterthrustandreducedfuelconsumptionof theJT3Dwerepossiblyofgreatervaluetoheavy, long-rangeairliners.However,havingpioneeredthe useofJT3Dwithits707-120Band720B,Boeing wasoutpacedbyDouglaswhenitcametousingthese turbofans to power long-range aircraft. Philipine Airlines became the first customer for JT3D— poweredDC—8Series50whenitorderedtwoin May1959.DouglasflewthefirstSeries50on20 December1960andobtainedcertificationforthis Series30-derivativeon1May1961.ThefirstJT3DpoweredBoeing707-320BswereorderedbyPanAm onlyinFebruary1961,andthisvariantfirstflewon 31 January 1962.TheApprovedType Certificate 4A26wasamendedbytheFAAon31May1962to covertheModel320B,andPanAmstartedusingit nextday. ApartfrombeingpoweredbyJT3Dsturbofans instead of JT4A turbojets, Model 320Bs differed
fromModel320sinhavingwingsofincreasedspan andareaastheresultoftheadditionofextended outboardpanelswithcurvedwingtips,leading-edge extendedforwardbetweenthefuselageandinboard engines, and revised trailing-edge flaps. Late production aircraft, referred to asAdvanced 707320Bs,addedtwosegmentsofKrugerleading-edge f1aps, further modifications to the trailing-edge f1aps,andrevisedfancowlingswithlargerblow-in doorstoincreaseengineairflowontake-off.Withall these modifications, maximum certificated gross take-offweightwasincreasedto335,000pounds. FouraircraftbuiltforNorthwestOrientAirlines withthe707-351B(SCD)modeldesignationwere thefirst707ssincethe367-80tobefittedwithside cargodoors(hencetheSCDdesignation).Located forwardofthewingontheportsideofthefuselage forloadingandunloadingcargoonthemaindeck, theupward-hingingdoormeasured91x134inches. Although the 707-351B (SCD)s were ordered as convertible aircraft and could carry freight, passengers, or mixed passenger/cargo loads, they lacked the reinforced flooring of the more fully modified707-320Cs.Thefirst707-351B(SCD)flew on15May1963,nearlythreemonthsafterthefirst 707-351CforPanAmerican. Including the four hybrid -351B (SCD)s for Northwest,Boeingbuiltatotalof170Model320Bs forairlinescustomerswithaircraftforlatecustomers beingidentifiedbyalpha-numericdesignationsafter the manufacturer ran out of two-digit customer numbers.Aircraftbuiltforairlinesincludedthree 707-312BsforMalaysianSingapore,sixty-321Bs forPanAmerican,ten-323BsforAmerican,eight328BsforAirFrance,twelve-330BsforLufthansa, two-336BsforBOAC,three-337BsforAirIndia, two-344BsforSouthAfricanAirways,six-351Bs andfour-351B(SCD)sforNorthwest,three-358Bs forElAl,two-359BsforAvianca,seven-382Bsfor TAP, two -384Bs for Olympic, four -387Bs for AerolineasArgentinas,andfour-5J6BsforCAAC.
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Inaddition,Boeingbuiltfouraircraftfornon-airline customers(two707-353BsaspresidentialVC-137Cs for the USAF, one -3F3B for the government of Argentina, and one -3L6B for the Malaysian government). Thelastpassenger-only707tobedeliveredtoan airline was S/N 20457, a 707-336B which was handedovertoBOACon17April1971.Anumber of passenger-configured 707-320Bs were later convertedasfreighters,whileotherswerefittedwith anewrequirement;hushkits. Intheearlyseventies,theentryintoserviceof widebodiedaircraftpoweredbysubstantiallyquieter high-bypass-ratioturbofansrenderedoperationsby noisy first generation jetliners even more conspicuous. Accordingly, Boeing undertook to develop revised JT3D nacelles for its still-inproduction 707. These nacelles were tested on a 707-331B (S/N 20059, N8730) leased back from TWA between January and July 1973. However, Boeingdidnotproceedwiththisscheme,asairlines showedlittleinterestinnoisereductionuntiltheearly eighties. Afterproductionofcivil707sendedin1978,the impositionofnewnoiseemissionrulesbytheFAA underFAR36Stage2andtheInternationalCivil AviationOrganizationAnnex16chapter2suddenly threatenedrestrictionorgroundingofageingbutstill sprightly 707s, as well as other first-generation jetliners). To allow these aircraft to remain in operationwithlesswealthyairlinesthatcouldnot affordnewgenerationjetliners,severalcompanies undertook to develop engine hushkits for JT3D powered707s Mostsuccessfulofthesehushkitconversionswas thatdevelopedbyComtranInternational,Inc.inSan Antonio,Texas.UsingRohrIndustries’DynaRohr linersandfeaturingextendedintakeandfanexhaust ducts, Comtran Q-707 nacelles reduced the 100 EPNdBtake-offfootprintforafullyloaded707from 6.4to3.2miles.
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Toreducenoiseemissionstillfurtherandbring 707sincompliancewithStage3noiserequirements, Quiet Skies, Inc. and Burbank Aeronautical CorporationIIwerejointlymarketingtheirStageIII hushkitinthelatenineties.A707-3J6B(S/N20717, N717QS) fitted with these hushkit nacelles was demonstratedattheSBACAirShowinFarnborough inSeptember1998.
707-320C Combining the basic airframe and powerplant installationofthe707-320B,withallupgradesbeing similarlyintroducedduringthecourseofproduction, withthemaindeckcargodoorofthe707—351B (SCD)andareinforcedcargofloorwithtie-downs, the 707-320C was built both as a convertible passenger/cargoaircraftandasapurefreighter.The first707-321CswereorderedbyPanAmericanin April1962,threemonthsafterrivalDC-8-50CFshad beenorderedbyAirCanada. Thepassenger/cargoconvertible707firstflewon 19February1963andthe707-320Cwascertificated under an amendment toATC 4A26 on 30April. Followingthelaunchingofthewide-body747,most airlinesorderedconvertible707-320Csinpreference to all-passenger -320Bs. Production of the convertible aircraft thus greatly surpassed that of earlierpassengervariants.Intheend,Boeingbuilt 305Model320Csforcommercialcustomers. Another707-320Canda-385Cwereinitially retained by Boeing as development aircraft. In addition, Boeing built 29 Model 320Cs for governmentandmilitarycustomers. Mostairlinesorderedtheir-320Csinconvertible passenger/cargo configuration, but a number of customers ordered their aircraft in all-cargo configurationwithallpassengeramenities,suchas galleys, lavatories, main cabin windows, and emergencyoxygenequipmentdeleted.Thisenabled theoperatingweightemptyofall-cargoconfigured aircraft to be 12,800 pounds, less than that of a
OD-AFX of Trans Mediterranean Airways - TMA. This 707-327C crashed at Beirut on 23 May 1979 during a training flight. (author’s collection)
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202 N106BV in partial Buffalo Airways colours. The airline was founded in Waco, Texas in 1982, and operated mainly as a cargo operation until it ceased trading in 1998. (author’s collection)
convertibleaircraftfittedoutforpassengeroperation and19,600poundslessthanthatofaconvertible aircraftfittedoutforcargooperation.Payloadweight for all-cargo -320Cs was increased in the correspondingproportion. ConvertedfromtheCFM56test707-700aircraft, thelast707-320CwasdeliveredtotheMoroccan Governmenton10March1982,23yearsandseven monthsafterPanAmericanhadtakendeliveryofthe first707-121. Notcountingtheex-airlinesaircraftoperatedby the USAF and the USN with C-18 and 13-8 designations,Boeingincluded196passenger/cargo convertibleandall-freight-320Csinitslistofactive aircraft as of 30 June 1998. Many of them were operatedbyairforcesandgovernmentagencies.
707-700 Powered by four 20,000-pounds class CFM InternationalCFM56high-bypass-ratioturbofans,the 707-700wasanenginedevelopmentaircraftusinga 707-320Cairframe.ItfirstflewonNovember27, 1979 and was then presented as the potential prototypeforeitherre-enginingexisting707—320B and-320Cairframesorforanewproductionversion. However, without a costly fuselage stretch, wing
redesign, and strengthened and lengthened undercarriage,theuseofCFM56sprovedunjustified fornewproductionaircraft.Moreover,re-engining standard airframes was of little interest to major carriers,whichbythenwerestandardizingonlater generationaircraft,andwastooexpensiveforthe smaller airlines building up their fleet with 707320B/320Cs phased out by their wealthier competitors.Accordingly,planstore-engineexisting aircraftortobuildnewCFM56-engined707swere dropped rapidly. Nevertheless, experience gained with the experimental CFM56-engined 707-700 provedvaluableforBoeingasthishigh-bypass-ratio enginewasadoptedasthestandardpowerplantfor the737-300andlatervariantsoftheBoeingtwinjet andforre-enginedKC-135s.
Proposed 707 Models ThenmorefamiliarwiththeUSmilitarycontractual practices,whichoftensawmanufacturers’initiatives inproposingnewmodelsrewardedwith‘cost-plusfee’productioncontracts,Boeingalsocameupwith abewilderingnumberofproposed707derivatives. Asmostoftheseproposalsentailedmajorredesign, it was fortunate for the financial health of the companythatnonefoundcustomersas,havingtobe
9V-BBB of Singapore Airlines. (author’s collection)
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commerciallypricedasopposedtosoldon‘costplus-fee’asweremilitaryderivatives,theirsuccess wouldhavecreatedaseriousfiscaldrain. Often ignored by historians, some of these proposals provide interesting hindsight on the developmentofthefirstgenerationofjetlinersand arethusworthyofbeingbrieflydescribed.Theyare listedinchronologicalordertoshowtrendsevolving betweenthemid-fiftiesandtheearlyseventies. Proposed shortly after the Conway-powered intercontinental 707-420 matured, the 707-520 designationfirstappearedinapreliminarylayout dated9March1956.Itthencalledfora707-120 developmentwith248,000-poundsgrossweightand Rolls-Royce Conway R.Co.10 engines. This proposaldiedanearlydeathasUScarrierswerenot interestedina‘domestic’aircraftpoweredbyBritish engines,whileairlinesintheCommonwealthfound theConway-powered707-420moreattractivefor intercontinentaloperations.Equallyunsuccessful,a later707-520Blayoutwaspreparedfora707-320B derivativewitha12-footlongerfuselageandfour 21,000poundsPratt&WhitneyJT3D-5Aturbofans. In the spring of 1956, Boeing studied two configurations to be powered by four proposed Bristol511engines.Neitherthe248,000-pound707-
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620basedonthe707-120withaten-footfuselage extensionnorthe296,000-pound707-720derived fromthe707-320gotthenodfromairlinesasthe511 remaineda‘paper’engine. Illustratedbyapreliminarylayoutdated8April 1957, the 707-320-101 was a proposed 707-320 development with an enlarged lower lobe for additionalpassengerseatingforwardofthewingand cargoaftofthemaingearwell.Reflectingtheelitist attitudestillheldbyBoeingengineersthatjetairliners wouldbeusedforpremiumservicewhile‘steerage’ passengerswouldbeflowninobsoletepropliners, this double-deck aircraft was laid-out to accommodateupto199first-classpassengers,with 159inthefive-abreastupperdeckand40inthefourabreastlowerdeck.Analternatecabinconfiguration provided for 200 coach-class passengers in sixabreast seating on the upper deck and 50 coach passengersinfive-abreastseatingonthelowerdeck. Withallfirst-classaccommodationinjust-introduced, top-of-the-lineLockheed1649AStarlinersproviding foronly62seatsinafour-abreastarrangementwhile all-economyDouglasDC-6Bssat102passengers fiveabreast,airlinesreactednegativelytotheoverly capaciousdouble-deckBoeingjetlinerproposal. Atthebeginningof1960,withthe707-120and
BOEING 707-320-101
© G.M.Simons
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VT-DMN of Air India was a 707-437 named Kanxhwnjunga (K-2) after the world’s second highest mountain. Sadly it crashed on Mont Blanc, Europe’s highest peak, on 24 January 1966, sixteen years after the loss of another Air India aircraft - Lockheed Constellation VT-CQP crashed at almost exactly the same location. Also visible in the picture of a wet Renton ramp this day in March 1961 are 707s of Air France, Braniff, Western American Airlines and Aer Lingus. (John Stride Collection)
707-320wellestablishedinrevenueserviceandthe Conway-powered707-420andlighter720aboutto enter service, Boeing set its sights on developing larger707derivativessoastoachievelowerseatmilecosts.Thus,the707-520-Xwastobeadouble deckaircraftwithlow-mountedwingsandafuselage lengthof191feet7inches,whilethe707-520-2X wastobesimilarlyconfiguredbutwithashorter fuselage.Proposedatthesametime,the707-520-X3 wastobeadoubledeckaircraftwithhigh-mounted wingsspanning142feet5inches,thesameasthe 707-320and-420,butwithfuselagelengthof144 feet2inches.Intherealworld,airlinesjudgedthese proposalstoofferexcessivecapacitywhilethelack ofsuitableenginesrenderedfurtherdevelopmentof the707onlyofacademicvalue. Inlate1964Douglasannouncedplanstodevelop stretched versions of the DC-8 with all-economy seating for up to 259 passengers, and once again Boeingwascaughtwrong-footed. PreviouslyBoeinghadderivedmuchill-placed pridefromthefactthatits707hadashorterand lighterlandinggearthantherivalDC-8andthatits first jet airliner had a convenient level fuselage attitudewhileonthegroundwhereastheDC-8had anunsightlytail-highattitude.LaterBoeingrealised thatDouglas,longaproponentofstretchingbasic designs to increase seating, had wisely chosen a
longergearandtail-upattitudetoendowitsDC-8 withmuchgrowthpotential.Unabletomatchthe DC-8-61/63capacitywithoutanexpensiveredesign ofthemainlandinggearandinnerwingsectionof its707,Boeingconcededthissegmentofthemarket to Douglas while concentrating its activities on developingthe2707,asupersonictransportaircrafttheabortedAmericanSST-andthelargecapacity 747(thenprimarilyseenasamilitaryfreighterbut also capable of being a ‘Passenger Insurance’ jet airliner in the event that the supersonic transport failedtomaterialise,which,ofcourse,itdid. Thisisemblematicofthe‘BoeingKnowsBest’ attitudedemonstratedbymanyinthecompany,but hardfinancialsuccessdidcomeeasilyfortheSeattle manufacturer.OftenattributedtoasupposedBoeing philosophytooffermanydifferentvariantsofthe basicdesigntomeetdifferentairlinerequirements, theprofusionof707and720modelswasactuallythe result of competitive pressures. Without a doubt Boeingfinancialofficersanditsbankerswouldhave preferredtoseethecompanylimititselftooffering modelsthatretainedthewingsandfuselagecrosssection of the Model 717/KC-135 but providing differentseatingcapacitiesthroughchangingfuselage lengths. This proved to be impossible when the original design itself was wrong and the airlines overwhelminglyfavouredthewiderfuselagecross-
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205 Abel AG Airways was a short-lived Belgian carrier of the late 1970s, with 707-351C OO-ABA seen here. Part of the Abelag Aviation Group, the company operated flights to Mediterranean destinations. (author’s collection)
sectionoftheproposedDC-8.Theresultingwider fuselagedevelopedforthe707wasthenretainedas thecompanystandarduntilthewide-body747was developed. For the 707/720 series, this constant sectionfuselagewasofferedinfourlengthswhich becameaninexpensivewaytoofferaccommodation tomeetcustomerrequirements,rangingfrom88firstclasspassengersintheshortfuselage707-138to219 passengers in the 707-320C in a high-density configuration.Eventheadditionofareinforcedmain deckflooringandamaindeckcargodoortoobtain the707-320Cwasarelativelyinexpensiveexercise.. However,whereaschangesinfuselagelength, cabin configuration, and provision for carrying freightonthemaindeckallprovedrelativelyeasy and required limited additional investments, the engineering, manufacturing, and certification for wings of varying span, area, and plan proved expensiveforBoeing.Itsmaincompetitor,Douglas, hadplanneditsDC-8withgrowthinmindandwas thusabletokeeptoaminimumchangestothewings whileitsjetlinergrewfromthe265,000-poundSeries 10tothe355,000-poundSeries63AF.Conversely, notcountingchangesinhigh-liftdevices,Boeing endeduphavingtoofferfivewingconfigurationsfor itsfirstgenerationofjetlinerswhichgrewfromthe 190,000-pound367-80tothe334,000-pound707-
320C. Bluntly put, Boeing had lacked a sufficient understandingofairlineoperationswhenitundertook todevelopajetairliner,soitwasconstantlyforced toplaycatch-upwithwhatwasessentiallyaninferior design to moves by the more savvy Douglas and Convair,whichwerethoroughlyfamiliarwiththe needsandpreferencesoftheairlines. Toitscredit,theBoeingmanagementwaswilling tomakeupforerrorsresultingfromthisdeficient understanding of the airline business. While this willingnessdrasticallyaffectedthefinancialbottom lineforseveralyears,itenabledBoeingtoacquire theexperienceonwhichtobuilditsfuturesupremacy asajetlinermanufacturer.Significantly,Boeingdid sobyneverrepeatingthecostlyerrorsofhavingto design too many different versions of its aircraft. Notably,1,832ofitsnextjetliner,the727trijet,were built with only two different cabin lengths and commonwings.The367-80/707/720lessonshad beenwelllearnt. Bytheearlyseventies,justasthelarge-capacity 747enteredserviceandfundingforthesupersonic 2707-300wasterminatedbyCongress,USairlines experiencedtheirworstdownturnsincethe1930s. As airlines sought to recover by providing more direct point-to-point services and increasing frequencies,Boeingagainrealisedthatanaircraft smallerthanthe747andmoresimilarlysizedtothe
N7231T. On 8 February 1989, while operating as Independent Air Flight 1851, an American charter flight from Bergamo, Italy to Punta Cana, Dominican Republic, struck Pico Alto while on approach to Santa Maria Airport in the Azores for a scheduled stopover. The aircraft was destroyed, with the loss of all 144 on board. (author’s collection)
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UK ‘Second Force’ carrier British Caledonian operated a number of 707s, G-AWWD is seen here landing at London Stansted on 4 May 1973. (author)
stretchedDC-8mightbeneeded.However,itwastoo latetodevelopsuchaderivativeandnofurther707 developmentswereundertaken.
Swing-Tail Proposals Alittleknownplanneddevelopmentofthefreighter 707derivativeswereapairofdesignsfittedwith swing tails. In 1958, when the United StatesAir ForcebecamepainfullyawarethatitsMilitaryAir TransportService(MATS)waswithoutjettransports, Boeingactivelypromoted707derivativessuitable notonlytomilitaryoperationsbutalsowelltailored tocommercialairfreightoperations. The367-80hadbeendesignedwithsidecargo doors,butBoeingwasinitiallyunabletoattractany USAF Military Air Transport Service (MATS) interestinatransportversionoftheKC-135.Tospark AirForceinterestinaKC-135/707militarytransport derivativewhileofferingtoairlinesa707version bettersuitedtoaircargooperations,Boeingstudied anumberofModel707andModel717derivatives fittedwiththetaileitherswingingsidewaysortilting upwardtoprovideunfetteredaccesstothemaindeck. In a memorandum dated 25 June 1958, Boeing
redesignatedthe707commercialcargoderivatives asModel735s,whilemilitarycargoderivativesof eithertheModel707orModel717becameModel 738s. Representative sideways-swinging tail and upward-tiltingtailversionsareillustrated. Then, early in 1960, President Dwight D. EisenhowerapprovedaPentagondecisiontotransfer aproportionofMATStraffictotheciviloperators. Thedecisionmeanttherewouldlikelybeadoublingup of the military transport business that was currentlybeingpassedontocivilUScarriers.The overallrecommendationsubmittedbytheSecretary ofDefencewasthatMATSshouldwithdrawfrom routinetransportoperationsandaprogrammetothis effectwastobecompletedby1May1960. Amongstthecoursesofactionintheprogramme was one to the effect that suitable arrangements shouldbemadeforGovernmentparticipationinthe costofdevelopinglong-rangeturbine-poweredallcargoaircraft.ThismeantthatDouglas,Boeingand Convairwereabletogoaheadwiththeproduction offreightversionsoftheirturbojettransports. Thisinturntiedinwithaprogrammeproposed bySenatorAlmerStillwell‘Mike’Monroneywho N29798 of InterAm. (author’s collection)
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BOEING 735/738
wassuggestingthataseriesoften-yearloanstobe guaranteedbytheCivilAeronauticsBoardforthe purchasebyoperatorsofapprovedall-cargoaircraft followingthetransferofmuchofMATSworktothe civilcarriers.Theplansneverreallycametofruition frommilitaryorcivilcustomers,andModels735and 738remainedstillborn.
© G.M.Simons
FormanylessmainstreamAmericancarriers, such asAirlift International, FlyingTiger, Pacific Northern, Western and World Airways, the convertible707-320Cbecameavailableattheright time, as the US military involvement inVietnam resultedindefencecontractstocarrypersonneland non-combat cargo between the United States and
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208 MEA - Middle Eastern Airways - flew a number of 707s, with OD-AFL being shown. The aircraft was based at Paris-Orly following the Isreali occupation of the Lebanon in 1982, and was destroyed by shelling in Beirut on 21 August 1985. (author’s collection)
bases in Southeast Asia. However, experience showedthatwhencarryingcargo,707-320Csoften ‘cubedout’asaveragefreightdensitywasrelatively low.Itwasnotsurprisingthereforethatanumberof carriersfollowedtheleadofSaturnAirwayswho, after obtaining three 707-379Cs, switched to stretchedDC-8-61Fswhichhadalargermaindeck.
‘One careful owner...’ Established707and720customersbegantrading deliverypositionsfairlyearlyinthegameinorderto builduptheirjetairlinerfleetaccordingtotraffic demand.ThatprocessbeganwhenTWA,whichhad beenfrustratedbyHowardHughesduringtheinitial buying phase, was forced to release six 707-331 deliverypositions,andtheseaircraftweredelivered newtoPanAmericanin1959-1960.TWAthenhad tomakeupforitsinadequatefleetbyleasingtwo NorthwestOrientAirlines720-051Bsin1961-1962 before taking over two World Airways delivery positionsfor707-373Csin1963. Thenumberoftransactionsofthisnaturebetween establishedBoeingoperatorswas,atfirst,relatively limited.However,whenthelarger,healthiercarriers increasedcapacitybyplacingwide-bodiedaircraft intoservice,707sand720sbecameavailableinfastincreasingnumbers.Atfirst,mostweretakenupby
establishedoperatorswhichusedthesepre-owned aircrafttobuilduptheirfleetsatminimumcosts. Lateron,thesefirst-generationmachinesweremore andmorefrequentlyacquiredbynewentrants. Forthe720,theeraof‘onlyonecarefulowner sincenew’gotintostrideintheearlyseventieswith theseJT3C-poweredaircraftbeingrapidlydisposed ofbymajorcarriers.Thefirstairlinetorelinquishits entire fleet of early Boeing jetliners was Eastern, which traded its fifteen Model 720-025s back to BoeingbetweenSeptember1969andJune1970to acquire more economical 727-225s. United and BraniffInternationalwerenext,respectivelystoring orsellingmostoftheirtwenty-nineModel720-022s and five -027s in 1973.That same year,Western Airlinesdisposedofthetwo720-625andsingle720048 it had obtained in its merger with Pacific NorthernAirlines.Abroad, the only original 720 customer, Aer Lingus, had been even quicker to disposeofitsthree720-048s,sellingonetoPacific NorthernandonetoBritishWestIndianAirwaysin 1966, and one to Trans Polar in 1970.American Airlines, which had re-engined its 720-023s with JT3D turbofans, kept most of its 720-023Bs somewhatlonger,disposingofthelastin1976. OftheremainingfifteenJT3C-poweredaircraft, three707-124sweresoldbyContinentalAirlinesto
Tradewinds was a small UK cargo airline that used a number of 707-320Cs, with G-WIND seen here. (author’s collection)
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209 Boeing 720 N421MA in the colourful livery of Aerolineas de Guatemala Aviateca. (author’s collection)
TWAinDecember1967.Inturn,TWAdisposedof theseaircraftandofitslasttwelve-131sattheend of 1971. The more capable JT4A- and Conwaypoweredintercontinentalmodelslastedlongerwith theiroriginalowners.BritishAirwaysprogressively transferred most of its 707-436s to its charter organization,BritishAirtours,butretainedownership offourConway-poweredaircraftuntil1981. JT3D-powered707-320Bsand-320Csremained in production longer than all other 707 and 720 variants. 477 of these aircraft were delivered to airlinesbetweenApril1962andJanuary1978,with peakdeliveriesoccurringin1968when118were acceptedbycarriers.Withsomanybeingbuiltforso long, and with their JT3D turbofans proving extremely reliable, it is not surprising that 707320B/Cs remained in service with most major airlines until the early eighties. Many pre-owned JT3D-powered707sthenquicklyfoundcustomers among smaller carriers, particularly for freight operations. Earlyon,most707sand720schanginghands wenttoestablishedBoeingoperators,suchasPan American, which expanded its fleet with two exWestern707-1395,threeex-American720-023Bs, andsixex-Lufthansa720-030Bs.Latertransactions, however,increasinglysawpre-ownedaircraftbeing acquiredbynewjetoperators. Pre-owned707sand720swereacquirednotjust byscheduledcarriersandcharterairlinesbutalsoby avarietyofothercustomers. An Instant Airline... Wet-leasingisaconceptthatisresortedtowhenever anairlinehasasuddenbuttemporaryneedforextra capacity,forwhateverreason.Ifacompleteairliner, readytogowithfulltanksandacrewonboard,can behiredbytheday,weekormonth,thismakesmore sensethanbuyinganextraaircraft,trainingcrewsand
then,later,tryingtofindabuyerwhentheaircraftis nolongerneeded. Soitwasintheearly1970s,whensuchaircraft as the 747, DC-10 and L-1011 were making an impactontheworldscene,inalmosteverycaseby displacing707sandDC-8s.Thus,plentyofthelatter, whichinthe1950shadthrusttheworld’sairlinesinto thejetage,werecomingontothemarket,stillwith plentyofflight-timeremainingontheirairframesand ateverydepressedprices.Thisbroughtthemwithin reachofcarrierssuchastheUKsBritishMidland Airways(BMA),especiallyaftertheairline’scapital had been increased to just over £5 million in September1972. Also,pilotsandengineersqualifiedonthe707 wereequallyplentiful,andshort-termcontractscould benegotiated.BMATheeraoftheinstantairline reallybeganwiththesigningofacontractwithSudan AirwaysinNovember1972.Thatairline’schairman, Mohammed Abdel Bagi, had been in Nigeria in during 1968-69 and saw how satisfied Nigeria AirwayshadbeenwithBMA’swet-leaseofaVickers Viscount.Hisboardagreedwiththeviewthat,in order to ease the transition from the Comet 4 to bigger and more competitive equipment, it made sensetohandthewholejobtoareliableoperatorsuch as BMA. The initial contract covered full-time operationofbothBMA’s707suntiltheendof1973, togetherwithallnecessarymanagementandtraining. Thetwoaircraftweretooperatealltheairline’s ‘BlueNile’internationalservices,untiltheycouldbe handledentirelybytheairlineitself.Intheeventmost oftheSudanstaffweretrainedatKhartoum,butthe flightcrewsandsixofthestewardessesdidcometo EastMidlands.ThepilotsallhadBritishlicences,and thuscarriedoutmuchoftheirconversionflyingon BMAservices. It speaks much for the company’s political awarenessanddiplomacythatthefirsttwo707s
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It was not uncommon for the BMA Engineering team to have just 36 hours to repaint one of their 707s for lease.
British Midland modernised the interiors of a number of their 707’s with sculpted ceilings and overhead luggage bins. They also fitted 211 seats! (both BMA)
wove a path through what could have been a minefield during the 1970s without causing any conflict. OnediversionforBMAwasthecharterofa707 on4April1975bytheDaily Mail newspaperon behalf of Project Vietnam Orphans and The Ockenden Venture to rescue I50 orphan children fromSaigoninthefinalcollapseofSouthVietnam. DavidEnglish,thenewspaper’seditor,joinedagroup ofdoctorsandnursesaboardG-AYVE.Everything wentwelluntilthearrivalatSaigon;thenofficialdom reareditsheadtoapointwherethelivesofmanyof thechildrenwereputatrisk.MrHuntoftheBritish
Embassyarguednon-stopforsixhours,whilethe childrenwerepackedinbusesattemperatureswell beyond38°C.Evenafterthe707hadbeenloadedand starteditsengines,afreshlotofofficialsarrivedand reiteratedthatthechildrendidnothavepermission toleave.Afterfurtherlongdelays,andmuchsigning of forms, takeoff clearance was granted - but Mr English was told that he had to stay in Saigon. Fortunatelyhewasabletogetbackonboard.Once airborne, with air conditioning working, the desperatelyexhaustedanddehydratedchildrenbegan torecover.AccordingtoDrGrifiin,fromChislehurst, ‘At least six of the children would have died in the next 60 hours if they had been left in Saigon... The cabin crew performed in a manner that can only be described as magnificent’ Whenthe707landedat Heathrowthenursingteamsandthefourstewards hadbeenworkingwithoutabreakfor29hours.This was the only British aircraft to rescue Vietnam orphans,andthelastaircraftofanynationtodoso. Theairlinelearnedfast,anddecidedtohaveits 707s upgraded in capability. The interiors were gutted,twoextraemergencyexitswereinsertedaft ofthewing,with‘slimline’escapeslides,andthe
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Another British charter service operator was British Midland Airways who had a fleet of 707s of assorted variants, but most were not flown by them, being leased out to other airlines around the world. Here though, in full BMA colours is -321C G-BMAZ. (author’s collection)
wholeinteriortrimwasreplaced,incluingthefitment ofoverhead‘bins’.Newgalleyswereadded,and finally211seatsofnewdesign,reputedlythelargest numberofseatsevercertificatedforthe707were installed. SosuccesswereBMAinbuildingupits‘instant airline’reputationthatin1975thenumberof707s jumpedfromtwotosix,andby1978fourmorehad beenadded,thoughthenumberinuseatanyonetime seldomexceededsix.Thiswaslargelybecauseofthe effectsofthe1973'fuelcrisis.Suddenlythepriceof fuelsprangintotheforefrontofoperatingcosts,and theearly707spoweredbyJT4Aturbojetsshowedup verybadly. Thoughtheymightcost£5millioninsteadof£I million,thelateraircraftwithJT3Dturbofanswere considerablymoreefficient,quiteapartfromhaving abetterperformance,andthelastfourcompriseda 707-373C(leasedfromWorldAirwaysandretaining its US registration N370WA), two -338Cs from QANTAS and a -324C built for Continental but actually acquired from BCal. Between 1974 and 1982theBoeingsofBMA,withBMAcrews,flew inthecoloursandontheservicesofsuchairlinesas AirAlgerie,AirInter(France),BangladeshBiman,
DETA(Mozambique),EastAfrican,GulfAir,Iraqi, Kenya,Kuwait,LibyanArab,Malaysian,Nigeria, PakistanInternational,Sudan,SyrianArab,TunisAir andZambia.TheMainteneceDepartmentofBMS oftenhadjustthrity-sixhoursinwhichtorepaintthe 707inthecompleteliveryofanewoperator! The ups and downs of the Various contracts resultedinequallydramaticchangesinthenumber ofaircraftemployed.Duringoneweekthenumber ofactive707sjumpedfromonetosix.Oftenthe airlinerswereinactiveforweeksatatime,costing littlebuttheparkingfeesrackedupatEastMidlands. Then,whenawet-leasecameinitwascontrolled chaoswhilethingswereorganised.Thenucleusof company crews was augumented by short-term contract707pilotsandflightengineersasrequired. Many were early retirees from British Airways, especiallyin1976-79,whilein1978sixQANTAS firstofficersarrivedonasimilarrelease.Allhadthe opportunity to broaden their experience in a way seldom possible on regular line flying with one operator. For example, one route flown for DETA was Maputo(Mozambique)toCuba,andotherswentto EastBerlinandeventothecentralpartsoftheSoviet
British Midland’s 707-320C G-BFLD. (author’s collection)
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Union.Threeweekswerespentflyingsalmonfrom KingSalmonAirport,Alaska,toAbbotsford,near Vancouver.DesertibexwereflowntoSaudiArabiawheretheyhadbeenextinct-underaUS-inspired projectforreintroductionandconservation,whilea GulfAircargocontractsawRolls-Roycecarsbeing airliftedtoBritainforroutineservicing! ThenaBMABoeingwashijacked.Inthesmall hoursof9July1977G-AZWA,flyinginKuwait Airwayscolours,washijackedbyPalestinianswhile en route to Kuwait from Beirut. At Kuwait the passengerswereexchangedfordifferenthostages, andareliefcrewwasallowedonboard.Thehijackers demandedaflighttoAden,butAden,Bahrein
andDohaallrefusedpermission,andeventuallya landingwasmadeatDamascus.Fullyfuelled,the 707 taxied out with orders to fly to Tripoli. The runwaywasblockedwithtrucks,butasCaptainRon Hardywassupposedtohavesaid ‘...with a gun at your head you simply obey’. Theterroristontheflight deck spoke no English, but as Hardy began his takeoffhebeganscreaminginArabicandwavinghis automaticweapon.Hardyabandonedtakeoffat60 knots,andreturnedtotheapron.Thehijackersthen fell out among themselves, and their leader, who appeared highly unstable, was disarmed. BMA managementlistened-intothewholehijackonHF single-sidebandradioattheoperationsroomatEast MidlandsAirport. BMA’sinstant-airlineoperationsbegantowound downfrom1980,andtoceasein1982.From1980 onwards the diminishing 707 fleet was employed mainlyonconventionalcharters.Itfinallyceased operatinginOctober1984,mostofthatyearhaving beenspentonholidaytraveltotheMediterranean resortsandtransatlanticcharters. Thebottomrungoftheairlineindustrywerethe AirTravelclubs.Theysprangupandblewawaylike dandelions.Probablythelargestandmostsuccessful wastheDenver,Colorado-basedDenverPortsofCall operatedflightsforthePortsofCallTravelClubfrom 1967to1992.Initsheyday,PortsofCallwasthe largesttravelclubintheUnitedStates,withatone timeover66,000members. Thetravelclubhadaprivateterminalseparate from the main public terminal at Stapleton International,andoperatedtheirowndomesticand internationaltripsusingspeciallyoutfittedprivate aircraft. They began by using large four-engined pistonandturbopropaircraft,withpilotswhowere initially commercial airline employees who flew
UK charter operator Britannia Airways flew a number of 707s and 720s on inclusive tour and affinity charters during the 1970s. G-AYSI is seen here at the airlines Luton base. (Capt Mike Russell/Britannia Airways)
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Denver Ports-of-Call flew worldwidw with their immaculate 707s. Here N703PC is seen at London Stansted. (author)
PortsofCallaircraftintheirofftime,andlaterwere full-time employees. The flight attendants stayed witheachtravelclubgrouponatripforuptoamonth asgrouptourguides. AsPortsofCallgrew,moremodernjetaircraft suchastheConvair990,Boeing707andBoeing727 wereacquiredonthesecondhandmarket.By1986, Ports of Call operated eleven Boeing 707-300 airliners,aB707-100,andasingleB727-100.The clubwaswidelyvisiblefromthePortsofCallTravel Clubstickersdisplayedonmanyautomobilesaround Denver and throughout Colorado and the surroundingstates.Onetripinthemideightieswas ‘AroundtheWorld’andcircumnavigatedtheglobe withmultiplestops.Anotherofthemoreinteresting tripsflownbytheclubwastheannual‘MysteryTrip’, inwhichmemberssigneduptobetakenonatripto anunknowndestination.Thisannualeventwasso popularthattheclubwouldfillmultipleB707swith
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nearly800peoplepertrip. Because of federally mandated aircraft noise restrictions,thecompanywentpublictoraisefunding topayfortherequiredhushkitsontheaircraft.Inan effort to increase aircraft use, the aircraft began operatingasaseparatechartercompanyafterbeing rebrandedasSkyworldAirlinesunderFARpart121, enabling them to operate non-travel club charter servicesaswell.Inthewakeofpublicownership,and after several leadership changes, the company essentially suffered a hostile take over. The new controllinginterestsliquidatedtheaircraftassetsand shutdowntheairlineportion,remainingopenasa travelclubwithoutaircraft. Thetravelclubsubsequentlywasforcedtobook member trips in blocks of seats on commercial airlines.Partofthemystiqueofthetravelclubgenre ofairlineswastheenjoymentofspecialtreatment. Insteadofclubmembersboardingprivateaircraft
The first Ambassadair 720, N8711E. The Ambassadair travel club was started by George Mickelsons after the shut down of Voyager 1000. Ambassadair operated until the launch of American Trans Air , which then took over Ambassadair Club flights. (author’s collection)
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Lloyd International was a UK-based charter operator. They acquired their first 707 in 1970, but ceased operations in 1972. Here their 707-324C G-AZJM is seen at London Stansted. (author)
fromaterminal,groupswerenowshuttledoverto Stapletonterminaltoboardwhatevercommercial flights were available to the trip destinations, although they were accompanied by a POC tour guide.Withthelossoftheirownaircraftandthe abilitytoflydirectlytoanydesireddestination,they werereducedtoofferingonlythemultipleconnecting flightsavailablecommercially.Asadirectresult,club membershiprenewalsquicklyplummetedandthe travelclubeventuallyshutdowncompletelyin1994. Other707sand720swereoperatedintheUSA by sports organisations such as the Los Angeles Dodgersmajorleaguebaseballteam,orworldwide bygovernmentandairforcesandtocorporations, eitherasstafftransportsorastestbedsforenginesand aircraftsystems. One such test aircraft was 720-023B (construction number 18024) the 177th Model 707-typeairplanemadebyBoeing.Itwasrolled outon28October1960,registeredasN7538A, flew on 14 January 1961 and was delivered to American Airlines on 3 February. This airline operatedN7538AuntilAugust1971,whenitwas G-APFG was a former BOAC and later BEA Airtours 707-436 On retirement it served as a trainer with Aviation Traders Engineering Limited at Stansted for many years before the fuselage was taken to Cardington near Bedford where it was used for water mist suppression tests to assist in developing a survivable cabin environment in the event of a fire.
putinstorageinTulsa,Oklahoma. MiddleEastAirlines(MEA),thelargestairline in Lebanon, bought the airliner on 25 September 1971 and re-registered it as OD-AFQ. It was delivered to its new owner three days later. Like many, if not most MEA airplanes, OD-AFQ was forcedtostayawayfromitsmainbaseinBeirutwhen IsraelinvadedLebanon,inJune1982,andoccupied agoodpartofthecountryuntil1985.BasedatOrly, Paris,theairplaneoccasionallyflewpassengersfor AirFranceandAirInter,anotherFrenchairline. Pratt & Whitney Canada (PWC) bought the Model720BinDecember1985andre-registeredit asC-FETB(FETBasinFlyingExperimentalTest Bed)on10January1986.Aseriesofmodification weremadeafterthisdate. C-FETB did its flight acceptance flight on 9 October1986,aPWCcrewflewtheairplaneacross theAtlanticonthe12th.KnowninternallyasFTB1 (Flying test bed 1), C-FETB was thoroughly modifiedforitsnewrolebetweenOctober1986and January1988.Itwasequippedtotestavarietyof engines,alargeturbofancouldtaketheplaceofthe
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The following engine types were tested on CFETB: International Aero Engines (IAE) V2500 turbofan; PWC JT15D turbofan; PWC PW300 turbofan; PWC PW500 turbofan; PWC PW600 turbofan; PWC PT6 turboprop; PWC PW100 turboprop.
Eager to preserve this historically significant test bed, Pratt & Whitney Canada (PWC) and the Canada Aviation and Space Museum (CASM) came to an agreement that saw the 720 go on indefinite loan to the National Air Force Museum of Canada, in Trenton, Ontario.)
insideinnerengineunderneaththestarboardwing.A smallturbofancouldbemountedonthestarboard sideoftheforwardfuselage.Aturbopropcouldbe mountedinthenose.
Terrorism and conflict. Apartfromaircraftlostthroughaccidents,domestic andinternationalterrorismforpoliticalendssawthe destructionofanumberof707sand720s.On13 September 1970, three airliners that had been hijackedbythePopularFrontfortheLiberationof Palestine-knownasthePFLP-wereblownupby terrorists in front of the the world’s media. The incident started some days earlier when four jet airliners bound for New York City and one for Londonwerehijacked.Threeaircraftwereforcedto landatDawson'sField,aremotedesertairstripnear Zarka,Jordan,formerlyaBritishRoyalAirForce base,thatthenbecomethePFLP's‘Revolutionary Airport’. ElAlFlight219wasa707,registered4X-ATB thatoriginatedinTelAviv,Israel,andwasenroute toNewYorkCity.Onboardwere138passengersand 10 crew members. The aircraft stopped in
Amsterdam,Netherlands,andwashijackedshortly afterittookofffromtherebyPatrickArgüello,a Nicaraguan American, and Leila Khaled, a Palestinian. Plansweretogetfourhijackersonboard,buttwo werestoppedfromboardinginAmsterdambyIsraeli security. These two conspirators, traveling under Senegalese passports with consecutive numbers, werepreventedfromflyingonElAlon6September. Theypurchasedfirst-classticketsonPanAmFlight 93andhijackedthatflightinstead. Posingasamarriedcouple,ArgüelloandKhaled boarded the plane using Honduran passports— having passed through a security check of their luggage—and were seated in the second row of touristclass.Oncetheplanewasapproachingthe Britishcoast,theydrewtheirgunsandgrenadesand approachedthecockpit,demandingentrance. Afterbeinginformedbyintercomthatahijacking wasinprogress,CaptainUriBarLevdecidednotto accedetotheirdemands.Insteadheputtheaircraft intoasteepnosedivewhichthrewthetwohijackers off-balance. Argüello reportedly threw his sole grenade down the airliner aisle, but it failed to
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216 N1R ‘Kay-O II’ was a Boeing 720 used by the Los Angeles Dodgers baseball team. The jet was usually kept at Las Vegas’ McCarran Airport. (author’s collection)
explode,andhewashitovertheheadwithabottle ofwhiskeybyapassengerafterhedrewhispistol. ArgüelloshotstewardShlomoViderandaccording tothepassengersandIsraelisecuritypersonnel,was thenshotbyaskymarshal.HisaccompliceKhaled wassubduedbysecurityandpassengers,whilethe aircraft made an emergency landing at London HeathrowAirport;shethenclaimedthatArgüello wasshotfourtimesinthebackafterheandKhaled failed to hijack the airplane. Vider underwent emergencysurgeryandrecoveredfromhiswounds; Argüellodiedintheambulancetakingbothhimand Khaled to Hillingdon Hospital. Khaled was then arrestedbyBritishpolice. TWAFlight741,anotherBoeing707,tailnumber N8715Twasaround-the-worldflightcarrying144 passengersandacrewofeleven.Theflightonthis day was flying from Tel Aviv, Israel to Athens, FrankfurtamMainandthentoNewYorkCity,and washijackedontheFrankfurt-NewYorkleg. ItlandedatDawson'sFieldinJordanat6:45p.m. localtime.Hijackersgainedcontrolofthecockpit and a female stated, "This is your new captain speaking. This flight has been taken over by the PopularFrontfortheLiberationofPalestine.Wewill takeyoutoafriendlycountrywithfriendlypeople." Three other airliners were also hijackered. SwissairFlight100,aDouglasDC-8-53,registered HB-IDD,andnamed Nidwalden wascarrying143 passengers and twelve crew from Zürich-Kloten Airport,Switzerland,toNewYorkJFK.Theplane was hijacked minutes after the TWA flight and divertedtoJordan.ItalsolandedatDawson'sField, increasingthehostagenumberto306hostages. Pan American Flight 93, a Boeing 747, tail number N752PA named Clipper Fortune was carrying136passengersandseventeencrew.The
flightwasfromBrussels,Belgium,toNewYork, withastopinAmsterdam.Thetwohijackersbumped fromtheElAlflightboardedandhijackedthisflight asatargetofopportunity. The747firstlandedinBeirut,whereitrefueled andpickedupseveralassociatesofthehijackers, alongwithenoughexplosivestodestroytheentire aircraft. It then landed in Cairo after uncertainty whethertheDawson'sFieldairportcouldhandlethe sizeofthe747.FlightdirectorJohnFerruggioledthe plane'sevacuation,andiscreditedwithsavingthe plane'spassengersandcrew.Theairlinerwasblown upatCairosecondsafterithadbeenevacuated.The hijackerswerearrestedbyEgyptianpolice. Finally,on9Septemberafifthairliner,BOAC Flight775fromBombaytoLondonviaBahrainand Beirut-operatedbyVickersVC10G-ASGN,was hijackedafterdepartingBahrainandforciblylanded at Dawson's Field.This was the work of a PFLP sympathizer who wanted to influence the British governmenttofreeLeilaKhaled. On 7 September the hijackers held a press conferenceformembersofthemediawhohadmade their way to what was being called "Revolution Airport."About 125 hostages were transferred to Amman, while theAmerican, Israeli, Swiss, and WestGermancitizenswereheldontheplanes. Asgroupsoftheremainingpassengersandcrew wereassembledonthesandinfrontofthemedia, members of the PFLP, among them BassamAbu Sharif,madestatementstothepress.Sharifclaimed that the goal of the hijackings was ‘...to gain the release of all of our political prisoners jailed in Israel in exchange for the hostages.’ IntheUnitedStates,PresidentRichardNixonmet withhisadviserson8SeptemberandorderedUnited StatesSecretaryofDefenseMelvinLairdtobomb
Opposite page: A line up of German Cargo 707-320C-Hs at a very wet Frankfurt. Closest to the camera is D-ABUA with its cargo door open, with D-ABUO and D-ABUE behind. (Lufthansa GMbH)
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BEA Airtours’ G-APFD was originally delivered to BOAC in 1959 -it passed to Airtours in 1973. (author’s collection)
thePFLPpositionsinJordan.Lairdrefusedonthe pretextthattheweatherwasunfavorable,andtheidea wasdropped.The82ndAirborneDivisionwasput onalert,theSixthFleetwasputtosea,andmilitary aircraft were sent to Turkey in preparation for a possiblemilitarystrike. Incontrast,BritishPrimeMinisterEdwardHeath decidedtonegotiatewiththehijackers,ultimately agreeingtoreleaseKhaledandothersinexchangefor hostages.ThiswasbitterlyopposedbytheUSA. On 9 September the United Nations Security Councildemandedthereleaseofthepassengers,in Resolution286.Thefollowingday,fightingbetween thePFLPandJordanianforceseruptedinAmmanat theIntercontinentalHotel,wherethe125womenand children were being kept by the PFLP, and the Kingdomappearedtobeonthebrinkoffull-scale civil war. The destruction of the aircraft on 12 September highlighted the impotence of the Jordanian government in Palestinian-controlled areas,andthePalestiniansdeclaredthecityofIrbid tobe‘liberatedterritory’,inadirectchallengeto Hussein'srule. On 13 September the BBC World Service broadcast a government announcement inArabic sayingthattheUKwouldreleaseKhaledinexchange forthehostages. Complicatingtheinternationalcrisiswasthefact thatSyriaandIraq,whichhadlinkswiththeUSSR, had already threatened to intervene on behalf of Palestinian groups in any confrontation with the
KingdomofJordan.AccordingtoBritishdocuments declassifiedunderthethirtyyearrule,ananxious KingHusseinaskedtheUnitedStatesandUKtopass a request to Israel to bomb Syrian troops if they enteredJordaninsupportofthePalestinians.When a Syrian tank crossed the border, Israeli aircraft overflewtheareainwarning. KingHusseindeclaredmartiallawon16September andinitiatedthemilitaryactionslaterknownasthe BlackSeptemberconflict. Abouttwoweeksafterthestartofthecrisis,the remaininghostageswererecoveredfromlocations aroundAmmanandexchangedforLeilaKhaledand several other PFLP prisoners. The hostages were flowntoCyprusandthentoRome'sLeonardoda Vinci Airport, where on 28 September they met PresidentNixon,whowasconductingaStatevisitto ItalyandtheVatican. During the crisis, on 11 September President Nixoninitiatedaprogrammetoaddresstheproblem ofairpiracy,includingtheimmediatelaunchofa groupof100federalagentstobeginservingasarmed skymarshalsonUSflights.Nixon'sstatementfurther indicated the US departments of Defense and Transportation would determine whether X-ray devicesthenavailabletothemilitarycouldbemoved intocivilianservice. The PFLP officially disavowed the tactic of airlinehijackingsseveralyearslater,althoughseveral ofitsmembersandsubgroupscontinuedtohijack aircraftandcommitotherviolentoperations.
720 4X-BMA of MAOF, an Israeli charter airline formed in early 80's. MAOF used a pair of ex-Monarch Airline 720's around around Europe. (author’s collection)
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The passengers and crew were spared at Dawson'sField,whichwasnotthecasethreeyears lateratRome’sLeonardodaVinciAirport. On17December1973,PanAmFlight110was scheduled to fly from Leonardo da Vinci InternationalAirportinRometoBeirutInternational AirportinLebanonandthenontoTehran,Iran.At thecontrolsoftheBoeing707-321B,tailnumber N407PA,andnamedClipperCelestialwereCaptain AndrewErbeck,FirstOfficerRobertDavison,and FlightengineerKennethPfrang. Atapproximately13:10localtime,justasFlight 110waspreparingtotaxi,anumberofPalestinian peoplemadetheirwaythroughtheterminalbuilding, armedwithautomaticfirearmsandgrenades.The terrorists removed submachine guns from hand luggage bags and began firing throughout the terminal,shatteringwindowsandkillingtwo.Crew ontheflightdeckoftheaircraftwereabletoobserve travelers and airport employees in the building runningforcover.CaptainErbeckannouncedover theairliner'spublicaddresssystemthattherewas somecommotionintheterminalandorderedallon boardtogetdownonthefloor. Several of the gunmen ran across the tarmac towardthePanAmericanjet,throwingatleasttwo phosphorusincendiaryhandgrenadesthroughthe open front and rear doors of the aircraft. The explosions knocked crew and passengers to the ground,andthecabinfilledwiththick,acridsmoke fromtheresultingfires.Flightattendantswereable toopentheemergencyexitoverthewingononeside oftheaircraft;theotherwasobstructedbygunmen. Thecrewattemptedtoevacuateasmanypassengers aspossiblethroughtheavailableexit,buttwenty-nine passengers and Purser Diana Perez died on the aircraft,includingallelevenpassengersinthefirst classsection.FourMoroccanofficialsheadingtoIran foravisit,andBonnieErbeck,wifeofthecaptain,
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wereamongthedead.CaptainErbecksurvivedthe attack.AlsokilledwerefourteenAramcoemployees andemployeefamilymembers.Theaircraftwas destroyed. OthergunmenlaterhijackedaLufthansa737and fledtoKuwaitviaAthens,GreeceandDamascusin TheLebanon. In many ways the Lebanon was pivotal to deliberate 707 and 720 destruction. Middle East Airlines(MEA)ofLebanonoperatedthirty-two707 and 720 ‘Cedarjets' from 1968 and lost at least fourteenofthem.Onlyonelosswasanaccident,the restbeingtheresultofcivilwarandregionalstrife. Thefirstwasdestroyedin1968withinsixweeksof deliverybyIsraelicommandoswholandedbySuper FrélonhelicopteratBeirutAirportandblewitupin a retaliatory raid for a terrorist attack on Israeli passengersatAthens.DuringtheIsraeliinvasionof 1982,BeirutAirportwasshelledheavily,andnoless thansix707sand720swereloston22Juneofthat yearalone.Withamuch-reducedfleet,noairportand not much of a country left, the battered but determinedMEAcontinuedinbusinessbyoperating fromFranceandbyleasingmanyaircraftout. Anotherincidenthappenedon20April1978,an involvedaKoreanAirLines707.Theaircraftwas HL-7429, a former Pan Am 707-321B, recently purchased fromATASCO and operating as KAL Flight902fromParistoSeoulviaAnchoragewith ninety-sevenpassengersandthirteencrewmembers. SovietairdefensefightersshotdownKAL902near Murmansk in the Soviet Union, after the airliner violated Soviet airspace and failed to respond to Sovietgroundcontrolandinterceptors. KAL902haddepartedfromParis,Franceona coursetoSeoul,SouthKorea.Theaircraft’sonly scheduled stop was in Anchorage, Alaska, USA whereitwouldrefuelandproceedtoSeoul,avoiding Sovietairspace.AstheairlinerpassedoverAlert,the
There seems to be few photographs of American Travel Air. Operating in 1983, this 720 was an ex Aer Lingus aircraft that flew for Ambassadair and American Trans Air prior to American Travel Air. In 1986 it was flying for Airfast. (author’s collection)
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Middle East Airlines (MEA) of Lebanon lost a number of 707s and 720s during that country’s prolonged civil war. OD-AFP, closest to the camera was destroyed by Israeli shelling at Beirut, one of four MEA 720s lost that day. Sister airliner OD-AFE, the second in line in this picture was damaged that month but served with MEA until 1997. OD-AFQ later became an engine testbed with Pratt & Whitney of Canada. (author’s collection)
northernmost permanently inhabited place in the world,508milesfromtheNorthPoleonEllesmere Island - flight captain Kim Chang Kyu suddenly changed his course and headed southeast toward Murmansk. The aircraft was not fitted with an inertial navigation system, and GPS navigation was not availableatthetime.Duetoanerrorincalculating magnetic declination, the airliner flew in an enormous,right-turningarc.Thelocationoftheturn correspondedquitecloselywiththelocationofthe North Magnetic Pole, which is likely to have contributedto,ifnotdirectlycaused,theerror. ItflewsoutheastovertheSvalbardarchipelago andtheBarentsSea,pastnorthernScandinaviaand intoSovietairspace. Soviet air defence radar spotted the aircraft approximately250milesawayfromSovietterritorial waters.Atfirst,theSovietsassumeditwasanaval aircraftthatwasreturningfromamission,andhad forgottentochangeitsIFFtranspondercode.When theKoreanaircraftpassedovertheKolaPeninsulaat 21:19(Moscowtime),Sovietairdefencedispatched CaptainAlexanderBosovtointercept. Bosov, who was flying a Sukhoi Su-15, incorrectlyidentifiedtheairlinerasaUnitedStates AirForcereconnaissanceRC-135.Whenreporting
backtoTsarkov,Bosovsaidhecouldseeamapleleaf on the airliner's tail, implying that it belonged to NATO.Afterafewmomentshecorrectedhimself, statingthathecouldseeChinesecharactersandthe mapleleafwasactuallyaredstorkwithwingsspread. AccordingtoKim'saccountoftheattack,the interceptorapproachedhisaircraftfromtherightside ratherthantheleftasrequiredbyInternationalCivil AviationOrganizationregulations.Kimdecreasedhis speedandturnedonthenavigationlights,indicating thathewasreadytofollowtheSovietfighterfor landing. Sovietreports,however,statethattheintruder repeatedly ignored commands to follow the interceptor, and KAL 902 began drifting toward Finland.However,tapesreleasedbyRovaniemiArea Control Centre show that Kim transmitted a call signalthreetimesimmediatelypriortobeingshot down and attempted to communicate with the interceptingpilot. VladimirTsarkov,commanderofthe21stSoviet AirDefenceCorps,orderedBosovtotakedownthe airliner,asithadfailedtorespondtorepeatedorders toland,andwasapproachingtheSovietborderwith Finland. Bosov tried to convince his superiors that the airlinerwasnotamilitarythreat,butafterreceiving
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orderstoshootitdown,he fired a pair of R-60 missiles.Thefirstmissile flew past the target. The second one hit the left wing, knocking off approximatelyfourmeters of its length. The missile also punctured the fuselage, causing rapid decompression and jamming one of the airliner'sfourengines. After being hit, the airlinerquicklydescended fromanaltitudeof30,000 ft. It fell into a cloud, disappearing from Soviet airdefenceradars.Soviets mistook the part of the wing that had fallen off Flight 902 for a winged missile and dispatched another Su-15 interceptor to fire at it. Anatoly Kerefov, another Soviet pilot, replaced Bosov because his aircraft was runninglowonfuel. For the next 40 minutes, Flight 902 flew across the whole Kola Peninsulaatalowaltitude, searching for a place to land. After several unsuccessful attempts at landing, Kim brought the airlinerdownontheiceof thefrozenKorpiyarvilake inKarelianASSR,located approximately 87 miles fromtheFinnishborder. Finnish sources state thatSovietairdefensedid not have any information on the airliner's whereabouts after it disappearedfromtheradar. However, Tsarkov stated thatKerefovlocatedFlight 902 and led it to the Afrikandaairbase.Tsarkov wentontosaythatKimfell behindandlandedonthe
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Three views of 707 HL-7429 operating as Flight KAL 902 after it was downed by Soviet fighters on 20 April 1978, the airliner eventually making a forced landing onto the frozen lake at Korpiyarvi. The pilot managed to get it to stop just before it hit a stand of trees. Damage to the wing and fuselage is evident. (all author’s collection)
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HL-7406 was built for Korean Airlines in 1971. In 1978 it returned the passengers from KAL902, brought down by Russian fighters near Murmansk, from Helsinki back to Seoul. On 29 November 1987 this 707 was brought down by a bomb left aboard by two North Korean agents and crashed off the Western coast of Burma, killing all 115 aboard. The agents, a 24-year-old woman and a 70-year-old man were arrested in Bahrain, but the man committed suicide soon afterwards. The woman was convicted but later pardoned by the South Korean government. (author’s collection)
lake.Kerefovsaidhepracticallyforcedtheaircraft tolandontheiceofKorpiyarvi. Soviethelicoptersrescuedthe107survivorsand transportedthemtothecityofKeminKarelia.The passengerswerequarteredinthegarrison'sOfficers' Lodge.AftertwodaysattheMurmanskAirport,the passengers were released to the US Consulate in Leningrad.Thecrewwasheldforinvestigationand releasedaftermakingaformalapology.TheKorean pilotsacknowledgedthattheydeliberatelyfailedto obey the commands of Soviet interceptors. They petitionedthePresidiumoftheSupremeSovietofthe USSRforpardon. Eventually,thepassengersweredeportedfrom theSovietUnionbacktoSeoul.TheSovietUnion invoicedSouthKorea$US100,000forcaretaking expenses. TASS, the official news agency of the Soviet Union,releasedastatementtothepublicon30April 1978.TheSovietUnionrefusedtocooperatewith international experts while they investigated the incidentanddidnotprovideanydataminedfromthe aircraft's flight data recorder. The airliner was dismantled and all equipment transferred by helicopterontoabargeinKandalakshaGulf.The deputy chief commanding officer of Soviet air defense,YevgeniySavitsky,personallyinspectedthe pilot'scockpit. The incident was a major embarrassment to SovietairdefencebecauseFlight902hadalready enteredSovietterritorybeforeitwasintercepted.This led to a shift in command and contributed to the shooting down of another KoreanAirlines flight, KAL007,in1983,whichkilledallaboard.
Drugs and arms - anything to anywhere. The‘fallfromgrace’asitwereinthetwilightyears ofthe707/720sawthetypedescendfromtheglory andglamourdaysofthehighlifewiththejet-setin thelate1950stotomurkyworldofarmsdealersand drug-cartels.Awholeindustryofless-than-legitimate customers thrived, with aircraft being repeatedly leased and sub-leased without the manufacturer havingasayinsuchtransactions.Somewereshady drug-cartels,othersarmsdealers.Someoperated707 by‘frontairlines’onbehalfoforganisationssuchas theCentralIntelligenceAgency. Notsurprisingly,someoftheseaircraftendedup beingconfiscatedastheresultoftheiruseindrugsmugglingorillicitarms-smugglingactivities.Others soldieredon,gettingmoreandmoredecrepit. Asforthepilotsoperatingthesegeriatricjets? Theyareanonymous,professional,highlypaidand asmercenaryasanyofthecombatantsinthescores ofwarsfromwhichtheymaketheirliving.Andwhen theyflytheircargoesofweaponsortroopsintoyet anotherbushconflict,theirprimaryaim,aftergetting outalive,istokeeptheiractionssecret. Inararebreachofhisprofession'scodeofsilence, oneofthemostexperienced‘freelancecargopilots’ hasspokenoutabouthiscareer. Brian‘Sport’MartinflewwiththeUKcharter airlineDan-Airforawhile.In2000hebrokethecode ofsilencetoexplainalittleabouthisactivities. Hedescribeshowhehasmadehislivingflying armaments, including key components in nuclear weaponsprogrammes,allovertheworld.Notonly has he been able to work unhindered byWestern governments, on several occasions - he claims -
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British and American officials hired him for clandestinework.Hetalkedabouthisworkinthe earlynineteeneightiesflyingChinese‘heavywater’ -usedintheconstructionofnuclearreactorsand weapons-toIndia,ArgentinaandLibya. IspokewithhimatlengthataDan-Airreunion in2000,andhewastellingmeabouthisrecenttimes flyinggeneralsupplies,and ‘...whatever the military would turn up with’ toUgandan-backedrebelsinthe eastofCongofromEntebbeairport. He said he had flown 707s registered in SwazilandfortwoCongolesecarriers,PlanetAirand NewGomaAir,fromEntebbeinUganda,andKigali inRwanda. 'We mostly carried brand new Kalashnikovs plus their ammunition. They were in quite beautiful condition. It was a standard operation for us. You don't really know there is a war on. You're not involved - you're just charter pilots.’ Many were recruitedbycompaniesbasedonEngland'ssouth coast and in London. Others were hired by local agencies.One,Planetair,whichemployedMartinfor thetripsintoCongo,hadbeenmentionedinareport into the reasons for the ongoing wars in Africa publishedbytheUSStateDepartment. Sportalsotoldmethathehadflownsamplesof newSovietweaponry,clandestinelyobtainedbehind theIronCurtain,totestinggroundsontheeastcoast ofAmericafromEastGermanairfields. Althoughthepilotswereunlikelytofallfoulof Britishlaw,theywereawareoftheriskstheywere taking.MartinhadbeenjailedinVenezuelaandspent threedaysinacellpackedwithviolentandstarved prisonersinNigeria.Heescapedonlyafterpayinga $10,000bribe. On other occasions he has narrowly avoided beingshotdown.Whileflyinggovernmentsoldiers intotheSudan,rebelsattemptedtodownhis707with Soviet-madesurface-to-airmissiles.Byapproaching airstripsatspeedMartinhadavoidedbeinghitby
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anythingotherthanheavy-machinegunfire. FlyingintothecentralAfricanstateofBurundiin themiddleofawaralsoprovedtricky.Onhisfinal approachintoBujumburaairport,Martinwasunable toraiseanybodyinthecontroltower.Whenhefinally didsohewastoldtoabortthelanding.Whilearguing withthecontrollersheheardaloudbang.Thetower hadbeenhitbyarocketanddestroyed. Furtherresearchintotheactivitiesofthearms smugglers-ordrugdealersforthatmatter-isfraught withcontradictions,difficultiesanddanger.Priorto mymeetingwithSportMartin,Ihadmetandtalked withpeoplelikeWilliam‘Bill’Armstrong,founder ofAutairInternationalandtheownerof,inhisown words‘...more airlines than I care to remember’.Bill knewandworkedwithsuchpeopleasTexanHank WartonandSouthAfricanJackMalloch.AsIgrew moreandmore‘trusted’bythesepeople,plusgetting toknowsomeofthe‘characters’thathungaround the fringes of the embrionic aviation museum at Duxford in the early 1970s - and who still must remainnameless-Istartedtogetaninsightintothe wheelinganddealingsthatwentonbetweenbetween contractpilots,multi-layeredcompanyownership, fakeaircraftregistrations,governmentcontracts,front companiesandpoliticalmachinations. After talking with Sport Martin I did further researchanduncoveredastorythatwastypical-if thereissuchathing-ofthesesortsofflying. InAugust1997anewspaperreportindicatedthat Occidental Airlines, a company based at Ostend Airport was under investigation by the public prosecutor of Bruges. Until 1998 Occidendal AviationServicesNV,asthecompanywasofficially registeredattheOstendCommercialTradeRegister, had its own large warehouse next to the airport controltower.Apparentlyitwasallegedlyowneda former Belgian airline pilot, Ronald Rossignol, togetherwithBrianMartin. Asearchthroughassortedtradeandtelephone
EL-AKJ in full Occidental Cargo colours. (author’s collection)
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directories realed the following: OCCIDENTAL AIRLINES, S.A.: P.O. Box 32, Ostend Airport, B8400, Belgium; Phone 32 59 514340; Fax 32 59 510103; Code OCT; Year Founded 1995. Registered in Belgium and based in Nigeria, Occidental set up in 1995 to undertake international and regional allcargo services. Flights commence with one each leased Boeing 707- 321C and B-707-328C. Flights continue in 1996-2000. during which years a B-707347C is also acquired. Aircraft spotters are regarded by some in derogatory terms, but not me. They have an invaluableinformationnetworkthatcanprovideall sortsofdetails:Occidental Airlines Fleet: 707-321C EL-AKJ c/n 19375; 707-3230 9G-ADS c/n 19587; 707-347C EL-AKU c/n 19964. The airline took delivery of a -320C in May 1995 to operate charters from Ghana to other points in Africa and to Europe. It is not confirmed whether the Liberian registered 347C is an addition or replacement from late 1995. Both were noted with no titles by late December 1995, the owned example being transferred to Analinda and operated for SABENA in early 1996. The -321C was leased from July 1996 to May 1998. RonaldRossignolwasthesonofaseniorpolitical appointeeintheofficeofP.VandenBoeynants,at thetimewhenthelatterwasservingasBelgium's MinisterofDefence.RonaldRossignolhad,priorto 1980,closeconnectionswithBrusselsextremeright wingcircles.Since1980itwasallegedthathehad beeninvolvedinbusinesswiththeCongo'serstwhile President Mobutu. According to the Belgian newspaperLe Soir, hisnameappearedonInterpol lists and he was arrested in 1984 in France and accusedoffraudulentbankruptcy,totheextentof some800millionBelgianfrancs. DespitethedubiouspastofRonaldRossignol beingplacedoncemoreunderjudicialscrutiny,a seniorcivilservantoftheFlemishauthorities,Paul
Waterlot,responsibleforOstendAirport'spromotion andinformation,defendedRossignolpubliclyinthe press and reaffirmed in the name of the airport's managementboard,fullconfidenceintheaimsof, andtheservicesprovidedby,OccidentalAirlines. Thesubjectofthejudicialinvestigationwasa cargoofnearlyfortytonnesofmilitaryequipment, tobesenttogovernmentalorrebelforcesinAngola. AnAvistarAirlinesBoeing707freighter,Cyprusregisteredas5B-DAZ,wascharteredforthetripby Occidental Airlines. Pending a Belgian Customs investigationtheconsignment,consistingofDutch Army surplus items, had been impounded in Occidental'swarehouseforninemonths.Thecargo manifest showed an innocuous cargo of used clothing,vehiclepartsandvehicles,butthecargo consistedoftwentytonnesofuniforms,anarmoured car,multi-bandradiosandotherequipmentneeded byafightingforce.Afterbeingimpoundedfornine months,theconsignmentwasgrantedpermissionto beexportedtoEnglandandwasmerelysentacross the Channel by truck without arousing further interest. On12May1998theAvistaraircrafttookofffrom thecivilairportsideofRAFManstoninKent,bound forAfrica.Theflightplanshowedthattheaircraft wasboundforKanoinNigeriatorefuelandthento itsreportedfinaldestinationofMmabathoinSouth Africa. After taking off from Kano, the aircraft temporarily disappeared. It never landed on Mmabatho'srunway,actuallytooshortforafullyladenBoeing707,butitwasobservedaround04.00 hourson13MayonthegroundatCabinda,Angola andreappearedsomehourslateratLoméinTogo, empty. AccordingtotheUKnewspaperThe Observer of 14March1999,thesameaircraft5B-DAZ,whichin 1997madesometwenty-eightflightsfromOstend flew,inDecember1998,acargoofweaponsand
Looking rather tatty, and completely unmarked apart from the registration 9G-ADS, this -323C of Occidental has all the passenger windows plugged up. (author’s collection)
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Not terrorist related, but a dramatic image nevertheless: the aircraft is China Airlines 707-309C B-1826, which caught fire and burnt out after it undershot the runway at Manilla International Airport on 27 February 1980. Of the 135 occupanrts on board, only two passengers received fatal injuries. (author’s collection)
ammunitionfromHermes,theformerSlovakstateowned arms’ manufacturer in Bratislava, to the Sudan,inbreachofanEuropeanUnionembargo. ThemoneypaidbyHermesfortheflightwassplit betweenthepilot,thecrewandRonaldRossignol, whoactedasbroker.Whileonitswayforanother delivery to the Sudan and again chartered by Rossignol,theaircraftleftBratislavaon7February 1999,failedtoachievesufficientspeedandploughed intothemudattheendoftherunway.Becauseofits longlistofongoingmalfunctions,itwasdecidednot torepairtheaircraft. Ronald Rossignol succeeded in his efforts to remain outside the grip of Belgian justice, which probablyhadinsufficientlegalgroundstotakehim intocustody.Theincapacityoflocaljusticeillustrates clearly the need for comprehensive international legislation and law enforcement, as well as underliningtheeasewithwhicharms’brokersare
abletotakeadvantageofgapswithinandbetween nationallegalsystems.
Into the twilight Notwithstandingtheavailabilityofhushkitsbringing JT3D-powered7075intocompliancewithStage2 andStage3noiseregulations,thenumberofcivilian operators of early Boeing jetliners was fast dwindling. Althoughbytheturnofthemillenniumthe707 had all but completely left passenger service, numerous freight operators around the world continuedtooperatethetypeinonesandtwos.Often subject to poorer operating and maintenance standardsthantheyenjoyedintheirheydaysaspart of a large passenger fleet, and periodically, the numbersof707sinservicewasreducedbyamishap tooneinsomefar-flungcorneroftheworld.One such event which occurred without loss of life,
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Two views of 707 ST-APY in Lake Victoria. (author’s collection)
occurred near Mwanza, Tanzania, on 3 February 2000andwasnotwithoutitselementsofcomedy. One-time Northwest Orient’s N372US, 707351ChadservedwithBWIAandsevenotherlesser operatorsbeforejoiningTrans-ArabianAirTransport (TAAT)in1985.RegisteredST-APYinApril,1998, andlongsinceconvertedtofreightconfiguration,the airlinerwasenrouteonanightflightfromKhartoum, SudantoMwanzaontheTanzanianshoreofLake Victoriatopickupa38tonneloadoffishfilletsfrom VickFishProcessorsfordeliveryinEurope. WhenitwentdarkenroutetoMwanza,theradio altimeterintegrallightwasfoundtobeunserviceable. Thecrewwerenotabletofixtheproblemandthe continued using the FMS. The crew contacted Mwanzatowerat16:58andwerebeingadvisedthat therewasnopowerattheairportandthateffortswere being made to use a standby generator. Further informationpassedonthecrewreportedlyincluded VOR,DMEandNDBallunserviceable,weather: windcalm,8kmvisibility,temperature25degCand QNH1015.Theairport’selevationislistedasbeing 3763feet/1147metres.Afterholdingfortenminutes, theairportgeneratorcameonandtherunwaylights wenton.
Thefirstofficer,whowaspilotflying,starteda visualrunway12approach.Whenwellestablished onfinalswithfulllandingconfiguration,thecaptain toldthefirstofficerthathewastoolow,andafew secondslaterhetoldthefirstofficerhewastoohigh. Boththecaptainandtheflightengineerthentoldthe firstofficertogoaround.Thefirstofficerovershot and climbed to 5500 feet on the downwind leg. Turningontheleftbasethecaptainremarkedthatthe turnwastootight:".. I will do a 360-degree turn to the right and position you finals". Thecaptainthus tookovercontrolandstartedarightturnat4400feet. Justbeforecompletingtheturn,thefirstofficersaid: "do not go down anymore, the altimeter is reading 4100 feet". Almostalignedwiththerunway,thefirst officertookovercontrolagain.Atthatsamemoment theaircraftbouncedtwoorthreetimesyawingtothe leftandcamedowntoahaltinthemiddleofthelake, losingallfourenginesintheprocess,floatingabout 3milesoffshore.Theexternallightsguidedafishing boat to the scene and the five crew were rescued uninjured.Thenextdaytheairlinerwastowedtothe lakeshore,whereitremainedasavisualbeaconfor some years to come, and ironically, a home for relativesofthefishitarrivedtopickup.
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ChapterSeven
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‘Ladies and Gentlemen, from the Flight Deck...’ Ofthemanyairlinesusingpreviouslyowned707s, Bryant, saw the opportunity of putting together a Dan-Air Services, part of the Davies & Newman sufficient number of these groups who could time Group is a good example, and Australian-born their journeys so that an aircraft could carry a full Operations Director Captain Arthur Larkman load to a destination and return with another full load. When sufficient flights were programmed for describestheirintroductiontoserviceanduse. ‘It was Alan Snudden, the then Managing this ‘back to back’ system, a much lower charter price Director of Dan-Air, who started our entry in the long could be offered and this attracted yet more groups. haul charter market using 707s carrying affinity By diligent marketing it was expected that sufficient groups. He had had many discussions with various flights could be organised to support the operation people who had made the original proposal to of a long haul aircraft. C.I.Smith, who had been appointed Projects engage in these charters. When Alan became Manager by Frank Horridge, was tasked with convinced that this could be a sensible way for the Company to begin its expansion into the long haul recommending suitable aircraft for our requirements. market, he persuaded the Board to approve the plan. Pan-American were disposing of their Boeing 707When this decision was taken the first step was 321s at a comparatively low cost at that time, and to set up a company entitled ‘Dan-Air ‘Charlie Item’ proposed that the Company should InterContinental’ to deal with the commercial aspects buy them. The decision was made to purchase these of the operation. As the Government strictly limited aircraft, together with the full package of support the number of airlines who were permitted to operate including spares and training. Unfortunately the scheduled flights on international routes, all other choice of aircraft was not a wise one as this series British carriers were limited to Charter flights. A aircraft was an early type with high hours and, method had already been devised which would therefore, greater maintenance requirements. With its enable the operation of consecutive flights. This was limited range when carrying a full load the type was known as ‘affinity group’ charters and involved the not really a Trans-Atlantic aircraft. This decision was targeting of groups of people who shared a common destined to present us with many problems on our interest, most often members of clubs. These groups future Trans-Atlantic operation. Pan-American sent a technical lecturer to the UK were offered a specially arranged flight to a transto instruct the first Atlantic destination A Travel Agent’s display model announcing the new Dan-Air course of pilots and at much reduced 707. flight engineers, cost. When the which was conducted number who wanted in the Training to travel was Centre which I had sufficient to fill the set up at Horsham. seats, the organisers The subjects covered would charter an on the course were aircraft. It was typical of those on all obvious that the real aircraft conversion economies required a courses and included return load and a few the power plant and people, like Ron
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Right: at the office - Captain Arthur Larkman in the left hand seat of one of the Dan-Air 707s.
Below: the famous 707 vertical fin appeared on the Dan-Air Summer timetable for 1974.
its accessories, the airframe, including the electrical, fuel, pneumatic, hydraulic, and electronic systems. Navigation Aids, emergency equipment and procedures, performance data, cruise control, flight planning and loading plus much more. To assist with the training we obtained system mock-ups, panel trainers and a Cockpit Procedure Trainer which was a flight deck mock up in which drills and procedures
could be practiced. We were already equipped with projectors for transparencies, films etc. Examinations were held at regular intervals throughout the course and on its completion the CAA's exams were undertaken. I joined the B-707 course at Horsham on the 11th. The crews on this course included Bob Atkins, John Cotter, George Sutton, Alan Farrar, Sam Bee, Bob Hope, Gordon Pumphrey, Ken Topliffe and Flight Engineers Bill Snow, Cliff Lewton, Ned Cleary, Alec Ewen and Tim Ware. The Boeing ground course was completed on 29 January and the next day we flew to New York, where we were to be trained on the simulator at Pan-Am's Training Center at Kennedy Airport. We stayed at the Ramada Inn, which was sufficiently close to the airport boundary for us to be able to walk to and from the Training Center. Pan-Am had arranged our accommodation very cleverly, for there was nothing to distract us from our studies. The facilities at the training centre were very good and the instruction was first class. The instructors were pilots who had been seconded from the line and were now occupied solely with training, although they were scheduled for occasional line flights to keep them current. One of my instructors was Bob Dooley, an ex-Airforce bomber pilot who before joining Pan-Am had been a Commander of Airforce One (the President's aircraft). One of Bob’s recommended procedures for dealing with an emergency on the aircraft was to say-- ‘Aw Sh-t', before dealing with the problem. This was wise advice, designed to avoid precipitate action before analysing the problem. After returning to the UK I commenced the base training on the 707 which I had planned to take place
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at Newcastle as usual. The instructors were Bob Dooley and Al Bernstein, who worked us very hard but managed to make the experience very enjoyable. When this training was completed I returned to Gatwick to prepare the 707 line training programme. Pan-Am was sending to the UK the line training Captains who would fly with us on the line flights and complete our training. My priorities were to arrange their accommodation and to have their Licences endorsed by the CAA which would give them approval to fly in command of a British aircraft. I had already provided the CAA with all the details of the Pan-Am pilots, and the approvals were issued without any delay. To save expense I housed them in one of the local guest houses and told them that this would be much more enjoyable than an impersonal hotel as they would be able to get to know more of English life in the countryside. My fingers were crossed as I
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expected that they would demand accommodation in a hotel in a town. I had already visited several establishments in the area and selected those most likely to be acceptable. When the Captains arrived from New York it was a warm and sunny April day. I drove them to the first establishment on the list but there was no reply at the front door so we made our way to the garden at the rear. We were somewhat surprised to find the two youngish women who ran the guest house, with whom I had previously discussed the arrangements, were sitting in their swimming costumes alongside the small swimming pool. Introductions were made and while drinks were brought, one of the pilots spoke for the others when he said ‘This will do just fine'. I left them there and never heard any complaint about accommodation! The inaugural flight of our first 707, G-AYSL, on which my line training began, was to Niagara Falls. We set off with a full load of passengers and re-fuelled
The Captain’s and First Officer’s Control panels on Dan-Air’s 707 G-AYSL.
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1 2 3 4 5
MarkerBeaconSystem. Clock. TurnandBankIndicator. Machmeter. GroundProximityWarning Light. 6 NavWarningLight. 7 HorizontalSituation Indicator 8 AttitudeDirectorIndicator. 9 ApproachProgressDisplay. 10 RadioMagneticIndicator.
Captain’s Panel
11 Servo-PneumaticAltimeter. 12Autopilotdisengaged warninglight. 13 ApproachProgressDisplay. 14 AltitudeWarningLight 15 FlightDirector 16 RadioAltimeter 17 PneumaticBrakeHandle 18 VerticalSpeedIndicator 19TrimIndicator 20 IntegratedFlightSystem TransferSwitches
21 Radio/InstrumentNavigation SystemSelector. 22 InstrumentNavigation System/CDIlight. 23 DistanceMeasuring EquipmentIndicator. 24 Pitot-StaticSelector. 25 IntegratedFlightSystem TransferSwitches 26 FlightDirector&Autopilot AnnunicatorLighting IntensityResetSwitch.
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Above: Four of the Stewardesses who were to fly regularly on the 707. Left to Right: Miss Dilys Ruffle, Miss Riley Siponen, Miss C Brewen and Miss Jackie Gallagher, 707 Fleet Stewardess. Below: 707 G-AYSL being loaded with passengers at London Gatwick prior to its first commercial service with the company on 8 April 1971. The flight, under the command of Captain Bob Atkins, Dan-Air’s Chief Pilot, was to Niagara Falls, Canada.
at Shannon as we were too heavy to carry the fuel required for a non-stop flight. We nightstopped at Niagara while another crew who had positioned there as passengers flew the aircraft back to Gatwick. From there another crew flew the aircraft to New York. The day after our arrival at Niagara we travelled by taxi to Buffalo where we took a scheduled flight to La Guardia. At La Guardia we again took taxis to John F Kennedy, New York’s main international airport. We met our aircraft, Sierra Lima, there and flew it to Toronto, where another crew were waiting to take it to Gatwick. The aircraft was then flown to New York and was returning to Gatwick with a few empty seats which, to save airfares, we could use for our return to the UK From Toronto, therefore, we positioned on a scheduled flight to JFK, and then took taxis to the North Passenger Terminal where our aircraft was arriving. This complicated mixture of flights and travelling was the result of the many and varied destinations to which we operated and was to be the pattern of our existence for some years to come. After my return to the UK I attended three meetings in London with Air Spain in quick succession and two days later I flew IT charters on the 707 to Palma and to Prestwick, then from Luton to Munich, followed by a flight to Nairobi. After returning from Nairobi to Gatwick, a flight to New York followed--a busy April. In June I flew several trips to Toronto from both Gatwick and Prestwick. At Toronto it was interesting to observe a variation on airport terminal arrangements that I had previously only seen in the
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third world. All arriving passengers exited Customs through a door which opened directly into the terminal landside area. Our 189 passengers had to force their way through at least as many welcoming relatives and friends crowding the doorway. It was completely chaotic and always took a long time for the hundreds of people and their baggage to become disentangled. A positive factor was the evident enthusiasm of the welcome, although if more than one aircraft had arrived, things tended to get out of hand. Among other flights I made that month were to Vancouver and to Seattle. One of the staff of Sea-Tac, our handling agents at Seattle, was Barbara Walder. Barbara later joined Dan-Air at Gatwick and was my Secretary for many years. The 707 destinations were very varied and this made the operation much more interesting. For example one of the flights I made in October was from Toronto to Barbados. We were positioning empty to Gatwick from Barbados the next day and Bob Atkins and his crew who had slipped in Toronto from another flight, came as passengers with us to save airfares back to London. Everyone enjoyed the nightstop in Barbados and we all had an early morning swim on the day of departure to freshen up after our night out. On the long ocean crossing only the First Officer, the Flight Engineer and the ‘galley hostess’ were awake. At one stage in the flight the F/O went back to the cabin to chat to our passengers, and while there he asked the hostess on ‘galley’ duty to bring up two coffees for the F/E and myself. In the meantime the F/E had gone down into ‘Lower 41', a
hold below the flight deck, to check some electrical equipment. When the hostess arrived with the two coffees I was alone, and she asked where the F/E was. Rather cruelly, I didn’t tell her but asked her to look for him. In the meantime I told the F/E to remain in the hold. Several minutes later she re-appeared and in a very worried voice said she had looked everywhere and he wasn't on board. I called him on the intercom and said he could come up now and when he climbed up the ladder and opened the hatch in the flight deck floor she was greatly relieved. One of a series we were operating was a weekly flight to Vancouver. The return flight to Gatwick was operated by a crew already at Vancouver, and the crew which had flown the aircraft in, remained in Vancouver for a week. The aircraft was fully occupied with flights to other destinations during this time before returning to Vancouver, when the slip crew in Vancouver would fly the aircraft back to the UK. The stopover in Vanvouver was always popular as it is a very attractive city with a great many amenities, and is surrounded by areas of interest such as Stanley Park, and skiing on Grouse Mountain which is in North Vancouver on the other side of the inlet. Because of my commitments I could not afford to stay away for so long, so I was able to fly on only one of these very popular trips. In September 1971 I operated a flight whose schedule differed from the usual flights. On this flight the crew had a four day slip in Vancouver and then we were rostered to travel to Seattle where we would meet the aircraft when it landed, and then fly it back to Gatwick.
The 707 was the largest company aircraft the Dan Air engineers at Lasham had to deal with up to this time. Nevertheless, the soon learned the ins and out of the big Boeing. (Dan Air Staff Aassociation)
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1 GroundProximityWarning Light. 2 ApproachProgressDisplay. Clock. 3 NavWarningLight. 4 Machmeter. 5 FlightDirector 6 AttitudeDirectorIndicator. 7 Servo-PneumaticAltimeter. 8 Autopilotdisengaged warninglight. 9 AltitudeWarningLight 10 RadioAltimeter 11 VerticalSpeedIndicator
First Officer’s Panel
12MarkerBeaconSystem. 13 FlightDirector&Autopilot AnnunicatorLighting IntensityResetSwitch. 14 RadioMagneticIndicator. 15 Radio/InstrumentNavigation SystemSelector. 16 InstrumentNavigation System/CDIlight. 17 DistanceMeasuring EquipmentIndicator. 18 HorizontalSituation Indicator
19Pitot-StaticSelector. 20 TurnandBankIndicator. IntegratedFlightSystem TransferSwitches 21 GroundProximitytest switch. 22 HyraulicBrakePressure Indicator. 23 Clock. 24 StaticAirTemperature Indicator. 25 TotalAirTemperature Indicator.
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1 MasterFireWarningLight andBellCutoutSwitch (Captain) 2 FlightDirector(1) 3 FlightDirector(2) 4 AltitudeSelector/Control 5 MasterFireWarningLight andBellCutoutSwitch(First Officer) 6 LandingGearWarningLights andGearDownLights 7 FlapPositionIndicators
Ratio(EPR)Ind;Thrust ReverserOperatingLight. 14 EngineNo.1&2LowOil Pressure/FilterBypass WarningLight. 15 StandbyHorizonIndicator. 16 Servo-PneumaticAltimeter. 17 MachTrimDisengaged WarningLight 18 TrueAirspeedIndicator. 19 FlightDeckLightControls.
Pilot’s Centre Panel and Light Shield. 8 RudderBoostLowPressure WarningLight 9 EssentialPowerFailureLight. 10 LandingGearLever 11 EngineNo.3&4LowOil Pressure/FilterBypass WarningLight. 12 LeadingEdgeFlapsLights 13 EngineIndicators,Bottomto Top:FluelFlowInd;Exhaust GasTemp(EGT); Tachometer;EnginePressure
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Al Bernstein, the Pan-Am training Captain, came to the UK in November in order to conduct the biannual Competency Checks on our crews and while he was here checked John Cotter and myself out as B-707 Base Training Instructors. This was carried out under the supervision of Captain Spence, a Civil Aviation Flying Unit examiner and Captain Harris, a Ministry Inspector. We were also cleared as Type Rating Examiners on the 707. Al gave me a hard time, covering every type of unusual situation that could arise when instructing a beginner on the type who could put the aircraft into a dangerous position. All types of emergency procedures were practiced, including failing two engines on the same side shortly after I had taken off. I completed the circuit and landed on two engines. The reason for this gruelling trial became clear when sometime later Al suggested I might like a job as a Training Captain with PanAm, an offer which I declined. We purchased a second B-707 from Pan-Am. The Company was expanding rapidly and the administration was running hard to keep up, but the operations staff relished the challenge and the extra activity was absorbed with but little indigestion. The number of crews on the 707 had to be increased with the addition of another aircraft, so in January ‘72 John Cotter and Bill Snow, and Tim Ware and I, went to New York to be checked out by the Pan-Am trainers while we gave the full course of conversion training to our crews on the simulator. They included Brian Martin and Brian Zeitlyn, Chuck Smith, Bill Grief and Pat Fry. I fitted in a full programme of training on both the B-707 aircraft and the simulator in New York. TWA put their 707 simulator up for sale in October 1972 and, as it seemed likely that Dan-Air would expand this fleet. John Cotter and I took the opportunity, during a two day stopover in Toronto, to inspect the simulator which was housed in TWA's training centre in Kansas City. They accommodated us while we assessed its performance, as part of which we flew the same programme on it as we did
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when air testing an aircraft for the renewal of its Certificate of Airworthiness. This is a very demanding test covering all aspects of the aircraft's capability including measurement of its performance with engine and systems failures. We found that it did not meet the requirements for CAA approval for mandatory 1179 Check items. This meant that we would have to continue bringing crews to New York to carry out the Mandatory Checks and training on the Pan-Am simulator which was approved. In March of 1972 the Company organised a sales presentation tour in Western Canada. The Commercial and other Departmental Managers and our PR manager set off in the 707 which I flew to Prestwick where we picked up a reduced load of passengers bound for Calgary. As the aircraft was not full this allowed all our staff to travel together. Alan Snudden had asked my wife Joy to accompany us and assist the PR Manager in spreading the word. In Calgary a round of meetings with Tour Operators and Travel Agents followed, with cocktail parties held in the evenings. I didn't see much of Joy at these occasions as she was always surrounded with people. We then flew on to Edmonton where we repeated the process. The return flight was on March 16th, my birthday. We had passengers for Amsterdam and after unloading them there we positioned back empty to Gatwick. During this short flight the cabin staff asked me to come back and look at a problem in the cabin. Leaving the aircraft in the capable hands of Sam Bee I went back to find a birthday cake, covered in candles, awaiting me. Air France found themselves short of aircraft in the early summer and contracted us to operate their scheduled services between Orly and Heathrow on our B-707. The flights went very well and the crews very much enjoyed the catering, which was uplifted in Paris. I was intrigued, when I flew the service, to find that the crew meals were accompanied by a carton of small bottles of wine, three red and three white, especially for the use of the flight deck crew. More crew training followed at Newcastle in July
707 G-AYSL awaits it’s passengers at London Gatwick prior to its first commercial service with the company on 8 April 1971. (Dan Air Staff Association)
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1 2 3 4
EmergencyFlapSwitches MachTrim/Warning EngineStartControls FireDetectionand ExtinguishingControls. 5 LightingControls 6 HoldSmokeDetection 7 EngineStartControls 8 GroundStartSwitch 9 PASpeakers 10InternalNavigationSystem ModeSelectorSwitch. 11 SelCalControls. 12 OxygenControls. 13 InternalNavigationSystem ModeSelectorSwitch
Pilot’s Overhead Panel 14 ‘NoSmoking/SeatBelts’ Switch. 15 EmergencyExitsLighting Switch. 16 CockpitVoiceRecorder 17 WindowHeatControls. 18 ProbeHeaterControls 19 RainRepellantControl;First Officer. 20 NoseGearLightSwitch 21 GyroCompassControls 22 GroundCrew/CabinCrew CallButtons 23 YawDamperSwitch 24 YawDamperLight 25 RadioAltimeterTestSwitch
26 WindshieldWiperControls 27 ExteriorLightingControls 28 Anti-IceControls 29 GyroCompassControls 30 OleoBypassTest Switch/AttitudeWarning SelectorandTestSwitch. 31 RainRepellantControl; Captain 32 NacelleAnti-IceControls. 33 Rudder/SpoilerControl switches 34 Anti-Skidbrakecontrols 35 CommunicationsCallSystem 36 MainCabinLights 37 FlightRecorderON/OFF
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Not only did Dan-Air pilots have to learn about flying in to Hong Kong with the 707, but the Stewardesses had to learn about Far-Eastern cuisine! In the mortar-board and gown is Eva Lam, Manager of the Far East travel Centre’s Chinese Department. The Dan-Air stewardessses are, from left to right:: Sue Evans, Lynne Boreham, Velma Sharma and Sue Hale. (Dan Air Staff Association)
where I flew with Ken Grover, Keith Moody, Tony Kirk and Stan Lee. With the addition of a second B-707 the number of trans-Atlantic flights greatly increased. Toronto was now such a frequent destination that Jock Mills, with his wife, took up residence there as our Station Engineer. We had also based Alan Barker in Toronto as our Company representative. Alan had flown with us as a First Officer, but had recently lost his licence on medical grounds. The number of New York flights also increased. Charter aircraft were very often processed at the North Passenger Terminal (NPT), which was on the north side of JFK airport. The facilities were rather primitive although comparatively peaceful compared to the International Terminal in the central area. One evening, when we had positioned from Toronto to JFK, we were parked at the NPT to embark the passengers waiting there for the flight to UK. The immigration official who met us on our arrival at the NPT told us that he could clear the passengers out of the country, but not the crew as they had not been cleared into the country. I suggested
that he should, therefore, clear us in to the country, but he replied that he was not empowered to deal with persons entering the country, even though we would be leaving the country as soon as our departure procedures were completed. He told us that only the Immigration Officer at the International Arrivals Terminal could clear us and we would have to enter the country there. He could not be persuaded of the illogicality of this so we had no choice but to comply. International Arrivals could only be reached by travelling through the local suburb of Jamaica as there was no connecting road within the airport boundary. We took taxis therefore, out of the Airport boundary, drove through the countryside, and then entered the Airport once again at the International Arrivals Terminal. When we entered the terminal we exited the country through Immigration Control, turned around and were cleared to enter again. The officials here saw nothing wrong with the process as the paperwork was now in order. We went back through the countryside to the NPT by taxi and were then allowed to leave the country. A very stressful aspect of our turn-rounds at JFK
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1 ControlDisplayUnit;Captain 2 Weatherradar 3 ControlDisplayUnit;First Officer.
Forward Electronic Control Panel 4 ATCTransponderSystem HFRadioControls;First Officer 6 InstrumentComparator
WarningSystem 7 HFRadioControls;Captain 8 AntennaStabiliserControls.
Aft Electronic Control Panel
1 DistanceMeasuring Equipment;First Officer. 2 Autopilot 3ADFRadio:First Officer 4 Transceiver Malfunction Indicator. 5 ADFRadio:Captain 6 DistanceMeasuring Equipment;Captain.
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Two company in-flight magazines from the 707 period the upper one from 1973 when it was called a ‘souvenir booklet’ and below, No1 of the true Inflight Magazine, that used the flight-deck of a 707 as a backdrop. (Dan Air Staff Association)
was the handling process. Our contract with the handling agents required them to provide only steps if we were not on a finger, the ground power, and passenger handling. All other services were provided by a variety of individual suppliers. Preparing for departure was a test of how to bring order out of chaos. Because of the limitations on the amount of load our 321 series Boeings could carry, it was necessary to calculate exactly the maximum load we could uplift in the prevailing conditions. To do this the first information required was the breakdown of the load which had to be obtained from the agents, but was not usually provided until the last minute. From this I would calculate the total weight of the female passengers as well as that of the males, children and infants if any. The weight of the baggage and its distribution in the freight holds had to be calculated and all of this translated on to the load sheet to give the take-off weight and the balance of the aircraft. It was necessary to ensure that the final calculation was within the maximum limits dictated by the length of the runway in use, the wind speed and direction, and the temperature. This was done while sitting on the flight deck, as it was necessary to maintain radio contact with the handling agents and with the airport ground control. At the same time a queue of the suppliers would form at the flight deck door, all with their bills in hand for which they wanted payment in cash. I had to count out the dollars to the catering, cabin cleaning, toilet emptying, and water replenishment etc. suppliers, while attending to the many other pre-departure duties. It was not wise to fall out with any of these service suppliers, much as one was tempted to do at times, as practically every activity on the airport was controlled by the Mafia, and we all had heard tales of the troubles ensuing for unco-operative clients. My duties with Dan-Air were as demanding as ever however, and I was also flying intensively. One of the flights in September was a very welcome change as it was chartered to carry a replacement ship’s crew to a P&O cruise liner in Sydney, and to return the replaced crew to the UK. In Singapore, on the return journey, I met up with John Cameron who in 1956 had persuaded me to join Dan-Air when he was Chief Pilot of the Company. After a disagreement with Laurie Moore he had resigned and joined Middle East Airlines. Subsequently he became Operations Manager of West African Airways but left them after he had refused to train some of their First Officers. West African had bought B-707s and they wanted all their indigenous pilots to be converted onto the aircraft, but John failed some of them as he considered them
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Control Stand
1 SpeedBrakeLever 2 ThrustReverse Levers,Engine1& 2. 3 ThrustReverse Levers,Engine3& 4. 4 TrimWheel;First Officer 5 FlapLeverand Indicator 6 StabilizerTrim Indicator;First Officer. 7 StabilizerTrim CutoutSwitches. 8 StabilizerTrim Light. 9 ThrustLevers, Engines3&4 10StartLevers, Engines1,2,3,4. 11 HornCutoutLever. 12StabilizerBrake ReleaseKnob. 13 AileronTrimScale 14 AileronTrim Wheel. 15 RudderTrimWheel 16 RadioPanelLight Control. 17 RudderTrimScale. 18 ThrustLevers, Engines1&2. 19 ParkingBrake WarningLight. 20 ParkingBrake Lever. 21 StabilizerTrim Indicator;Captain. 22 TrimWheel; Captain.
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to be below the required standard for that aircraft. He then rejoined Singapore Airlines and was now flying Boeing 747s. Soon after returning to Gatwick from Sydney, I flew to Seattle and from there positioned to Los Angeles. The crew and I set off on a sightseeing tour but the famous sights are spread over such a wide area that we saw only a few of those that we had looked forward to. In November I flew a party of golfers to West Palm Beach in Florida. The stopover was very pleasant but the return was a disaster. The so-called handling agents, who had been selected by London Office, were, in fact, a small flying club. They knew nothing about handling a large international flight with the result that the take-off was well delayed. When we were settled in the cruise, the pressurisation system began to fluctuate and Alec Ewen, the flight engineer, was unable to get it under control. I descended to a lower altitude but the problem continued with large surges in the pressure, so much so that the passenger oxygen masks were automatically released, although we were unaware of it until the hostess came to the flight deck. The cabin was a ridiculous sight with the jungle of masks hanging from their tubes, and most of the passengers breathing from them, although the cabin pressure was sufficiently high to maintain the cabin altitude below 10,000 feet. We had no choice but to divert to Bangor, where the crew re-stowed the masks. There had been several reports in the Technical log of problems with the system but Lasham had not yet rectified it. Once again inadequate maintenance proved very costly to the airline. Our problems were not yet over as the weather at Gatwick, our destination, had deteriorated and by the time of our much delayed arrival, a howling gale was blowing across the runway. The wind speed was well above the aircraft's cross-wind limits, so we were forced to divert to Manchester. The passengers had to travel to London by coach, and I got the impression that they were none too pleased. When the aircraft returned it was taken out of service and the system was overhauled at last but, of course, the cost to DanAir Services of the incident was not shown on the Dan-Air Engineering balance sheet. At the end of December 1972 The Company was contracted to position two 707s at Teheran to be exclusively employed in the carriage of Muslim pilgrims to Mecca during the period of the Hadj. Our crews stayed in the Teheran Sheraton which was more comfortable than we had anticipated. Both aircraft were engaged throughout the twenty-four hours in flying the pilgrims to Jeddah, the airport
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Dan-Air put the 707 on just about every piece of literature it produced, including this Duty Free Tariff Card. (Dan Air Staff Association)
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1 GalleyPowerSwitch 2 ExternalPowerSelector+ lights. 3 BatterySwitch. 4 DCPowerVoltmeter 5 DCPowerLoadmeter. 6 Selector,Load&Volts 7 AirCompressorStart/Stop Switch. 8 AirCompressorLowOil PressureWarningLight. 9 AirConditionion& PressurisationPanel(Engines2 -3-4) 10 AirCompressorTachometer. 11AirCompressorOverspeed TripLight. 12 RamAirSwitch. 13 CrewAuxilliaryHeatValve Switch. 14 EngineBleedAirandWing ValveSwitches. 15 DuctOverheatWarningLights. 16 CabinTemperatureSelector: CrewCompartment. 17 CabinTemperatureSelector
MainCabin. 18 AirConditioningLights 19 AirConditioningUnit Switches. 20 CabinAirTemperature Indicator. 21 CabinAirTemperatureSource Selector. 22 CabinAltitudeWarningHorn CutoutSwitch. 23 CabinAirThrustValve Switch. 24 ConditionedAirDuctPressure Indicator. 25 CabinDiff.PressureIndicator. 26 PressurisationManualControl Selector. 27 OutflowValvePosition Indicators. 28 OutflowValveBalance Control. 29 CabinAltimeter. 30 AltitudeSelectionIndicator& BarometricCorrection Indicator. 31 PressurisationRateSelector.
Flight Engineer’s Upper Panel
32 CabinRateOfClimbIndicator. 33 AirSupplyDuctPressure Indicator. 34 FrequencyMeter&AC Voltmeter. 35 KVARSSwitch 36 ACParallelingSelector 37 EssentialPowerFailure WarningLight&Selector 38 ACPowercolumnEngine4 39 ACPowercolumnEngine3 40 ACPowercolumnEngine2 41 ACPowercolumnEngine1 42 FrequencyControl. 43KW/KVARMeter. 44 GeneratorControlOffLight& Switch. 45 GeneratorBreakerCircuit OpenLight&Switch. 46 BusTieBreakerLightand Switch. 47 GeneratorDriveOil TemperatureRiseIndicator. 48 GeneratorDriveLowPressure LightandGeneratorDrive DiscconnectSwitch.
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1 2 3 4 5
FuelSystem:Engine1 FuelSystem:Engine2 FuelSystem:Engine3 FuelSystem:Engine4 EngineOilQuantityTest Switch. 6 EquipmentCoolValves WarningLights. 7 EquipmentCoolingSwitches. 8 AlternateLowPressureStart Switch,Engines1,2,3,4. 9 OilQuantityIndicator,Engines 1,2,3,4. 10 OilTemperatureIndicator, Engines1,2,3,4. 11 60HtzConverterSwitch. 12 OilPressureIndicator,Engines 1,2,3,4. 13 N2 Tachometer,Engines 1,2,3,4.
Flight Engineer’s Lower Panel
14 StartAirPressureIndicator. 15 HydraulicReservoirQuantity IndicatorUtilitySystem 16 UtilityandAuxiliarySystem PumpLowPressureLights. 17 VibrationAmplitudeIndicator, Engines1,2,3,4. 18 VibrationMonitorTestSwitch. 19 VibrationPickupSelector. 20 HydraulicPumpSwitches 21 UtilitySystemPumpSwitches. 22 InterconnectValveSwitch. 23 AuxiliarySystemPump Switches 24 UtilitySystemPressure Indicator. 25 RudderHydraulicPressure Indicator. 26 FueltemperatureSelector. 27 FueltemperatureGauge
28 TotalFuelQuantityGaugefor usablefuelinalltanks. 29 FuelHeaterSwitches&Fuel IcingLights. 30 FuelQuantityGaugeforeach tank. 31 FuelCrossfeedSelector, Engines1,2,3,4. 32 FuelQuantityIndicator, Engines1,2,3,4. 33 BoostPumpSwitches,Engines 1,2,3,4. 34 LowPressureLights,Engines 1,2,3,4. 35 EngineFuelShutoffValve Switch,Engines1,2,3,4. 36 FuelValvePositionLight, Engines1,2,3,4.
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Dan-Air Engineering was part of the Davis and Newman Group of Companies and had a major facility at Lasham Airfield in Hampshire. Here one of the company 707 undergoes deep maintenance. (Dan Air Staff Association)
near Mecca. An impressive new terminal, the design of which was based on a very large tented encampment in the desert, handled an enormous flow of passengers pouring in from every Muslim country. The air traffic control system was not very advanced but the controllers achieved the remarkable feat of getting the aircraft, which were circling the airfield like a swarm of bees, safely onto the ground. Just as remarkably they succeeded in getting those on the ground into the air again and separated from the swarm of arrivals. It was an exciting experience, and I thought that maybe their faith in Allah had been justified throughout this period, as there were several near misses, but no accidents. The same process was repeated at the end of the Hadj when the hundreds of thousands had to be evacuated. The flights went smoothly and the passengers, many of whom had never flown before, behaved surprisingly well. We carried four of our own girls on each flight, from a team led by Val Barnett with the assistance of Susie Calderwood, and three Iranian hostesses as translators and cabin staff assistants. I flew eight of these round trips in eight days, and then flew the aircraft back to Gatwick as there was a lull before the series of return flights began. The return to Gatwick was in order to operate a charter flight to Barbados, so there was no gap in the utilisation of the aircraft. Because we had full loads we had to refuel at Santa Maria in the Azores both ways. After a brief rest when I arrived back at Gatwick I flew the aircraft back to Teheran. During
the stay in Teheran I saw a lot of Joe Reaney, an old friend who had been a fellow pilot in Malayan Airways and was now flying with IranAir. He had flown the DC-7 with Dan-Air for a period but left when the Company had not provided War Risk insurance for the crew when he flew a charter to Biafra during the war being waged upon it by the Nigerian Government. After I returned to the UK and waded through the backlog of office work, John Cotter and I flew a charter to Ankara and Karachi. After our return we both flew to New York in mid February 1973, where we commenced the conversion training for the additional crews joining the 707 fleet. While we were there we carried out all the Competency Checks and Instrument Rating Renewals for the current crews. During our stay in New York one of the Pan-Am instructors, who had flown with the US Navy, took us to dinner in the Mess at the Brooklyn Navy Yard. Another concentrated period of 707 training took place in March 1973 when I went to Newcastle to base train two more crews including Pat Fry and Bill Grief. At that time all the emergency manoeuvres had to be practised in the aircraft in flight so that the time spent in the aircraft during Base Training was very
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extensive. With the advances in simulator technology which have been made since then, it is no longer necessary to do this and these manoeuvres are practised in the simulator. The high altitude procedures included stalling the aircraft in differing configurations of flap and Undercarriage positions and recovery from Dutch Rolls. This roll is an uncomfortable gyration of the aircraft during which the aircraft wings move up and down alternately while the whole aircraft slides from side to side at the same time as the nose swings back and forth and rises and dips. These effects result from the swept wing design which causes the centre of lift to move aft along each wing as it yaws into the airflow, then forward again along the retreating wing. The recovery is not difficult but the instructor had to keep his wits about him because the instinctive action of the trainee is to apply rudder to stop the nose swinging. The danger is that excessive use of the rudder makes the problem worse and can lead to a ‘jet upset’ – a problem which caused severe problems in the early days of B-707 operation when aircraft fell through thousands of feet. In some cases engines were shed from the wing as a result of these ‘upsets’. It is essential for the trainer is to keep his feet firmly on the rudders so that they can't be moved by the trainee and to ensure that recovery is made by using the ailerons to damp down the rising wing. I mention this because Bill tried to apply violent rudder movement in the recovery and I had to use a good deal of strength to prevent any movement. Another interesting exercise was the
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demonstration of ‘Mach Tuck’ which is the aircraft’s progressive nose down attitude change as a result of increasing airspeed. The aircraft was set up in a .82 Mach cruise configuration (82% of the speed of sound), and the nose was then lowered 5 degrees. Initially, as the speed increases, the nose tends to rise but, because the increased speed moves the centre of lift further back down the swept wings, this has the effect of lifting the tail and pushing the nose down. The more the nose goes down the faster the airspeed increases and the more difficult it becomes to raise the nose. Reducing the power makes the problem worse as cutting the power on the under slung engines results in an increase in the nose down moment. Within 20 seconds, if uncorrected, the speed will increase beyond the maximum allowed, and if uncorrected could lead to a ‘jet upset’ which, on some occasions, resulted in the loss of the aircraft. To reduce height at the end of these exercises an Emergency Descent was made. Depending on the experience of the trainee these exercises could raise the adrenaline level of the Instructor quite considerably. The Inclusive Tour (IT) activity was expanded and the number of B-707 flights was increased by the addition of series of flights from Manchester and Prestwick to North America. In February John Cotter and I operated a flight to Bangor and Chicago where we nightstopped, while another crew picked up the aircraft. The hotel where we stayed in Chicago was one of the original hotels started by Conrad Hilton. It was famous then
Arthur Larkman,left, our B-707 on the tarmac at Teheran’s airport along with Sam Bee and Ken Balsdon. (Athur Larkman)
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The long and short of it! A publicity photograph demonstrating that Dan-Air were able to offer aircraft for charter ranging from the 29-seat Nord 262 to the long-range 189-seat Boeing 707. (DASA)
for its new concepts in hotel accommodation and for its size. It set the pattern for the modern hotel chains with their standardised rooms and service. Fortunately the Chicago Hilton was one of a kind as it was reputed to have more rooms than any other hotel; it certainly was oversized. The rooms were comfortable and well appointed but the endless corridors were very off-putting, and one needed a route map to find the way around. One of the things which took me aback was the reaction at the checkin desk when I replied "cash" to their question of how I intended to pay the bill. Captains were supplied with Travellers Cheques to pay expenses because it had been decided not to issue them with credit cards. On extended flights the Captain carried many thousands of pounds in Travellers Cheques. Many hotels and 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
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businesses either did not accept these cheques or applied a surcharge for cashing them, so I usually exchanged them for dollars at the airport. On this occasion I found that because of the enormous throughput of guests at the hotel they only accepted credit cards- money was not acceptable. On another stopover in Chicago the Company had booked us into a hotel in suburban Albany. This was the area favoured by gangsters in pre-war days and the hotel manager was proud that many of the famous names of that time had stayed there. I could well believe it as several of the current occupants looked as if they were following in the tradition. We didn't stay there again. The booking of hotels for the crew was done by the operations staff at Gatwick and the choice of hotels was determined by the cheaper
Flight Engineer’s Auxilliary Panels
CoolantAirSystem;Valve PositionIndicator. CoolantAirSystem;Valve PositionSelector. CoolantAirSystem;Inlet ValveSwitches. CoolantAirSystem;Exit ValveSwitches. MainCabinHeatingPanels Switch. GasperAirFanSwitch TurbofanExitValveOverride Switches. SafetyValveOverrideSwitch. ZoneTermperatureControl Indicators. ZoneTemperatureControl OverheatLight. ZoneTemeratureControl Switches. Fuel/Defuel/DumpControl System Fuel/Defuel/DumpControl SystemCover.
14 AuxilliaryPowerUnit Generatoron/offSwitch 15 AuxilliaryPowerUnitAC OutputGauge. 16 AuxilliaryPowerUnit ExhaustTemperatureGauge 17 AuxilliaryPowerUnitMaster On/offswitch 18 AuxilliaryPowerUnitFire BottleDischargeButton 19 AuxilliaryPowerUnitFire testbutton 20 InterphoneSelectorPanel. 21 FlightRecorderEncoder:time remaining. 22 FlightRecorderEncoder: Digitizers 23 DoorWarningLights 24 DoorWarningtestbutton. 25 EmergencyOxygenLever. 26 OxygenFlowIndicator. 27 OxygenDiluterLever. 28 CrewandPassengerOxygen PressureIndicator.
29 PersonnelAccomodations OxygenPressureIndicator. 30 OxygenQualityIndicator. 31 OxygenSupplyLever. 32 ServiceInterphoneSwitch 33 PanelLightingDimmer Control 34 PanelBackgroundLighting DimmerControl 35 CircuitBreakerLighting DimmerControl. 36 TableLightingDimmer Control 37 AuxilliaryPowerUnitPullto TestSwitch 38 AuxilliaryPowerUnit WarningLights. 39 AuxilliaryPowerUnitRPM Indicator. 40 HandMicrophone. 41 Interphonejacksockets. 42 ACPotentialLights.
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quotes they received. This was a logical method if the hotel standard was satisfactory, as was generally the case. In earlier years some of the hotels arranged for us were disgusting, particularly in the UK where for several years after the war even the better hotels were very sub-standard. A wash basin in the room was considered a luxury. In fact they were very similar to hotels I encountered in Iron Curtain countries. Early in my time in the Company I discovered that if the room rate that the Company had contracted could be revealed, I could visit other hotels of a better standard and, obtain as good a rate and often better than that achieved by the Company, by meeting the Manager in a face to face negotiation. This was particularly true in North America where the business culture is open to making a deal on the spot. In Vancouver for example, I negotiated a price in the Bay Shore, the best hotel at that time, which was less than the inferior hotel which had been arranged for us. From Chicago we flew another aircraft to New York where we slipped for three days, before flying yet another aircraft to Gatwick. During those days spent at Kennedy we had arranged to carry out a series of periodic checks on those crews who were due for them. With the only simulator approved for the conduct of these mandatory tests being the PanAm machine, John and I went to extraordinary lengths to arrange the programme in such a way as to get examiners and crews together in the most economical way. A large part of the potential cost was avoided because we had done a deal with PanAm for free travel for our crews on flights from
London to and from the simulator .The cost of doing this was much less than doing the checks on the aircraft, even ignoring the increased cost of having the aircraft out of service. The following month I flew to Ottawa and after a stopover there positioned with the crew to Halifax, Nova Scotia, by Air Canada. We were scheduled to nightstop there and take over an aircraft flying in from the UK the next day, which happened to be my birthday. We were to position the aircraft to Montréal, and from there to Gatwick with a fresh load of passengers. The next morning the weather was foul with low cloud and poor visibility in driving snow. We waited at the airport for news of the incoming aircraft and eventually heard that it was diverting to Moncton in New Brunswick. I hired three taxis to take us the 270 miles to Moncton. The journey was slow and depressing at first but eventually the weather began to improve and we stopped at a village for a quick snack. While I was sitting at the table Tony Kirk, who was acting as co-pilot, marched up to the table carrying a small sponge cake on which was a large lighted candle in the shape of a fir tree. The whole crew sang Happy Birthday while I blew out the candle. It brightened up the whole day for me. Further flights to Canada and to Berlin for IT series followed as the summer season got into full swing. Further activity on the 707 was provided by another series for Air France operating their scheduled flights on the Paris/London route. In early April I operated a flight with mixed groups of passengers each heading for a different destination.
A classic scene at London Gatwick in the early 1970s; Dan-Air’s 707 G-AZTG about to depart on another long-haul flight. In the background can be seen a trio of BEA Airtours Comets. (DASA)
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Exterior Lighting Positions and Controls on Overhead Panel on Flightdeck
1
2
3 4 5
Left & Right Retractable Landing Light Switch: ON-RetractablelandingLights illuminate. Left & Right Retract-Extend Switch. EXTEND-extendsoutboardlandinglights. RETRACT-retractsoutboardlandinglights Left & Right Fixed Landing Light Switch. ON-FixedLandingLightsIlluminate. Left & Right Runway Turnoff Light Switch. ON-Runwayturnofflightilluminates. Navigation Light Switch. ONBATGrounduseonly.Lightsuppliedfrom28V
We flew to Sondestrom in Greenland where we refuelled before flying on to Winnipeg. From there we flew to Toronto, then returned to Prestwick to off-load some passengers and from there we flew to Manchester where more dis-embarked and then carried on to Gatwick, all of which was accomplished
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DCEssentialbusses.ON-Powerforlight suppliedby28VACbus. Beacon Light Switch. ON-Beacon(anticollision)lightsilluminateandrotate. Wing Light Switch. ON-Illuminatesthetops andleadingedgesofthewingsandengine nacellarea. Wheel Well Light Switch. NORMALAllowstheindividuallightstobecontrolledby switchesneareachunit.ON-WheelWell LightsIlluminate. Nose Gear Light Switch. ON-NoseGear TaxiLightIlluminates.
in three days. A relaxation in the requirements for single group affinity flights had made this possible and thus enabled us to operate more flights. From mid October ‘75 to mid February 1976 I did not fly at all but at last managed to operate part of a Bangladeshi series. John Cotter and I positioned
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Operation of typical Entry or Galley Door. To Open Door From Inside: CAUTION — Check escape slide retention strap detached from floor and stowed before opening door. — Rotate door control handle in direction of arrow; this will cause door to swing inward. — Push out on aft edge of door and swing door outward. — Continue pushing on assist handle and aft edge of door swinging door parallel to airplane. Make certain door latch has engaged. To Close Door — Release door latch and pull door aft and inboard. Rotate door handle in opposite direction to arrow until door locks are closed. Boeing engineers were hard pressed to design a door that could not be blown out by the pressure difference that existed between the inside and the outside of the cabin. How could a door be opened outward and still fit as a plug inside the doorway? Four such doors are fitted on the Boeing jet liners, two passenger-entry doors on the left side and two galley-service doors on the right side.
When closed, the outward-opening, plug-type door seals the pressurised air in the cabin. It was opened by turning the handle which folds the door’s upper and lower edges inward and rotates the door outward, edge first, through the doorway. In trials a door was tested under high pressures and in a cold chamber to make certain it could be opened even with a coat of ice covering it, and opened and closed more than 25,000 times in a life test.
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the aircraft to Heathrow and as I hadn't flown for four months, he used this short hop to give me a three engined take-off and a three engined landing at Heathrow. A very busy 15 minute flight. This, plus the ensuing line check on the flight to Dubai satisfied the requirements for my authorisation to fly in command once again. Another crew took the aircraft on to Dhaka and back to Dubai where we waited to fly it back to London. We were dozing in the sun by the swimming pool the next morning when I heard the unmistakeable voice of Joan Buckett. She was an Australian girl who had been a hostess with us for some years and had left to take a cabin staff job with Gulf Air, based in Bahrain. She was with a group of five other girls, all Gulf Air hostesses, and four of them were also ex-Dan-Air. We had a very pleasant re-union until they departed on their flight that evening. In March I managed to operate a flight to Pittsburgh, then nothing more until June when I flew another mixed group from Gatwick, Manchester, and Prestwick to Toronto, then returned via Boston and New York. In July I flew our newly acquired 707321C freighter into Gatwick for the first time. It was fitted with very large doors and strengthened floor and with its sister aircraft subsequently flew many cargo flights. After all these years we were carrying freight again. A few days later I flew it to Venice on its first service with us. While we awaited the decision on a suitable candidate for the operations management position, I agreed to fill the vacancy on a temporary basis. Frank Horridge finally came up with the solution to the problem and proposed that I become the Head of Operations. This was agreed, although I was far from enthusiastic about it and accepted on the understanding that I would serve only until a suitable person was found. Alan Snudden issued a memo in February, notifying the changes— "As a result of the increasing flying programme and the need to integrate and improve the Company's Operations and Passenger Services function, it has
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been decided to appoint Captain Larkman, who has been actively engaged in re-organising our Operations Department, to the new post of Operations Services Director. He will be assisted by Mr J Stevens, the Operational Performance Manager. Captain Larkman will be responsible to Mr. F. Horridge, the Deputy Managing Director". I invented my title of ‘Operations Services Director’ to avoid embarrassment to Bob Atkins, whose existing title was ‘Operations Director, Flying’, and the possible confusion of having two Operations Directors. John Stevens served with us for a period during which the Operations Control staff continued to develop the strategies of circumventing Air Traffic delays. This was a skill in which Dan-Air outshone all our competitors, much to their chagrin. Roy McDougall, the Operations Director of Britannia Airways, was particularly interested in Air Traffic Control (ATC) matters and had met John at various ATC conferences. In 1978 Roy persuaded him to join Britannia's Operations Department but, unfortunately for Roy, John had not yet mastered the arcane skills that Roy had hoped he would bring with him, and they were no farther forward. Other Managers in Operations were Eric Bristow, the Ops. Administration Manager, Thornton Simmons, who was Liaison Officer for the IAS freight contract on which our two 707-321C's were employed, and Dermot Mulvagh, the Passenger Services Manager. Another responsibility which I assumed was to represent the Company on the National Aviation Security Commission (NASC). This Committee met regularly at the Department of Trade in London, where the policy for all aspects of Aviation Security including the procedures used by the airlines, the airports, the Police Services etc. were discussed and decided upon. We were regularly briefed by the Intelligence Services on their continuous assessment of all current and future threats, and planned the counter measures required to combat them. The number of aircraft hi-jacks taking place world wide
707 G-AYSL taxies in at Gatwick after another flight to the USA.
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1 2 3 4 5
ForwardandAftToiletCall Lights(PresstoReset) PassengerCallLights.(Press toReset) LoungeCallLights.(Pressto Reset) PublicAddressSystem OperateButton(Pushtouse) PublicAddressSystem
Cabin Attendant’s Panel
OverrideSwitch MusicHigh/LowSelector OxygenValve. TapePreproducerUnit Switch 9 LightingPrioritySelector 10 CeilingLightSwitch 11 ChimeSwitch 12 WindowLightSwitch 6 7 8
remained high throughout this period and there was much terrorist activity. The first two weeks of November were taken up with the training of crews converting onto the 707, who included Malcolm Grant and Pete Jamieson. After they completed their simulator training we set off from Gatwick to carry out the base training. I put Pete in the left hand Captain's seat so that he could fly the positioning leg up to Newcastle. This was his first experience of handling the aircraft after completing the simulator training. We took off and had just commenced the initial climb out of Gatwick when there was a fire warning on one of the engines. Pete calmly ordered the shut down and fire drill and landed the aircraft back at Gatwick. When we were
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AftCargoLightSwitch BoardLightSwitch LavatoryLightSwitch GalleyLightControl Handset. AttendanttoPilotcall Switch/CallLightandPilotto AttendantResetSwitch.
on the ground at Gatwick he told me that I had made him practice so many fire drills during the simulator training that he remained calm and carried out the procedures as a matter of routine. He said that he suspected that I was simulating the fault on the aircraft but, in fact, this time it was the real thing. At the end of November I flew G-BEBP, our second 707-321C, out to Hong Kong and, fortunately, Joy was able to come with me. The aircraft had been chartered by Cathay Pacific to carry out freight services for them as they were short of an aircraft. I was very pleased to meet once again two Cathay staff who had been among Dan-Air's best traffic officers; Derek Smith, who had been our Traffic Superintendent at Gatwick, and was now
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Cathay's Manager at Kai Tak, and Gerry Penwarden, who was now Cathay’s Manager for the whole of South East Asia. They looked after us extremely well and made our stay very enjoyable. Joy accompanied me on a flight I operated from Hong Kong to Singapore, where we slipped for two nights. The morning after our arrival we were collected by Phil Caroline, who offered to take us on a tour of the city. Phil was a Singapore Airlines Boeing 747 Captain who had been my Best Man when Joy and I were married in Singapore Cathedral in 1953. I had visited Singapore many times over the years and was fairly familiar with the many changes which had been made to the city and, indeed, to the very shape of the island by land reclamation. Joy, however, had not been back since we left for the UK in 1956. We had lived in Singapore for several years so she was really looking forward to seeing it again. We returned from Hong Kong in December with a load for Maastricht before finally landing at Gatwick in time for Christmas. This aircraft crashed just over five months later because of a design fault in its construction. The report into the crash of G-BEBP made grim reading. We were flying on behalf of International Aviation Services Limited, who themselves were trading as IAS Cargo Airlines, who had been subcontracted by Zambia Airways to operate a weekly scheduled all-cargo service between London
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Heathrow and the Zambian capital, Lusaka, via Athens and Nairobi. The aircraft - a 707-321C - had first entered service with Pan American World Airways in 1963. This aircraft was also the first convertible 707 built. We acquired it in 1976. The flight originated from London Heathrow Airport to Athens Hellinikon Airport, which was uneventful; from Athens the crew flew to Nairobi . Departure from Nairobi for Lusaka on the final leg occurred as planned at 07:17, 14 May 1977. The 707 cruised at flight level 310 for about two hours, after which it was cleared for descent to flight level 110. Flight level 110 was reached at approximately 09:23, and clearance was granted to begin descent towards a target of flight level 70. Just before 09:30, clearance to descend to 6,000 feet was granted, and moments later the plane was cleared to make a visual approach to runway 10. A few minutes later, eyewitnesses saw the entire right horizontal stabiliser and elevator detach from the aircraft. The aircraft lost pitch control and entered a nose-dive from about 800 feet to ground level, destroying the aircraft on impact. All six on board were killed. A full investigation was launched by the Zambian authorities and then delegated to the UK Air Accidents Investigation Branch. The conclusions made are as follows: It was determined that the structure of the right horizontal stabiliser failed due to metal fatigue in the rear spar structure, and due to
Most of Dan-Air aircraft had nicknames, usually generated from their registrations. 707 G-AYSL was always known by the crews as old ‘Spread Legs’. (Dan-Air Staff Association)
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A company 707 rests between flights at Hong Kong’s old Kai Tak airport. (Dan-Air Staff Association)
the lack of an adequate fail-safe structure or device should such an event occur. The investigation also identified deficiencies in the assessment of aircraft designs and their certification and in the way aircraft were inspected. The crack found in the failed stabiliser after the accident was thought by investigators unlikely to have been detectable using normal testing means, such as fluorescent dye. It was also thought that the crack had been present for at least 6,000 flight hours before the accident, and before we had acquired Echo Papa from Pan Am. Inspections of the Boeing 707-300 fleet, made as a result of the crash, found another thirty-eight aircraft with similar cracks. 1976 had been a mixed year for the Company but overall was quite successful. Profit before taxation was almost £2,000,000, an improvement of £500,000 over 1975's figure, even though the de-valuation of the pound had increased many costs, particularly that of fuel. The contracts for fuel supplies are always in US dollars, so this had made a very large impact on us. The number of passengers carried also increased to more than 2.8 million. The number of aircraft operated now totalled 55, with four 707s, six 727s,
six 1-11 500s, six 1-11 200/400s, sixteen Comets and sixteen 748s. Possibly the last word on the Dan-Air 707 operationshouldgotoCaptainKeithMoody,who laterbecameFleetManageronour727fleet. ‘The 707 may have ruled the air - but it did not like short runways. The 707 may have been King of the skies, but it had a problem. It's performance was relatively sedate - fine if you had plenty of space and long, long runways. That was caused by the wing sweepback, which were great for high-speed flight, but they did not produce much lift at low speeds, meaning that it was imperative to bring the aircraft in fast, and that meant eating up massive amounts of runway before you could bring it to a stop. It was a real man’s aeroplane. When Boeing built it they decided that all of the pilots who were going to come on to it had previously flown piston engined aircraft, and were used to high forces needed to operate the flying surfaces. The 707 needed nearly 10,000 feet to get airborne or to stop safely. There was no way we could use it on any of our mediterranean charters other than into places like Athens or Rome - we left those services to our Comets or 72s!
G-BEBP seen at Gatwick in a partial Dan-Air colour scheme with joint Dan-Air/IAS titling. (Dan-Air Staff Association)
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ChapterEight
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Military707s The EC-137D; E-3 Sentry. In 1963 the USAF asked for proposals for an AirborneWarningandControlSystem(AWACS) to replace its Lockheed EC-121Warning Stars, whichhadservedintheairborneearlywarning roleforoveradecade.Thenewaircraftdesign wouldbeabletotakeadvantageofimprovements in radar technology, computer aided radar data analysis and data reduction. This would allow airborne radars to ‘look down’ to detect the movementoflow-flyingaircraftanddiscriminate -evenoverlandatarangeof200miles-atarget
aircraft's movements, which up until then was impossible,duetotheinabilitytodiscriminatean aircraft’strackfromgroundclutter. AWACS would be able to carry out the NORADsupportroleandalsooperateasatactical commandpostforthedirectionofairandground forcesinspecificbattlesituations. ContractswereissuedtoBoeing,Douglas,and Lockheed,thelatterbeingeliminatedinJuly1966. In1967,aparallelprogrammewasputintoplace todeveloptheradar,withWestinghouseElectric andHughesAircraftbeingaskedtocompetein
An unidentifiable USAF E-3 in flight. Apart from the huge rotodome, there are assorted ‘lumps and bumps’ along the aircraft spine. Particularly noticabler are the refuelling recepticle and markings. (USAF)
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producing the radar system. In 1968, it was referredtoasOverlandRadarTechnology(ORT) during development tests on the modified EC121Q.TheWestinghouseradarantennawasgoing tobeusedbywhichevercompanywontheradar competition,sinceWestinghousehadpioneeredin thedesignofhigh-powerRFphase-shifters. BoeingwereappointedinJuly1970asprime contractorforthesystem,whichwastobebased ontheairframeoftheBoeing707-320Btransport. ThefirstEC-137madeitsmaidenflighton9 February1972,withthefly-offbetweenthetwo radarstakingplaceduringMarch–Julythatyear. Favourable test results led to the selection of Westinghouse'sradarfortheproductionaircraft. Hughes'sradarwasinitiallythoughttobeacertain winner,simplybecausemuchofitsdesignwas also going into the new F-15 Eagle's radar programme. The Westinghouse radar used a pipelinedfastfouriertransform(FFT)todigitally resolve128Dopplerfrequencies,whileHughes's radarsusedanaloguefiltersbasedonthedesignfor the F-15 fighter. An FFT is an algorithm that computesthediscreteFouriertransform(DFT)of a sequence, or its inverse. Fourier analysis convertsasignalfromitsoriginaldomain(often timeorspace)toarepresentationinthefrequency domainandviceversa.
Westinghouse's engineering team won this competition by using a programmable 18-bit computer whose software could be modified before each mission. This computer was the AN/AYK-8designfromtheB-57Gprogram,and designated AYK-8-EP1 for its much expanded memory.Thisradaralsomultiplexedabeyondthe-horizon (BTH) pulse mode that could complementthepulse-Dopplerradarmode.This provedtobebeneficialespeciallywhentheBTH mode was used to detect ships at sea when the radarbeamwasdirectedbelowthehorizon. BoeingbuilttwoprototypesoftheEC-137D (latertobecalledtheE-3A),thefirstofwhich(711407)firstflewon9February1972.Tosavecosts, theendurancerequirementswererelaxed,allowing the new aircraft to retain the four JT3D (US MilitarydesignationTF33)turbofans.lnbasicE3Aconfigurationtheheartoftheaircraftwasthe AN/APY-1 surveillance radar, housed within a large ‘rotodome’ radar dish mounted on twin pylonsabovetherearfuselageanddesignedtoturn atarateofsixcyclesperminute.Datafromthe systemwereprocessedbyanIBMCC-1computer whichprovidedinformationtothemissioncrewat up to nineteen situation display units (SDUs), while some thirteen different channels were providedforair-to-groundcommunications.
Two of the crew stations aboard a USAF Sentry. (USAF)
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Approvalwasgivenon26January1973for full-scaledevelopmentoftheAWACSsystem.To allow further development of the aircraft's systems, orders were placed for three preproduction aircraft, the first of which performeditsmaidenflightinFebruary1975.IBM andHazeltinewereselectedtodevelopthemission computeranddisplaysystem.TheIBMcomputer receivedthedesignation4PI,andthesoftwarewas written in JOVIAL.A Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) or back-up interceptor control(BUIC)operatorwouldimmediatelybeat homewiththetrackdisplaysandtabulardisplays, but differences in symbology would create compatibility problems in tactical ground radar systemsinIceland,Europe,andKoreaoverLink11(TADIL-A). JOVIAL was a high-level computer programming language, but specialised for the development of embedded systems; that is, specialisedcomputersystemsdesignedtoperform one or a few dedicated functions, usually embeddedaspartofacompletedeviceincluding mechanicalparts. JOVIALwasdevelopedasanew‘high-order’ programminglanguage,beginningin1959bya teamatSystemDevelopmentCorporation(SDC) headedbyJulesSchwartztocomposesoftwarefor the electronics of military aircraft. The name JOVIALisanacronymfor‘JulesOwnVersionof theInternationalAlgebraicLanguage.’ Duringthe1960sJOVIALwasapartoftheUS MilitaryL-projectseries,inparticular465L(the SACCS project), due to a lack of real-time processinglanguagesavailable.Some95%ofthe SACCSproject,managedbyITTwithsoftware primarilywrittenbySDC,waswritteninJOVIAL. Thesoftwareprojecttooktwoyearsandnofewer than1400programmeryears. Duringthelate1970sandearly1980s,theUS AirForceadoptedastandardisedCPU,theMILSTD-1750A, and subsequent JOVIAL programmeswerebuiltforthatprocessor.Several commercial vendors provided compilers and relatedtoolstobuildJOVIALforprocessorssuch as the MIL-STD-1750A, including Advanced Computer Techniques (ACT), TLD Systems, ProprietarySoftwareSystems(PSS),andothers. JOVIALwasstandardisedduring1973with MIL-STD-1589andwasrevisedduring1984with MIL-STD-1589C.Itisstillmuchusedtoupdate andmaintainsoftwareonoldermilitaryvehicles andaircraft. ModificationstotheBoeing707fortheE-3
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Sentryincludedarotatingradardome,single-point ground refuelling, air refuelling, and a bail-out tunnelorchute.Theoriginaldesignhadtwo(one forward,andoneaft),buttheaftbail-outchutewas deletedtocutmountingcosts.Engineering,test andevaluationbeganonthefirstE-3Sentryin October1975. Thefirstoftheplannedthirty-fourproduction aircraft-nownamed‘Sentry’-wasdeliveredto TacticalAirCommand’s552ndAirborneWarning and Control Wing (now the 552ndAir Control Wing)atTinkerAFB,Oklahomareceivedthefirst E-3aircraft,commandedbyMajorJamesRSterk, on 24 March 1977. Further development was already under way, however, and the 25th and subsequentaircraftweredeliveredwiththemuch highercapacityIBMCC-2computer,additional UHFradios,maritimesurveillancecapabilityand anti-jamming voice communications. These aircraft were later further upgraded to E-3C standard with five additional SDls and other alterations. The original batch of ‘core’ E-3As became E-3Bs following an upgrade to similar standard. The34thandlastUSAFSentrywasdelivered inJune1984.InMarch1996,theUSAFactivated the 513th Air Control Group (513th ACG), an ACC-gained Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC)AWACSunitundertheReserveAssociate Program. Co-located with the 552nd ACW at Tinker AFB, the 513rd ACG performs similar dutiesonactivedutyE-3aircraftsharedwiththe 552ndACW. TheE-3Sentry'sairframeisamodifiedBoeing 707-320BAdvancedmodel.USAFandNATOE3shaveanunrefuelledrangeofsome4,000miles oreighthoursofflying.ThenewerE-3versions boughtbyFrance,SaudiArabia,andtheUnited Kingdom are equipped with newer CFM56-2 turbofanengines,andthesecanflyforabout11 hoursorabout5,000miles.TheSentry'srangeand on-stationtimecanbeincreasedthroughair-to-air refuellingandthecrewscanworkinshiftsbythe useofanon-boardcrewrestandmealsarea. Whendeployed,theE-3monitorsanassigned areaofthebattlefieldandprovidesinformationfor commandersofairoperationstogainandmaintain controlofthebattle;whileasanairdefenceasset, E-3scandetect,identify,andtrackairborneenemy forcesfarfromtheboundariesoftheUSorNATO countriesandcandirectfighter-interceptoraircraft to these targets. In support of air-to-ground operations,theE-3canprovidedirectinformation neededforinterdiction,reconnaissance,airlift,and
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close-airsupportforfriendlygroundforces. On18November2015,anE-3Gwasdeployed totheMiddleEasttobeginflyingcombatmissions insupportofOperationInherentResolveagainst ISIL,markingthefirstcombatdeploymentofthe upgradedAWAC Block 40/45.The $2.7 billion developmenteffortstartedin2003,withthefirst fiveaircraftachievinginitialoperationalcapability (IOC) in July 2015. The Block 40/45 Mission ComputerandDisplayupgradereplacedcurrent 1970vintagemissioncomputinganddisplayswith atrueopensystemandcommercialoff-the-shelf hardwareandsoftware,givingAWACScrewsthe moderncomputingtoolsneededtoperform,and vastlyimprovemissioncapability.Estimatedfleet upgradesaredueforcompletionin2020.TheAir Forceplanstoconverttwenty-fourAWACStoE3Gstandard,whileretiringsevenfromthefleetto avoidupgradecostsandharvestout-of-production components. NATO AWACS TheneedforaEuropeanAWACSsystemcame about after the Warsaw pact countries first acquiredthecapabilityofusingtheirattackaircraft atverylowaltitudessodefeatingfriendlyradarby operating 'out of sight' behind topographical features.Itwasobviousthatamethodhadtobe devisedtocounterthethreatasthewarningtime oftheenemyraider'sapproachhadbeenreduced tolessthantwominutes.TheanswerwastheE3ASentry. Between1968and1974theNATOpowersset
upahigh-rankingstudygroupthatrecommended the American equipment. However, the initial proposalsweretooexpensiveforNATOCouncil members and cuts to numbers and ob-board equipment had to be made to keep the project withinbudget. AnorganisationwassetupinBrusselswhich wastaskedwithpreparingthecompleteproposals for member countries approval including the number and configuration of aircraft and how thesecouldreadilyfitintoexistingNATOgroundbasedairdefencesystems.Finallytheoverallcost hadtobeconfirmedandamethoddevisedsothat thiscouldbesplitfairlyamongsttheindividual nationswhohadsettheprojectup.On7December 1978 an inter-governmental agreement was reachedandsignedbyNATODefenceMinisters thusgivingthesignalfortherealisationofoneof themostambitiousinternationaldefenceschemes yetdevised. Headed by a German Major General, an organisationwassetuptocarryoutthiscomplex programme,giventhetitleofNAPMO(NAEW ProgrammeManagementOrganisation)onwhich all twelve NATO countries taking part were represented. They had three main tasks to accomplish.Firstlytheactualprocurementofthe agreed eighteen aircraft modified to NATO requirements plus all the associated ground equipment and flight and mission simulators. Secondly the NATO Air Defence Ground Environment(NADGE)radarstationsinEurope stretchingfromnorthernNorwaytoTurkeyhadto
LX-N2000,oneofthethree707-307CsusedbyNATOassupporttrainersfortheirfleetofE-3As(NATO)
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Sixteen E-3A aircraft are assigned to the NATO E-3A Component. Normally, only a certain number of the E-3As are at NATO Air Base Geilenkirchen at any given time. The remainder are deployed to the Component’s Forward Operating Bases in Aktion, (Preveza) Greece; Trapani, Italy; and Konya, Turkey; and to the Forward Operating Location at Oerland, Norway; or to other allied airfields. Above: LX-N90454 comes in to land at Aktion National Airport in Greece. The bulges under the aircraft’s chin house a suite of electronic warfare support measures.(Author) Right: The flightdeck crew of NATO E-3s consist of Pilot, First Officer, Navigator and Flight Engineer. (NATO)
beconvertedtoacceptinformationprovidedbythe E-3A’sdatalinksystem.Finallyanairfieldbase had to be found that would be suitable for the generalheadquartersbutwithfourotherforward operatingbasesestablishedfromwhichtheaircraft couldincreasetheirrangeandabilitytostayon stationlonger. Asfrom1980theNATOEarlyWarningForce CommandwassetupasaNATOagencyunder SACEUR in Belgium and co-located with SHAPE.ItiscommandedbyaMajor-Generaland thepostisheldalternatelybytheUSAFandthe GermanAirForce. Outofthetwelvenationstakingpart,one, Luxembourg,hasnotgotanairforceofitsown andthereforetheaircraftthemselveswereplaced onthecivilaircraftregisterofthatcountryinatrue spiritofcompromiseandinordertoovercomethe legalrequirementsofaircraftownership. Thegigantictaskofsettingupwhatineffect was a new air force with all the necessary commandstructure,rulesandregulations,itsown policeforceandacompletetrainingandspares organisationwasnoteasy.BasicallytheNATO‘air force’isstructuredaftertheGermanGeschwader principle and has three component squadrons. TrainingandsupplyareaswerebasedonAmerican
systemswhichhadalreadybeenestablishedby the USAF although NATO’s aircraft were differentlyconfiguredandhadaslightlymodified tasktotheirAmericancounterparts.Thecommon languagewasEnglishandeachnationcontributed aircrewmembersinnumbersaccordingtotheir financialcontributiontothewholeproject. Eventhoughaircrewmemberswithprevious experience of AWACS operations such as the USAFpersonnelsecondedtoNATO’sairarm,had to go through the training system again at Geilenkirchenbeforebeingdeclaredoperational. Inallthirtymulti-nationalcrewsfromeleven countriesincludingtheUSA,Canada,Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Italy, Turkey, The Netherlands, Portugal and Greece make up the Component’s Operational Wing with ten crews assignedtoeachofthethreesquadrons. The E-3A Component was NATO's first operational flying unit with multinational manning.TheComponentcommander’sposition isofBrigadierGeneralrankandisheldalternately by Germany and the USA. The Component’s organizationalstructurecomprisesaHeadquarters staff and five major functional elements (OperationsWing,LogisticsWing,BaseSupport Wing,TrainingWingandInformationTechnology
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The specially painted anniversary AWACS was first presented in 2007 as part of the celebration of the NATO E3A Component’s 25th anniversary. (NATO)
Wing).EachWingiscommandedbyaColonel, eachfromadifferentNATOmembernation. The Component’s multinational, fully integratedworkforceconsistsofmorethan3,000 military and civilian personnel from 16 NATO membernations.Thisfigureincludespersonnel assigned to support functions, such as the engineering support teams of the Bundeswehr ServiceCentre,NationalSupportUnitpersonnel, andmoraleandwelfareactivitiesstaff. The Component operates sixteen (out of an originalorderforeighteen)BoeingE-3AAWACS aircraftandalsooperatedthreeBoeing707Trainer CargoAircraft,butthesewereretiredin2011. Intermsofhardware,theflightdeckofaNATO E-3A is just like any Boeing 707 but with the additionofthenavigator’sequipmentontheport side making it a little more cramped than its equivalentinanairliner. With the first NATO E-3A being delivered green from Boeing’s Seattle plant in February 1982, the internal equipment was fitted by Dornier-WerkeatOberpfaffenhofen.Thelastof theeighteenaircraftwasdeliveredinmid-1985. EachisfittedwithhighperformancePrattand WhitneyTF-33-100Aenginesgivingmorepower than the civil Boeing 707 equivalent and the internalstructureisstrengthenedtoallowforthe weight of equipment carried, especially the rotodome.Internallytheoperationalequipmentis
sub-dividedintofourcompartmentsexcludingthe flightdeck.Fromfronttoreartheseconsistofthe communicationsconsolesincludingradiovoice systems and the data transmission link. It is operatedbytwotechnicianswhoareresponsible formaintainingtheequipmentwhilstinflightand providinganyofthemanyservicesthatcankeep theE-3Aintouchwithotheragenciesoraircraft. This is followed by the data processing system withapowerfulcomputerwhichwassomewhat oldtechnologybutatthesametimethoroughly reliableandwell-proven. Inthecentrefuselagethereareninetactical workstationswithmulti-purposeconsoleshaving acentrallymountedVDUdisplayonwhichata selectionofvariousdistanceandscalemodesall aircraft can be displayed or shipping search conducted. Each target is labelled and nonessentialinformationtakenoffthescreenatwill. Atanyonetimetheaircraftcanwatchover 312,000squarekilometresoftheearth’ssurface and three NATO AWACS aircraft flying overlappingorbitscanprovidegroundagencies with a complete radar picture of the whole of central Europe extending into the Warsaw Pact countries.TheE-3Acandetectlowflyingaircraft or missiles at a range of up to 400 kms and mediumaltitudetargetsupto520kms. A popular myth from the early days of the
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NATO AWACS was that they could detect an armouredcolumnonthemove-thiswascertainly notthecase;oratleast,notwithoutoneofthe AFVshavingaradarresponderoranidentifying signalthatcouldalsobepickedupbytheenemy. TheAWACStaskwaswithlowflyingaircraftand notthelandbattlesassuch. However,therewasoneveryusefulsecondary role that the E-3 could perform. If an aircraft withinrangedeclaredanyformofemergency,this signalcouldbeaccuratelytrackeduntilitlanded safely. One machine - LX-N90457 - was lost followingmultiplebirdstrikesontakeofffrom Préveza-AktionAirport,Greeceon14July1996. Theplannedtake-offtimewas1815hours local. The normal crew of seventeen had been reduced to fourteen for the mission due to an expectedlowlevelofairactivity. Thetake-offbriefcalledforarollingrightseat take-off.Atapproximately120knotsaflockof birdswasseenrisingtowardstheleftsideofthe aircraftandsoundsofimpactalongtheleftsideof thefuselagewereheard.TheAircraftCommander contemplated aborting the take - off at that moment, but elected to continue. The aircraft continuedtoacceleratewithallengineindications normal.Astheaircraftnosestartedtorisethecrew sawalargeblackbirdmovingfromlefttorightin closeproximitytotheaircraft.Anoise,interpreted asthebirdimpact,wasthenheardontherighthandsideoftheaircraft.TheAircraftCommander thenelectedtoabortthetake-offandinitiatedthe procedure.Theremainderoftheflightdeckcrew responded accordingly. However, as the abort procedure was carried out, it became rapidly apparentthattheaircraftwouldnotbestoppedon theremainingrunway.Theaircraftdepartedthe
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runwayatapproximately60knotsdownasandy inclineontothelandinglightssupportpierandinto theIoniansea.Themainlandinggearseparated fromtheaircraftaftercontactingtherocks,while theaircraftcontinuedforward,eventuallycoming to rest some five hundred feet from the end of runway 25R, rotated about sixty degrees to the right,withtheaftsectionontherunwaylighting supportpierandthepartlyseparatednosesection restinginthesea. On 23 June 2015, the first of the original eighteenNATOE-3AAWACSaircrafttoretire, arrivedatDavis-MonthanAFBnearTucson,AZ. The aircraft, LX-N90449, was placed in parts reclamation storage where critical items were removed by NATO technicians to support their remaining fleet of E-3A aircraft. It had accumulated 22,206 flight hours between 19 August1983and13May2015andoperatedout of twenty-one different countries in support of NATOoperationalactivities.Theaircraftwasdue inmid-July2015forasix-yearcycleDepotLevel Maintenance(DLM)inspectionwhichwouldhave been very costly. Without the inspection, the aircraftwouldnolongerbeallowedtofly.Thesocalled ‘449 Retirement Project’ resulted in reclamation of critical parts with a value of upwardsof$40,000,000.Someofthepartstobe removed were no longer on the market or had become very expensive. The surviving sixteen aircraft of the NATO E-3A Component are all registeredinLuxembourgaspartofthatcountry’s contributiontotheNATOAWACSprogramme. Sincecomingintoserviceintheearly1980s, theaircraft,theironboardsystemsandassociated ground-basedequipmenthaveundergoneregular upgrading.Threemajorprogrammeshavebeen accomplished since the early 1990s. The MidThe demise of LXN90457. The Sentry failed to stop on the runway and ended up in the water - not surprising considering the 9419 foot runway has its ends in either the Amvrakikoa Kolpos (Ambracian Gulf, also known as the Gulf of Arta or the Gulf of Actium) and the other in the Ionian Sea. (Σπύρος Σπυρίδων)
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TermModernizationProgramme,wascompleted inDecember2008.Itincludedtheretrofittingof seventeen E-3As with improved navigation systems,digitalcommunicationsystemsandfive additional workstations, as well as the enhancement of two Mission Simulators. As a resultofthisprojecttheNATOAWACSwillbe abletocontinuetofulfillitsintendedroleasan importantNATOassetformaintainingpeaceand security. The Component’s two operational E-3A squadronsanditsformerTCAsquadronhavea totalofthirtymultinationalaircrewsfromfourteen of NATO’s twenty-eight nations: Belgium, Denmark,Germany,Greece,Hungary,Italy,the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Turkey,RomaniaandtheUnitedStates.Canada withdrew its participation from the AWACS programin2014.Inaddition,theAircrewTraining Squadron operates on an equally multinational basisunderthedirectionofTrainingWing. The Component has approximately thirty militaryandcivilianassignedpersonnelateach site;theseareNATOpersonnel,butallarefrom therespectivehostnation. The fleet of E-3s has remained in operation sincetheColdWarandhasadapteditsmissionto emergingsecuritythreats,primarilyinEuropean airspace. Despite stringent self-imposed flight restrictions, including conducting a significant portion of training flights at different airfields throughout Europe and North America, E-3A operations in Geilenkirchen caused noise pollution, according to a recent study by the NetherlandsNationalInstituteforPublicHealth and the Environment, affecting over 40,000 citizens of Parkstad Limburg across the nearby German-Dutchborder,whohaveformedanNGO aiming to stop AWACS flights. The Dutch governmenthasaskedforamid-lifeupgradeofthe AWACSfleettoincludeupgradingtheenginesto make the fleet meet the maximum noise levels allowedforcivilianairtraffic. Theunpressurisedrotodomeisthirtyfeetin diameter,sixfeetthickatthecentre,andisheld elevenfeetabovethefuselagebytwostruts.Itis tilteddownatthefronttoreduceitsaerodynamic drag,whichlessensitsdetrimentaleffectontakeoffs and endurance (which is corrected electronically by both the radar and secondary surveillance radar antenna phase shifters). The dome uses both bleed air and cooling doors to remove the heat generated by electronic and mechanicalequipment.Thehydraulicallyrotated
antenna system permits the Westinghouse Corporation'sAN/APY-1andAN/APY-2passive electronically scanned array radar system to providesurveillancefromtheEarth'ssurfaceup intothestratosphere,overlandorwater. Othermajorsub-systemsintheE-3Sentryare navigation, communications, and computers. Consoles display computer-processed data in graphic and tabular format on video screens. Console operators perform surveillance, identification, weapons control, battle managementandcommunicationsfunctions.The radarandcomputersub-systemsontheE-3can gatherandpresentbroadanddetailedbattlefield information.Thisincludespositionandtracking information on enemy aircraft and ships, and locationandstatusoffriendlyaircraftandnaval vessels. The information can be sent to major command and control centers in rear areas or aboard ships. In times of crisis, data can be forwardedtotheNationalCommandAuthorityin theUSviaRC-135ornavalaircraftcarriertask forces. Electricalgeneratorsmountedoneachofthe E-3'sfourenginesprovidetheonemegawattof electricalpowerthatisrequiredbytheE-3'sradars andotherelectronics.Itspulse-Dopplerradar(PD) hasarangeofmorethan250milesforlow-flying targets at its operating altitude, and the pulse (BTH) radar has a range of approximately 400 miles for aircraft flying at medium to high altitudes. Startingin1987,USAFE-3swereupgraded underthe‘Block30/35ModificationProgram’to enhance the E-3s capabilities. On 30 October 2001,thefinalairframetobeupgradedunderthis program was rolled out. Several major enhancementsweremade,firstlytheinstallation of electronic support measures (ESM) and an electronicsurveillancecapability,forbothactive and passive means of detection. Also, Joint TacticalInformationDistributionSystem(JTIDS) was installed, which provides rapid and secure communication for transmitting information, includingtargetpositionsandidentificationdata, to other friendly platforms. Global Positioning System(GPS)capabilitywasalsoadded.Onboard computerswerealsooverhauledtoaccommodate JTIDS, Link-16, the new ESM systems and to provideforfutureenhancements. Alltransmissionsfromaradarsetareunique to that type of radar, and can be identified by anyonewithasuitableradarfrequencyreceiver and a decent database of radar parameters. 8
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A dramatic head-on shot showing the huge rotodome on top of RAF E-3D Sentry XH103 ‘Happy’ at RAF Waddington in early 1996. (author)
Squadron’sE-3DSentriesarefittedwiththeLoral 1017‘Yellowgate’ESMsystem,uniquetotheE3DwithintheAEWworld,locatedintheaircraft's distinctivewingpods.Thissystemgivesautomatic identificationofradartransmissionstogetherwith abearingofthatradar’ssource.Thisallowsthe ESM operator some degree of identification of radarcontactsinatacticalsituation. TheE-3Dcanpassinformationbyavarietyof datalinks,andradios.Voicecommunicationis achievedviasatellitecommunications,UHF,VHF andHFvoiceradios.Datacanbepassedbydata link.Themainlinksinclude: JointTacticalInformationDistributionSystem (JTIDS),whichusesbothInterimJTIDSMessage Standard(IJMS)andLink16messagestandards. Link 16 is used to pass tactical information between the E-3D and the Tornado F3s and Typhoons.IJMSisthemainNATOair-picture datalink. Link11isusedtopassdatatoNavalForces,
UK air-defence sites and to some air platforms suchasmaritimepatrolandElintaircraft. Sevendifferentinternalcommunicationnets allow the crew to co-ordinate internally, either discretelyorcrew-wide.Threeofthesenetsare capableofcarryingclassifiedinformationwithout riskofinterception. Sensor data is processed by the on-board computer,knownasthe‘missioncomputer’and presented to the E-3D mission crew via ten ‘SituationDisplayConsoles.’Theoperatorstrack these contacts – information such as position, heading,speed,heightandidentificationisalso storedinthecomputer.Thistrackinformationcan bepassedtoothercomputersystems,eitheronthe groundorinshipsandotheraircraft,viadatalinks. The Radar System Improvement Program (RSIP) was a joint US/NATO development program.RSIPenhancestheoperationalcapability oftheE-3radars’electroniccountermeasures,and dramatically improve the system's reliability,
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maintainability,andavailability.Essentially,this programmereplacedtheoldertransistor-transistor logic and emitter-coupled logic electronic components,long-sinceoutofproduction,with off-the-shelfdigitalcomputersthatutilisedaHighlevelprogramminglanguageinsteadofassembly language. These hardware and software modifications improved the E-3 radars’ performance,providingenhanceddetectionwith an emphasis towards low radar cross-section (RCS)targets. TheRAFhadalsojoinedtheUSAFinadding RSIPtoupgradetheE-3'sradars.Theretrofitting oftheE-3squadronswascompletedinDecember 2000. Along with the RSIP upgrade was
installation of the Global Positioning System/Inertial Navigation Systems which dramatically improve positioning accuracy. In 2002,BoeingwasawardedacontracttoaddRSIP tothesmallFrenchAWACSsquadron.Installation wascompletedin2006. The USAF has a total of thirty-one E-3s in active service. Twenty-seven are stationed at Tinker AFB and belong to the Air Combat Command(ACC).FourareassignedtothePacific AirForces(PACAF)andstationedatKadenaAB, Okinawa and Elmendorf AFB, Alaska. One aircraft(TS-3)wasassignedtoBoeingfortesting anddevelopment(retired/scrappedJune2012).In 1977,IranplacedanorderfortenE-3s,butthis
The new and the old! The nose of 8 Squadron’s Sentry AEW.1 XH107 ‘Bashful’ with XW664, a 51 Squadron R.1P Nimrod behind taken during a series of severe snowstorms that hit RAF Waddington on 26 January 1996. The E-3 wears the city of Lincoln crest below the captain’s window. (author)
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An RAF Sentry waddles out to the end of Coningsby’s main runway to take off on another sortie. At the time 8 Squadron were away from their normal base of RAF Waddington which was undergoing runway work. (author)
orderwascancelledfollowingthe1979revolution. TheUnitedKingdomandFrancearenotpart oftheNATOE-3AComponent,insteadprocuring E-3aircraftthroughajointproject.TheUKand FranceoperatetheirE-3aircraftindependentlyof each other and of NATO. The UK operates six aircraft(withaseventhnowretired)andFrance operates four aircraft, all fitted with the newer CFM56-2engines.TheBritishrequirementcame about following the cancellation of the British AerospaceNimrodAEW3projecttoreplacethe AvroShackletonAEW2duringthe1980s.TheUK E-3 order was placed in February 1987, with deliveriesstartingin1990. TheRoyalAirForceoperatestheSentriesin the airborne surveillance and command-andcontrol role. The aircraft are based at RAF Waddington, where they are operated by 8 SquadronastheUK’scontributiontotheNATO AirborneEarlyWarningandControlForce.The E-3DalsoformsonearmoftheUKIntelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition and Reconnaissance(ISTAR)triadofSentinelR1,E3D and Shadow R1 aircraft. Whilst primarily procuredasanairborneearlywarningaircraft,the E-3D has been extensively employed in the AirborneWarningandControlSystem(AWACS) role.TheE-3DSentry,knowntotheRAFasthe AEW1, has been extensively modified and updatedtoaccommodatemodernmissionsystems. Missionenduranceisapproximatelyelevenhours, although this can be extended by air-to-air refuelling. The E-3D is the only aircraft in the RAF’sinventorycapableofair-to-airrefuellingby boththeAmerican‘flying-boom’systemandthe RAF’s‘probe-and-drogue’method. The normal crew complement of eighteen comprisesfourflight-deckcrew,threetechnicians andaneleven-manmissioncrew.Themissioncrew comprises a tactical director (mission crew commander), a fighter allocator, three weapons
controllers,asurveillancecontroller,twosurveillance operators,adata-linkmanager,acommunications operator and an electronic-support-measures operator. The Sentry’s roles include air and sea surveillance, airborne command and control, weapons control and it can also operate as an extensivecommunicationsplatform. The aircraft cruises at 30,000 feet and 400 knotsanditsNorthropGrummanAN/APY-2highperformance,multimodelookdownradarisableto separate airborne and maritime targets from groundandseaclutter.OneE-3Dflyingat30,000 feet can scan at distances of over 300 nautical miles;itcandetectlow-flyingtargetsormaritime surfacecontactswithin215nauticalmilesandit candetectmedium-levelairbornetargetsatranges inexcessof280nauticalmiles.Themulti-mode radarprovideslookdownsurveillancetotheradar horizonandanelectronicverticalscanoftheradar beamprovidestargetelevationandbeyond-thehorizonoperationforlong-rangesurveillanceof mediumandhigh-altitudeaircraft.Theseattributes allowittodeterminethelocation,altitude,course andspeedoflargenumbersofairbornetargets. The aircraft’s mission systems can separate, manage and display targets individually on situation displays within the aircraft, or it can transmittheinformationtoground-basedandshipbasedunitsusingavarietyofdigitaldatalinks Almost immediately upon becoming operationalontheSentryin1991,8Squadronwas deployed on operations over the Balkans. The squadron, along with its sister 23 Squadron, assumed theAirborne EarlyWarning role upon reformation in April 1996, sharing the RAF's Sentry AEW1 fleet with 8 Squadron. Both squadrons operated the Sentry over Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan, Iraq and Libya until 23 Squadrondisbandedon2October2009,whenit amalgamatedwith8Squadron. Justas8SquadronShackletonsusedtocarry
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XH104 ‘Sleepy’ seen surrounded by ground equipment during a temporary deployment from RAF Waddington to RAF Coningsby on 24 October 2014 while runway work was carried out at the former airfield. (author)
thenamesof‘Magic Roundabout’ and‘The Herbs’ characters,theSentriesarealsonamed,afterWalt Disney’s‘Seven Dwarfs’. Thenamesonaplaque, alongwithaembroideredcaricatureislocatedon abulkheadjusttotherightofthemaincrewentry door.Fortherecord,ZH101Doc; ZH102Dopey; ZH103Happy; ZH104Sleepy; ZH105Sneezy; ZH106Grumpy andZH107Bashful. WhilestilloperatingthevenerableShackleton AEW aircraft from Lossiemouth in Scotland, 8 Squadronhadbeenearmarkedin1987tobethe unit to fly the new SentryAEW.1 aircraft from Waddington. Some personnel were sent to the NATO air base at Geilenkirchen for training, the first qualifyinginOctober1988.Overthenextyear,the equivalent of two more crews were trained at Geilenkirchen,returningin1990toformelements oftheSTSand8Squadroncrews.Theaircraftfor theRAFwere,meanwhile,underconstructionat theBoeingplantatSeattle,wherethefirstone, ZH101,tooktotheairon5January1990.Firstto arriveatWaddingtonhowever,wasZH102,which flewinon4July1990,followedbyZH101on26
March1991. Althoughnotyetofficiallyinexistenceasthe Sentrysquadron,8Squadron(Designate)began operatingtheSentryonUKairdefencedutieson 8 May 1991, when Flt. Lt. David Buchanan captainedZH102onaflightofalmostninehours duringwhichthecrewco-operatedwiththeSector OperationsCentreatNeatishead,Norfolk. On1July19918Squadronformallytookup itsfirstpostinginEnglandinseventyyears,when onthatdaythe‘old’squadronwasdisbanded,to beinstantlyreformedatWaddington.Previously thesquadronhadspentnineteenyearsinScotland andbeforethathadbeenstationedintheMiddle EastsinceOctober1920,usingawidevarietyof aircraftovertheyears.
The forward starboard side of XH104 ‘Sleepy’. The close up picture shows the two crests below the copilot’s windows, the one on the left being that of 54 Squadron, the one on the right being the NATO AEW emblem. (author)
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Tomarkthenewcircumstances,thesquadron paradedatWaddington,twoFlightsofpersonnel marching in review order behind a kilted pipe band. On the apron where the parade was held stoodtwoSentryaircraftflankingonevenerable Shackleton, and at the right moment another Shackletonflewbyatlowleveltosymbolisethe change of aircraft. The squadron standard was paradedandhandedoverbyWgCdrCJBoothto thenewCO,WgCdrRGThompson,andthose on parade were inspected by AM Sir Kenneth Hayr,aformermemberof8Squadronandnowthe DeputyChiefofDefenceStaff. 8Squadron'sfirstoperationafterreformation tookplaceon4July1991aspartofanoffensive support exercise involving control of Jaguars, TornadosandHarriers.ThefinalSentry,ZH107, was handed over to the RAF in March 1992, enabling 8 Squadron to reach full operational standard on 1 July, and two weeks later the squadron was tasked by NATO AEW Force CommandatSHAPEtooperateinsupportofUN sanctionsinBosnia.Sincethen,theRAFSentries have worked closely with the similar NATO aircraftandwiththeUSAF,ItalianAirForceand l'Armeedel'Air,providingdetachmentsatforward operatingbasesinItalyandNorway.Duringthe Bosnian crisis 8 Squadron maintained regular surveillanceoftheBosnia-Herzogovina‘nofly’ zone under Operation ‘Sky Monitor’. On 19 January1993oneoftheSentriesandaNATOE-3 visitedBudapestinHungarytoshowappreciation
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for the use of that country's airspace, in which orbitssouthofBudapestwereflowntoallowthe radarcoveragetobeenhanced. Inaddition,thesquadroninitsfirsteighteen months deployed aircraft to Alaska, Cyprus, Denmark,Holland,France,GermanyandCanada to take part in NATO exercises. A notable milestonewasreachedon3March1992,whena Sentrywasair-refuelledtwiceduringafive-andthree-quarter hour flight, once by the British ‘probe and drogue’ method and once by the USAF'srigidboom,theaircraftbeingfittedwith bothsystems.Theaircraftcanbeairborneforup to twelve hours without refuelling, and much longer after ‘topping up’, though in normal practicethisisnotnecessary. InRAFservicetheSentryAEW.1hasacrew thatcanbedividedintotwosections:FlightDeck andMission.OntheflightdecktheCaptain(1st Pilot)isresponsibleforthesafetyoftheaircraft anditsoccupants. Co Pilot: Both pilots are fully qualified to operatetheaircraft,whichisgenerally‘operated’ fromtheleft-handseat.Pilots,therefore,flymost sortiesfromtheleft-handseattoensure‘handson’ timeissharedevenly.Thepilotintheright-hand seatisresponsibleforradiocommunicationand themonitoringofnavigationradioaids. Navigator:Hisduties,amongstothers,include ensuringthattheaircraftreachesandmaintainsits orbitposition,ofteninairspacegivinglittlemargin forerror.
This head on shot of XH104 ‘Sleepy’ taken during the walkround shows the dual re-fuelling system fitted to the RAF E-3Ds, the aircraft being capable of taking fuel from both probe and drogue and flying boom systems.(author)
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© G.M.Simons
Above: the main cabin layout of a Royal Air Force E-3D Sentry, showing most of the crew positions. Below: the Data Processing section, with display screens. The Communications and Encripto section is further forward. (author)
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Above: the data processing area of XH104 ‘Sleepy’ looking aft towards the radar and radar operator’s area. At the time the aircraft was having maintenance done on the wing spoilers, so the over-wing escape hatches were open. Nevertheless, considering the interior has no real windows, just ‘portholes’ in the escape hatches, the light levels are good, and there is no sense of being inside a gloomy, claustrophobic tube.
Right: the radar operator’s position. All the chairs have full four-point harnesses, and rotate away from the work stations. (both author)
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Although basically the Boeing 707, the RAF’s E-3D are fitted with CFM-56 engines and the fuselage does not have the long row of windows on either side; they also carry ‘low visibitity’ markings. (author)
Flight Engineer: The flight engineer is responsibleformonitoring theenginepowerandflight performanceoftheaircraft. Head of the Mission Crew is the Tactical Director, responsible for theoverallconductofthe mission, as tasked by the operatingauthorities.Heis the senior member of the mission crew and liaises directlywiththeoperating authorities. TheSurveillanceTeam is commanded by the Surveillance Controller, whoprovidestheoptimum radarpicturewithwhichto work.Workingforhimare the Links manager, who ensures the efficient employmentofthedigital data links, two or three SurveillanceoperatorsandanESMoperatorwho compiletherecognisedairandsurfacepicturefor onwardtransmissiontothegroundandotherunits. The weapons team is headed by the Fighter Allocatorwhoisresponsibleforthesafeconductof allaircraftwhichhavebeenallocatedtotheE-3Dto control.HistwoorthreeWeaponsControllerscan control a wide variety of air missions including Offensive and Defensive Counter Air operations usingfighters,CloseAirSupportandBattlefieldAir Interdiction using bombers and a wide variety of operationalsupportaircraft. TheCommunicationsOperatorisinchargeofall theSentry'son-boardcommunications.Heallocates accesstoradiosanddatalinkstothosewhoneed them.
Because of the complexity of the on-board systemstheE-3DisuniqueintheRoyalAirForce in carrying airborne technicians who initialise, monitor and provide basic maintenance of the highlysophisticatedmissionequipment: TheCommunicationsTechnicianassiststhe CommunicationsOperatorintherunningofallthe on-boardcommunicationssystemsincludingthe physicaldatalinks. The DisplayTechnician initialises, runs and maintainstheon-boardcomputersystemswhich aretheheartofthemissionequipment. TheRadarTechnicianrunsthemissionradar, without which there would be no mission. He liaises with the Surveillance Controller and the DisplayTechniciantoprovidethebestpossible
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radar picture for the surveillance and weapons teamstoworkwith. Formed on 1 January 1993, the Sentry StandardsUnitwasresponsibleforcheckingflying standards of all Sentry crews. It gradually expanded to the point where it had a crew of instructors which was virtually operational, coveringallthespecialfunctions. Over the years the SSU gradually evolved until on 5 September 2005, 54 (R) Squadron officiallyreformedwithanewrole,takingover operationaltrainingofthreeaircrafttypesatRAF Waddington as the Intelligence Surveillance, TargetAcquisitionandReconnaissance(ISTAR) Operational Conversion Unit to train aircrews from the three ISTAR platform, E-3D Sentry, NimrodR1andSentinelR1. French Sentries In the late 1990s France’s E-3F fleet received upgradessuchaselectronicsupportmeasuresthat coulddetectandbacktrackincomingradarbeams and other electromagnetic emissions, a passive listeninganddetectionsystem,andaradarsystem improvement programme, which enhanced the capabilitytodetectandtrackaircraftandmissiles. This brought them to roughly Block 30/35 equivalent.
Above: the low visibility marks including the 8 Squadron emblem and tiny fin flash on the tail of XH107 ‘Bashful’. Below: XH104 undergoes work on the wing spoilers. (both author)
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E-3D Details
Above: the back end and (below) the front, both covered and uncovered CFM-56s that power the RAFs Sentries. Right: one of the ‘Yellowgate’ wingtip ESM pods. (all author)
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One for the modellers! Lumps, bumps, hatches and aerials. The rear fuselage of the last 707 airframe built, ZH107, shows an array of ‘interesting things’. (author)
In2004Francedecidedtolookatupgrading their E-3Fs from Block 30/35.They contracted withHanscomAFB’sElectronicSystemsCenter to perform a feasibility study to identify what would be the new French AWACS mid-life upgrade for mission computing and air battle management. ThestudywasperformedtocomparetheUS Block 40/45 system and the NATO mid-term system.Afterthestudy,theFrenchconcludedthey wanted to pursue the US Block 40/45, with French-specificrequirementsaddedorretained. On 26 September 2008 the US Defense Security Co-operation Agency announced France’srequesttoupgradefourE-3FAWACS withBlock40/45MissionComputing,Electronic Support Measures and Radar System ImprovementProgramInterface,andMode5/S Identification Friend or Foe. In addition, this proposedsalewastoincluderelatedspareand repairparts,supportequipment,publicationsand technicaldocumentation,integration,personnel trainingandequipment,contractorengineering andtechnicalsupportservices,andotherrelated elementsofprogrammesupport.Theestimated costwas$400million. France used this upgrade to maintain full interoperability and interchangeability with US and other NATO coalition partners, and would
have no difficulty absorbing the additional AWACS aircraft into its armed forces. Boeing IntegratedDefenseSystemsinSeattle,WAwould betheprimecontractor,butimplementationofthis salewouldnotrequiretheassignmentofanyUS Government and contractor representatives to France. On7January2011AirFranceIndustriesand KLMEngineering&Maintenance,whichjoined forces following theAir France/ KLM merger, announcedacontractwithBoeingDefense,Space &SecuritytoinstalltheE-3F’smodificationkits. Theworkwasbegunin2012intheAFIfacility atLeBourget,outsideParis,andendedwhenthe 4th and last aircraft was refitted. A team from Boeingwason-handthroughouttheprogramto overseeoperations. Laterthatyear,on12September,AirFrance and the French MdlD’s SIMMAD Aircraft ThroughLifeSupportOrganizationannouncedthe renewalofthethrough-lifesupportcontractfor France’sfleetoffourE-3FAWACS.Thisfive-year dealincrementwastorunthroughto1September 2016andalthoughAirFranceKLMwouldnot disclosecosts,apressreleasesaid: “Through life support covers the complete array of AWACS engineering support services… technical and documentary support for the aircraft and its mission-specific systems, painting, and
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702-CB is towed into the hangar for updates at Le Bourget. (AFI/KLM)
heavy maintenance concurrently with Mid-Life Upgrade work, maintaining the related engineering resources, and providing IT and logistics support services. Two related projects will also by continued under the terms of the contract, namely the digitization of all technical documentation, and the integration of airworthiness monitoring into the AWACS computer systems.” Then, on 24 September 2012, France had problems in upgrading its E-3F AWACS fleet becameapparent,thankstobureaucraticbungling ontheAmericansideofthetable.Theproblem wasthatthePentagonorderedBoeingtostopwork on the upgrade, because they needed to hold a reviewregardingtechnologiesthatmightbetoo sensitiveforexport.Boeingalreadyhadstaffin
Paris,whoneededtobekeptbutcouldnotwork. Overallcosts:another$5million. TheUSgovernmentwantedFrancetopaythe extra $5 million. France had already spent $10 millionona2009riskreductionstudythatlooked atengineeringandtechnologies,andthePentagon didn’t make an issue of anything at that time. France said, not unreasonably, that if the Pentagon’s serial mistakes caused the problem, andtheyweretheonesmanagingtheprogramme under Foreign Military Sale rules, then the Pentagoncouldpayfortheextracosts. On 17 February 2014 Boeing’s team successfullycompletedthefirstofthefourMidLifeUpgradestoFrance’sE-3Ffleet.Allmachines underwent ground and flight tests atAvordAir Base,followingtheirupgraderotationthroughAFI
36-CA, one of the four French E-3F fleet in flight. (Armee de L’Air)
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The same aircraft is rolled out at Le Bouget on completion of the upgrades. (AFI/KLM)
KLME&M’sfacilityatCharlesDeGaulleAirport inParis. The other operator of the type, delivered betweenJune1986andSeptember1987,isSaudi Arabiawhichoperatedfiveaircraft,allfittedwith CFM56-2engines. E-3 Sentry aircraft were among the first to deployduringOperationDesertShield,wherethey immediatelyestablishedanaround-the-clockradar screen to defend against Iraqi forces. During OperationDesertStorm,E-3sflew379missions andlogged5,052hoursofon-stationtime.The data collection capability of the E-3 radar and computersub-systemsallowedanentireairwarto berecordedforthefirsttimeinhistory.Inaddition toprovidingseniorleadershipwithtime-critical informationontheactionsofenemyforces,E-3 controllersassistedin38ofthe41air-to-airkills recordedduringtheconflict. NATOE-3sjoinedtheirUSAFcolleaguesfor jointairdefenceaspartofOperationEagleAssist in the wake of the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacksontheWorldTradeCentertowersandthe Pentagon.
J-Stars The Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System, known as Joint STARS,isaUSAFAirbornegroundsurveillance, battle management and command and control aircraft. It tracks ground vehicles and some aircraft, collects imagery, and relays tactical picturestogroundandairtheatrecommanders. TheaircraftisoperatedbybothactivedutyAir
Force and Air National Guard units and also carries specially trained USArmy personnel as additionalflightcrew. Joint STARS evolved from separate United States Army and Air Force programmes to develop,detect,locateandattackenemyarmour atrangesbeyondtheforwardareaoftroops.In 1982thetwoprogrammesweremergedandthe USAF became the lead agent.The concept and sensortechnologyfortheE-8wasdevelopedand testedontheTacitBlueexperimentalaircraft.The prime contract was awarded to Grumman AerospaceCorporationinSeptember1985fortwo E-8Adevelopmentsystems. The E-8C is an aircraft modified from the Boeing 707-300 series commercial airliner. It carries specialised radar, communications, operations and control sub-systems. The most prominentexternalfeatureisthe40footcanoeshaped radome under the forward fuselage that houses the 24 foot long side-looking APY-7 passiveelectronicallyscannedarrayantenna. TheE-8Ccanrespondquicklyandeffectively to support worldwide military contingency operations.Itisajam-resistantsystemcapableof operating while experiencing heavy electronic countermeasures.Itcanflyamissionprofilefor ninehourswithoutrefuelling.Itsrangeandonstationtimecanbesubstantiallyincreasedthrough in-flightrefuelling. TheAN/APY-7radarcanoperateinwidearea surveillance,groundmovingtargetindicator(GMTI), fixedtargetindicator(FTI)targetclassification,and syntheticapertureradar(SAR)modes.
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Topickupmovingtargets,theradarlooksat theDopplerfrequencyshiftofthereturnedsignal. Itcanlookfromalongrange,whichthemilitary referstoasahighstandoffcapability.Theantenna canbetiltedtoeithersideoftheaircraftfora120degreefieldofviewcoveringnearly20,000square milesandcansimultaneouslytrack600targetsat morethan150miles.TheGMTImodescannot pickupobjectsthataretoosmall,insufficiently dense,orstationary.Dataprocessingallowsthe APY-7todifferentiatebetweenarmouredvehicles andtrucks,allowingtargetingpersonneltobetter selecttheappropriateordnanceforvarioustargets. Thesystem'sSARmodescanproduceimages ofstationaryobjects.Objectswithmanyangles-for example,theinteriorofatruckbed-willgivea muchbetterradarsignature,orspecularreturn.In additiontobeingabletodetect,locateandtrack largenumbersofgroundvehicles,theradarhasa limited capability to detect helicopters, rotating antennasandlow,slow-movingfixed-wingaircraft. TheradarandcomputersubsystemsontheE8C can gather and display broad and detailed battlefieldinformation.Dataiscollectedasevents occur. This includes position and tracking informationonenemyandfriendlygroundforces. Theinformationisrelayedinnear-realtimetothe USArmy'scommongroundstationsviathesecure jam-resistant surveillance and control data link andtoothergroundnodesbeyondline-of-sight viaultrahighfrequencysatellitecommunications. OthermajorE-8Cprimemissionequipment arethecommunications/datalinkandoperations and control subsystems. Eighteen operator
workstationsdisplaycomputer-processeddatain graphic and tabular format on video screens. Operators and technicians perform battle management,surveillance,weapons,intelligence, communicationsandmaintenancefunctions. NorthropGrummanhastestedtheinstallation ofaMS-177cameraonanE-8Ctoprovidereal timevisualtargetconfirmation. Inmissionsfrompeacekeepingoperationsto majortheatrewar,theE-8Ccanprovidetargeting data and intelligence for attack aviation, naval surfacefire,fieldartilleryandfriendlymanoeuvre forces. The information helps air and land commanderstocontrolthebattlespace. The E-8's ground-moving radar can tell approximatenumberofvehicles,location,speed, anddirectionoftravel.Itcannotidentifyexactly what type of vehicle a target is, tell what equipmentithas,ordiscernwhetheritisfriendly, hostile, or a bystander, so commanders often crosschecktheJSTARSdataagainstothersources. In the Army, JSTARS data is analyzed in and disseminatedfromaGroundStationModule. Midway through the ratification testing, in 1991 Iraq invaded Kuwait, so the two E-8A development aircraft were rapidly deployed to participateinOperationDesertStormunderthe directionofAlbertJ.Verderosa,eventhoughthey were still in development. Technicians still workingontheaircraft,alongwith770tonsof material,wereflowntoRiyadhinSaudiArabiaby C-141StarlifterandC-5Galaxyinsupport. Thejointprogrammeaccuratelytrackedmobile Iraqi forces, including tanks and Scud missiles.
Joint Stars E-8A 86-0416 was the former QANTAS 707-338C VH-AEF. (USAF)
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The E-8C Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System is the only airborne platform in operation that can maintain realtime surveillance over a corps-sized area of the battlefield. A joint Air Force - Army programme, the Joint STARS uses a multi-mode side looking radar to detect, track, and classify moving ground vehicles in all conditions deep behind enemy lines. 92-3290 is the former N4115J and has an interesting history. This B707, named ‘City of Tamworth’ was delivered to QANTAS on 6 June 1967. It was sold to Zambia Airways as 9J-AEL on 20 May1977, and Trans Arabian as ST-ALP in March 1989. It was refurbished and converted to a E-8C JStars 92-3290 based at 93rd ACW, Robbins AFB Georgia. (US Air Force photo)
Crewsflewdevelopmentalaircrafton49combat sorties,accumulatingmorethan500combathours anda100%missioneffectivenessrate. Excellent results shown in combat led to a contractfortheseriesproductionon24April1992, revisedinMay1993fortheadditionofafurther sixunitstothosealreadyplanned. Theprovisionforthemanufactureoftwoper yearwasdelayedfollowingBoeing’swithdrawal fromtheproject,alleviatedbytheinterventionof Northrop, who continued production at their Melbourne,Floridaplant.Thethirdunitwasready inDecember1993andmadeitsfirstflighton25 March1994,bywhichtimethreemoreunitswere readyinUSAFhangers.Theacquisitionofthree second-handCC-137s-thedesignationgivento five Boeing 707-347C which served with the Canadian Forces from 1970 to 1997, was also required, each costing 6.8 million dollars, and thesestartedarrivingin1996. That same year Variant C was declared operationa| of which thirteen were destined for Wing93ofAirborneControlandSurveillanceat RobinsAirBaseinGeorgia. At one time six units for NATO’sAirborne Ground Surveillance programme were being considered. These Joint STARS developmental aircraft also participated in Operation Joint Endeavor, a NATO peacekeeping mission, in December1995.Whileflyinginfriendlyairspace, thetest-bedE-8Aandpre-productionE-8Caircraft
monitored ground movements to confirm compliance with the Dayton Peace Accords agreements.Crewsflewninety-fiveconsecutive operational sorties and more than 1,000 flight hourswitha98%missioneffectivenessrate. The93dAirControlWing,whichactivated on29January1996,accepteditsfirstaircraft.On 11 June 1996, and deployed in support of Operation Joint Endeavor in October. The provisional 93d Air Expeditionary Group monitoredtreatycompliancewhileNATOrotated troopsthroughBosniaandHerzegovina.Thefirst productionE-8Candapre-productionE-8Cflew thirty-sixoperationalsortiesandmorethan470 flighthourswitha100%effectivenessrate.The Wingdeclaredinitialoperationalcapabilityon18 December 1997 after receiving the second productionaircraft.OperationAlliedForcesaw JointSTARSinactionagainfromFebruaryto June1999,accumulatingmorethan1,000flight hoursanda94.5%mission-effectivenessratein supportoftheUSledKosovoWar. On1October2002,the93rdAirControlWing (93ACW)wasamalgamatedwiththe116thBomb Wing in a ceremony at RobinsAir Force Base, Georgia. The 116th BW was an Air National Guard wing equipped with the B-1B Lancer bomber at RobinsAFB.As a result of a USAF reorganizationoftheB-1Bforce,allB-1Bswere assignedtoactivedutywings,resultinginthe116 BWlackingacurrentmission.Extensiveefforts
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The Ground Moving Target Indicator display overlaid on a ground image. (USAF)
by Georgia's governor and congressional delegationledtotheresultingamalgamation,with thenewlycreatedwingdesignatedasthe116thAir ControlWing.The93rdACWwasinactivatedthe same day.The 116thACW constituted the first fullyblendedwingofactivedutyandAirNational Guardairmen. The116thACWhasbeenheavilyinvolvedin bothOperationEnduringFreedomandOperation Iraqi Freedom, earning high marks for operationaleffectivenessandrecentlycompleting 10,000combathours.TheWingtookdeliveryof the17thandfinalE-8Con23March2005.E-8C JointSTARSroutinelysupportvarioustaskings oftheCombinedForceCommandKoreaduring
theNorthKoreanwinterexercisecycleandfor theUnitedNations,enforcingUNresolutionson Iraq. The twelfth production aircraft, outfitted with an upgraded operations and control subsystem, was delivered to the USAF on 5 November2001. On13March2009,aJointSTARSaircraftwas damagedbeyondeconomicalrepairwhenatest plug was left on a fuel tank vent, subsequently causingthefueltanktoruptureduringin-flight refuelling.Therewerenocasualtiesbuttheaircraft allegedlysustained$25millionindamage. On3September2009,DrLorenBThompson oftheLexingtonInstituteraisedthequestionof whymostoftheJointSTARSfleetwassittingidle
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instead of being used to track insurgents in Afghanistan.ThompsonstatedthattheJSTARS’ radar has an inherent capacity to find what the Army calls ‘dismounted’ targets - insurgents walking around or placing roadside bombs. Thompson's neutrality has been questioned by somesinceLexingtonInstitutehasbeenheavily fundedbydefensecontractors,includingNorthrop Grumman. Recent trials of JSTARS inAfghanistan are destined to develop tactics, techniques and proceduresintrackingdismounted,movinggroups ofTaliban. On 28 November 2010, amidst escalating danger of war breaking out between North and South Korea, the South Korean government requestedtheUStoimplementJSTARSinorder to monitor and track North Korean military movementsneartheDMZ. On17January2011,NorthropGrumman'sE8CJointSTARStestbedaircraftcompletedthe secondoftwodeploymentstoNavalAirStation PointMugu,California,insupportoftheUSNavy JointSurfaceWarfareJointCapabilityTechnology Demonstration to test its Network-Enabled Weaponarchitecture. The Joint STARS aircraft executed three Operational Utility Assessment flights and demonstrateditsabilitytoguideanti-shipweapons againstsurfacecombatantsatavarietyofstandoff
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distances in the NEW architecture. The Joint STARSaircraftservedasthenetworkcommandand-control node, as well as a node for transmittingin-flighttargetmessageupdatestoan AGM-154C-1JointStandoffWeaponcarriedby USNavyF/A-18Hornetsusingitsadvancedlong rangetrackingandtargetingcapability. From2001toJanuary2011theJointSTARS fleet flew over 63,000 hours in 5,200 combat missionsinsupportofOperationsIraqiFreedom, EnduringFreedomandNewDawn. On 1 October 2011, the amalgamated construct of the 116th Air Control Wing combiningAirNationalGuardandRegularAir Forcepersonnelinasingleunitwasdiscontinued. On this date, the 461st Air Control Wing was establishedatRobinsAFBastheAirForce'ssole active duty E-8 JSTARS Wing while the 116th ACWrevertedtoatraditionalAirNationalGuard WingwithintheGeorgiaAirNationalGuard.Both unitssharethesameE-8aircraftandwilloftenfly withmixedcrews,butnowfunctionasseparate units. Four variants were allocated the E-8 designation:E-8A:originalplatformconfiguration TE-8A:Singleaircraftwithmissionequipment removed,usedforflightcrewtraining.YE-8B:a single aircraft, was to be a US Navy E-6 but transferredtotheUSAirForceasadevelopment aircraftbeforeitwasdecidedtoconvertsecond-
The forty-foot ‘canoe’ fitted under the front lower fuselage of the Joint STARS aircraft provided very little ground clearance. (USAF)
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handBoeing707/CC-137fortheJSTARSrole; E-8C: Production Joint Stars platform configuration converted from second-hand Boeing707/CC-137.
E-6 Mercury TheBoeingE-6Mercury-formerlyE-6Hermes isanairbornecommandpostandcommunications relaybasedontheBoeing707-320.Theoriginal E-6AmanufacturedbyBoeing'sdefensedivision enteredservicewiththeUnitedStatesNavyinJuly 1989, replacing the EC-130Q. It conveyed instructions from the National Command Authoritytofleetballisticmissilesubmarines,a missionknownasTACAMO(TAkeChargeAnd MoveOut).TheE-6BmodeldeployedinOctober 1998keptthisrole,butaddedfurthercommand postcapabilitiesandcontrolofland-basedmissiles andnuclear-armedstrategicbombers.TheE-6B replaced Air Force EC-135Cs in the ‘Looking Glass’role,providingcommandandcontrolofUS nuclear forces should ground-based control becomeinoperable.Withproductionlastinguntil 1991,theE-6wasthefinalnewderivativeofthe Boeing707tobebuilt. LiketheE-3SentryAWACSaircraft,theE-6 isadaptedfromBoeing's707-320airliner.The firstE-6madeitsmaidenflightfromBoeing's Renton Factory on 19 February 1987, when it wasflowntoBoeingField,Seattle,forfittingof missionavionics.Theaircraftwasdeliveredto theNavyfortestingon22July1988.TheE-6A, which was initially named Hermes, entered servicewithVQ-3on3August1989,thesecond squadron, VQ-4, receiving its first E-6As in January 1991, allowing the EC-130Q to be phased out in June that year. The E-6A was renamedMercury inautumn1991byrequestof theUSNavy.Sixteenweredeliveredfrom1988 to1992. The E-6B is an upgrade to the E-6A. It includedabattlestaffareaandupdatedmission equipment.The flight deck systems were later replaced with an off-the-shelf 737 Next Generation cockpit. This greatly increases the situational awareness of the pilot and saves significantcostoverthepreviouscustomavionics package. The first E-6B was accepted in December1997.AllsixteenE-6Aaircraftwere modified to the E-6B standard, with the final deliverytakingplaceon1December2006. The E-6 fleet is based at TinkerAir Force Base, Oklahoma, and operated by Fleet Air ReconnaissanceSquadron3(VQ-3)andVQ-4.
C-137 ThereseemstobesomethingofamyththattheC137wasaKC-135variant-itwasnot.TheBoeing C-137 Stratoliner was a USAF VIP transport aircraft based on and derived from the 707. A numberofothernationsalsoboughtbothnewand used707sformilitaryservice,primarilyasVIPor tankertransports.Asalreadyseen,the707served asthebasisforseveralspecialisedversions,such astheE-3SentryAWACSaircraft. USAFprocurementoftheBoeing707wasvery limited, amounting to three Model 707-153s designatedVC-137A.Whendeliveredin1959these hadfour13,500pounddrythrustPratt&Whitney J57 (JT3C6) turbojets; when subsequently reenginedwith18,000poundsdrythrustTF33-P-5 (JT3D)turbofanstheywereredesignatedVC-137B. Operatedbythe89thMilitaryAirliftWing,they were further redesignated C-137B when downgradedfromtheVIProle. Onlyoneothervariantservedfromnewwith the USAF: this was the VC-137C presidential transport,thetwoexamplesofwhichwereModel 707-320B Intercontinentals with specialized interiorfurnishingsandadvancedcommunications equipment.Theywereinternallyconfiguredtoseat twenty-two in comfort with extra equipment to serveoccupantsasanAirborneCommandPost. Twofurthernon-presidentialC-137Caircraftwere lateradded.Contrarytopopularlegendthesewere not named ‘Air Force One’, which was the aircraft’s call-sign only used when the US President was on board. This was a special designationestablishedin1953whenPresident DwightD.Eisenhowerwasonaflightthatused thatcallsigntoavoidconfusionwithotheraircraft. AttherequestofPresidentKennedy,anewpaint scheme was developed by First Lady Jacqueline Kennedyandfamousindustrialdesigner,Raymond Loewy. In addition to the vibrant blue and white coloors,thewords‘UnitedStatesofAmerica’were emblazonedintalllettersalongthefuselageandan American flag was placed on the tail. These distinctivemarkingsreflectthestatureoftheOffice ofthePresidentandserveasahighlyvisiblesymbol ofAmericanprestige. Oneoftheworld’smosthistoricaircraft,SAM 26000carriedeightAmericanpresidents:Kennedy, Johnson,Nixon,Ford,Carter,Reagan,GeorgeH.W. BushandClinton.Theaircraftplayedanimportant role in American presidential, political and diplomatic history, and it remains an important nationalsymbolfromtheColdWarperiod.InJune 1963,SAM26000flewPresidentKennedyviaRAF
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Waddington in Lincolnshire UK, to West Berlin, Germany,wherehedeclaredtotheworldthat‘Ich bineinBerliner’(IamaBerliner),boldlyassuring continuedAmericansupportinthefaceofcommunist threatsandtheconstructionoftheBerlinWall. SAM26000bearsanintimateconnectiontoone of the nation’s greatest tragedies, a moment that foreveralteredthecourseofAmericanhistory.On22 November 1963, President Kennedy was assassinatedwhiletravellinginamotorcadethrough downtownDallas,Texas. Manylongminuteslaterafterthedramaticevents inDealeyPlaza,aphonecallfinallycamethroughto theterminalatLoveFieldfromBrigadierGeneral GodfreyMcHugh,thePresident’smilitaryaide,at ParklandHospital:Fuelupandfileaflightplanfor Washington. The pilot of Air Force One, Colonel James Swindalhadnoknowledgeofwhathadoccurred,but he obeyed the order, rushing for the stairs and shoutingtohisflightengineerstandingonthetarmac below:‘Get fuel onboard! Get ready to go!’ Swindal only found out what had actually
Below: Boeing VC-137C SAM 62-6000 during its final flight on 20 May 1998, arriving at the National Museum of the United States Air Force, Dayton Ohio. The ‘SAM’ prefix stands for Special Air Missions, used to mark the carriage of eight sitting presidents and countless heads of state, diplomats, dignitaries and officials on many historic journeys. (US Air Force photo) Right: The flight deck of 62-6000. (author)
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happenedtoKennedywhenheturnedontheTVin the presidential compartment and heard that he’d beenshot.Aswordspread,LoveFieldcamealive. Military personnel streamed out of the terminal, returningtoAirForceOneandAirForceTwo,the VicePresident’saircraft,parkednearby.Swindal’s copilot,ColonelLewis‘Swede’Hanson,whohad driven to his mother-in-law’s house close by the airportforavisit,racedback. Sergeant John Trimble, one of the Air Force signalmen on the airliner, was working his radio, talking to Andrews Air Force Base, when word passedthroughtheVC-137thatPresidentKennedy wasdead.'All the chatter ceased. We were all numb and did our jobs automatically as we waited for the body to arrive.' Extra security began to surround the aircraft. Thencamethefirstsignofwhathadgonesoterribly wrong:Shortlyafter1:15,thepresidentiallimousine, itsbackseatcoveredinblood,arrivedbackatthe airfieldandheadedforthemilitaryC-130Hercules transportthathadbroughtthemotorcadetoDallas. Fromthelimo,SecretServiceagentSamuelKinney,
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Left: President John F Kennedy with the two US Senators from Maine, Edmund Muskie and Margaret Chase Smith, and Col Robert C Marshall (US Army Corps of Engineers) on SAM 26000 as it overflew the Passamaquoddy Tidal Basin in Maine on 19 October 1963.
Below: President John F Kennedy's casket is unloaded from Boeing VC-137C SAM 26000 (Air Force One) after his assassination in Dallas, Texas, in November 1963.
Below: President Lyndon B Johnson in the presidential bedroom aboard Air Force One (SAM 26000). From left to right are Senator Mike Mansfield; President Johnson; Chief Master Sgt Paul Glynn, serving the president; US Navy Aide Capt Beach; and Senator Fulbright.
Below right: Still wearing her blood-soaked outfit, Jackie Kennedy boards the VC-137 to take her husband’s body back to Washington DC. (all US Air Force photos)
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Colonel James Swindal and Colonel Lewis ‘Swede’ Hanson aboard one of the VC-137s at Andrews Air Force Base. (USAF)
who had helped carry Kennedy into Parkland Hospitalbeforereinstallingthecar’sbubbletopfor thedrivebacktotheairport,radioedaheadtothe Hercules:'…Have the ramp down - we’re driving right aboard.' Meanwhile,justoutsidethestateroom,thecrew, Swindal,Hanson,flightengineerJoeChappell,and stewardJoeAyres,begantearingaparttherearofthe aircraft.AswordarrivedthatAirForceOnewould be carrying the President’s body home to Washington,everyoneonthecrewhadhadnearlythe samethought:PresidentKennedycouldnotgointo thebaggagecompartment. Theycouldgetacasketthroughthereardoor,but apartitionwouldblocktheturnintotheaisle,sothe crewhadtakenasawtothepartitionandunbolted fourseatstomakeroom.Theycarriedtheseatsdown thestairsandacrossthetarmactotheotherBoeing that had been serving as Air Force Two. As Joe Chappellwaslatertorecount:'...we finished up just before the hearse arrived'. DisregardingtheDallascoroner’sorderthatthe President’scorpseremaininthecity,Kennedyaides had manhandled the casket through the crowded hallwaysofParklandHospital,pastpriests,medical workers,andsecurity,andoutintoahearse,racing asquicklyforLoveFieldastheycould,arrivingthere alittleafter2pm.
NowSecretServiceagentspulledopenthehearse doors, as those aides gathered to carry their boss home.GeneralTedClifton,whohadrunKennedy’s daily intelligence briefings, appraised the stairs nervously:'Do you suppose we can get it up there?. It was too narrow to accomplish this without some difficulty,' recalledO’Brien. Activityonthetarmacfelleerilysilent.Nearby, AirForcepersonnelsaluted. Manyhandswrestledthecasket,asolid-bronze Elgin Britannia, the very best at Vernon Oneal’s Dallasmortuary,intothefuselageandaroundthe partitioncutopenbythecrew,thenloweredittothe floor. GeneralsCliftonandMcHugh,thetwohighestrankingmilitarymenontheaircraft,theirpristine uniformsnowsoakedwithsweatfromcarryingthe casketintheheatknewtheirduty;bothstoodstiffly atattentionbesidethecoffin,thelonehonourguard observingamilitarycustomsincetimeimmemorial: Afallencommander-in-chiefisneverleftalone. Byallaccountstherewasconfusionaboutthe VC-137:McHughturnedtoO’Donnell:‘Should we get airborne?' McHughranforthecockpit,breezing pastthecloseddoorofthepresidentialstateroom, where LBJ was once again on the phone to Washington,notrealisingthatthenewPresidentwas aboard.
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immediatelyonhiscommandtotakeoff.Heordered Swindalasecondtime,nowangrily:‘Take off! The President is aboard!’ ‘Mr. Kilduff says we can’t.’ Swindalflatlyreplied. Johnson had quickly seized on Mac Kilduff, PresidentKennedy’sAssistantPressSecretaryasa keyliaison-andtheonlypressaideavailable.Hehad chargedKilduffwithsettinguptheswearing-in. AftercheckingwithJohnson,Kilduffendedup pulling aboard three reporters to witness the swearing-in: Newsweek’s Charles Roberts, UPI’s MerrimanSmith,andSidDavisofWestinghouse BroadcastingCompany. AtSwindal’sreply,McHugh’sangerboiledover: hecouldnotunderstandwhysomecivilianpressguy doing countermanding the order of anAir Force general. ‘Not until Johnson has taken the oath,’ Kilduff tried to explain, when McHugh confronted him outsidethecockpit.‘Johnson isn’t here...’ McHugh argued.‘He’s on the backup plane.’ ‘Then you go back and tell that six-foot Texan he isn’t Lyndon Johnson,’ Kilduffretorted.‘We’re not going to Andrews until the President has been sworn.’ A detail view of the presidential seal on 26000. (author)
The interior layout of SAM 26000 as it was during the flight from Love Field to Washington DC with the body of President John Fitzgerald Kennedy. (via USAFM)
‘You leave right now,’ O’Donnellcommanded GeneralMcHughwhenhereturnedtotherearand Air Force One still wasn’t moving. ‘Please, let’s leave,...’ JackiepleadedtoMcHughasecondtime. Doublingbacktothecockpitafterafewminutes hadpassedwithouttheenginesstartingup,McHugh couldn’t understand why Swindal wasn’t acting
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McHugh’s unwitting reply captured the entire day’sconfusionandsadnessand,forallintentsand purposes,endedhismilitarycareer: ‘I have only one President and he’s lying back in that cabin.’ As O’Donnell recalled. ‘I was flabbergasted. Johnson could have waited until he got to Washington and spared all of us on Air Force One that day, especially Jackie, a lot of discomfort and anxiety.’ Buttheaircraft’sschedulerevolvedaround LyndonJohnson’swishes.Theremayhavebeentwo Presidentsonboard,butonlyoneofthemcounted forofficialpurposes.JFKwasnolongerPassenger NumberOne. While waiting for Judge Hughes to arrive to swearthenewPresidentin,JackieKennedydecided that while she wouldn’t change her clothes, she couldcleanherselfup.Shetookastepfromtheaft
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compartmenttowardthepresidentialbedroomand openedthedoor-onlytofindLBJsprawledonthe bed,herbed,dictatingtoMarieFehmer.Johnson hadrealisedthatasuncomfortableastheroommade him,itwastheonespaceontheaircraftwherehe couldhaveprivacy. He and Jackie looked at each other for a moment,andJohnsonstoodtoexit,squeezingby herinthetightpassageway.‘We scurried out of that bedroom,’ Fehmerwaslatertosay:‘It was really embarrassing.” Jackiewasleftintheroomwhereshe’dlast beenalonewithherhusbandthatmorning.She movedtothebathroom,lookingatherselfinthe mirror,andproceededtowipethebloodandhair fromherfacewithaKleenex.Sheimmediately regrettedit:‘History! Why did I wash the blood
Air Force One Passenger Manifest A complete list of passengers and crew aboard Air Force One’s flight back from Dallas on 22 November 1963, does not appear to exist, possibly due to the confusion of the day. This manifest is the most comprehensive available based on eyewitnesses and written records. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
President John F. Kennedy Jacqueline Kennedy President Lyndon B. Johnson Lady Bird Johnson Kenneth P. O’Donnell, special assistant to the President Larry O’Brien, special assistant to the President for congressional relations David F. Powers, special assistant to the President Bill Moyers, associate director of the Peace Corps Congressman Homer Thornberry (Texas) Congressman Al Thomas (Texas) Congressman Jack Brooks (Texas) Malcolm ‘Mac’ Kilduff, White House assistant press secretary General Chester ‘Ted’ V. Clifton Jr., senior military aide General Godfrey T. McHugh, Air Force aide Admiral Dr. George Burkley, President’s physician Evelyn Lincoln, personal secretary to the President Mary Gallagher, personal secretary to Mrs. Kennedy Pamela Turnure, press secretary to Mrs. Kennedy Sergeant George “Boots” Miller, Air Force One crew Master Sergeant Joseph Giordano, Air Force One crew Staff Sergeant Paul J. Glynn, Vice President’s valet Chief Warrant Officer Ira D. Gearhart, military aide Elizabeth ‘Liz’ Carpenter, executive assistant to the Vice President Jack Valenti, partner, Weekley & Valenti advertising and political-consulting agency Marie Fehmer, secretary to the Vice President Cliff Carter, aide to the Vice President George Thomas, President’s valet Roy Kellerman, assistant special agent in charge, presidential Secret Service detail Clint Hill, First Lady’s Secret Service detail
30 John J. ‘Muggsy’ O’Leary, presidential Secret Service detail 31 Warren Taylor, vice-presidential Secret Service detail 32 Henry Rybka, presidential Secret Service detail 33 William Greer, limousine driver, presidential Secret Service detail 34 Stewart ‘Stu”‘ Stout, presidential Secret Service detail 35 Sam Sulliman, presidential Secret Service detail 36 Richard E. Johnsen, presidential Secret Service detail 37 Ernest E. Olsson, presidential Secret Service detail 38 Rufus Youngblood, special agent in charge, vicepresidential Secret Service detail 39 Lem Johns, assistant special agent in charge, vicepresidential Secret Service detail 40 Jerry Kivett, vice-presidential Secret Service detail 41 Paul Landis, presidential Secret Service detail 42 Merriman Smith, reporter, UPI 43 Charles Roberts, reporter, Newsweek Secret Service records show the crew for the flight to Texas was as follows. It is assumed they also returned with the aircraft to Andrews Air Force Base. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Colonel James B. Swindal, pilot Lieutenant Colonel Lewis G. ‘Swede’ Hanson, copilot Senior Master Sergeant William J. ‘Joe’ Chappell Major David D. Odor, flight engineer Chief Warrant Officer John R. McLane Master Sergeant John C. Trimble, flight engineer Senior Master Sergeant Joseph C. Ayres, radioman Master Sergeant Vernon J. ‘Red’ Shell, flight steward Technical Sergeant R.M. McMillan, flight steward Staff Sergeant John T. Hames Master Sergeant Wyatt A. Broom, flight steward Staff Sergeant Eulogio Gomez Technical Sergeant Charles R. Ruberg, security aide
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off? I should have left it there, let them see what they’ve done’. JudgeSarahHughesracedtotheairportinher redsportscararound2:10pm.TheDallaspolice chiefspottedhercarassheapproachedLoveField andclearedapath. PoliceChiefJesseCurryescortedhertothe aircraft.Aflightstewardwhohadbeenassigned towaitforthejudgesawabigTexaninhisStetson hatapproachandsteppedforwardtogreettheman heassumedwasthejurist:‘Judge, will you come with me?’ ‘Oh, just a minute,”‘ thechiefsaid,gesturing tothesmall,67-year-oldwomanbehindhim. Astheygatheredfortheswearinginaboardthe VC-137,Kilduffrealizedtheyshouldrecordthe oath,butnoonehadataperecorder.‘There’s a Dictaphone thing on the President’s desk,’ Stoughtonvolunteered,andaftersomescrambling Kilduff had his arm outstretched with the microphone, holding on tightly to the five-inch
reelrecorder. JustasHughes,inherbrown-and-whitepolkadotdress,began,amilitaryaidehandedO’Briena white box containing a Bible found in the presidential quarters. O’Brien interrupted the judge,handingherthebookandsaying,‘This is a Catholic Bible.’ Itwasasmallbook,withablack leathercoveremblazonedwithacross.Handmade outofcalfskin,ithadtheinitialsJFKembossedon theinsidecover.Noonenoticedinthemoment thatitwasn’tactuallyaBible-itwasaSt.Joseph SundayMissal,aprayerbooktheCatholicChurch usestoleadthefaithfulthroughtheannualcycle ofMasses. LBJrestedonehandonthebook,raisinghis other one. Hughes began to recite the famous words‘I do solemnly swear . . . Aftertheswearingin,thejudgede-planed,the doorclosedandtheVC-137begantomove. The Love Field tower radioed Swindal: ‘Air Force One, you are cleared for takeoff, runway 31L.’
President and Mrs. Nixon are met by People’s Republic of China Premier Zhou Enlai. For a short period, President Nixon renamed SAM 26000 as The Spirit of 76 in honour of the nation’s bicentennial. (via USAFM)
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Spectators watch one of two C-137B Stratoliner aircraft returning freed hostages to the USA after their release from Iran in 1981. (via USAFM)
ThefourturbofansbegantoscreamasSwindal raisedthemtomaximumthrottle. ThePresident’scasketrattlednexttoJackieas shesatintheaftbreakfastnook.ThenewPresident in his cabin, already on the phone again, was pushedintohisseatbytheacceleration. PresidentJohnFKennedywasgoinghome. At2:47,astheenginespushedtheairlinerpast 150knots,takeoffspeed,SwedeHansoncalledV1,andColonelSwindaleasedhisyokeback,tilting theaircraft’snoseupward,andAirForceOne’s wheelslefttheTexassoil. AirForceOnebankedtowardthenortheastas news of its takeoff passed through the military radiochannels,usingtheaircraft’slongstanding SecretServicecodename:‘Angel is airborne.’ TheaircraftthencarriedKennedy’sbodyand PresidentJohnsonbacktoWashington,DC,anda grievingnation. DuringtheSoutheastAsiaWar,SAM26000 transportedPresidentJohnsontovisitUStroops in South Vietnam. In 1970 President Nixon’s national security advisor, Dr. Henry Kissinger, travelledaboardtheaircraftonthirteenseparate trips to secret peace talks with the North Vietnamese in Paris, France. In February 1972 SAM26000flewPresidentNixontothePeople’s Republic of China on his famous ‘Journey for Peace,’thefirstvisitbyanAmericanpresidentto China. Three months later, it carried President Nixon on an unprecedented visit to the Soviet Union,wherehesignedtwohistoricnucleararms controlagreements. In December 1972 SAM 26000 became the
president’s backup aircraft when theAir Force acquiredanotherBoeingVC-137C(serialnumber 72-7000).However,SAM26000continuedflying presidents,vice-presidentsandotherhigh-ranking government officials on important missions. In October1981,itcarriedformerPresidentsNixon, FordandCartertothefuneraloftheslainEgyptian president Anwar Sadat. In March 1983 Queen ElizabethIIoftheUnitedKingdomflewonSAM 26000duringhervisittotheUnitedStates.When SAM26000leftthepresidentialfleetin1990,it continuedtoflyprominentgovernmentofficials. SecretaryofStateJamesBakerflewaboardthe aircraftpriortothe1991GulfWarfortalkswith IraqileadersregardingtheirinvasionofKuwait. Thetwo707-353Bs,termedVC-137Cs,were purchasedbytheUSAF(onein1961andonein 1972)forserviceaspresidentialtransportswith callsignsSAM26000andSAM27000andwere laterredesignatedC-137Cwhendowngradedfrom presidential use. Two further C-137Cs were acquiredbytheUSAF,one707-396C(aseized aircraftformerlyusedforarmssmugglingacquired in1985)andone707-382Bboughtsecond-hand in1987. TheC-18istheUSmilitarydesignationforthe conversionsofthe707-320Bseries. C-18A Eightsecond-hand(formerAmericanAirlines)707323CsboughtascrewtrainersfortheEC-18Bs, fourofwhichwerelaterconvertedtoEC-18B,two convertedtoEC-18D,onetoC-18B;onewasnot takenintoserviceandwasusedforspares.
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Former Presidents Gerald Ford, Richard Nixon and Jimmy Carter on the steps of Boeing VC-137C SAM 26000 (US Air Force photo)
C-18B OneC-18Amodifiedwithinstrumentationand equipmenttosupporttheMilitaryStrategicand TacticalRelaySystem(MILSTAR).
EC-18B FourC-18Asmodifiedalongsideexamplesof theC-135forAdvancedRangeInstrumentation Aircraft (ARIA) missions in support of the Apollospaceprogram.ThedesignationE-7was originally applied to modified Boeing 707s beforebeingreplacedbytheEC-18designation. EC-18C OriginaldesignationfortwoprototypeJ-STAR aircraft,laterredesignatedE-8A.
EC-18D Two C-18As modified as a Cruise Missile MissionControlAircraft(CMMCA).
TC-18E Twosecond-hand(formerTransWorldAirlines) 707-331aircraftmodifiedforE-3pilotandcrew training.
TC-18F Twosecond-hand(formerTAPPortugal)707382aircraftmodifiedforE-6pilottraining.
EC-137D TwoaircraftbuiltasEarlyWarningandControl System prototypes. Later re-engined and redesignated E-3A. A further second-hand 707-355Caircraftwasacquiredandconfigured asanairbornespecialoperationscommandpost. CT-49A NATOTrainer-CargoAircraft(TCA)operated to support E-3A AWACS training and air transport/cargoforNATO(NAEW&CF)based onBoeing707-320B.
Harvesting For Spares - or use. The longer the USAF used the KC-135 and its derivatives,thehardertofindandmoreexpensive replacementpartsbecame,especiallyafterBoeing ceasedmanufacturingitemsforthetype. It was not surprising therefore that in 1984 Congress instructed the USAF to start buying commerical707sforsparepartsorforfurtheruse,
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theC-18programmebeingapurposeinpoint. Anotherreasonforharvestingfromcivilian707s wastouseenginesandsparepartsinare-engineering programme for Boeing KC-135A Stratotanker aircraft.ThemodificationstotheKC-135Eentailed changing the J57 engine for the TF33-PW-102 engines, improved brakes, avionics upgrades and new horizontal stabilizers. The KC-135E was fourteenpercentmorefuelefficientthantheKC135Aandcouldoffloadtwentypercentmorefuel. Buyingsecond,thirdorfourth-handaircraft couldbequestionable,anditwasnotlongbefore potentialpitfallsforAirForcepurchasersofused aircraftinvolvingtheconditionandacceptability verificationofusedairframesstartedtoappear. Usedaircraftareverymuchlikeusedcars,inthat twoidenticalmodelsmaybesittingontheramp inverydifferentconditions.InspectionsofB-707 aircraftduringtheC-l8selectionprocessshowed an extreme variation in aircraft condition, even among aircraft operated by the same carrier. Variationsinaircraftconditionwereevengreater betweencarrierseventhoughtheairlinesmaintain aircrafttothesameFAArequirements.According
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toWilliamYri,C-18programmemanageratthe time of the inspections , the maintenance philosophyoftheindividualcarrierboreheavily on the actual condition of the aircraft. ‘Some carriers appear to make maintenance decisions based solely on near term cost considerations. Their aircraft were best suited for scrap. Other carriers had obviously tried more to maintain a quality asset’ Thetaskofaccuratelyevaluatingconditionand acceptability of commercial used aircraft was mademorecomplexbydifferencesinthewaysthe AirForceandtheairlinesmeasureaircraftageand need for service/overhaul. In the commercial environment aircraft are tracked by both flight hours and by ground-air-ground cycles. These weretheprimarymeansofestablishingaircraft fatigue life, and are used by the aircraft manufacturer to develop service bulletins that correct maintenance or fatigue problems. Of particularsignificancetoapotentialbuyerarethe lifeextensionandcorrosioncontrolbulletinsthat havebeenissuedagainsttheaircraftseriesbeing considered. Knowledge of the bulletins which
Retired 707s from the airlines were acquired by the USAF, flown or transported to the the high desert at DavisMonthan in Arizona and ‘harvested’ for any spare parts that could be used on either the military 707s or KC-135 upgrades. (AMARC via USAF)
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A technician checks the last pin for damage while a crane hold the fin at a 45 degree angle prior to proceeding in the operation of lowering the vertical stabilizer of a civil Boeing 707 aircraft on 6 December 1984. The Military Aircraft Disposition and Storage Center at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona, was reclaiming commercial Boeing 707 aircraft, using engines and spare parts in a reengineering program for Boeing KC-135A Stratotanker aircraft.
The low rainfall with resulting low humidity of the high desert meant that airframes and engines could be stored with little risk of corrosion as long as other environmental considerations - like dust were protected against.(USAF)
havebeenissuedandwheninstallationisrequired or recommended gives the potential buyer the abilitytodecidewhichofthebulletinsshouldbe appliedandtoplanforthecostsinvolved.Inthe caseofengineconditionverificationthestandard airline practice is acceptable, but must be understoodbythoseresponsibleforinspections during the selection process. The commercial practiceistospecifyaminimumnumberofhours remainingbeforeoverhaul‘acrossthewing’with aminimumforwingwithnotlessthan1000hours onanyoneenginewastypical. TheAirForcebuyerhadtokeepinmindthat commercial maintenance practices reflect the commercialconcernforbottomlineprofit.Wheel wells,flap,andslatareasinparticular,tendtohave a great deal of surface corrosion. The airlines
considersuchcorrosiontobe a cosmetic rather than a safety problem, and the militarycustomermayneed to invest 1,000 or more manhoursperaircraftwithan allowanceformiscellaneous partstobringtheaircraftup to acceptable military standards. Once again, anticipation is the key to developinganacquisitionstrategyflexibleenough to discriminate quality used aircraft from the ‘lemons' Closely related to the many difficulties involved with condition verification are the potential problems presented by required modificationstotheusedaircraft.Again,bothtime anddollarcostsareinvolved,soearlyplanning wasthekeytoremainingontrackaftertheaircraft isinAirForcehands. The most obvious modifications are those requiredtotakethebasiccommercialaircraftand outfitittoperformitsmilitarymission.Depending onthenatureoftheprogrammethiscouldtakea fewweeksormanymonths.Itistheprogramme manager'staskearlyonintheacquisitioncycleto carefully outline and plan for every detail of
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modificationthatwillberequiredontheaircraft. Most of the acquired aircraft were initally stored at the Aerospace Maintenance and RegenerationCenter(AMARC),basedatDavisMonthanAFBnearTucson,AZ.Thecurrentsite wasoriginallytheTucsonmunicipalairportand isnamedaftertwolocalmilitaryaviatorswho were killed in accidents in the early 1920s. Expansion followed, and in 1945 the airfield beganitsroleasastoragedepotwhenthefirst aircraftwereretiredthereafterthesecondworld war.Theoriginalplanwastobothstoreaircraft forpotentialreturntoserviceandremovespare parts that could be re-used and scrap the remainder. During the late 1950s the facilities wereunabletocopewiththequantityandthisled to the number of scrap yards like National Aircraft Inc., Bob's Air Park and Southwest Alloysthatdevelopedaroundthebase.In1963, toshowtherolewasbeingexpandedtoaddress all USAir Forces, the name of the incumbent unit, the 2704th AF Storage and Disposition Group(AFSDG),partofAirMaterielCommand, waschangedtotheMilitaryAircraftStorageand Disposition Center MASDC) but this was changedagaininOctober1985toAMARCtoput moreemphasisontheregenerationofaircraftas wellasstorage. TheprimaryrolesofAMARCaretoprovidea storagefacilityforaircraftthatarecurrentlynot needed; provide a source of spare parts from aircraft that have been permanently withdrawn fromservice;prepareaircraftforreturntoservice orforsaletooverseasmilitaryforces. ThereasonsforusingthisedgeoftheSanora desertforstoragearethelowlocalannualrainfall coupled with the low humidity and the hard alkalinesoilwhichmakeitpossibletoparkaircraft
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without the need for concrete or steel aprons Because of the weather there is minimum deteriorationorcorrosiontotheairframe,which undergoesapreservationprocessonarrival.Firstly all‘live’equipmentsuchasgunsandejectorseats areremovedalongwithanyclassifiedequipment, then all fuel is drained from the aircraft and replacedbyalubricatingoilwhichisitselfthen drainedtoleaveafilmprotectingthefuelsystem. Aircraft are cleaned and any visible corrosion treatedbeforebeingtowedtoanallocatedparking area.Allengineintakes,exhaustsandothercracks andgapsaretapedtopreventdamageduringthe duststormsthatoccurintheareaandthentheyare covered with a vinyl plastic covering called ‘Spraylat’,alongwithdelicatepartslikecanopies, windowsandradomes.TheSpraylatismadeupof twoparts;thefirstlayerisblackandkeepsoutdust andwaterwhilethesecondcoat,whichiswhite, acts as a temperature controller. As can be imagined,thetemperatureinstoredaircraftparked intheArizonadesertcancausedamagetosensitive equipment but the Spraylat maintains a temperatureonlyslightlyabovetheambient. Undersidesofaircraftarenotsealedtoallow circulationofairandpreventcondensationbuildup.Theconditionofthecoatingisusuallychecked everysixmonthsandreplacedeveryfouryears, latterly some aircraft have been placed in large plastic‘bags’asacheaperalternative. Aircraft stored at AMARC fall in various categoriesasfollows: Type 1000 Long-term storage. Thesearethe longtermstorageaircraftthatundergothefour yearlyrenewingoftheSpraylat;theyareusually storedexamplesoftypesstillcurrentintheUS Forces,makingareturntoserviceapossibility. Type 2000 Storage for Reclamation. Theseare
N897WA was originally N764PA of Pan American. Behind is N6598W, originally a 707-344B of South African Airways. Like most 707s and 720s that were spares reclaimed, their vertical fins and rudders were put to immediate use. (Dr Harry Friedman)
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N7158Z in African Express Airways colours aways the axeman. (Dr Harry Friedman)
aircraftthatarebeingusedforsparesrecovery. Type 3000 Storage. Afterarrivalaircraftareheld inaflyableconditionforninetydays(whichcan beextended)whileawaitingadecisionontheir disposal; also held under this category are the aircraftforForeignMilitarySales. Type 4000 - for Disposal. Theseareaircraft wherealluseablepartshavebeenremovedand basicallyonlythehulkremains.Theyareusually soldtothelocalscrap-yardsandaretowedtothe exit gates, where some scrapping takes place beforebeingtakentothe‘melting’pots. Besidesprovidingastorageenvironment,the staffatAMARCprovideavaluablesourceofspare partstokeepotherexamplesofatypestillflying. Theyarealsoresponsibleforconductingsomelow level maintenance on aircraft removed from storage prior to Foreign Military Sales and preparingthem,asinthecaseoftheKC-135sfor flightstoMcConnellandTinkerAFBsfordepot levelmaintenanceandpainting. On arrival an aircraft is allocated a unique identifier known as the AMARC inventory
numberwhichdescribesboththetypeofaircraft anditssequentialnumber.AllUSAFC-135shad the prefix CA, while ex-civilian 707s for KC135E spares were allocated CZ and ex USN aircraftareidentifiedwithanumberandletter (e.g.6GforNKC-135and3GforC-137s).Up toOctober1994thesecodeswerefollowedbya threedigitnumberbuttheimpendingarrivalof the1000thPhantomledtoafourthdigitbeing addedplusanextratwolettersatthebeginning toshowwhichserviceflewtheaircraft,thusa KC-135 with the code CA101 became AACAO101(AAbeingthecodeforex-USAF aircraft). Each aircraft is allocated a unique storage codeconsistingofsixdigitsandtheserefertoits locationwithinthecomplex-thefirsttwodigits refertothestoragearea(therearetwenty-nine areas within AMARC with seventeen and nineteenbeingtheProcessinginandoutaswell asmaintenanceareas)followedbyfournumbers representingthepositionofanaircraftinarow inthesenumberedareas.
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ChapterNine
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‘Come Fly With me’
composedbyJimmyVanHeusen,withlyricsbySammyCahn;writtenforFrankSinatra.
Withsomanyaircraftbuiltintheproductionrun, evenwithabookthissize,itisimpossibletodetail eachandeveryairframeconstructed-andevenitwas was,itisbynomeanscertainthatthosehistories wouldbedescribedwithanydegreeofcertainty!Let meexplainwhatImeanusinganinterestingmachine withwhatis,afairlysimplehistory. Not everyone can own their own 707; but Americanactor,producer,dancer,authorandsinger JohnTravoltaisonesuchperson. His film, dancing and singing career is well documentedelsewhere,andheisonrecordassaying thathisactingfundedhispassionforaviation.He earnedhisprivatepilot’slicenseatage22andtoday ownsseveralaircraft,includingaBoeing707-138 thatwaspreviouslypartofQantasAirways’fleet.His home is in Jumbolair Aviation Estates, a fly-in community at north central Florida’s private GreystoneAirport.Hehasataxiwayrighttohisdoor, whereheparksthe707. Theairlinerhasbeenupdatedovertheyears,and isnowfittedwithhush-kitsandupgradedavionics that include GPS and TCAS; It now has the tail numberN707JT,andisthelastofitskindinservice.
Itsluxuriousinteriorfeatureswideleatherseats, sofasandrichwoodpanellinganditwasserendipity thatbroughttheactorandthe707together:‘I was promoting a film called Get Shorty at the time and in the promotion of that movie, they wanted me to go to Berlin for just the weekend. I said: 'I'm not going to be able to go to Berlin for the weekend and be ready for work on Monday if I don't have a plane that at least has a bedroom.' "So they found one - they found this plane. That was the deal, so they rented it for me. I fell in love with it, because on departure I went into the bedroom, I fell asleep and arrived in Berlin so rested it was as though I had never travelled at all’. Travoltaknewhewantedtheairlinerbutitwas tooexpensiveatthetime.Hewasforcedtowaitthree yearsuntilithittherightpricein1998. "I was told to put a certain kind of offer in and I would get the plane if I did and they were right on. I did and I never looked back." Hisloveofaviationwentbacktochildhoodwhen he lived under the flight path of New York's LaGuardiaAirport. ‘By the time planes were about 2000 feet after
VH-EBM comes in to land at Essendon during its original service with QANTAS. (QANTAS)
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departure, they were over my house. Constellations, DC-6s, DC-7s - I fell in love. I watched them all day long. Then I started collecting books on aviation and that's where I learnt about Qantas and how they had a distinct personality with long-distance, over-water flights, their safety record - they were just kind of untouchable - and I always kept my eye on them, just to see what they were up to." WhenTravoltawasaboutsix,hisshow-business sistersstartedtotravelandthefamilywouldtake themtotheairport.Close-upviewsoftheaircraft furtherfannedtheyoungJohn'senthusiasmandat eighthetookhisfirstflight-a30-minutetripfrom NewarkAirporttoPhiladelphia.Hestillremembers thattheoutboundlegwasonNationalAirlinesDC6andthereturntriponaUnitedAirlinesCaravelle. Attestingtohisearlycharisma,hepersuadedthe girls in his neighborhood to don their Brownie uniformstoplayflightattendantsashe‘captained’ hisbackyardairliner.Everysixmonthsfromthenhe wasallowedtoflysomewheretovisithissisters. "So twice a year I got to fly in an airliner and, finally, at 15, I start studying aviation. At 16, I started taking lessons and then at 19 I got my solo. At 23 I got my licence and at 25 I got my jet licence." Was he tempted to become a pilot? "I was at some point, but I realised that the routing for that would have taken a level of scholarships and finances that we didn't have in our upbringing. It just would have been too expensive and the military wouldn't have even supported me, because I wouldn't have the college behind me to be a pilot. So I really had no choice but to self-finance being a pilot. And I did it through theatre and television earlier, and then through movies. So my whole aviation career has been financed by my other profession."
HisfirstaircraftwasanERCOAircoupe,that flewlikeacarandwasadvertisedfordoctorsand lawyers,whichheboughtfor$2500insteadofacar. "I had a little motorcycle and I had the plane, That's all I needed. So I had a plane before I had a car." AnambitiousjumpsawTravoltabuyalegendary DouglasDC-3beforemovingintoarangeofhighperformance and jet aircraft as well as another legendary airliner, the four-engine Lockheed Constellation.Ofalltheaircrafthehasowned,the 707takesprideofplace. "This is majestic, and when I grew up I was dreaming about flying, so this is kind of a dream come true.” Travoltapaidformaintenanceofthe707forthe first four years, before striking a deal with then QANTASchiefexecutiveGeoffDixontopaintthe aircraftinQANTAScoloursandcomeonboardas theairline'sambassador,ajobheclearlyrelishes. “The quid pro quo was that Qantas took over the aircraft's expensive maintenance. "Any plane this size is too pricey. I did it for four years on my own and it was much easier to do a barter system and promote the airline. But more importantly, I really wanted to be part of the airline. So it was gorgeous, because I couldn't have dreamed of a better fit - owning a big plane like this without it looking like an airline seems odd to me." VH-EBMwasdeliveredtotheairlinein1964and flewwithituntilitwassoldtoBraniffInternational Airwaysin1969.ItwasconvertedtoaVIPjetin 1973andhadanumberofowners,includingsinger FrankSinatraandbillionaireKirkKirkorian. So just who HAD owned it?
QANTAS re-painted VH-EBM in full Braniff blue and white livery before delivery as N108BN. (QANTAS)
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Most pilots know that with aircraft - especially airliners-ownershipisoftennotallthatitseems,a fact that many enthusiasts completely fail to understand.Thewords‘Ownedby’and‘Operated by’aretwototallydifferentthings.AsWilliam‘Bill’ Armstrong,ownerandfounderofAutairAirwaysand manyotherairlinesoncetoldmeyearsago;‘...unless you were actually there to see the suitcases full of cash change hands, never say that such-and-such aircraft was owned by xxxxx!’ Oftentheonlyproofofwhoactuallyownsan aircraftcanbegainedfromavisittotheflightdeck, whereasmall,usuallystainlesssteelplaquecarries thelegend‘Aircraft XXXXX, Construction Number YYYYYY is owned by ZZZZZZZ’. Thesituationcan bemadeevenmorecomplexwhenamachineenters themurkyworldofaircraftfinancing,leasingand assetmanagement,oftenownedbyamortgagetoa bank,trustgrouporinsurancecompany.Soitwas formuchofthelifeofJohnTravolta’s707-138B. John’saircraftwasbuiltin1964,constructedat BoeingSeattleandhasBoeingconstructionnumber 18740LineNo.388,beingdeliveredtoQANTASas VH-EBM ‘City of Launceston’. After that point, everythingisopentodiscussion,doubtmythand legend. TheaircraftwasprimaryusedbyQANTASfor routesfromSydneytoAsiaandNorth/SouthAmerica untilon1November1968itwaswithdrawnfromuse andstoredenginelessatSydneyAirport. Accordingtosomesources,on7June1969its newownerbecameBraniffInternationalAirways. It’sregistrationnumberchangedtoN108BNanfit remainedwiththeairlineuntil24February1972. Tucked away in a corner of the flightdeck - and remarkably difficult to photograph - is the aircraft data plate. Although in this case it is for Boeing 757 G-OOOU of Air 2000, it would be the same for many a 707. The plate states ‘Serial No. 25240. This aircraft is owned by Abbey National June Leasing (2) Limited and is leased to Air 2000 Limited and may not be operated by any other person without the prior written consent of Rolls Royce and Partners Finance Limited.’ (author)
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Herethefirstofanumberofmysteriessetsin:some sourcessaythatitwasthenownedbysingerFrank Sinatrauntil1975,althoughheonlyoperatedituntil 20October1973,whenitwaswithdrawnfromuse andstored. EnquirieswiththeFrankSinatraFoundationand hisdaughterNancybroughtforthalistofaircrafther fatherowned-andthereisnotraceofa707onit.Of course,thereisthepossibilitythattheaircraftwas charteredfromBraniff. Another source states that the aircraft was withdrawn from service and retired to Regency IncomeandregisteredtoaMrJohnMKing,who passedittoBoeinginatrade-indealinJune1975. Other records suggest that it remained on the books of Braniff International until sometime in 1975,whenitwassoldtoBoeing. Whatever happened from 1972 to 1975, it is knownthatnotlongafteritwassoldtoBoeing,itwas registered in September to Kirk Kerkorian, an Americanbillionaire. Kerkor‘Kirk’Kerkorian(b.6June1917 –d.15 June 2015) was a businessman, investor, and philanthropist. Of Armenian American origin, KerkorianwasthepresidentandCEOofTracinda Corporation,hisprivateholdingcompanybasedin BeverlyHills,California.Kerkorianwasknownfor having been one of the important figures in the shapingofLasVegasand,witharchitectMartinStern Jrhasbeendescribedasthe‘fatherofthemegaresort’. He, along with that other aviation entrepreneurandbillionareHowardHughes,played a large part in the development of Las Vegas. Kerkorianbuilttheworld'slargesthotelinLasVegas
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With that hillside covered with parked Vauxhalls it could only be Luton Airport in the late 1970s. Here N108BN is seen parked on the McAlpine executive jet port of the airport. 108BN wears the TIC livery, the full name being the Tracinda Corporation, but often reported as the ‘Tracy Corp’. (DGR Photo Library)
threetimes:theInternationalHotel(openedin1969), theMGMGrandHotel(1973)andtheMGMGrand (1993). He purchased the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer moviestudioin1969. OfimmigrantoriginandlivinginLosAngeles, he sensed the onset of World War Two, and not wantingtojointheinfantry,Kerkorianlearnedtofly at the Happy Bottom Riding Club in the Mojave Desert - adjacent to the United States Army Air Corps'sMurocField,nowEdwardsAirForceBase. Inexchangeforflyinglessonsfrompioneeraviator PanchoBarnes,heagreedtomilkandlookafterher cattle. Ongaininghiscommercialpilot'scertificatein sixmonths,KerkorianlearnedthattheBritishRAF wasferryingCanadian-builtdeHavillandMosquitos overtheNorthAtlantictoScotland.TheMosquito's
fueltankcarriedenoughfuelfor1,400miles,while thetripdirectlywas2,200miles.Ratherthantakethe saferMontreal-Labrador-Greenland-IcelandScotland route, Kerkorian preferred the direct ‘IcelandWave’route,whichblewtheplanesatjetspeed to Europe. Legend has it that the fee was $1,000perflight.InMay1944,KerkorianandWing CommanderJohndeLacyWooldridgerodethewave and broke the old crossing record. Wooldridge reachedScotlandinsixhours,46minutes;Kerkorian insevenhours,nineminutes.Intwoandahalfyears withRAFFerryCommand,Kerkoriandelivered33 aircraft,loggedthousandsofhours,travelledtofour continentsandflewhisfirstfour-engineaircraft. Afterthewar,havingsavedmostofhiswages, Kerkorianspent$5,000onaCessna.Heworkedasa generalaviationpilot,andmadehisfirstvisittoLas
N108BN seen in full TAG livery at Le Bourget, France. (DGR Photo Library)
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Vegas in 1944. After spending much time there duringthe1940s,Kerkoriangaveupgamblingand in1947paid$60,000forTransInternationalAirlines, asmallair-charterservicethatflewgamblersfrom LosAngelestoLasVegas.Hethenbidonsomewar surplus bombers, using money on loan from the Seagramfamily.Gasoline,andespeciallyairplane fuel,wasinshortsupplyatthetime,sohesoldthe fuelfromtheaircrafts’tanks,paidoffhisloan,and stillhadtheairpcraft.In1962,Kerkorianbought80 acresinLasVegas,acrosstheLasVegasStripfrom theFlamingo,for$960,000.Thispurchaseledtothe buildingofCaesarsPalace,whichrentedtheland fromKerkorian;therentandeventualsaleoftheland toCaesarsin1968madeKerkorian$9million.He operatedtheairlineuntil1968whenhesolditfor $104milliontotheTransamericaCorporation. Kerkoran’sholdingcompanyretainedownership ofthe707until26September1977,whenitpassed toTAGAviation,acompanybasedinLuxembourg. Theparentcompany,TAG(Techniquesd'Avant Garde), was an investment company focused on advancedtechnologies.Ithadbeenformedin1977 byAkramOjjeh(1923-1991),aSyria-bornSaudi businessman. He was an intermediary in deals betweenSaudiArabiaandFrance,particularlyfor armssales.Ojjehbrokeredthesaleoftanks,aircraft andelectronicequipmenttoSaudiArabiaandlarge Frenchpurchasesofoil. Duringthistimethe707hadtheregistrationHKKA1allocatedtoit,supposedlyforaleasetoSaudi Arabian Sheikh Akram, for short time but the registrationwasnevertakenup. The aircraft remained in service with TAG Aviationuntil25August1981,whenthe707was againwithdrawnfromuse,storedatNewark,New Jersey. Records suggest that the registration was cancelledinAugust1982,buttheaircraftwasback inservicethatOctober.ItwasferriedtoLeBourget for further storage inAugust 1983. In September 1983itreturnedtotheAmericanregisterasN108BN, againforTAGAviation,remainingwiththemuntil 18March1985,whenitpassedtoTAGGroupUSA, thenbacktoTAGAviationthatOctober. In November 1987 the records suggest it had beensoldtowhatappearstobeasomewhatshadowy organisation:TransOceanicAviation.Verylittleis knownaboutthisorganisation,apartfromthatthey seemtohavealsoleasedanother707-thistimea309CwithatailnumberN707ZS,forcargoflights. During1988and1989itwasoutofserviceagain. Sometime during this period a VIP interior was installedandtheaircraftwasmodifiedwithhushkits whichconvertedittoa707-138B(Q).
297 THE HISTORY OF BOEING 707-138, MANUFACTURERS SERIAL NUMBER 18740. Line No: 388
FirstFlight:1September1964.
VH-EBM: DeliveredtoQANTAS10September 1964.Withdrawnfromsericeandplacedinstorage atSydney,Australia1November1968. N108BN: Purchased by Braniff International Airways9June1969.
Purchased by Regency Income Corporation of DenverColoradoandleasedtoBraniffInternational on24June1969.Woreblue‘jellybean’colours.
WithdrawnfromservicebyBraniffon10October 1973andregistrationtransferredtoJohnMKingof RegencyIncomeCorp. ToBoeingCommercialAirplaneCo.June1975
Purchased by Kerkor ‘Kirk’ Kerkorian on 1 SeptemberNovember1975. TotheTracindaCorporation28March1977.This wasaholdingcompanyofwhichKerkorianwasthe CEO.
SoldtoTAGAviation,26September1977.Based inGeneva,Switzerland,TAGAviationisaprovider ofbusinessaviationservices,aircraftmanagement, aircraftcharter,maintenance,salesandacquisitions. HZ-KA1 (registration allocated but not taken up): LeasedtoSheikhAkramon26September1977
N108BN: Withdrawnfromuseandplacedinstorage atNewarkon25August1981andlistedasforsale. Registration cancelled August 1982. Restored to register FerriedtoLeBourgetandplaceinstorageinAugust 1983.ReenteredserviceinDecember1983. PurchasedbyTransOceanicAviationinNovember 1987. NewVIPinteriorinstalledwhileoutofservice1988.
Recordedasbeingmodifiedwithhushkitswhich convertedittoa707-138B(Q)in1989. N707XX: ReturnedtoserviceinJuly1990 ToAviationMethods,Seattlein1995.
FerriedtoIstanbulandplacedinstorageonOctober 29,1995 Offered for sale with a low TAT of 27,682hrs in September1996
N707JT: Purchased by John Travolta on 20 May 1998.
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‘Captain John’ during his world tour with N707JT, painted in the full QANTAS ‘V-Jet livery. (QANTAS)
InJuly1990,itsregistrationnumberchangedto N707XXitreturnedtoserviceforanundetermined time.Whatrecordsareavailablesuggestthatitwas stored at Las Vegas until 2 March 1994, when accordingtosomesourcesitwasflowntoLondon Heathrow on 3 May. In 1995 it changed hands again,thistimetoAviationMethodsInc,anairline supportandmanagementcompanywithamailing addressinSeattle.Wethenneedtodelveintothe worldofaircraftloggers,whorecordthatN707XX flewfromWashinton-DullestoShannoninEireand thenontoIstanbulon29October1995.Itwaslogged atLondonHeathrowagainduringNovember1996 stillinTAGcolours.Previously,inSeptember1996, withonly27,682oftotalflyinghours,itwasoffered forsale. On20May1998theairlinerwasregisteredtoJet ClipperJohnnyLLC(JohnTravolta),soldonMay 25,andchangedregistrationon13December1998 toN707JT‘707 Jett Clipper Ella’. Itwasnamedafter hischildrenJettandElla,alongwith‘Clipper’in homagetolegendaryairlinePanAm,whichusedthe terminalltheiraircraftnames.
Aspreviouslydescribed,inJune2002,the707 finallyreturnedhometoQANTAS,sinceTravolta participated in the QANTAS ‘Spirit of Friendship’tour,becauseitwasalwayshisdreamto beinvolvedwithamajorairlineinsomeway.Hewas pilotinghisownBoeing707onathirteencity,35,000 miletour.HecontinuesasAmbassador-at-Largefor QANTAS.Forthiscampaigntheplanewasrepainted infullclassicalQantas‘V-Jet’livery.Thesamelivery thatwasusedforthe707’sfirstflights,backinthe olddays. Atthetimeofwriting(2017)theaircraftiskept atTravolta’shouseinFloridathathasitsowneight thousandfootrunway. Ascanbeseen,therearehugesectionsofthis single aircraft’s history that is open to wide speculationastowhatactuallyhappenedtoit,and whowasoperatingit,letalonewhoactuallyowned it! Multiply that by the simple fact that over one thousandairframeswerebuilt,anditbecomes,inmy opinion,impossibletoresearchwithanydegreeof accuracy!
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AppendixI Summary of new build aircraft. 707ModelNewBuildSummaryThroughJanuary2017 Model-Series Orders Deliveries 707-320B 174 174 707-120 56 56 707-E3A 61 61 707-138 7 7 707-E3D 7 7 707-KE3 8 8 707-E6A 17 17 720-000 65 65 707-120B 72 72 707-220 5 5 707-420 37 37 707-138B 6 6 720-000B 89 89 707-320C 337 337 707-320 69 69 707Total 1010 1010
Model Eng Ordered Quantity Delivered FirstDel Aer Lingus (Ireland) 707-320CP&W 15/3/63 4 4 10/6/64 720-000 P&W 11/3/59 3 3 24/10/60 Subtotal 7 7 Aerolineas Argentinas (Argentina) 707-320B P&W 21/9/65 4 707-320C P&W 29/5/68 2 Subtotal 6 Air France (France) 707-320 P&W 28/12/55 707-320B P&W 10/10/61 707-320C P&W 15/4/64 Subtotal Air India (India) 707-320B P&W 15/5/63 707-320C P&W 15/12/65 707-420 RR 31/8/56 Subtotal
Airlift International (USA) 707-320C P&W 16/2/67 Subtotal
21 8 9 38 3 2 6 11 3 3
4 2 6
21 8 9 38 3 2 6 11 3 3
20-11/66 04/11/68 21/10/59 14/11/62 05/8/65 25/5/64 10/2/67 18/2/60 14/4/67
Airline of the Islamic Republic (Iran (Islamic Republic of)) 707-320C P&W 13/12/68 3 3 31/12/69 Subtotal 3 3 American Airlines (USA) 707-120 P&W 09/11/55 707-120B P&W 07/7/59 707-320B P&W 03/4/68 707-320C P&W 24/10/62 720-000 P&W 30/7/58 720-000B P&W 30/7/58 Subtotal Avianca (Colombia) 707-320B P&W 18/1/67 720-000B P&W 30/6/60 Subtotal
25 31 10 37 10 15 128 2 3 5
Aviation Service & Support (USA) 707-320B P&W 08/1/75 1 707-320C P&W 09/6/75 1 Subtotal 2 Braniff Airlines (USA) 707-220 P&W 01/12/55 707-320C P&W 15/5/65 720-000 P&W 09/3/60 Subtotal
5 9 5 19
British Airways (United Kingdom) 707-320B P&W 16/1/70 2 707-320C P&W 15/1/65 8 707-420 RR 24/10/56 19 Subtotal 29
25 31 10 37 10 15 128
23/10/58 25/5/61 09/4/69 19/11/63 24/7/60 03/2/61
1 1 2
08/1/75 09/6/75
2 3 5
07/3/68 08/11/61
5 9 5 19
03/12/59 26/5/66 11/2/61
2 8 19 29
18/2/71 19/12/65 27/4/60
British Caledonian Airways (United Kingdom) 707-320C P&W 15/11/65 2 2 13/7/67 Subtotal 2 2
British Eagle International (United Kingdom) 707-320C P&W 06/1/67 1 1 21/12/67 707-420 RR 25/5/61 1 1 27/2/62 Subtotal 2 2 British Royal Air Force (United Kingdom) 707-E3D CF 25/2/87 7 7 Subtotal 7 7
The stunning red and white scheme on Air Bahama’s 707C N525EJ. (author)
01/3/91
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CAAC-Civil Aviation of China (China) 707-320B P&W 12/9/72 4 4 707-320C P&W 12/9/72 6 6 Subtotal 10 10 Cameroon Airlines (Cameroon) 707-320C P&W 31/5/72 1 Subtotal 1 Canadian Air Force (Canada) 707-320C P&W 28/2/70 5 Subtotal 5 China Airlines (Taiwan) 707-320C P&W 18/10/68 Subtotal Eastern Air Lines (USA) 720-000 P&W 03/8/60 Subtotal Egyptair (Egypt) 707-320C P&W 20/6/66 Subtotal
2 2
15 15 9 9
EL AL Israel Airlines (Israel) 707-320B P&W 15/9/64 3 707-320C P&W 05/12/67 2 707-420 RR 25/3/60 3 720-000B P&W 03/5/61 2 Subtotal 10
1 1 5 5
24/8/73 12/11/73 20/11/72 28/2/70
2 2
07/11/69
9 9
18/9/68
15 15
3 2 3 2 10
Estado Nacional Argentino ENA (Argentina) 707-320B P&W 11/6/75 1 1 Subtotal 1 1
11/8/61
07/1/66 15/5/69 24/4/61 23/3/62 11/6/75
Ethiopian Airlines (Ethiopia) 707-320C P&W 11/11/66 2 720-000B P&W 16/7/60 3 Subtotal 5
2 3 5
08/4/68 02/11/62
FAA (USA) 720-000 P&W 26/1/61 Subtotal
1 1
12/5/61
Executive Jet Aviation (USA) 707-320C P&W 17/11/66 2 Subtotal 2
Flying Tiger (USA) 707-320C P&W 15/1/65 Subtotal
1 1 4 4
German Air Force (Germany) 707-320C P&W 08/11/67 4 Subtotal 4
2 2
4 4 4 4
19/5/67
28/9/65 28/9/68
Government of Egypt (Egypt) 707-320C P&W 26/9/73 1 Subtotal 1
1 1
21/8/74
Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force 707-320C P&W 10/5/74 15 Subtotal 15
15 15
10/5/74
Iraqi Airways (Iraq) 707-320C P&W 01/10/73 Subtotal
3 3
3 3
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Saudi Arabia) 707-320C P&W 25/9/75 1 1 707-E3A CF 16/6/83 5 5 707-KE3 CF 16/6/83 8 8 Subtotal 14 14
27/8/74
25/9/75 29/6/86 12/2/87
Korean Air (South Korea) 707-320C P&W 02/4/71 Subtotal
1 1
1 1
LATAM Airlines Group (Chile) 707-320C P&W 20/12/69 1 Subtotal 1
1 1
20/12/69
12 6 5 8 31
28/2/63 10/11/65 25/2/60 08/3/61
MSA-Malaysia/Singapore A/L (Singapore) 707-320B P&W 16/5/67 3 3 Subtotal 3 3
28/5/68
Nigeria Airways (Nigeria) 707-320C P&W 07/5/71 Subtotal
3 3
07/5/71
2 4 6
19/12/68 11/5/66
Pakistan International Airline (Pakistan) 707-320C P&W 15/7/65 7 7 720-000B P&W 17/4/61 4 4 Subtotal 11 11
19/7/66 26/12/61
Pelita Air Service (Indonesia) 707-320C P&W 05/12/74 1 Subtotal 1
25/4/75
Kuwait Airways (Kuwait) 707-320C P&W 29/11/67 Subtotal
5 5
Libyan Airlines (State of Libya) 707-320C P&W 19/7/76 1 Subtotal 1
Lufthansa Group (Germany) 707-320B P&W 18/12/61 12 707-320C P&W 15/9/64 6 707-420 RR 24/4/56 5 720-000B P&W 01/2/60 8 Subtotal 31 Middle East Airlines (Lebanon) 707-320C P&W 03/8/68 4 Subtotal 4
5 5
1 1
06/8/71 04/11/68
19/7/76
4 4
18/11/68
NATO (Belgium) 707-E3A P&W 30/5/80 Subtotal
18 18
18 18
01/1/82
Northwest Airlines (USA) 707-320B P&W 11/6/62 707-320C P&W 15/11/63 720-000B P&W 16/3/61 Subtotal
10 26 13 49
10 26 13 49
05/6/63 10/4/64 26/5/61
Pacific Northern (USA) 720-000 P&W 06/4/61 Subtotal
2 2
2 2
Olympic Airlines (Greece) 707-320B P&W 11/1/68 707-320C P&W 15/4/65 Subtotal
3 3
2 4 6
23/3/62
Pan Am World Airways (USA) 707-120 P&W 13/10/55 6 707-320 P&W 13/10/55 26 707-320B P&W 13/2/61 60 707-320C P&W 25/4/62 34 Subtotal 126
6 26 60 34 126
15/8/58 19/7/59 12/4/62 02/5/63
QANTAS 707-138 707-138B 707-320C Subtotal
7 6 21 34
26/6/59 29/7/61 10/2/65
(Australia) P&W 06/9/56 P&W 01/3/60 P&W 15/12/63
7 6 21 34
1 1
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Transavia Holland’s 707-335 PH-TRF served for a short time with the Executive Jet fleet. It is seen at Schipol Airport during October 1968. (author)
Qatar Airways (Qatar) 707-320C P&W 30/6/76 Subtotal
1 1
1 1
28/7/77
Republic of Portugal (Portugal) 707-320C P&W 05/1/71 2 Subtotal 2
2 2
23/9/71
Republic of France (France) 707-E3A CF 25/2/87 4 Subtotal 4
Royal Jordanian (Jordan) 707-320C P&W 15/7/70 Subtotal
2 2
SABENA (Belgium) 707-320 P&W 28/12/55 707-320C P&W 15/5/64 Subtotal
4 4
01/5/91
2 2
26/1/71
7 7 14
7 7 14
04/12/59 15/4/65
Seaboard World Airlines (USA) 707-320C P&W 05/6/67 2 Subtotal 2
2 2
27/2/68
Royal Moroccan Air Force (Morocco) 707-320C P&W 10/3/82 1 Subtotal 1
1 1
Saudi Arabian Airlines (Saudi Arabia) 707-320C P&W 03/5/67 7 7 720-000B P&W 01/9/61 2 2 Subtotal 9 9
Socialist Republic of Romania (Romania) 707-320C P&W 12/3/73 2 2 Subtotal 2 2 South African Airways (South Africa) 707-320 P&W 21/2/58 3 707-320B P&W 15/3/64 2 707-320C P&W 11/8/66 5 Subtotal 10 Sudan Airways (Sudan) 707-320C P&W 30/5/73 Subtotal
TAP Portugal (Portugal) 707-320B P&W 15/12/64 Subtotal
2 2 7 7
3 2 5 10 2 2 7 7
10/3/82
08/1/68 20/12/61
03/6/74 01/7/60 01/9/65 23/2/68 17/6/74 17/12/65
TAROM S.A. (Romania) 707-320C P&W 12/3/73 Subtotal
2 2
2 2
21/2/74
Trans World Airlines (USA) 707-120 P&W 07/2/56 707-120B P&W 01/5/61 707-320 P&W 19/3/56 707-320B P&W 01/5/61 707-320C P&W 15/4/63 720-000B P&W 01/5/61 Subtotal
15 41 12 38 17 4 127
15 41 12 38 17 4 127
29/1/59 29/3/62 10/11/59 01/11/62 18/11/63 22/7/61
United States Navy (USA) 707-E6A CF 12/2/86 Subtotal
17 17
17 17
01/8/89
United Airlines (USA) 707-120 P&W 12/12/55 707-320C P&W 15/6/64 720-000 P&W 22/11/57 720-000B P&W 13/6/61 Subtotal
US Air Force (USA) 707-120 P&W 14/5/58 707-320B P&W 09/2/62 707-E3A P&W 31/12/71 Subtotal Varig Airlines (Brazil) 707-320C P&W 15/8/65 707-420 RR 06/9/57 Subtotal Wardair (Canada) 707-320C P&W 12/1/68 Subtotal Western Airlines 707-120 P&W 707-320C P&W 720-000B P&W Subtotal
(USA) 01/1/60 22/5/67 15/2/60
World Airways, Inc. (USA) 707-320C P&W 16/5/62 Subotal
5 13 29 8 55
3 2 34 39 6 3 9 2 2
2 5 27 34 9 9
5 13 29 8 55
19/4/59 21/8/64 30/4/60 28/4/62
3 2 34 39
19/5/59 01/10/62 01/3/77
2 2
17/4/68
9 9
16/7/63
6 3 9
28/12/66 07/6/60
2 5 27 34
04/5/60 22/6/68 07/4/61
707Total 1010 1010 OrdersDeliveriesUnfilled
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Model 367-80 Type: Accommodation: Powerplant:
AppendixII Specifications transportprototype. 3crewandspecialist personnelasrequired. four10,000poundsthrust Pratt&WhitneyJT3C turbojets. 582mphat25,000ft. 550mph. 2,500feetperminute. 43,000ft. 3,530miles.
MaximumSpeed: CruisingSpeed: InitialClimbRate: ServiceCeiling: Range: Weights EmptyEquippedwt: 892,120pounds. NormalTake-Offwt: — MaximumTake-Offwt:190,000pounds. MaximumPayload: — Span: 129feet8inches. Length: 127feet10inches Height: 38feet. WingArea: 2,400squarefeet. Max.FuselageWidth: 132inches Max.FuselageHeight: 164inches --------------------------------------------------------------KC-135A Stratotanker Type: inflight-refuellingtanker withairliftcapability. Accommodation: flightcrewof5,plusupto 145passengers. Powerplant: four13,750poundsthrust Pratt&WhitneyJ57-P59Wturbojets. Maximumspeed: 630mph. Cruisingspeed: 532mphat35,000ft, Initialclimbrate: 1,290feetperminute Serviceceiling: 45,000feet. Range: 1,150mileswith120,000 poundsoftransferfuel. Emptyequippedwt: 106,305pounds Normaltake-offwt: 301,600pounds Maximumtake-offwt: 316,000pounds Payload: 120,000poundsoftransfer fuel 50,000poundsoffreight Span: 130feet10inches. Length: 134feet6inches. Height: 41feet8inches. Wingarea 2,433squarefeet. Max.FuselageWidth: 144inches Max.FuselageHeight: 166inches
C-135B Stratolifter Type: Accommodation:
transport flightcrewof4,plusupto 126passengers Powerplant: four13,750poundsthrust Pratt&WhitneyJ57-P59Wturbojets. Maximumspeed 600mph. Cruisingspeed 530mphat35,000ft. Initialclimbrate: — Serviceceiling: — Range 4,000mileswitha55,000poundspayload emptyequippedwt: — normaltake-offwt: — maximumtake-offwt: 272,000pounds. payload 89,000pounds. Span: 130feet10inches. Length: 134feet6inches. Height: 41feet8inches. Wingarea 2,433squarefeet. Max.FuselageWidth: 144inches Max.FuselageHeight: 166inches --------------------------------------------------------------KC-135R Type: inflight-refuellingtanker withairliftcapability Accommodation: flightcrewof4 Powerplant: four22,000poundsthrust GE/SNECMACFM56 turbofans Maximumspeed: 600mph. Cruisingspeed: 530mphat35,000feet. Initialclimbrate: — Serviceceiling: — Range: 4,000mileswitha55,000 poundspayload Emptyequippedwt: — Normaltake-offwt: — Maximumtake-offwt: 325,000pounds Span: 130feet10inches. Length: 134feet6inches. Height: 41feet8inches. Wingarea: 2,433squarefeet Max.FuselageWidth: 144inches Max.FuselageHeight: 166inches --------------------------------------------------------------Model 707-100 Type: transcontinentaltransport. Accommodation: 3crewonflightdeck,upto
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179passengers,and variablecabinstaff. Powerplant: four12,500poundsthrust Pratt&WhitneyJT3C-6 turbojets. Maximumspeed: 623mph. Cruisingspeed: 592mphat40,000feet. Initialclimbrate: 1,400feetperminute. Serviceceiling: 40,000feet. Range: 3,915mileswith maximumpayload. Emptyequippedwt: 114,500pounds. Normaltake-offwt: 247,000pounds. Maximumtake-offwt: 257,000pounds. Maximumpayload: 42,433pounds. Span: 130feet10inches. Length: 144feet6inches. Height(shortfin): 38feet7inches. Wingarea: 2,433squarefeet. Max.FuselageWidth: 148inches Max.FuselageHeight: 170.5inches --------------------------------------------------------------Model 707-100B Type: transcontinentaltransport Accommodation: 3crewonflightdeck,upto 179passengers,and variablecabinstaff. Powerplant: four18,000poundsthrust Pratt&WhitneyJT3D-38 turbofans
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Maximumspeed: 623mph Cruisingspeed: 612mphat40,000feet. Initialclimbrate — Serviceceiling 40,000feet MaxPayloadRange: 4,900miles Emptyequippedwt: 118,500pounds Normaltake-offwt: — Maximumtake-offwt: 258,000pounds Maximumpayload: 44,000pounds Span: 130feet10inches. Length: 144feet6inches. Height(shortfin): 38feet7inches. Wingarea: 2,433squarefeet. Max.FuselageWidth: 148inches. Max.FuselageHeight: 170.5inches --------------------------------------------------------------Model 707-200 Type: transcontinentaltransport Accommodation: 3crewonflightdeck,upto 179passengers,and variablecabinstaff. Powerplant: four15,800poundsthrust Pratt&WhitneyJT4A-3 turbojets. Maximumspeed: 623mph. Cruisingspeed: 592mphat40,000feet. Initialclimbrate: 1,400feetperminute. Serviceceiling: 40,000feet. Range: 3,915mileswith maximumpayload.
The Condor was modification of the Boeing 707 for the Airborne Early Warning role (AEW) designed by Isreali Aircraft Industries and Elta, of Israel. The aircraft started its development in 1990 and the prototype, built for Chile's Air Force, made its first public showing at the Paris Air Show in 1993. IAI named it Phalcon, but in Chile it is known as the Condor and FACH has asigned to it the serial N° 904. (author’s collection)
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Olympic Airways’ 720-051B SX-DBH was withdrawn from use at Athens in 1980. It was scrapped in 1982.
Emptyequippedwt: — Normaltake-offwt: — Maximumtake-offwt: 257,000pounds Maximumpayload — Span: 130feet10inches. Length: 144feet6inches. Height(shortfin): 38feet7inches. Wingarea: 2,433squarefeet. Max.FuselageWidth: 148inches Max.FuselageHeight: 170.5inches --------------------------------------------------------------Model 707-300 Intercontinental Type: intercontinentaltransport Accommodation: 4crewonflightdeck,upto 189passengers,and variablecabinstaff Powerplant: four17,500poundsthrust Pratt&WhitneyJT4A-11 turbojets Maximumspeed: 623mph Cruisingspeed: 602mphat25,000ft. Initialclimbrate: 2,890feetperminute Serviceceiling: 37,200feet MaxPayloadRange: 4,784miles. Emptyequippedwt: 135,000pounds. Normaltake-offwt: — Maximumtake-offwt: 312,000pounds. Payload: 55,000pounds. Span: 142feet5inches Length: 152feet11inches Height: 41feet8inches Wingarea: 2,892squarefeet Max.FuselageWidth: 148inches Max.FuselageHeight: 170.5inches --------------------------------------------------------------Model 707-300B lntercontinental Type: intercontinentaltransport Accommodation: 4crewonflightdeck,up to189passengers,and variablecabinstaff
Powerplant:
four19,000poundsthrust Pratt&WhitneyJT3D-7 turbofans(typical) Maximumspeed: 627mph Cruisingspeed: 600mphat25,000feet Initialclimbrate 2,370feetperminute Serviceceiling: 6,000feet MaxPayloadRange: 6,160miles Emptyequippedwt: 140,525pounds. normaltake-offwt: — maximumtake-offwt: 335,000pounds. Payload: 54,475pounds. Span: 145feet9inches Length: 152feet11inches Height: 42feet5inches Wingarea: 3,010squarefeet Max.FuselageWidth: 148inches Max.FuselageHeight: 170.5inches --------------------------------------------------------------Model 707-300C Convertible Type: intercontinental convertiblefreightpassengertransport. Accommodation: 4crewonflightdeck,upto 219passengers,and variablecabinstaff. Powerplant: four18,000poundsthrust Pratt&WhitneyJT3D-3B turbofans(typical installation) Maximumspeed: 627mph cruisingspeed: 600mphat25,000 Initialclimbrate: 4,000feetperminute Serviceceiling 39,000feet MaxPayloadange 4,300miles Emptyequippedwt: 133,875poundsforcargo Normaltake-offwt: Maximumtake-offwt: 333,600pounds Payload: 84,000poundsfor passenger,91,390pounds
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forcargo Span: 145feet9inches Length: 152feet11inches Height: 42feet5inches Wingarea: 3,010squarefeet Max.FuselageWidth: 148inches Max.FuselageHeight: 170.5inches --------------------------------------------------------------Model 707-400 Type: intercontinentaltransport Accommodation: 4crewonflightdeck,upto 189passengers,and variablecabinstaff Powerplant: four18,000poundsthrust Rolls-RoyceConway 508Aturbofans Maximumspeed: 627mph Cruisingspeed: 600mphat25,000ft Initialclimbrate: 2,370feetperminute Serviceceiling: 36,000feet MaxPayloadRange: 4,865miles Emptyequippedwt: 133,000pounds Normaltake-offwt: Maximumtake-offwt: 335,000pounds Payload: 57,000pounds Span: 145feet9inches Length: 152feet11inches Height: 42feet5inches
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Wingarea: 3,010sqfeet Max.FuselageWidth: 148inches Max.FuselageHeight: 170.5inches --------------------------------------------------------------Model 720 (Model 707-000) Type: medium-rangetransport Accommodation: 4crewonflightdeck,upto 165passengers,and variablecabinstaff Powerplant: four12,000poundthrust Pratt&WhitneyJT3C-12 turbojets Maximumspeed: 627mph Cruisingspeed 601mphat25,000feet Initialclimbrate 2,100feetperminute Serviceceiling 38,500feetrange3,005 mileswithmaximum payload Emptyequippedwt: 99,920pounds Normaltake-offwt: 203,000pounds Maximumtake-offwt 229,000pounds Payload; 37,000pounds Span: 130feet10inches Length: 136feet9inches Height: 37feet11inches WingareaL 2,521sqfeet Max.FuselageWidth: 148inches Max.FuselageHeight: 170inches
Braniff International’s advertsing was decidedly risqué for the time, and just as colourful as their fleet of 707s.
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Model 720B Type: Accommodation:
medium-rangetransport 4crewonfiightdeck,upto 1811passengers,and variablecabinstaff Powerplant: four18,000poundsthrust Pratt&WhitneyJT3D-3 turbofans Maximumspeed: 627mph Cruisingspeed: 608mphat25,000feet Initialclimbrate: 3,700feetperminute Serviceceiling: 40,500feet MaxPayloadrange: 4,110miles Emptyequippedwt: 11500010pounds Normaltake-offwt: Maximumtake-offwt: 234,000pounds Payload: 41,000pounds Span: 130feet10inches Length: 136feet9inches height 41feet7inches wingarea 2,521sqfeet Max.FuselageWidth: 148inches Max.FuselageHeight: 170.5inches --------------------------------------------------------------VC-137C Type: VIPandspecialfreight transport Accommodation: flightcrewof4,plus passengers Powerplant: four18,000poundsthrust Pratt&WhitneyJT3D-3 turbofans Maximumspeed: 627mph Cruisingspeed: 600mphat25,000ft Initialclimbrate: -
Serviceceiling: about40,000feet Range 7,610miles,noreserves Emptyequippedwt: Normaltake-offwt: maximumtake-off 327,000pounds Span 145feet9inches Length 152feet11inches Height 42feet5inches Wingarea 3,010squarefeet Max.FuselageWidth: 148inches Max.FuselageHeight: 170.5inches --------------------------------------------------------------E-3A Sentry Type: airbornewarningand controlsystemaircraft Accommodation: flightcrewof4and13 AWACSspecialists Powerplant: four21,000poundsthrust Pratt&WhitneyTF33-P100Aturbofans maximumspeed 530mph cruisingspeed initialclimbrate serviceceiling 39,370feet range 6hoursonstationat1,000 mi|eradius Emptyequippedwt: about172,000pounds Normaltake-offwt: Maximumtake-offwt: 325,000pounds Span: 145feet9inches Length: 152feet11inches Height: 42feet5inches Wingarea: 3,010squarefeet Max.FuselageWidth: 148inches Max.FuselageHeight: 170.5inches
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Air Force reservists help the 97th Air Mobility Wing train crew members on KC-135 Stratotankers (above) and C-17 Globemasters (below). An Air Force Reserve Command associate unit is slated to stand up at Altus Air Force Base, Okla., in 2010. (U.S. Air Force photo/Airman 1st Class Marianne E. Lane) Miller,Kent;Putrich,GayleS.;Tran,Pierre‘TankerContract DecisionAnnounced’.ArmyTimes.Springfield, Virginia.(February29,2008). Opall-Rome,Barbara‘IsraelisSlamUS-HypedArms Package’.DefenseNews.GannettGovernmentMedia Corporation.(29April2013). Pellerin,Cheryl‘Hagel,YaalonFinalizeNewIsraelMilitary Capabilities’.AmericanForcesPressService.Pentagon. (22April2013). Pither,Tony.The Boeing 707, 720 and C-135. Tonbridge, Kent,UK:Air-Britain(Historians)Ltd.,1998.ISBN085130-236-X. Price,Alfred.TheBoeing707.Leatherhead,Surrey,UK: ProfilePublications,1967. Proctor,Jon(2001).Boeing720.Miami,FL:World TransportPress.ISBN1-892437-03-1. Proctor,Jon;MikeMachat;CraigKodera(2010).From PropstoJets:CommercialAviation'sTransitiontotheJet Age1952–1962.NorthBranch,MN:SpecialtyPress. ISBN978-1-58007-146-8. Proctor,Jon.Boeing720.Miami,FL:WorldTransportPress, 2001.ISBN1-892437-03-1. Reed,John(February25,2010).‘USAFSetsKC-XFirst Flight,IOCDates’.DefenseNews.Springfield,Virginia. Riley,Charles‘AirForceawardsBoeing$35billion contract’.CNN.(24February2011). Ruffin,StevenA.Aviation’s Most Wanted: The Top 10 book of Winged Wonders, Lucky Landings and Other Aerial Oddities. WashingtonD.C.:PotomacBooks.p.320. ISBN1574886746.(2005) Rummel,RobertW.‘Howard Hughes and TWA’.
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Index
A AbelAGAirways:205. Abell,Charles:171. Aboulafia,Richard:136. Adam,Ken:190. AerLingus:146,151,204,209,219. AerolineasArgentinas:201. AerolineasdeGuatemalaAviateca:209. AfricanExpressAirways:292. AirAlgerie:211. AirBahama:299. AirCanada:201,248. AirFrance:33,34,71,112,162,165,167,168, 172,193,204,214,235,248,273-275. AirIndia:167,201,204. AirInter:211,214. AirLinePilot’sAssociation:48. AirPortugal:200. AirTransportAssociation(ATA):40,51. AirWest:146. Airfast:219. AirliftInternational:208. AirlinesforAmerica(A4A):40. Akram,Sheikh:297. Albright,Eddie:48. Alexander,JH:70. Alitalia:179. Allen,IvanJr:166. Allen,OliverE:11. Allen,WilliamM‘Bill’:19,45,49,50,52,54,55, 57,60,65,66,79,80,154. AllisChalmers:24,27. Almquist,CaptainRoy:169. Ambassadair:213,219. AmericanAirlines(AA):20,65,66,67,146,147, 150,152,155,156,160,161,173,178,179,181, 183,185,192,194,197,198,200,204,209,214, 288. AmericanOverseasAirlines:19. AmericanTransAir:213,219. AmericanTravelAir:219. Anderson,Jack:17. Anfuso,JudgeVictorL:29. Argüello,Patrick:215,216. ArmstrongWhitworth:34. Armstrong,William‘Bill’:223,295. Arnold,MajorGeneralHenryH‘Hap’:22-25,28, 29,30. Atkins,CaptainBob:228,231,232,251. Austin,CaptainFredLesterJr:179,180,181. AutairInternationalAirways:223,295. Avianca:201. AviationCorporationoftheAmercias:15. AvistarAirlines:224. Ayres,Joe:283.
B Bagi,MohammedAbdel:209. Bain,Donald:179. Baker,GeorgeT:36. Baker,James:287. Balsdon,Ken:245. BangladeshBiman:211. Barker,Alan:237. Barna,FirstOfficerMichaeljr:160. Barnes,‘Pancho’:296. Barnett,Val:244. Barr,Julius:17. Barr,Margery:83. Baxter,JamesPhinney:23. Baxter,JosephR:79. BEA(laterBritish)Airtours:153,209,214,218, 248. Beach,Captain:282. Beall,WellwoodEdmeston:47,49. Beard,Dan:67. Bee,CaptainSam:228,235,245. Belafonte,Harry:167. BellAircraft:25. Bell,LawrenceDale:25. Bennett,Paul:73. Berke,CaptainJohnA:157,158. Bernstein,Al:228. Binegar,LA‘Bert’:54,60,61. Bishop,RonaldE:35. Bisset,Jacqueline:176. Blake,NormanT:158. Boeing&WesterveltCo.(B&W):9. BoeingAircraft: Model247:13 Model307:15,16 Model314:17 Model377/C-97:18-20,43,44,45 B-47:30-32 Model432:31 Model450:31 Model473-X:41-44 Model707-6:44 BoeingAirTransportInc:12,14. BoeingAirtransportSystem:13. BoeingSchoolofAeronautics:14. Boeing,BerthaMarie:52. Boeing,WilliamEdward‘Bill’:9,10-12,14. Boeing,WilliamEdwardJr.:10,11. Bohan,Marc:162. Böing,Marie:10. Böing,Wilhelm:10. Booth,WingCommanderCJ:267. Boreham,Lynne:237. Bosov,CaptainAlexander:220. Boyd,GeneralAlbert:58,59.
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A KC-135 Stratotanker from Fairchild AFB, Wash., refuels a C-5 Galaxy from Travis Air Force Base, California, during a refueling mission 13 March 2014. The flight was an all-female mission held to honour and commemorate Women’s History Month. (US Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Veronica Montes) BrabazonCommittee:33,34. BraniffAirlines:52,71,146,147,151,156-158, 178,186,189,204,209,294,295,297,305. Braznell,WaltW:66,67. Brewen,C:231. Brewster,SenatorRalphOwen:17,19. Bristow,Eric:251. Bristow,Guy:26. BritanniaAirways:212,251. BritishAirways(BA):209,211. BritishCaledonianAirways(BCAL):206,211. BritishCommonwealthPacificAirlines:34. BritishMidlandAirways(BMA):209,210,211,212. BritishOverseasAirwaysCorporation(BOAC):18, 19,33-36,39,44,45,151,153,154,170,171, 173,185,189,190,201,214,216. BritishUnitedAirways:181. BritishWestIndianAirways(BWIA):209,226. Broccoli,AlbertR‘Cubby’:190. Brown,Alexander:11. Brown,DrHarold:29. Brown,James:11. Brown,WalterFolger:13. Bryant,Ron:227. Buchanan,FltLtDavid:266. Buck,CaptainRobertN:181. Buckett,Joan:251. Buckingham,Edgar:21. BuffaloAirways:202.
Burcham,Milo:26. Bush,Vannevar:23.
C CAAC(CivilAviationAdministrationofChina):201. Cain,FlightEngineerRobert:160. Calderwood,Susie:244. CaledonianAirways:181. Cameron,John:239. CanadianPacificAirlines:34. CapitalAirlines:35,39. Carleton,RV:70. Carlyon,Bill:171. Caroline,Phil:253. Carter,PresidentJames‘Jimmy’:281,288. Catayée,Justin:168. Chappell,Joe:283. ChinaAirlines:225. Churchill,Winaton:23. Clark,PL:60. Clearly,Ned:228. Cleveland,Carl:65. Clifton,GenTed:283. Clinton,PresidentWilliamJ‘Bill’:281. Close,Col.Winston:83. Cobb,GenRobertW:131. Collins,Fred:49. ColonialAirTransport:15. Connoly,AdmiralRichardLansing:162.
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A B-1B Lancer assigned to the 9th Expeditionary Bomb Squadron, deployed to Andersen Air Force Base, Guam, receives fuel from a KC-135 Stratotanker over the Pacific Ocean 10 March 2017. The B-1B's are deployed to Andersen AFB as part of U.S. Pacific Command's continuous bomber presence operations. This forward deployed presence demonstrates continuing U.S. commitment to stability and security in the Indo-Asia-Pacific region. (U.S. Air Force photo/ Airman 1st Class Christopher E. Quail) ContinentalAirlines:35,147,158,160,163,181, 193,209,211. Cotter,CaptainJohn:228,235,244,245,248,249. Cram,Ralph:17. Crosby,Ralph:135. CunardEagleAirways:153. Curry,Jesse:286. D Dale,JohnR:172. DanAirServices(DanAir):222,223,227-254. Davison,Robert:219. DeHavillandComet:33,34,36,37-39,44,78,137, 139,140,152,160,173,185,192,209,254. DelGiudice,FrankJ:52,68. DenverPortsofCall:212,213. DETA:211. Dieckman,Johnny:162. Dietrich,Noah:17,19. Dior,Christian:162. Dobson,CaptainBernard:190. Dooley,Bob:228. DorwinTeague:52. Doty,ThomasG:163,164,165. DouglasAircraftCorporation:20. DouglasDC-2:37. DouglasDC-3:19,33,72,294. DouglasDC-4:20,33,138. DouglasDC-6:19,20,39,40,138,203,264. DouglasDC-7:20,33,37,40,64,138,141, 144,244,294.
DouglasDC-8:40,51,64,66,67,71,75,76, 138,141,144,145,152,172,185,188189, 191,192,193,198,202,204,205,206,208, 209. DouglasDC-9:192. DouglasDC-10:209. Druyun,Darleen:129,130,131. Dryden,HughL:29. DuBois,John,:179,180 DuBridge,DrLeeA:29 E EagleAirways:153 EastAfricanAirways(EAA):211 EasternAirlines:36,71,182,208. Eastman,Linda:162. Eastman,LouiseLindner:162. Edmonds,Thomas:72. Eisenhower,PresidentDwightD:206,280. ElAl:173,193,198,199,200,201,215,216. Epstein,Brian:166. Erbeck,Bonnie:219. Erbeck,CaptainAndrew:219. Evans,Sue:237. Everheart,GenCarlton:136. Ewen:Alec:228,241. F Farrar,Alan:228. Fehmer,Marie:285,286. Felbeck,GeorgeT:162.
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Feldman,CaptainSam:173. Ferguson,Earl:17. Field,CaptainHJDexter:171. Finch,CaptainHarrison:179,180,181. Finlay,DonaldW:62,64. FlyingTigersLine:180. FlyingTigers:180,208. Ford,PresidentGerald:281,288. Franz,Anselm:21. Fredrickson,PaulS:37. Free,FWilliam:178. Fry,Pat:235,244. Fulbright,Senator:282. G Gallagher,Jackie:231. GalvinBrassandIronWorks:10. Gannett,JamesR:181. Gannett,Jim:65,67,72. Ganzer,Vic:31. Gates,Robert:134. GeneralElectric:24,25,26,27. GermanCargo:216,217. Gilbert,Lewis:190. Gillan,Tom:171. Gimble,GenThomasF:131. GlennLMartinCo.:10. Glynn,SgtPaul:282. Gorky,Arshile:162. Gorney,Serge:171.
Grabow,Shirley:160. Grant,Malcolm:252. GreenwoodTimberCo.:10. Grief,Bill:235,244,245. Griffith,AA:21. Grover,Ken:235. GulfAir:211,212,251.
H Hailey,Arthur:175. Hale,Barbara:176. Hale,Sue:237. HamiltonAeroManufacturingCompany:12. HamiltonMetalplaneCompany:12. HamiltonStandardPropellerCompany:14. Handy,Gen.JohnW:97. Hanson,ColLewis‘Swede’:281,283,287. Hardy,CaptainRon:212. Harrison,George:166. Harrison,Todd:136. Hayes,Helen:176. Hayr,SirKenneth:267. HeathShipyard:10. Heath,Edward:10. Heath,PrimeMinisterEdward:218. Hedren,Tippy:178. Heflin,Van:176. Heinemann,Milt:52. Heinkel,Ernst:21. Heist,CaptainJames:160.
313
Airmen from the 92nd Aircraft Maintenance Squadron work together to deice a KC-135 Stratotanker 29 January 2014, at Fairchild Air Force Base, Wash. Aircraft deicing is a process in which liquid solutions are sprayed onto an aircraft during the winter to both defrost and prevent future precipitation from freezing. Snow and ice on the wings and rear tail component change their shape and disrupt the airflow making it difficult to fly and diminishes fuel economy. (U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Alexandre Montes)
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Helpern,Milton:163. Henry:287 Hill,Archibald:23. Hilton,Conrad:245. Hoche,CaptainRoland:166. Holliday,Raymond:148. Hope,Bob:228. Horrage,Frank:227,251. Howell,Joe:32. HughesAircraftCo:255. Hughes,HowardRobartJr:16-20,38,39,75,146148,150,208,295. Hughes,JudgeSarah:285,286. Hunter,Ross:176. Hymans,Max:70. I IASCargoAirlines:253. IndependentAir:205. InterAm:206. IranAir:181,244. IraqiAirways:211. Ireland,Ray:20. Irvine,LtGenClarenceS:79.
J Jamieson,Pete:252. JapanAirLines(JAL):34. Johnson,ClarenceL‘Kelly’:25. Johnson,PresidentLyndon:175,281,282,283,287 Johnston,AlvinMelvin‘Tex’:52-59,61-63,65,67, 71,72,80,154. Jones,RobertT‘Bob’:30. Jones,WAlton:162. K Kaled,Leila:215,216,218. Kantlehner,JohnR:172. Keisler,GenPeterD:130. Kelly,Gene:158. Kelly,Lois:160. Kelly,RaymondD:64. Kennedy,George:176. Kennedy,Jackie:175,280-285. Kennedy,PresidentJohnF:29,85,175,178,280285. Kent,Harvey:77,78,79. KenyaAirways:211. Kerefov,Anatoly:221,222. Kershaw,CharlesJames:11. Kershaw,MaryLeavenworth:11. Kilduff,Malcolm‘Mac’:284,285,286. KingCountyInternationalAirport:11. KingHusseinofJordan:218. King,JohnM:295,297. King,MartinLutherJr:167. Kinney,Samuel:283. Kirk,CaptainTony:235,248. Kirkeby,Arnold:162.
Kirkorian,Kerkor‘Kirk’:294,295,296,297. Kissinger,Dr:287. Knuth,CaptainGeorgeF:172. KoninklijkeLuchtvaartMaatschappij(KLM-Royal DutchAirlines):17,33,65,273,274,275. KoreanAirlines:219,221,222. KuwaitAirways:211,212. Kyu,CaptainKimChang:220,221.
L Laird,John:158. Laird,Melvin:216,218. Lam,Eva:237. Lancaster,Burt:176. Larkman,CaptainArthur:227-254. Larkman,Joy:235,252,253. Larsen,John:181. Larson,RR:60. Laudan,Fred:49. Leavenworth,Henry:11. Lee,Stan:235. LeMay,BrigGenCurtisEmerson:29,76,79,80. Lennon,John:166. Lev,CaptainUriBar:215. Lewis,GeorgeW:23. Lewton,Cliff:228. LibyanArabAirlines:211. Lindbergh,Charles:69. LineaAeropostalVenezolana:34. LisieurHenriJ:70. LloydInternational:214. Lloyd,Frank:38. LockheedAircraftCorporation:20,22,25,26 Loesch,RichardL‘Dix’:54,55,56,57,60-62, 70,72,79,80. Loewy,Raymond:175. Loewy,Raymond:280. LongIslandAirways:15. LordBrabazonofTara:33. LosAngelesAirways:146. LosAngelesDodgers:216. Lufthansa:65,169,172,197,201,209. Lusty,Ivor:171. Lynch,CaptainWaldoW:158,159,160. Lynn,William:131. M MalayanAirways:244. MalaysianAirlineSystem(MAS):211. Malloch,Jack:223. Mansfield,SenatoreMike:282. MAOF:218. Marshall,ColRobertC:282. Martin,Brian‘Sport’:222,223,235. Martin,CaptainJack:181. Martin,Dean:176. Martin,GeorgeC:62. Masse,PeterF:162. McCain,SenatorJohn:129. McCarthy,Glenn:17.
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A KC-135 Stratotanker connects with a B-52H Stratofortress from Minot Air Force Base, N.D., during an aerial refueling mission over the Alaskan coastline as part of exercise Amalgam Dart 15-28 May 2015. The annual North American Aerospace Defense Command exercise afforded American and Canadian forces field training aimed at improving NORAD's operational capability in a binational environment. The exercise spanned two forward operating locations in Canada’s Northwest Territories, two US Air Force bases in Alaska, and a mobile radar site in Resolute, Nunavut, as well as the sky over much of NORAD’s area of responsibility. (U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Benjamin W. Stratton) McCartney,Paul:162,166. McDougall,Roy:251. McGarrigle,Karen:79. McHugh,BrigGenGodfreyT:29,281,283,284. McNulty,GenPaulJ:130. Mengel,WBruce:60,67. Merchant,Joseph‘Joe’:114. MiddleEasternAirlines(MEA):208,214,219,220, 239. Mikal,Maj.John:117,119. MilitaryUnitsandSquadrons 100thARW(USAF):119-128. 1370thPMW(USAF):86. 196thARS(USAF):97. 370thFlightTestSquadron(USAF):118. 412thOperationsGroup(USAF):118. 412thTestandEngineeringGroup(USAF):118. 412thTestWing(USAF):118. 418thFLTS(USAF):119. 434thARW(USAF):103. 445thFlightTestSquadron(USAF):118. 452ndFLTS(USAF):93. 4thACCS(USAF):89. 51Squadron(RAF):116,117.
513rdAirControlGroup(USAF):257. 552ndACW(USAF):257. 55thWing(USAF):93,97,116. 6thAMW(USAF):105-109. 70thAREFS(USAF):89. 773rdTestSquadron(USAF):118. 775thTestSquadron(USAF):118. 8Squadron(RAF):263-273. 82ndRS(USAF):100. 82ndTW(USAF):90. 89thAW(USAF):99,100. 89thMAW(USAF):280. 927thARW(USAF):105-109. 93rdACW(USAF):277,278. 93rdARS(USAF):83,85. 93rdBW(USAF):83. 9thSRW(USAF):119. FEWSG(USN):92. FTRG(USN):92. Mills,Jock:237. Mobutu,President:224. MohawkAirlines:161. MonarchAirlines:218. Monroney,SenatorAlmerStillwell‘Mike’Stillwell:206.
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A Luftwaffe Tornado disconnects from the boom of a KC-135 Stratotanker 14 October 2014, over Germany. (US Air Force photo/Airman 1st Class Dillon Johnston) Moody,CaptainKeith:235,254. Moore,Betty:160. Moore,Laurie:239. Mulvaugh,Dermot:251. Muskie,Edmund:282.
N NationalAirTransport:14. NationalAirlines:36,71,178. Nelson,Barry:176. NewGomaAir:223. NigeriaAirways:209. NigerianAirways:211. Nixon,PresidentRichardM:216,218,281.288. Nolan,Lloyd:176. NortheastAirlines:35,146. NorthropAircraft:22. NorthwestAirlines:13,18,65,147,164,169. NorthwestOrientAirlines:19,200,201,208,226. O O’Donnell,KennethP:284,285. OccidentalAirlines:223,224. Ojjeh,Akram:297. OlympicAirways:193,201,304. OmegaAir:183. Orringer,PaulL:172. Ortmann,Karl:10. Osler,Scott:32.
P PacificAeroProductsCo.:9. PacificAirTransport:12,14. PacificNorthernAirlines:208,209. PakistanInternationalAirlines(PIA):194. PakistanInternationalAirways:211. PamAnn:179. PanAmericanAirwaysSystem(PAA/PanAm):1419,33,36,37,39,65-67,147,148,151,152,158, 160,165,168,172-174,178,179,181,183,185, 186,187,188,192,193,194,200-202,208,209, 215-219,227-229,235,244,248,253,254,290, 291,298. PanairdoBrazil:34. Pascall,BerthaMariePotter(MrsWilliamBoeing): 11. Pascall,Nathaniel‘Nat’Jr.:11. Pascall,Cranston:11. Pecor,SecondOfficerRobert:160. Pennell,MaynardL:47,51,52. Penwardem,Jerry:253. PeoplesSavingsBank:10. Perez,Diana:219. Peters,CaptainSamuelT:158. Pfafman,CalvinE:62,63. Pfrang,Kenneth:219. PhillipinesAirlines:20. PilotsPals:114. Pirson,Fecicen:70.
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A B-2 Spirit moves into position for refueling from a KC-135 Stratotanker over the Pacific Ocean on Tuesday, 30 May 2006. The B-2 is from the 509th Bomb Wing at Whiteman Air Force Base, Mo., and the KC-135 is from the Pennsylvania Air National Guard's 171st Air Refueling Wing at the Pittsburgh International Airport. The bomber is part of Pacific Command's continuous bomber presence in the Asia-Pacific region. (U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Bennie J. Davis III) Pitoiset,Jacques:166. PlanetAir:223. Pohl,RobertWichard:21. Potter,AliceKershaw:11. Potter,HowardCranston:11. Potter,Howard:11. PowerJetsLtd:24. Pratt&Whitney:12-15,19-21,27-29,39,40,42, 43,44,53,66,81,84,87,151,187,190,191,196, 197,199,203,214,215,220,260,280. Pratt,PerryW:28. PresidentGeorgeHW:281. PresidentZhouEnlai:286. Price,CH:147. Pucci,Emilio:157. Pumphrey,Gordon:228. Q QANTAS(QueenslandandNorthernTerritoriesAir Services):181-184,186,187,193,200,211, 276,277,293,294,295,296,297,298 Quarles,DonaldA:79. QueenElizabethII:287. R Reagan,PresidentRonald:281. Reaney,Joe:244.
RedesEstaduaisAéreasLimitadas(REAL):191. Reed,WilliamG:60. Reid,Caroline:179. Renschler,FrederickB:12. Rickenbacker,CaptainEdwardV‘Eddie’:36. Roberts,Charles:284,285. Robins,Robert:32. Rockwell,ColonelWilliamF:180. Rosenberg,Chuck:130. Rosendahl,ViceAdmiralCharlesE:64. Rossignol,Ronald:223,224,225. Roth,LtColMS:25. Rubine,IrvinG:162. Ruffle,Dylis:231. Rummel,RobertW:37,150.
S Saarinen,Eero:148. SABENABelgianWorldAirlines:33,70,159,160, 172,224. Sadat,PresidentAnwar:287. Saltzman,Harry:190. SaturnAirways:208. Savitsky,Yevgeniy:222. Sawyer,RobertE‘Bob’:70. ScandanavianAirlineSystem(SAS):33. ScandanavianAirlinesSystem(SAS):186.
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Schairer,GeorgeS:30,52. Schleeh,Russ:32. Schleier,Maj.Erich:80. Schriever,GenBernard:29. Schwarzkopf,GenNorman:116. Sears,Michael:130. Seaton,George:176. Seberg,Jean:176. Sega,Dr.Ron:131. Seitz,Frederick:29. Sharif,BassanAbu:216. Sharma,Velma:237. Sharp,MartinC:25. Shogran,IvarL:64. SikorskyAviationCorporation:12,14. Simmons,Thorton:251. Sinatra,Frank:178,294,295. Sinatra,Nancy:295. SingaporeAirlines:202,241. Sinski,George:158. Siponen,Riley:231. SkyworldAirlines:213. SmithCR:66. Smith,CI:227. Smith,Chuck:235. Smith,Derek:252.
Smith,MargaretChase:282. Smith,Merriman:284,285. SmithsonianInstitution/SmithsonianNationalAirAnd SpaceMuseum:46,73,74. Snow,Bill:228,235. Snudden,Alan:227,235,251. SocietyofBritishAerospaceCompanies(SBAC): 34,36. Sommermeyer,Captain‘Gus’:65. SouthAfricanAirways(SAA):185,192,201,291. Spalding,Tom:171. Stainler,MC:70. Staley,CaptainMFrank:157,158. StandardLifeInsuranceCo.:10. StandardSteelPropellerCompany:12. Stapleton,Maureen:176. Starr,Ringo:166. StearmanAircraftCompany:12. Steiner,Jack:52. Sterk,MajorJamesR:257. Stern,MartinJr:295. Stevens,J:251. Stewart,Rosalind:160. Storck,CaptainGail:150. StoutAirlines:12. SudanAirways:209.
Maj. Christopher Marriott and Capt. Alexandra Trana, both KC-135 Stratotanker pilots from the 909th Air Refueling Squadron, taxi behind several KC-135s during an elephant walk as part of the Forceful Tiger exercise on Kadena Air Base, Japan, 1 April 2015. During the aerial exercise, the Stratotankers delivered 800,000 pounds of fuel to approximately 50 aircraft. (U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Maeson L. Elleman)
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An F-15E Strike Eagle receives fuel from a KC-135 Stratotanker 23 September 2014, over northern Iraq after conducting airstrikes in Syria. These aircraft were part of a large coalition strike package that was the first to strike Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant targets in Syria. (US Air Force photo/Senior Airman Matthew Bruch) SudanAirways:211. Sutter,Joseph‘Joe’:62,63. Sutton,George:228. Swindle,Col.James:281,283,284,285,287. Swissair:33,216. SyrianArabAirlines:211.
T Talbott,HaroldE:60,61,76. Thomas,BrigGenJon:136. Thomas,Lowell:179,180. Thomas,SirMiles:36. Thompson,DrLorenB:135,279. Thompson,WingCommanderRG:267. TizzardMission:22,23. Tizzard,SirHenry:22,23. Tohar,CaptainZvi:173. Topliffe,Ken:228. Townsend,LtColGuyM:60. TracindaCorporation:296. Tradewinds:208. Tran-CanadaAirlines:14,34. TransArabianAirTransport(TAAT):226,277. TransCanadianAirlines(TCA):33,35. TransGlobalAirlines(sic)176,177. TransInternationalAirlines:297. TransMediterraneanAirways(TMA):201. TransPolar:209. TransWorldAirways(TWA):16,17,20,33,37,
39,69,75,146-151,178,179,181,183,185,191, 193,208,209,216,288. TransaviaHolland:301. TranscontinentalandWesternAir:16. TransportesAéreosPortugueses(TAP):199,201, 288. Travolta,John:293-297. Trezes,GeorgetteD:162. Trimble,SgtJohn:281. Trippe,JuanTerry:14-20,37,66,67,148. Tsarkov,Vladimir:220,221. TunisAir:211. TylerMore,Mary:149.
U Uncles,JL:171. UnionAeromaritimedeTransport(UAT):34. UnitedAircraft&TransportCorporation:12,14. UnitedAircraft&TransportationCompany:13. UnitedAircraftCorporation:14. UnitedAirlinesInc:12,19,35,64,65,71,147,160, 172,177,185,186,191,192,209. UnitedAirlinesTransportationCompany:11. V VarneyAirlines:12,14. Vernieuw,Anselme:70. ViaçãoAéreaRio-Grandense(VARIG);163,168, 193.
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Finished with engines! Senior Airman Clarissa Banks, a 340th Aircraft Maintenance Unit crew chief, controls the movement of a KC-135 Stratotanker on Al Udeid Air Base, Qatar, 8 April 2015. Al Udeid is a strategic coalition air base in Qatar that supports over 90 combat and support aircraft and houses more than 5,000 military personnel. (U.S. Air Force photo/Senior Airman James Richardson) VickersViscount:33-35,209. Vider,Shlomo:216. VirginAirlines:179. VonBaumhauer,Albert:17. VonKármán,DrTheodore:28,29,30. VonOhain,HansJoachimPabst:21. VoughtAircraft:14.
W Walder,Barbara:232. Wallick,SLewis:72. WalterDorwinTeagueAssociates:68. Ware,Tim:228,235. Warsitz,Erich:21. Warton,Hank:223. Waterlot,Paul:224. Watson-Watt,Robert:23. Wells,EdwardCurtiss‘Ed’:47,49,52,60. WestAfricanAirways:239. WesternAirlines:146,204,208,209. Westervelt,CommanderGeorgeConrad:9,11, Westinghouse:24. Whitehead,Bell:60.
Whiton,Emelyn:162. Whittle,Frank:21,22,23,27. Wiesner,DrJeromeB:29. Willgoos,Andrew:28. Wooldridge,WingCommanderJohndeLacy:296. WorldAirways:173,208,211,253. WrightAeronautics:27. Wynter,Dana:176. X,Malcom:167. Y Yang,DebraWong:130. Yeasting,John:49. Yorty,Sam:167. Young,Freddie:190. Young,John:134. Yri,William:289.
Z Zak,Edwin:149. ZambiaAirways:211,253,277. Zeitlyn,Brian:235.