Boeing 707 Group: A History


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Boeing­707 Family

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Boeing­707 Family A­History

Graham­M­Simons

An­imprint­of Pen­&­Sword­Books­Ltd Yorkshire­-­Philadelphia

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First­published­in­Great­Britain­in­2018­by PEN­&­SWORD­AVIATION An­imprint­of Pen­&­Sword­Books­Ltd Yorkshire­-­Philadelphia

Copyright­©­Pen­and­Sword­Books­Limited,­2017 ISBN­9781473861343

The­right­of­Graham­Simons­to­be­identified­as Author­of­this­work­has­been­asserted­by­him­in­accordance with­the­Copyright,­Designs­and­Patents­Act­1988. A­CIP­catalogue­record­for­this­book­is available­from­the­British­Library

All­rights­reserved.­No­part­of­this­book­may­be­reproduced­or transmitted­in­any­form­or­by­any­means,­electronic­or­mechanical including­photocopying,­recording­or­by­any­information­storage­and retrieval­system,­without­permission­from­the­Publisher­in­writing.­ Typeset­in­10/11­Times by­GMS­Enterprises

Printed­and­bound­­in­India­by­Replika­Press­Pvt.­Ltd.

Pen­&­Sword­Books­Ltd­incorporates­the­Imprints­of­Aviation,­Atlas, Family­History,­Fiction,­Maritime,­Military,­Discovery,­Politics,­History, Archaeology,­Select,­Wharncliffe­Local­History,­Wharncliffe­True­Crime, Military­Classics,­Wharncliffe­Transport,­Leo­Cooper,­The­Praetorian­Press, Remember­When,­Seaforth­Publishing­and­Frontline­Publishing. For­a­complete­list­of­Pen­&­Sword­titles­please­contact

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Contents Acknowledgements ......................................................................... Introduction

7

Playing­catch-up .......................................................

21

What’s­in­a­name? ....................................................

45

In­the­beginning ........................................................

Chapter­3

The­journey­from­paper­to­metal ..............................

Chapter­4 Chapter­5

Gas­Passers­and­so­much­more:­the­135­series .......

Chapter­6

Big ol’ jet airliner ......................................................

Chapter­8

Military­707s .............................................................

Chapter­7

6

....................................................................................

Chapter­1 Chapter­2

5

9

33

75

137

‘Ladies and Gentlemen, From the Flight Deck’.........

227

255

Chapter­9­

‘Come Fly With me’

................................................

293

Appendix­2

Specifications ...........................................................

302

Appendix­1

Summary­of­new­build­aircraft­ .................................

Bibliography .................................................................................... Index

.....................................................................................

299

307

310

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Acknowledgements A­book­of­this­nature­would­not­have­been­possible­without­the­help­of­many people­and­organisations.­Thanks­are­offered­to­the­many­representatives­of tens­of­airlines­past­and­present­I­have­contacted­over­the­years,­including everyone­at­Pan­American­Airways,­Trans­World­Airlines,­QANTAS,­British Midland­Airways,­SABENA,­Air­France,­Olympic­Airways,­the­British­Airways Archive­and­KLM,­but­especially­to­the­late­Peter­M­Bowers­and­Lance­Kuhn at­ Boeing,­ ­ Gudrun­ Gorner,­ Corporate­ Communications­ Executive­ UK­ & Ireland­ Lufthansa­ German­ Airlines­ and­ to­ Kerstin­ Roßkopp,­ Deutsche Lufthansa­AG­for­digging­deep­in­their­files. Thanks­ and­ a­ big­ salute­ should­ go­ to­ the­ Public­ Affairs­ and­ Community Relations­ Officers­ of­ the­ many­ military­ units­ who­ have­ provided­ help­ and assistance,­especially­to­Jim­Robinson,­Media­and­Communications­Officer RAF­Coningsby,­all­on­8­Squadron­RAF,­especially­their­SENGO­for­granting me­access,­Dennis­Cole­and­all­at­the­927­ARW,­McDill­AFB­and­the­100­ARW, RAF­Mildenhall,­Jeff­Duford­and­Roger­Deere­at­the­National­Museum­of­the US­Air­Force­and­all­at­the­Smithsonian­National­Air­and­Space­Museum. My­thanks­also­go­to­the­staff­of­Dan-Air­Services,­Dan­Air­Engineering­and the­Dan-Air­Staff­Association,­many­of­whom­freely­provided­information, advice­and­photographs. Thanks­are­also­offered­to­John­Hunt­of­Ian­Allen­Travel,­Mr­F­E­F­Newman, CBE,­MC,­Michael­Newman,­Captain­Keith­Moody,­Captain­Yvonne­Sintes, Captain­Bryn­Wayt,­Captain­Roger­Cooper,­Captain­Arthur­Larkman,­John Stride,­ Bill­Armstrong,­ David­ Lee,­ John­ Hamlin,­ Vince­ Hemmings,­ Brian Cocks,­Michelle­Millar,­Mike­Ramsden,­Mick­Oakey,­Ian­Frimston,­Warrant Officer­Paddy­Porter­BEM.­Finally,­thanks­also­go­to­Laura­Hirst,­Matt­Jones, Jon­Wilkinson,­and­Charles­Hewitt­of­Pen­&­Sword!

I­am­indebted­to­many­people­and­organisations­for­providing­photographs­for this­story,­but­in­some­cases­it­has­not­been­possible­to­identify­the­original photographer­and­so­credits­are­given­in­the­appropriate­places­to­the­immediate supplier.­If­any­of­the­pictures­have­not­been­correctly­credited,­please­accept my­apologies.

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Introduction

It­has­been­claimed­by­many­that­the­Boeing­Model 707­ airliner­ and­ its­ derivatives­ marked­ the­ true beginning­of­the­jet-transport­age,­and­in­the­process totally­revolutionised­the­nature­of­air­transport.­ Assessments­of­the­impact­of­the­Boeing­707­on world­air­transportation­differs­from­one­side­of­the Atlantic­ to­ the­ other,­ mainly­ reflecting­ parochial attitudes.­Whereas­in­the­United­States­the­National Air­ and­ Space­ Museum­ of­ the­ Smithsonian Institution­designated­the­Boeing­367-80­-­the­famous ‘Dash­80’­-­prototype­as­being­one­of­the­twelve­most significant­aircraft­designs­of­all­time­-­those­‘in­the know’­ in­ the­ rest­ of­ the­ world­ see­ the­ story­ in­ a somewhat­ different­ light.­ Boeing­ and­ the Smithsonian­also­insist­on­calling­the­Model­367-80 the­707,­which,­as­we­shall­see,­it­clearly­is­not. Outwardly­similar­to­the­707s­that­were­to­follow, the­Dash­80­was,­in­fact,­very­different.­It­was­shorter, lower,­lighter­and­had­both­a­narrower­cross-section and­smaller­wingspan­than­any­707­built. Boeing­and­its­supporters­take­great­delight­in using­phrases­like­‘...the world’s first commercially successful airliner’ which­they­have­bandied­about over­the­years­when­talking­about­the­707­and­its derivatives,­ conveniently­ forgetting­ that ‘commercially successful’ is­something­subjective.­In reality­the­707­was­in­fact­the­fourth­jet­airliner­to­fly and­was­launched­on­the­back­of­a­huge­military order­ for­ a­ structurally­ similar­ but­ dimensionally different­design.­This­use­of­military­funded­design work­and­tooling­considerably­reduced­development costs. There­had­been­earlier­jet­transports­in­the­forms of­the­De­Havilland­DH.106­Comet,­the­Avro­Jetliner, the­Sud-Aviation­SE.210­Caravelle­and­Tupolev­Tu104;­but­for­various­reasons­these­had­failed­to­secure the­ technical­ and­ commercial­ lead­ eventually assumed­ by­ the­ Model­ 707.­The­ Comet­ had­ first flown­on­27­July­1949,­but­suffered­from­problems associated­with­the­then­little-known­phenomena­of fatigue­failures­of­the­fuselage.­It­was­also­designed as­what­would­today­been­called­a­medium­range aircraft­to­serve­the­British­Empire­routes­to­South Africa,­ India,­ the­ Far­ East­ and­ Australia.­ The Caravelle­ was­ tailored­ to­ the­ short/medium-haul regime­of­airline­operations­and­the­Tu-104­was­a small-capacity­airliner­of­prodigious­performance whose­operating­costs­made­the­type­too­costly­for all­but­the­Russians­to­sustain­in­regular­service.­

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Another­ thing­ that­ grates­ with­ many­ is­ the selective­memory­syndrome­from­which­Boeing­and many­of­its­supporters­seem­to­suffer.­When­talking about­the­Comet­they­always­mention­the­structural failure­of­a­window­in­the­fuselage­-­in­fact­it­was­not a­‘window’,­it­was­an­aperture­holding­a­direction finding­aerial­-­but­completely­fail­to­mention­the poor­design­of­the­vertical­fin­of­the­B.307­that­led­to the­deaths­of­all­on­board­the­prototype.­It’s­the­same thing­when­it­comes­to­the­multiple­engine­failures of­the­Boeing­377­that­led­to­the­phrase­‘the greatest three engined airliner ever built’. Indeed,­ this­ poor­ vertical­ fin­ design­ and­ the infamous­‘dutch­roll’­that­continued­with­the­367-80, C/KC-135­and­707­designs­resulted­in­the­loss­of many­lives­that­took­a­lot­of­time,­money­and­effort to­fix;­but­that­is­seldom­mentioned. This­ selective­ memory­ of­ the­ supporters continues­in­other­areas:­­they­always­say­‘...the longrange 707...’, conveniently­forgetting­that­the­Boeing 707-120­ was­ incapable­ of­ non-stop­ transatlantic operation­ and­ barely­ capable­ of­ going transcontinental­ with­ a­ full­ payload.­ There­ are­ a number­of­recorded­incidents­where­these­early­-120s were­forced­to­land­at­non-jet­registered­airports­due to­being­low­on­fuel­and­were­impounded­due­to­the airports­not­having­the­correct­insurance! Trawling­through­the­list­of­phrases­heaped­upon the­Boeing­707,­the­KC-135­tanker­and­the­Boeing company,­ it­ seems­ that­ according­ to­ some,­ the company­and­the­airliner­could­do­no­wrong.­After all,­it­was­well­known­that­the­company­gambled everything­-­by­budgeting­$16­million­of­their­own money­-­on­letting­the­design­go­ahead!­ In­the­words­of­many,­it­seems­that­the­Boeing 707­and­the­KC-135­tanker­for­the­US­Air­Force­was an­ immaculate­ conception­ borne­ of­ an­ idea­ from William­M­Allen,­the­company­president­-­from­that moment­on,­every­other­airliner­had­faults,­seemingly almost­deliberately­so!­The­rhetoric­created­an­image that­all­‘the­opposition’­were­down­on­range,­had poor­economics,­were­technically­flawed,­could­not carry­ as­ many,­ for­ as­ far­ -­ or­ as­ fast.­ The­ hype surrounding­the­aircraft­and­the­company­reached fever­pitch­with­the­slogan­that­just­had­to­come­from sharp­ suited­ advertising­ executives­ of­ Madison Avenue­and­is­still­quoted­today: ‘Tell your travel agent - if it’s not Boeing, you’re not going!’ The­truth­is­that­accidents­happen;­when­pushing

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the­boundaries­of­knowledge­there­is­always­the­risk of­ discovering­ new­ areas­ of­ danger.­ Likewise, comparisons­should­only­be­made­when­comparing like­for­like,­not­sticks­and­stones.­To­make­claims through­ what­ appears­ at­ best­ to­ be­ rose-coloured glasses­does­a­disservice­to­the­many­thousands­of people­who­designed,­built,­serviced­and­flew­the designs,­be­they­tankers­or­airliners. Was­all­this­‘American­pride’­justified,­or­was­it merely­the­cynical­manipulation­of­the­facts­by­the public­ relations­ and­ marketing­ people?­ The­ only solution­was­to­objectively­look­in­detail­at­the­history of­the­design,­its­evolution­and­use. Then,­in­the­process­of­research­for­this­book­I was­sent­a­tatty­old­piece­of­paper­with­far­too­many thumb-tack­holes­in­it.­Clearly­it­had­hung­on­many a­crew­room­notice­board,­and­from­the­words­used, American­ crew­ rooms­ at­ that.­ It­ shed­ a­ whole different­light­on­the­subject:

An Ode to the Boeing 707 Those were the good ole days. Pilots back then were men that didn’t want to be women or girlie men. Pilots all knew who Jimmy Doolittle was. Pilots drank coffee, whiskey, smoked cigars wearing their uniforms in airport lounges and didn’t wear digital watches. They carried their own suitcases and brain bags like the real men that they were. Pilots didn’t bend over into the crash position multiple times each day in front of the passengers at security so that some Government agent could probe for tweezers or fingernail clippers or too much toothpaste. Pilots didn’t go through the terminal looking a caddy pulling a bunch of golf clubs, computers, guitars and feed bags full of tofu and granola on a sissy-trailer with no hat and granny glasses hanging on a pink string around their pencil neck while talking to their personal trainer on a cell phone! Being an airline captain was as good as being the King in a Mel Brooks movie. All the Stewardesses were young, attractive, single women that were proud to be combatants in the sexual revolution. They didn’t have to turn sideways, grease up and suck it in to get through the cockpit door. They would blush and say thank you when told that they looked good, instead of filing a sexual harassment claim. Junior Stewardesses shared a room and talked about men; with no thoughts of substitution. Passengers wore nice clothes and were polite; they could speak AND understand English. They didn’t speak gibberish or listen to loud gangsta rap on their IPods. They bathed and didn’t smell like a rotting pile of garbage in a jogging suit and flip-flops. Children didn’t travel

alone, commuting between trailer parks. There were no Mongol hordes asking for a seatbelt extension or a Scotch and grapefruit juice cocktail with a twist. If a captain wanted to throw some offensive, ranting jerk off the airplane, it was done without any worries of a lawsuit or getting fired. Axial flow engines crackled with the sound of freedom and left an impressive black smoke trail like a locomotive burning soft coal. Jet fuel was cheap and once the throttles were pushed up they were left there, after all it was the jet age and the idea was to go fast. Economy cruise was something in the performance book, but no one knew why or where it was. When the clacker went off no one got all tight and scared because Boeing built it out of iron, nothing was going to fall off and that sound had the same effect on real pilots then as Viagra does now for these new age guys. There was very little plastic and no composites on the airplanes or Stewardesses’ pectoral regions. Airplanes and women had eye pleasing symmetrical curves, not a bunch of ugly vortex generators, ventral fins, winglets, flow diverters, tattoos, rings in their nose, tongues and eyebrows. It took 185 pounds pressure on the rudder to hold a 707 straight with an outboard engine out. That was because the Boeing‘s engineers were afraid the pilots would break their aeroplane if they gave them enough hydraulic power to hold it. Airlines were run by men like C.R. Smith and Juan Tripp who had built their companies virtually from scratch, knew most of their employees by name and were lifetime airline employees themselves...Not pseudo financiers and bean counters who flip from one occupation to another for a few bucks, a better parachute or a fancier title, while fervently believing that they are a class of beings unto themselves. And so it was back then . . .. and never will be again! Clearly,­it­was­a­different­time...­ This­then­is­the­story.

Graham­M­Simons Peterborough April­2017

PS:­For­those­questioning­why­no­metric­dimensions­and sizes­appear­in­this­book,­please­remember­that­the­Boeing Aircraft­company­used­Imperial­dimensions­-­that­is­feet and­inches­etc­-­when­designing­and­building­the­707.­For me­to­convert­these­to­metric,­using­an­accuracy­of­four decimal­ points,­ makes­ the­ original­ figures­ look­ silly. Anyone­wishing­to­convert,­please­remember­that­one­inch equals­25.4­millimetres!

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Chapter­One

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In­The­Beginning The­Boeing­Company­was­founded­by­William­E. flight­ in­ June­ 1916.­With­ the­ original­ partnership ‘Bill’­ Boeing,­ the­ son­ of­ a­ wealthy­ timber­ man. dissolved­by­Westervelt’s­departure,­and­the­B­&­W Boeing­took­up­flying­for­his­own­amusement­at­the aircraft­a­success,­corporate­identity­was­not­achieved age­of­thirty-four.­He­became­convinced­that­he­could until­ the­ Pacific­ Aero­ Products­ Company­ was build­ a­ better­ aeroplane.­ He­ and­ Commander­ G. incorporated­ on­ 15­ July­ 1916­ and­ a­ new­ airline Conrad­ Westervelt,­ a­ Navy­ officer­ assigned­ to subsidiary,­Boeing­Air­Transport,­was­formed.­On­26 engineering­work­at­a­Seattle­shipyard,­Washington, April­1917­the­name­was­changed­to­The­Boeing decided­to­build­a­pair­of­seaplanes.­By­December Airplane­Company­-­Boeing­kept­his­office­in­the 1915,­an­aircraft­called­the­‘B­&­W­Seaplane’­was Hoge­building­in­downtown­Seattle,­while­his­plant under­construction­in­a­hangar­on­the­east­shore­of managers­were­at­the­shipyard. The­ company­ attracted­ interest­ from­ the­ US Lake­Union,­a­large­body­of­freshwater­roughly­two miles­long­and­three-quarters­of­a­mile­wide­in­the Navy,­ which­ was­ becoming­ aware­ of­ the­ rapid heart­of­the­city.­Often­referred­to­as­a­floating­hangar, growth­of­military­aviation­in­Europe­and­the­need the­building­was­constructed­above­water­level­on for­expansion­of­its­own­air­arm.­While­the­Navy­did piling­driven­offshore­at­the­foot­of­Roanoake­Street not­ buy­ either­ B­ &­ W,­ it­ did­ encourage­ the on­the­eastern­shore­of­the­lake.­The­impression­of development­of­a­new­model­designed­specifically floating­was­conveyed­by­the­sloping­seaplane­ramp as­ a­ trainer­ that­ could­ be­ used­ in­ the­ anticipated which­hid­the­piling­from­view,­and­was­reinforced expansion­of­the­Navy­flight-training­programme. Pacific­ Aero­ enlarged­ its­ engineering­ and by­the­prevalence­of­houseboats­and­other­floating buildings­ in­ the­ immediate­ area.­ Although­ used manufacturing­facilities­and­undertook­the­design­of originally­ to­ house­ a­ Martin­ seaplane­ that­ ‘Bill’ two­new­models,­a­seaplane­that­could­be­used­for Boeing­had­bought­following­his­decision­to­build private­ flying­ as­ well­ as­ meeting­ the­ Navy requirements­ for­ a­ primary aircraft­in­partnership­with William E ‘Bill’ Boeing trainer­ and­ a­ landplane­ for Westervelt,­ it­ was (b. 1 October 1881 – d. 28 September 1956) Army­ requirements.­ After constructed­ with­ the testing­in­Seattle,­the­second manufacture­ of­ aircraft­ in and­ third­ examples­ of­ the mind.­ Bluebird­ –­ some new­ seaplane­ were­ sent­ by sources­ say­ it­ was­ called rail­to­the­Navy­test­facility­at Bluebill­-­the­first­B­&­W, Hampton­Roads,­Virginia.­ was­ completed­ in­ early The­ lakeside­ hangar 1916,­ marking­ the­ modest was­not­suitable,­so­Boeing beginning­ of­ aircraft expanded­ by­ setting­ up production­ at­ the­ Boeing aircraft­ manufacturing Company;­ it­ flew­ for­ the facilities­ in­ the­ Heath first­time­on­29­June. Shipyard,­ a­ small­ yachtAlthough­ work­ on­ the building­ firm­ on­ the aircraft­had­been­in­progress Duwamish­ River,­ south­ of since­ 1915,­ Commander Seattle,­which­had­built­the Westervelt­ did­ not­ see­ the floats­for­the­B­&­W,­and­was fruits­of­his­labours,­having a­company­that­Bill­Boeing been­transferred­to­the­east had­ acquired­ some­ years coast­on­Navy­orders­before previously.­ Many­ of­ the the­ machine­ made­ its­ first

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existing­buildings­and­much­of­the­equipment­could be­ used­ to­ produce­ aircraft­ parts,­ but­ additional facilities­were­still­required. A­large­final­assembly­building­was­erected­after the­Navy­asked­Boeing­to­build­50­Curtiss­HS-2L flying­boats­for­the­wartime­programme.­The­Lake Union­hangar­was­retained­as­a­flight­operations­base until­after­the­war,­when­it­was­sold.­ Boeing – the Man. William­Edward­Boeing­(b.­1­October­1881­–­d.­28 September­1956)­was­born­in­Detroit,­Michigan­to­a wealthy­German­mining­engineer,­Wilhelm­Böing and­his­wife­Marie.­His­father,­who­arrived­in­the United­States­in­1868,­was­a­descendant­from­an­old and­well-to-do­family­in­Hagen-Hohenlimburg­area of­Germany,­and­had­served­in­the­German­army. Wilhelm­had­emigrated­to­the­USA­at­the­age­of­20, starting­ work­ as­ a­ farm­ labourer,­ but­ soon­ joined forces­ with­ Karl­ Ortmann,­ a­ lumberman­ and, ultimately,­his­father-in-law.­Young­Wilhelm­bought timberland,­with­its­mineral­rights,­in­the­Mesabi Range­in­northern­Minnesota,­built­a­large­home,­and became­ the­ director­ of­ Peoples­ Savings­ Bank, president­of­the­Galvin­Brass­and­Iron­Works,­and­a shareholder­in­the­Standard­Life­Insurance­Company. He­also­bought­land­in­Washington­State­in­the­area now­known­as­Ocean­Shores­and­timberland­in­the redwood­forest­in­California. When­Wilhelm­was­logging­in­Minnesota­he­had difficulty­running­compass­lines­on­his­property,­the reasons­being­he­was­logging­over­an­iron-ore­range. Fortunately,­when­he­purchased­timberlands­he­kept the­mineral­rights­also.­There­was­low-grade­iron­ore known­as­taconite­near­the­surface,­and­below­that lay­veins­of­high-quality­ore.­Though­Wilhelm­did not­ live­ to­ see­ the­ development­ of­ those­ mining

rights,­his­widow­received­the­benefits­of­the­mineral rights­ later­ in­ her­ life.­ Wilhelm­ Boeing­ died­ of influenza­in­1890­when­he­was­only­42­years­old. Young­ William­ was­ sent­ to­ school­ in­ Vevey, Switzerland,­ leaving­ after­ a­ year,­ continuing­ his schooling­in­public­and­private­schools­in­the­United States.­Between­1899­and­1902,­he­studied­at­the Sheffield­ Scientific­ School­ at­ Yale­ but­ did­ not graduate.­ Instead,­ in­ 1903­ at­ age­ 22,­ William­ E. Boeing­left­college,­went­west,­and­started­his­new life­in­Grays­Harbor,­Washington,­where­he­learned the­logging­business­on­his­own,­starting­with­lands he­had­inherited.­Boeing­bought­more­timberland, began­to­add­to­the­wealth­he­had­inherited­from­his family,­ and­ started­ to­ explore­ new­ frontiers­ by outfitting­expeditions­to­Alaska. He­ moved­ to­ Seattle­ in­ 1908­ to­ establish­ the Greenwood­Timber­Co.­His­first­home­there­was­a genteel­apartment-hotel­on­First­Hill,­but­in­1909,­he was­elected­a­member­of­The­Highlands,­a­brandnew,­exclusive­residential­suburb­in­the­Shoreline area­north­of­town.­In­1910,­he­bought­the­Heath Shipyard­on­the­Duwamish­River­to­build­a­yacht, named­the­Taconite.­ Three­years­later­Boeing­asked­the­architecture firm­of­Bebb­and­Mendel­to­design­his­white-stucco, red-roofed­ mansion­ in­ The­ Highlands.­ While president­of­Greenwood­Timber­Company,­Boeing, who­had­experimented­with­boat­design,­travelled­to Seattle,­ where,­ during­ the­ Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition­in­1909,­he­saw­a­manned­flying­machine for­the­first­time­and­became­fascinated­with­aircraft. He­ soon­ purchased­ an­ aircraft­ from­ the­ Glenn­ L. Martin­Company,­and­received­flying­lessons­from Martin­himself.­Just­as­many­pioneer­flyers,­Boeing soon­ crashed­ the­ aircraft.­ When­ he­ was­ told­ by Martin­ that­ replacement­ parts­ would­ not­ become In 1909, Edward Heath built a shipyard on the Duwamish River in Seattle. Heath became insolvent, and Bill Boeing, for whom Heath was building a luxurious yacht, bought the shipyard and land for ten dollars during 1917, in exchange for Boeing's acceptance of Heath's debts. Building 105, also known as the Red Barn, was part of the package. The Boeing Company began producing aircraft from the simple barn-like structure.

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available­for­months,­Boeing­blew­up.­He­angrily­told his­US­Navy­friend­Cdr.­George­Conrad­Westervelt ‘…We­could­build­a­better­plane­ourselves­and­build it­faster’.­Westervelt­agreed.­They­soon­built­and­flew the­B­&­W­Seaplane,­an­amphibian­biplane­that­had outstanding­performance.­Boeing­decided­to­go­into the­aircraft­business­and­bought­an­old­boat­works­on the­Duwamish­River­near­Seattle­for­his­factory. In­1921,­William­Boeing­married­Bertha­Marie Potter­Paschall­(1891-1977).­She­had­previously­been married­to­Nathaniel­Paschall,­a­real­estate­broker with­ whom­ she­ bore­ two­ sons,­ Nathaniel­ ‘Nat’ Paschall­Jr.­and­Cranston­Paschall.­These­two­sons became­Boeing's­stepsons.­The­couple­had­a­son­of their­own,­William­E.­Boeing­Jr.­The­stepsons­went into­aviation­manufacturing­as­a­career.­Nat­Paschall was­a­sales­manager­for­Douglas­Aircraft­and­then McDonnell­Douglas.­William­E.­Boeing­Jr.­became a­ noted­ private­ pilot­ and­ industrial­ real­ estate developer.­ Bertha­ was­ the­ daughter­ of­ Howard Cranston­Potter­and­Alice­Kershaw­Potter.­Through her­ father,­ Bertha­ was­ a­ descendant­ of­ merchant bankers­ Alexander­ Brown­ of­ Baltimore,­ James Brown­and­Brown's­son-in-law­and­partner­Howard Potter­ of­ New­York;­ and­ through­ her­ mother,­ the granddaughter­of­Charles­James­Kershaw­and­Mary Leavenworth­ Kershaw,­ a­ descendant­ of­ Henry Leavenworth,­a­famous­American­soldier­active­in the­ War­ of­ 1812­ and­ early­ military­ expeditions against­the­Plains­Indians. In­1926­Boeing­began­contracting­for­Air­Mail postal­routes,­a­business­that­made­Boeing­a­wealthy man.­His­company­took­control­of­a­loose-knit­group of­ air­ carriers,­ bringing­ these­ entities­ together­ as United­Air­Lines­Transportation­Company,­another Boeing­subsidiary,­which­came­to­dominate­air­mail routes.­Boeing­threatened­to­move­his­companies­to Los­Angeles­unless­the­local­government­built­him­a new­airport,­and­in­1928­King­County­International Airport­-­commonly­called­Boeing­Field­-­opened­on Seattle's­south­side. Bill­Boeing­began­investing­most­of­his­time­into his­horses­in­1937.­Between­1935­and­1944,­William Boeing­and­his­wife­Bertha­set­aside­a­massive­tract of­land­north­of­Seattle­city­limits­for­subdivision, including­ the­ future­ communities­ of­ Richmond Beach,­Richmond­Heights,­Innis­Arden,­Blue­Ridge and­Shoreview. Boeing­retired­from­the­aircraft­industry.­He­then spent­ the­ remainder­ of­ his­ years­ in­ property development­and­thoroughbred­horse­breeding.­In 1942­Boeing­donated­his­Highlands­Hills­Mansion to­the­Children's­Orthopaedic­Hospital­and­moved­to the­ 500-acre­ Aldarra­ Farm­ near­ Fall­ City.­ The

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mansion­was­subsequently­sold­to­raise­funds­for­the hospital,­and­in­1988­was­placed­on­both­the­National and­Washington­State­Registers­of­Historic­Places.­ On­15­May­1954,­he­and­his­wife­Bertha­returned to­The­Boeing­Company­again­for­the­367-80­rollout. This­time­Bertha­was­able­to­use­real­champagne, unlike­ the­ time­ she­ was­ asked­ to­ launch­ the­ first Model­40A­mail­plane­during­the­era­of­Prohibition, when­no­champagne­was­allowed­on­Crissy­Field­in San­ Francisco.­ ‘I christen thee the airplane of tomorrow, the Boeing Jet Stratoliner and Stratotanker,’ she­proclaimed. William­Boeing­died­on­28­September­1956,­just three­ days­ before­ his­ 75th­ birthday.­ He­ was pronounced­dead­on­arrival­at­the­Seattle­Yacht­Club, having­had­a­heart­attack­aboard­his­yacht.­

Peace breaks out – and making ends meet. With­ the­ end­ of­ the­ war­ in­ November­ 1918,­ the Boeing­Airplane­Company,­like­many­others­building aircraft­for­the­war­effort,­suffered­rapid,­catastrophic loss­ of­ contracts.­ Suddenly­ finding­ itself­ without work,­ it­ turned­ its­ hand­ to­ other­ things,­ making furniture,­phonograph­cases,­and­even­fixtures­for­a corset­company. Business­slowly­recovered.­The­company­started to­show­a­profit­from­repairing­military­aircraft­and building­ biplane­ fighters­ designed­ by­ other companies.­By­1921,­the­company­had­re-established itself,­and­soon­new­Boeing­designs­appeared­for both­naval­and­civilian­use. The­ Post­ Office­ Department­ issued­ a specification­for­a­Liberty-engine­powered­biplane­to replace­the­De­Havilland­DH.4s­then­in­use.­The Boeing­ Model­ 40­ was­ designed­ in­April­ 1925­ as Boeing­entry­into­the­competition­and­first­flew­on­7 July.­The­Post­Office­bought­the­single­machine,­but did­not­place­a­production­order. US­air­mail­operations­had­began­in­August­1918, after­starting­in­the­United­States­Army­Air­Service in­ May,­ with­ pilots­ and­ aircraft­ belonging­ to­ the United­ States­ Post­ Office.­ For­ nine­ years,­ using mostly­war-surplus­De­Havilland­DH.4­biplanes,­the Post­ Office­ built­ and­ flew­ a­ nationwide­ network. Subsidies­for­carrying­mail­exceeded­the­cost­of­the mail­itself,­and­some­carriers­abused­their­contracts by­flooding­the­system­with­junk­mail­at­100%­profit or­hauling­heavy­freight­as­airmail.­Historian­Oliver E.­Allen,­in­his­book­The Airline Builders, estimated that­airlines­would­have­had­to­charge­a­150-pound passenger­ $450­ per­ ticket­ in­ lieu­ of­ carrying­ an equivalent­amount­of­mail. Then,­early­in­1927­Boeing­decided­to­bid­for­the San­ Francisco­ –­ Chicago­ portion­ of­ the­ trans-

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continental­ airmail­ route­ that­ the­ US­ Post­ Office Department­ had­ sought­ to­ turn­ over­ to­ private enterprise.­The­Seattle­factory­redesigned­their­1925 Model­40­to­take­the­new­Pratt­and­Whitney­aircooled­ Wasp­ engine­ and­ based­ their­ bid­ on­ the modified­design­with­its­increased­capacity­and­could therefore­add­passenger­revenue­to­mail­payments. Competing­ bids­ were­ based­ on­ aircraft­ using­ the heavy­Liberty­engine­and­carrying­no­passengers,­so were­twice­as­high­–­the­Boeing­Airplane­Company was­awarded­the­route. A­total­of­eighty-two­Model­40s­were­built.­Their introduction­ signalled­ the­ beginning­ of­ regular commercial­passenger­service­over­long­distances and­ served­ as­ the­ vehicle­ for­ the­ first­ regular passenger­and­night­mail­flights. So­began­a­new­era­for­the­company.­Boeing­Air Transport­was­formed­as­an­airline­to­operate­the service­as­a­separate­corporation,­but­Boeing­Airplane executives­made­up­the­entire­management­structure. The­original­routes­were­expanded­late­in­1928­by the­acquisition­of­Pacific­Air­Transport­(PAT),­a­San Francisco­ to­ Seattle­ airline.­ The­ combined­ lines became­ known­ as­ ‘The­ Boeing­ System’.­ Under Boeing­ownership,­PAT­bought­Boeing­machines­but continued­to­operate­some­of­its­original­aircraft. The­ first­ of­ four­ Model­ 80­ tri-motor­ biplanes were­delivered­to­Boeing­Air­Transport­in­August 1928,­only­two­weeks­after­its­first­flight.­Twelve passengers­-­and­later,­eighteen­-­were­carried­in­a large­cabin­provided­with­hot­and­cold­running­water, a­toilet,­forced­air­ventilation,­leather­upholstered seats­and­individual­reading­lamps.­The­needs­of­a dozen­or­more­passengers­during­long­flights­soon indicated­ the­ desirability­ of­ a­ full-time­ cabin attendant­who­could­devote­all­his/her­attention­to their­comfort.­While­some­European­airlines­used male­stewards,­Boeing­Air­Transport­hired­female registered­nurses­who­became­the­first­of­the­nowuniversal­stewardesses.­The­pilot­and­co-pilot­were enclosed­in­a­roomy­cabin­ahead­of­and­separate­to the­passenger­cabin. The­company­expanded­in­other­directions,­too. In­ February­ 1929,­ Boeing­ acquired­ the­ Hamilton Metalplane­ Company­ of­ Milwaukee,­ Wisconsin, which­continued­to­manufacture­aeroplanes­of­its own­ design­ under­ its­ own­ name.­That­ same­ year Boeing­ and­ the­ Hoffar-Breeching­ Shipyard­ of Vancouver,­Canada,­a­yacht-building­concer,­formed Boeing­ Aircraft­ of­ Canada­ Ltd­ to­ build­ Seattledesigned­aircraft.­Their­first­products­were­a­number of­Model­204­flying­boats,­called­the­C204s­to­denote their­Canadian­manufacture. The­United­Aircraft­and­Transport­Corporation, with­ headquarters­ in­ Hartford,­ Connecticut­ was

created­ as­ a­ holding­ company­ owning­ all­ of­ the capital­stock­of­the­Boeing­Airplane­Company­and its­Hamilton­subsidiary,­Boeing­Air­Transport,­Inc. and­ its­ subsidiary­ PAT,­ the­ Chance­ Vought Corporation,­ a­ manufacturer­ of­ Navy­ fighterobservation­aircraft,­Hamilton­Aero­Manufacturing Company,­a­propeller­manufacturer,­and­the­Pratt­& Whitney­Aircraft­Company,­the­well-known­engine manufacturer.­ Each­ company­ continued­ to­ trade under­its­own­name­with­its­own­product­line­that complemented,­ rather­ than­ competed­ with,­ the products­ of­ the­ other­ member­ companies.­ This association­resulted­in­the­standardization­of­Pratt­& Whitney­engines­and­Hamilton­propellers­on­most subsequent­ Boeing­ aircraft­ unless­ specifically requested­ by­ the­ customer.­ Both­ the­ airline­ and manufacturing­ sides­ of­ United­ grew­ rapidly.­ The Sikorsky­ Aviation­ Corporation,­ a­ New­ England manufacturer­of­amphibians,­was­added,­followed­by the­Stearman­Aircraft­Company­of­Wichita,­Kansas, and­the­Standard­Steel­Propeller­Company.­ Stout­ Airlines,­ who­ operated­ the­ route­ from Chicago­to­Cleveland,­was­added­to­the­Boeing/PAT routes,­followed­by­National­Air­Transport­(NAT) with­routes­from­Dallas,­Texas,­to­New­York­City­by way­of­Chicago.­Varney­Air­Lines,­which­ran­from Reno,­ Nevada,­ to­ Pasco,­ Washington,­ via­ Boise, Idaho­was­also­added.­As­a­result­of­the­increased airline­activity­United­Air­Lines,­Inc.,­was­formed­as a­management­company­to­operate­the­lines,­which like­ the­ manufacturing­ companies­ continued­ to function­under­their­original­names.­ In­addition­to­the­offices­he­held­in­the­Boeing Airplane­Company­and­Boeing­Air­Transport,­Bill Boeing­ became­ chairman­ of­ the­ board­ of­ United Aircraft­ and­ Transport­ Corp.,­ with­ Frederick.­ B. Renschler­from­Pratt­&­Whitney­as­president. When­ markets­ for­ new­ aircraft­ designs developed,­ Boeing­ was­ ready.­ It­ was­ the­ first American­manufacturer­to­use­welded­steel­tubing for­fuselage­structure,­a­feature­that­became­standard throughout­the­industry­until­generally­replaced­by monococque­sheet-metal­structures­in­the­mid-1930s. Boeing­ again­ demonstrated­ its­ technological leadership­ by­ introducing­ this­ new­ construction, matched­to­aerodynamically­advanced­aircraft,­in both­commercial­and­military­production­with­the Monomail,­B-9­and­247­models­of­1930-1933. The­ all-metal­ Model­ 200­ Monomail­ mail­ and cargo­carrier­first­flew­on­6­May­1930.­Designed­as a­ combination­ mail­ and­ passenger­ aircraft,­ its performance­came­from­structural­and­aerodynamic refinements,­ not­ from­ the­ addition­ of­ brute horsepower.­The­traditional­biplane­design­with­dragproducing­struts­and­wires­was­replaced­by­a­single,

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smooth,­ all-metal­ low­ wing­ of­ clean­ cantilever construction.­The­wheels­were­retracted­into­the­wing during­flight­and­the­drag­of­the­air-cooled­‘Hornet’ engine­was­greatly­reduced­by­enclosing­it­in­a­newly developed­anti-drag­cowling.­Efficient­use­of­its­full performance­range­required­a­variable-pitch­propeller and­when­one­was­eventually­installed,­the­aircraft was­already­on­the­verge­of­being­replaced­by­the newer,­multi-engined­designs­it­had­inspired. Boeing­Models­214­and­215,­which­became­the US­Army­Y1B-9­and­YB-9,­were­logical­military developments­of­the­Monomail.­Boeing­embarked on­the­two­B-9­projects­as­a­private­venture­in­the hope­that­they­would­produce­the­same­performance advance­ in­ the­ area­ of­ heavy­ bombers­ as­ the Monomail­had­done­in­the­commercial­sector;­but­the type­ was­ not­ ordered­ in­ quantity.­ The­ B-9­ did, however,­prove­a­major­advance­in­bomber­design and­ it­ greatly­ influenced­ the­ Model­ 247,­ the­ first airliner­produced­in­quantity­by­Boeing. An­unprecedented­decision­was­made­to­re-equip the­ Boeing­ Air­ Transport­ System­ with­ the­ new twelve-seater­machine­and­an­order­for­sixty­Model 247s­was­placed­while­the­design­was­still­in­the mock-up­ stage.­ The­ Model­ 247­ was­ the­ first­ allmetal,­ streamlined­ monoplane­ transport.­ It­ was powered­ by­ two­ supercharged­ Pratt­ and­Whitney 550hp­S1D1­Wasps­(the­first­time­superchargers­had been­ used­ on­ a­ transport­ type)­ and­ featured­ a retractable­landing­gear,­an­enclosed­cabin,­autopilot,

trim­tabs­and­de-icing­equipment.­

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A scandal strikes. The­formation­of­such­a­huge­corporation­like­United was­ indicative­ that­ aviation­ and­ air­ transport­ had become­big­business­in­the­late­1920s.­However,­the economic­depression­that­followed­the­stock­market crash­of­1929­resulted­in­curtailment­of­economic support­ for­ both­ civil­ and­ military­ aeronautical activity­ and­ governmental­ investigation­ of­ big business­of­which­United­became­a­major­target. The­scandal­enveloped­Boeing­when­what­was called­the­Air­Mail­fiasco­struck.­This­was­the­name that­the­American­press­gave­to­the­political­scandal resulting­from­a­congressional­investigation­of­a­1930 meeting­between­Postmaster­General­Walter­Folger Brown­and­the­executives­of­the­top­airlines.­The parties­of­the­conference­effectively­divided­amongst themselves­the­airmail­routes,­resulting­in­a­Senate investigation. The­Air­Mail­Act­of­12­June­1934,­drafted­by Senator­ Black,­ regulated­ the­ air­ mail­ business, dissolved­ the­ holding­ companies­ that­ brought together­ airlines­ and­ aircraft­ manufacturers,­ and prevented­companies­that­held­the­old­contracts­from getting­new­ones.­The­industry's­response­to­this­was simply­ to­ change­ names;­ for­ instance­ Northwest Airways­became­Northwest­Airlines.­United­Aircraft and­Transportation­Company­(UATC)­appeared­to­be its­particular­target­and­broke­up­on­26­September The Boeing 247 is often claimed - usually by Boeing to be the first modern airliner, which first took to the air on 8 February 1933.

The first Model 247 is seen below, carrying the experimental registration X-13301 and the Boeing Air transport logo.

The interior of the 247 featured steps over the main wing spar which passed through the passenger cabin. (via David Lee)

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1934­ into­ three­ companies:­ United­ Aircraft Manufacturing­ Company,­ United­ Air­ Lines Transportation­ Company,­ and­ Boeing­ Aircraft Company. The­most­punitive­measure­was­to­ban­all­former airline­ executives­ from­ further­ contracts.­ United Airlines’­president,­Philip­G.­Johnson,­for­instance, chose­to­leave­the­USA­and­helped­to­form­TransCanada­Airlines.­William­Boeing­resigned­as­UATC's chairman­on­18­September­1934.­The­effect­of­the entire­scandal­was­to­guarantee­that­mail-carrying contracts­ remained­ unprofitable,­ and­ pushed­ the entire­industry­towards­carrying­passengers.­With bidding­for­contracts­more­competitive­and­air­mail revenue­less­attractive­than­before,­the­airlines­placed a­new­emphasis­on­passenger­transportation. William­Boeing­divested­himself­of­ownership­as his­ holding­ company,­ UATC,­ broke­ into­ three separate­entities:­Pratt­&­Whitney,­Vought,­Sikorsky, and­the­now-merged­Hamilton­Standard­Propeller Company­ became­ a­ new­ United­ Aircraft Corporation,­ while­ the­ airlines,­ National­ Air Transport,­ Boeing­ Air­ Transport,­ Pacific­ Air Transport,­Varney,­and­BAT’s­subsidiary,­the­Boeing School­ of­Aeronautics,­ became­ United­Air­ Lines Transport­ Corporation.­ The­ Boeing­ Airplane Company,­with­western­US­manufacturing,­which later­became­The­Boeing­Company.

For the military - with a commercial spin-off. In­ the­ 1930s­ it­ was­ accepted­ that­ a­ formation­ of unescorted­bombers­could­get­through­to­their­target if­they­were­properly­arranged­and­adequately­armed. During­ air­ manoeuvres­ in­ 1933,­ fighter­ aircraft­ known­by­the­Americans­as­‘pursuits’­-­repeatedly failed­to­intercept­the­bombers­and­there­was­even talk­of­eliminating­pursuits­altogether.­Funds­for­new aircraft­ were­ very­ limited­ and­ mostly­ it­ was manufacturers­who­funded­new­developments­which in­turn­could­possibly­attract­orders­from­the­military. Boeing's­first­bomber­development,­in­1934,­was the­Model­294,­or­the­XBLR-l­(experimental­bomber, long­range),­which­became­the­XB-15.­ The­ Model­ 294­ underwent­ protracted development.­It­was­the­largest­and­heaviest­aircraft built­in­the­United­States­at­the­time­of­its­first­flight on­ 15­ October­ 1937,­ and­ featured­ many­ new innovations.­Electrical­power­was­supplied­by­two 110-volt­A.C.­ generators­ driven­ by­ two­ auxiliary petrol­engines,­sleeping­and­cooking­facilities­were provided­for­the­crew,­and­many­of­the­mechanical duties­previously­allocated­to­the­pilot­and­co-pilot were­ taken­ over­ by­ a­ flight­ engineer,­ who­ had­ a separate­ station­ in­ the­ cockpit.­The­ structure­ was

generally­similar­to­earlier­Boeing­monoplanes­from the­Monomail­on­except­that­the­wing­from­the main­spar­aft­was­fabric­covered.­The­wing­was­so thick­at­the­root­that­it­was­possible­for­a­member­of the­crew­to­service­the­engine­accessory­sections­in flight­ from­ a­ passageway­ behind­ the­ nacelles. Because­of­the­high­gross­weight,­two­wheels­were used­on­each­main­undercarriage­truck. The­XB-15­was­designed­to­use­Allison­V-3420 liquid-cooled­ engines,­ but­ the­ power­ plants­ were changed­ to­ 1,000­ h.p.­ P­ &­ W­ R-1830­ twin-row radials­before­completion,­but­even­so,­the­aircraft remained­under-powered.­Two­service­test­machines were­supposed­to­be­built­as­the­YB-20­with­slightly larger­ P­&­W­ R-2180­ engines,­ but­ these­ were cancelled­before­metal­was­cut.­However,­all­was­not a­total­waste,­for­the­wing­design­was­used­on­the Model­314­flying­boat. 1934­ saw­ the­ Army­ Air­ Corps­ issue­ a specification­ for­ a­ ‘multi-engined’­ bomber,­ but manufacturers­would­have­to­build­prototypes­at­their own­expense.­Although­the­term­‘multi-engined’­was generally­taken­to­mean­two­engines,­Boeing­had­a four-engined­machine­in­the­design­stage,­so­on­16 September­1934,­Boeing­decided­boldly­to­invest $275,000­in­the­Model­299.­The­new­design,­which was­to­become­famous­in­World­War­Two­as­the­B17,­incorporated­many­lessons­learned­with­the­X-15, B-9­and­Model­247.­Powered­by­four­750hp­Pratt­and Whitney­Hornet­radials,­it­would­carry­all­bombs internally­and­accommodate­a­crew­of­eight.­Thirteen service-test­YIB-17s­went­into­service­with­the­AAC and­established­many­long-distance­records. One­of­Boeing's­biggest­pre-war­customers,­who would­prove­fundamental­to­the­success­of­Boeing airliners­ for­ decades­ to­ come,­ was­ Pan­American Airways,­headed­by­Juan­Terry­Trippe. Trippe­was­born­in­Sea­Bright,­New­Jersey.­Due to­his­Hispanic­first­name,­people­often­assume­that Trippe­was­of­Spanish­descent,­but­his­family­was actually­Northern­European­in­ancestry­and­settled­in Maryland­ in­ 1664.­ He­ was,­ in­ fact,­ named­ after Juanita­Terry,­the­Venezuelan­wife­of­his­great­uncle. Trippe­ attended­ the­ Bovea­ School­ and­ graduated from­the­Hill­School­in­1917. He­enrolled­at­Yale­University­but­left­when­the United­States­entered­World­War­One­to­apply­for flight­training­with­the­US­Navy.­After­completing training­in­June­1918,­he­was­designated­as­a­Naval Aviator­and­was­commissioned­as­an­Ensign­in­the US­Naval­Reserve.­However,­the­end­of­World­War One­ precluded­ him­ from­ flying­ in­ combat. Demobilized­from­active­duty,­he­returned­to­Yale University,­graduating­in­1921.­While­at­Yale,­he­was

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a­member­of­St.­Anthony­Hall­and­of­the­Skull­and Bones­society.­Trippe­was­treasurer­at­the­first-ever meet­ of­ the­ National­ Intercollegiate­ Flying Association­in­1920.­ After­ graduation­ from­ Yale,­ Trippe­ began working­on­Wall­Street,­but­soon­became­bored.­In 1922­he­raised­money­from­his­old­Yale­classmates, selling­them­stock­in­his­new­airline,­which­he­called Long­Island­Airways,­an­air-taxi­service­for­the­elite. Once­again­tapping­his­wealthy­friends­from­Yale, Trippe­ invested­ in­ an­ airline­ named­ Colonial­Air Transport,­which­was­awarded­a­new­route­and­an airmail­ contract­ on­ 7­ October­ 1925.­ Interested­ in operating­ to­ the­ Caribbean,­ Trippe­ created­ the Aviation­ Corporation­ of­ the­ Americas.­ Based­ in Florida,­the­company­would­evolve­into­the­unofficial US­flag­carrier,­Pan­American­Airways,­commonly known­as­Pan­Am. He­ then­ followed­ this­ with­ another­ merger­ in 1930,­ which­ led­ to­ Pan­ Am­ gaining­ lucrative contracts­to­carry­air­mail­on­his­Fokker­Tri-Motors and­Sikorsky­S-38­flying­boats­between­the­US­and

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South­America.­In­1932­Pan­American­ordered­its first­four-engined­flying­boats­and­it­took­delivery­of three­Sikorsky­S-42s­and­three­Martin­M.130s­for forty-eight­ passengers.­ Soon,­ delivering­ air­ mail accounted­ for­ three-quarters­ of­ the­ company's revenues.­ In­ the­ mid-1930s­Trippe­ expanded­ Pan Am's­operations­to­include­the­Pacific.­Pan­American Airways­was­the­first­big­carrier­to­fly­regular­longdistance­ flights­ and­ quickly­ became­ the­ world's largest­passenger­airline­as­well­as­airmail­carrier.­ In­1936­Trippe­ordered­twelve­Boeing­Model­314 flying­boats.­Each­was­capable­of­carrying­seventyfour­ passengers­ and­ was­ fitted­ out­ with­ sleeping berths­and­dining­areas.­ The­ flying­ boat­ used­ the­ same­ wing­ and­ tail surfaces­ of­ the­ Boeing­ Model­ 294,­ a­ design developed­from­a­study­awarded­by­the­US­Army­in 1934­ to­ determine­ to­ feasibility­ of­ an­ extremely heavy­bomber.­Termed­the­XBLR-1­(Experimental Bomber,­Long­Range­Model­1)­the­designation­was changed­ to­ XB-15­ while­ the­ machine­ was­ under construction.­ All­twelve­flying­boats­were­called­‘Clippers’­and Left: Juan Terry Trippe, (b.June 27, 1899 – d.April 3, 1981) the head of Pan American Airways.

Below: The prototype Boeing Model 307 Stratoliner NX19901 is seen undergoing engine runs. (both author’s collection.)

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had­romantic­names­such­as­California Clipper and Pacific Clipper; collectively­ they­ were­ known­ as ‘China­Clippers'.­By­the­eve­of­World­War­Two­Pan Am­ World­ Airways­ were­ flying­ to­ London­ via Newfoundland­and­Lisbon­and­Marseilles­via­the Azores.­During­the­war,­Pan­Am­became­the­largest civilian­troop­carrier­and­almost­all­its­energy­was directed­to­assisting­the­war­effort.­Post-war,­Trippe invested­heavily­in­new­aircraft­and­soon­they­were flying­to­every­continent. By­business­school­standards,­Juan­Trippe­was not­a­model­chief­executive.­He­didn't­delegate­well. He­ often­ made­ big­ deals­ without­ telling­ his­ top managers.­ He­ almost­ single-handedly­ built­ Pan American­into­a­world­airline,­and­often­acted­as­if he­owned­the­world.­As­history­was­to­show,­Trippe, always­ committed­ to­ revolutionizing­ commercial aviation,­would­take­every­opportunity­to­invest­in new­aircraft­and­it­was­Boeing­that­would­benefit most­in­the­post-war­years­and­beyond.­ Meanwhile,­ in­ 1935­ Boeing­ designed­ a­ fourengine­airliner­based­on­its­B-17­heavy­bomber­then in­ development,­ calling­ it­ the­ Model­ 307 ‘Stratoliner’.­The­intention­from­the­outset­was­to produce­ simultaniously­ military­ and­ commerial versions­using­the­same­wings,­tail,­rudder,­landing gear,­and­engines­from­their­production­B-17C­with a­ new,­ circular­ 138­ inch­ diameter­ cross-section Right: Howard Robart Hughes, head of Transcontinental and Western Air.

Below: A Transcontinental and Western Airlines (TWA) Boeing 307 Stratoliner with cabin attendants. (Trans World Airlines)

fuselage­designed­to­allow­pressurization. The­first­order,­for­two­307s­-­named­Stratoliners -­was­placed­in­1937­by­Juan­Tripp’s­Pan­American Airways;­Pan­Am­soon­increased­this­to­six,­and­a second­ order­ for­ five­ from­ Transcontinental­ & Western­ Air,­ later­ to­ be­ re-named­ Trans­ World Airways­ (TWA),­ prompting­ Boeing­ to­ begin production­on­an­initial­batch­of­the­airliner. The­ maiden­ flight­ of­ the­ first­ Boeing­ 307 Stratoliner­(not­a­prototype­as­such,­as­it­was­planned to­ be­ delivered­ to­ Pan­Am­ following­ testing­ and certification),­registration­NX19901,­took­place­from Boeing­ Field,­ Seattle­ on­ 31­ December­ 1938.­ It crashed­on­18­March­1939,­while­its­performance with­two­engines­inoperative­on­one­wing­was­being demonstrated­to­representatives­of­the­Dutch­airline KLM.­When­the­engines­were­shut­down,­the­pilot

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The Boeing 314 used the same wing and tail surfaces as the Boeing XB-15 bomber, developed from the US Army XBLR-1 design study. The picture shows NC18603 ‘Yankee Clipper’ of Pan American Airways System. (author’s collection.)

moved­the­rudder­to­maximum­deflection­to­counter the­resulting­yaw.­The­Stratoliner­then­experienced rudder­lock,­where­the­control­loads­prevented­the rudder­from­being­re-centered.­As­a­result,­the­307 went­into­a­spin­and­crashed.­The­ten­people­aboard, including­ KLM­ test­ pilot­Albert­ von­ Baumhauer, Boeing­ test­ pilot­ Julius­ Barr,­ Boeing­ Chief Aerodynamicist­Ralph­Cram,­Boeing­Chief­Engineer Earl­Ferguson,­and­a­TWA­representative­were­killed. Subsequent­ wind­ tunnel­ testing­ showed­ that­ the addition­ of­ an­ extended­ dorsal­ fin­ ahead­ of­ and attached­to­the­vertical­tail­prevented­rudder­lock. This­was­incorporated­into­the­307's­rudder­redesign, while­ also­ being­ incorporated­ in­ Boeing's­ rear fuselage­redesign­for­their­later­models­of­B-17s. The­first­delivery­to­a­customer­was­to­multimillionaire­Howard­Hughes,­who­bought­one­Model 307­for­a­round-the-world­flight,­hoping­to­break­his own­record­of­91­hours­14­minutes­set­from­10-14 July­ 1938­ in­ a­ Lockheed­ 14.­ Hughes’­ Boeing Stratoliner­was­fitted­with­extra­fuel­tanks­and­was ready­to­set­out­on­the­first­leg­of­the­round-the-world attempt­ when­ Germany­ invaded­ Poland­ on­ 1 September­ 1939,­ causing­ the­ attempt­ to­ be abandoned.­This­307­later­had­the­extra­fuel­tanks removed,­ was­ fitted­ with­ much­ more­ powerful Wright­R-2600­engines,­and­was­transformed­into­a luxurious­‘flying­penthouse’­for­Hughes,­although­it was­little­used,­eventually­being­sold­to­oil­tycoon Glenn­McCarthy­in­1949. Deliveries­to­Pan­Am­started­in­March­1940,­with TWA­ receiving­ its­ first­ 307­ in­ April.­ TWA's Stratoliners­ flew­ three-stop­ flights­ between­ Los Angeles­and­New­York­while­Pan­Am's­flew­from Miami­to­Latin­America.­Ten­307s­were­built,­three being­delivered­to­Pan-Am­(Clipper Flying Cloud, Clipper Comet, and­Clipper Rainbow)­and­five­to TWA­ (Comanche, Cherokee, Zuni, Navajo, and

Apache)­with­one­aircraft­going­to­Hughes. Hughes­ and­ Trippe­ were­ set­ to­ become­ bitter rivals­-­a­battle­that­first­came­to­the­public­attention when­Senator­Ralph­Owen­Brewster­(b. February­22, 1888­ –­ d. December­ 25,­ 1961)­ attempted­ to­ put Hughes­before­a­special­Senate­Committe,­of­which he­ was­ the­ chairman,­ investigating­ defence procurement­ during­ World­ War­ Two.­ Brewster claimed­ concern­ that­ Hughes­ had­ received­ $40 million­ from­ the­ Defense­ Department­ without actually­delivering­the­aircraft­he­had­contracted­to provide,­ but­ Brewster­ may­ have­ had­ an­ ulterior motive. Hughes­ aggressively­ combatted­ the­ inquiring Brewster,­alleging­corruption­on­the­part­of­Brewster. Memoirs­by­Hughes's­right-hand­man­Noah­Dietrich and­syndicated­newspaper­columnist­Jack­Anderson each­sketched­Brewster­as,­in­Dietrich's­words,­‘...an errand boy for Juan Trippe and Pan American World Airways,’ who­pushed­for­legislation­that­would­give Pan­Am­the­single-carrier­international­air­monopoly for­the­US­Hughes­spread­rumors­about­Brewster's close­ association­ with­ Pan­ Am,­ alleging­ that­ he received­ free­ flights­ and­ hospitality­ in­ return­ for legislation­such­as­his­bill­to­withdraw­government approval­for­TWA­flights­across­the­Atlantic. In­a­Senate­hearing­that­electrified­the­nation, Hughes­repeated­his­accusations­that­Brewster­had promised­ an­ end­ to­ the­ Senate­ inquiry­ if­ Hughes would­agree­to­merging­TWA­with­Pan­Am.­(Dietrich wrote­that­Hughes,­in­a­bid­to­stall­for­time­before­the hearing,­went­so­far­as­to­launch­negotiations­with Trippe­about­such­a­merger.)­In­response,­Brewster, stung­by­the­allegations,­stood­aside­from­chairing the­inquiry­and­became­instead­a­witness­before­the committee­–­which­also­allowed­Hughes­to­question Brewster­ directly.­ Brewster­ denied­ Hughes’ allegations­and­made­several­counter-claims,­but­by

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The 500th C-97 tanker-transport is rolled out at Renton for the USAF.

The Model 377 Stratocruiser was an airline development of the C-97 and fifty-six were built between 1947 and 1949, making much use of the design, structure and jigs of the military aircraft. Stratocruisers offered the last word in passenger comfort and a galley was located near the tail and men's and women's washrooms separated the forward compartments from the passenger cabin, where a spiral stairway led to a lower deck lounge behind the wing. When fitted out as a sleeper aircraft, the 377 was equipped with twenty-eight upper and lower berth units plus five seats. Below: a line-up of Stratocruisers awaiting delivery, Northwest, BOAC and Pan Am.

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the­time­the­hearing­ended­Brewster's­reputation­had suffered­greatly.­Ironically,­Hughes,­for­all­his­wealth, came­across­as­what­Dietrich­described­as­the ‘little guy who fought City Hall and won.’

Postwar - the Stratocruisers What­Boeing­had­concieved­pre-war­with­the­Model 299/B-17­producing­the­Model­307­and­major­parts of­the­B-15­being­used­to­produce­the­Model­314 flying­boat­seemed­to­be­a­sound­business­concept, So­came­about­the­Boeing­377­Stratocruiser,­a commercial­ derivative­ of­ the­ Boeing­ Model­ 367, known­as­the­Boeing­C-97­Stratofreighter,­which­first flew­in­late­1944­for­the­USAAF.­The­C-97­itself­was an­evolvement­of­the­B-29­bomber­that­dropped­the two­atom­bombs­on­Hiroshima­and­Nagasaki­to­end World­War­Two. William­Allen,­who­had­become­President­of­The Boeing­ Company­ in­ September­ 1945,­ sought­ to introduce­a­new­civilian­aircraft­to­replace­greatly reduced­military­production­after­Second­World­War. The­ Model­ 377­ Stratocruiser­ was­ the­ only commercial­product­on­Boeing’s­drawing­board­in 1945­and­Bill­Allen­went­ahead­with­production­of fifty­airframes.­At­the­time,­there­were­no­orders,­but it­ was­ the­ only­ way­ to­ save­ the­ company’s­ civil aircraft­business. This­has­often­been­described­as­a­gamble,­but­in truth,­a­lot­of­the­development­costs­of­the­377­had been­borne­by­the­Model­367­Stratofreighter. On­ 29­ November­ 1945­ Pan­ American­ World Airways­became­the­launch­customer­with­the­largest commercial­aircraft­order­in­history,­a­$24,500,000 order­for­twenty­Stratocruisers.­Earlier­in­1945­a­C97­ had­ flown­ from­ Seattle­ to­ Washington,­ D.C. nonstop­ in­ six­ hours­ and­ four­ minutes;­ with­ this knowledge,­and­with­Pan­Am­President­Juan­Trippe's high­regard­for­Boeing­after­their­success­with­the Boeing­ 314­ Clipper,­ Pan­ Am­ was­ confident­ in

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ordering­the­expensive­airliner.­ The­377­shared­the­distinctive­design­of­the­C97,­with­a­‘double-bubble’­fuselage­cross-section, resembling­ a­ figure-8,­ with­ 6,600  cubic­ feet­ of interior­space,­allowing­for­pressurization­of­a­large cabin­with­two­passenger­decks.­Outside­diameter­of the­ upper­ lobe­ was­ 132­ inches,­ compared­ to­ 125 inches­for­the­DC-6­and­other­Douglas­types.­The lower­deck­served­as­a­lounge,­seating­fourteen.­ The­Model­377­had­innovations­such­as­higher cabin­pressure­and­air­conditioning;­the­superchargers on­ the­ four­ Pratt­ &­ Whitney­ R-4360­ engines increased­power­at­altitude­and­allowed­consistent cabin­pressure.­The­wing­was­the­Boeing­117­airofoil, regarded­as­the­‘fastest­wing­of­its­time’.­ First­flight­of­the­Model­377­was­on­8­July­1947, two­ years­ after­ the­ first­ commercial­ order. Supposedly,­ the­ flight­ test­ fleet­ of­ three­ 377s underwent­250,000 miles­of­flying­to­test­its­limits before­certification. As­the­launch­customer,­Pan­Am­was­the­first­to begin­ scheduled­ service,­ from­ San­ Francisco­ to Honolulu­in­April­1949.­By­the­end­of­that­year,­Pan Am,­BOAC­and­American­Overseas­Airlines­were flying­ Model­ 377s­ transatlantic,­ while­ Northwest Orient­Airlines­was­flying­in­the­United­States;­in January­ 1950­ United­ began­ flights­ from­ San Francisco­ to­ Honolulu.­ By­ the­ fall­ of­ 1950, Northwest­ Orient­ was­ serving­ New­ York­ City, Chicago,­Detroit,­Minneapolis/St.­Paul,­Milwaukee and­Spokane­with­the­aircraft­and­was­also­operating the­ Stratocruiser­ nonstop­ between­ Seattle­ and Honolulu. Despite­ a­ service­ record­ plagued­ by­ disasters arising­from­the­Curtiss­Electric­propellers­fitted­to early­production­aircraft,­the­377­was­one­of­the­most advanced­ and­ capable­ of­ the­ propeller-driven transports,­and­among­the­most­luxurious.­A­total­of 56­were­built,­one­prototype­(later­reconditioned)­and

N7301C, a 1049A Starliner of Trans World Airlines.

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The ultimate in piston engined airliners as far as American Airlines was concerned, was the Douglas DC-7B. This is N303AA ‘Flagship Missouri’ delivered in February 1954. Its four Wright R-3350 turbocompound engines allowed eight hour non-stop coastto-coast operations in direct competition with TWA's Super Constellations.

55­ production­ aircraft.­ Within­ six­ years­ of­ first delivery,­ the­ Stratocruiser­ had­ carried­ 3,199,219 passengers;­it­had­completed­3,597­transcontinental flights,­and­27,678­transatlantic­crossings,­and­went between­the­United­States­and­South­America­822 times.­It­also­lost­the­Boeing­company­$7­million. In­1953,­United's­Chief­Executive,­Ray­Ireland, went­ on­ record­ describing­ the­ Stratocruiser­ as unbeatable­ as­ a­ luxury­ attraction­ but­ totally uneconomic.­ Ireland­ said­ PAA's­ Stratocruiser competition­to­Hawaii­induced­United­to­buy­the aircraft­originally.­In­1950­United's­seven­Model­377s averaged­$2.46­direct­operating­cost­per­aircraft-mile, and­that­‘...indirect costs are generally considered to be equal or greater than the direct costs.’ So­a­57passenger­Model­377­was­unlikely­to­make­money anyway.­

Other rivals By­ the­ end­ of­ the­ Second­ World­ War­ the­ Boeing Aircraft­Company­had­established­itself­as­the­premier manufacturer­of­bomber­aircraft­in­the­USA.­Boeing had­developed­the­technology,­skills­and­expertise­to build­large,­multi-engined­aircraft,­but­had­lost­touch with­the­airlines­and­the­needs­of­the­civilian­market. In­the­immediate­post-war­years,­Boeing­saw­their rivals­ for­ airliner­ manufacture­ as­ being­ Lockheed aircraft­with­their­Constellations­and­Douglas­with their­Douglas­Commercial­range­of­airliners­-­and Boeing­were­definitely­in­third­place,­especially­when one­considers­the­numbers­built.­Both­Lockheed­and Douglas­built­many­hundreds­of­their­airliner­designs, whereas­ Boeing­ only­ built­ fifty-six­ Stratocruisers. Boeing­would­have­to­sell­itself­as­a­company­to­the airlines,­as­much­as­it­had­to­sell­its­products;­and­with a­much­less­experienced­sales­force. Douglas,­with­its­long­line­of­successful­airliners from­the­DC-3­onwards,­had­a­reputation­of­listening to­what­the­airlines­wanted.­Lockheed­meanwhile had­ developed­ their­ Constellation­ on­ the­ back­ of

government­ contracts­ and­ were­ the­ undisputed leaders­in­the­commercial­aircraft­sphere. Howard­Hughes­and­TWA,­Juan­Trippe­and­Pan American­were­placing­huge­orders­for­the­time,­with their­ marketing­ men­ constantly­ pushing­ the­ holy trinity­of­speed,­distance­and­luxury. Douglas’­DC-4,­led­to­the­DC-6­and­the­DC-7 whilst­Lockheed’s­Model­049­Constellation­evolved through­several­stages­into­the­L-1049­series.­Parallel to­airframe­development,­engine­advances­struggled to­keep­pace.­Both­aircraft­companies­and­Pratt­& Witney­ developed­ multi-cylinder-row­ turbocompound­engines­of­ever-increasing­complexity­thus­demanding­more­and­more­maintenance­time­employing­ a­ turbine­ to­ recover­ energy­ from­ the exhaust­gases.­ The­turbine­was­usually­mechanically­connected to­ the­ crankshaft,­ such­ as­ on­ the­ Wright­ R-3350 Duplex-Cyclone­engines­fitted­to­Douglas­DC-7B and­Lockheed­L-1049­Super­Constellation­airliners, but­electric­and­hydraulic­power­recovery­systems were­ investigated­ as­ well.­ Recovery­ turbines increased­the­output­of­the­engine­without­increasing its­fuel­consumption,­thus­reducing­the­specific­fuel consumption.­ Reciprocating­engines­tended­to­be­operated­at higher­levels­of­power­output­for­longer­periods­of time,­this­increasing­the­risk­of­over-stressing­and overheating.­However,­not­only­did­the­horsepower increase,­but­so­did­the­mechanical­complexity­of­the engines,­which­in­turn­led­to­a­higher­likelihood­of mechanical­failure.­ Across­ the­ board,­ failures­ of­ reciprocating engines­became­more­and­more­common­and­it­was obvious­that­piston-engine­development­had­reached its­ peak­ with­ further­ advances­ becoming­ selfdefeating.­Clearly­it­was­time­for­a­different,­less complex­ style­ of­ powerplant,­ but­ the­ airliner manufacturers,­ engine­ makers­ and­ airlines­ were reticent.

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Chapter­Two

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Playing­catch-up The­sharp-suited­copywiters­and­executives­in­the Madison­Avenue­advertising­agencies­would­have­the public­ believe­ that­ the­ Boeing­ 707­ was­ an­ allAmerican­ jet­ airliner,­ designed­ by­ white-shirted pocket-protector­wearing­college­graduates­with­flattop­ crew­ cuts­ to­ revolutionalise­ air­ transport­ and powered­ by­ the­ latest­ engine­ technology.­ It­ was draped­in­Old­Glory­and­as­American­as­baseball,­hot dogs,­and­Mom’s­apple­pie.­Nothing­could­be­further from­the­truth. In­reality,­America­was­late­to­enter­the­era­of­the jet­engine­–­indeed,­it­were­dismissive­of­it.­In­1923, US­physicist­Edgar­Buckingham­of­the­US­National Bureau­ of­ Standards­ published­ report­ No.159 expressing­ scepticism­ that­ jet­ engines­ would­ be economically­ competitive­ with­ propeller­ driven aircraft­at­the­low­altitudes­and­airspeeds:­‘…there does not appear to be, at present, any prospect whatever that jet propulsion of the sort here considered will ever be of practical value, even for military purposes.’ From­ this­ moment­ on,­ apart­ from­ a­ few visionaries,­American­officers,­engineers­scientists and­industrialists­failed­to­devote­significant­attention to­aviation­turbine­engine­research.­ The­jet­age­began­in­great­secrecy­on­27­August 1939,­when­the­German­Heinkel­He­178­research aircraft,­powered­with­a­1,100­pound­thrust­Heinkel He­53­gas-turbine­-­or­jet­engine­-­made­its­first­flight in­the­hands­of­Erich­Warsitz. A­young­German­physicist,­Hans­Joachim­Pabst von­Ohain,­worked­for­Ernst­Heinkel,­specialising­in advanced­engines­and­pioneered­this­development work.­von­Ohain­was­born­14­December­1911,­in Dessau,­Germany.­While­pursuing­doctorate­work­at the­ University­ of­ Gottingen,­ he­ forumulated­ his theory­of­jet­propulsion­in­1933.­After­receiving­his degree­in­1935,­he­became­a­junior­assistant­to­Robert Wichard­Pohl,­director­of­the­university's­Physical Institute. Granted­a­patent­for­his­turbojet­engine­in­1936, Ohain­ joined­ the­ Heinkel­ Company­ in­ Rostock,

Germany.­ By­ 1937­ he­ had­ built­ a­ factory-tested demonstration­ engine­ and,­ by­ 1939,­ a­ fully operational­jet­aircraft,­the­He­178.­Soon­after,­Ohain directed­the­construction­of­the­He­S.3B,­the­first fully­operational­centrifugal-flow­turbojet­engine. Ohain­developed­an­improved­engine,­the­He­S.8A, which­was­first­flown­on­2­April­1941.­This­engine design,­however,­was­less­efficient­than­one­designed by­Anselm­Franz,­which­powered­the­Me­262,­the first­operational­jet­fighter­aircraft.­ Ohain­was­one­of­hundreds­of­German­scientists, academics­and­technicians­who­were­‘sheep-dipped’ under­Operation­Paperclip­and­moved­to­the­United States­in­the­immediate­post-war­years,­becoming­a research­scientist­in­1947­at­Wright-Patterson­Air Force­ Base,the­Aerospace­ Research­ Laboratories, Wright's­ Aero­ Propulsion­ Laboratory,­ and­ the University­of­Dayton­Research­Institute. This­process­of­changing­names­and­identities became­common­practice­–­the­term­‘sheep-dipping’ was­ developed­ by­ those­ in­ the­ intelligence community­and­is­more-or-less­slang­and­not­official terminology.­ It­ is­ commonly­ used­ in­ intelligence circles­as­a­way­of­saying­a­person­or­item­has­been given­an­alternate­identity. This­new­form­of­propulsion­met­resistance­on the­part­of­German­officialdom­and,­fortunately­for the­Allies,­the­operational­debut­of­the­jet­fighter­was delayed­ for­ nearly­ three­ years.­ Even­ then­ it­ was grossly­mismanaged.­ In­the­meantime,­an­entirely­independent­research programme­was­being­conducted­in­England,­where the­first­British­jet,­the­Gloster­E28/39,­made­its­first flight­ on­ 14­ May­ 1941.­ The­ development­ of­ this machine­ dates­ back­ to­ 1928,­ when­ RAF­ College Cranwell­cadet­Frank­Whittle­formally­submitted­his ideas­for­a­turbo-jet­to­his­superiors.­On­16­January 1930,­Whittle­submitted­his­first­patent­(granted­in 1932)­ that­ showed­ a­ two-stage­ axial­ compressor feeding­ a­ single-sided­ centrifugal­ compressor. Practical­axial­compressors­were­made­possible­by ideas­from­A.A.­Griffith­in­a­seminal­paper­in­1926

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(An Aerodynamic Theory of Turbine Design).­ Whittle­would­later­concentrate­on­the­simpler centrifugal­compressor­only,­for­a­variety­of­practical reasons.­Whittle­had­his­first­engine­running­in­April 1937.­ It­ was­ liquid-fuelled,­ and­ included­ a­ selfcontained­ fuel­ pump.­ Whittle's­ team­ experienced near-panic­ when­ the­ engine­ would­ not­ stop, accelerating­even­after­the­fuel­was­switched­off.­It turned­out­that­fuel­had­leaked­into­the­engine­and accumulated­in­pools,­so­the­engine­would­not­stop until­all­the­leaked­fuel­had­burned­off.­Whittle­was unable­to­interest­the­government­in­his­invention, and­development­continued­at­a­slow­pace. As­ soon­ as­ the­ merits­ of­ this­ new­ type­ of powerplant­ were­ acknowledged­ by­ the­ Royal­Air Force,­ jet­ fighters­ were­ designed­ and­ put­ into production. In­America,­there­had­been­two­exceptions­to ignoring­any­development­of­the­jet­engine­–­in­1939 both­Northrop­Aircraft­and­the­Lockheed­Corporation both­started­work­on­turbine­engines,­Lockheed­with their­twin-spool,­axial­flow­L-1000­turbojet­that­was expected­ to­ develop­ 5,000­ pounds­ of­ thrust­ and Northrop­with­their­Turbodyne­axial-flow­propellerturbine­ which­ eventually­ developed­ 10,000­ shaft horsepower­ but­ did­ not­ progress­ past­ the development­stage. Since­the­Lockheed­design­was­never­completed, and­the­only­three­Northrop­prototype­engines­did not­bench-run­until­1947,­the­Americans­had­to­rely

on­British­assistance­and­the­capabilities­of­its­turbine manufacturers­to­get­into­the­jet­age. It­ was­ not­ until­ 1941­ that­ the­ powers­ that­ be decided­to­start­work­on­their­own­concept­designs for­ a­ jet­ aircraft­ that­ was­ something­ of­ a­ contest between­Bell­and­Lockheed­Aircraft. Major­General­Henry­H.­‘Hap’­Arnold­became aware­of­the­United­Kingdom's­jet­programme­when he­attended­a­demonstration­of­the­Gloster­E.28/39 in­April­1941.­The­subject­had­been­mentioned­to­the Americans­as­part­of­the­Tizard­Mission­the­previous year.­General­Arnold­requested,­and­was­given,­the plans­for­the­aircraft's­engine,­Frank­Whittle’s­Power Jets­W.1,­which­he­took­back­to­the­US­ The­ Tizard­ Mission,­ officially­ the­ British Technical­and­Scientific­Mission,­was­a­delegation that­visited­the­USA­in­order­to­obtain­the­industrial resources­ to­ exploit­ the­ military­ potential­ of­ the research­and­development­work­completed­by­the UK­up­to­the­beginning­of­World­War­Two,­but­which Britain­itself­could­not­exploit­due­to­the­immediate requirements­of­war-related­production.­It­received its­popular­name­from­the­program's­instigator,­Henry Tizard­FRS­(b.23­August­1885­–­d.9­October­1959) -­a­British­scientist­and­chairman­of­the­Aeronautical Research­ Committee,­ which­ had­ propelled­ the development­of­radar. The­objective­of­the­mission­was­to­cooperate­in science­and­technology­with­the­US,­which­at­that time­was­neutral­and,­in­many­quarters,­unwilling­to

The Northrop company-designed gas-turbine engine - named the Turbodyne on its test bed at Hawthorne, CA.

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become­ involved­ in­ the­ war.­The­ US­ had­ greater resources­for­development­and­production,­which Britain­desperately­wanted­to­use.­The­information provided­by­the­British­delegation­was­subject­to carefully­vetted­security­procedures,­and­contained some­of­the­greatest­scientific­advances­made­during the­war.­The­shared­technology­included­Radar­(in particular­ the­ greatly­ improved­ cavity­ magnetron which­the­American­historian­James­Phinney­Baxter III­ later­ called­ ‘...the most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores’),­the­design­for­the­‘Variable Time’­or­proximity­fuse,­details­of­Frank­Whittle's­jet engine­ and­ the­ Frisch-Peierls­ memorandum describing­the­feasibility­of­an­atomic­bomb.­Though these­may­be­considered­the­most­significant,­many other­items­were­also­transported,­including­designs for­ rockets,­ superchargers,­ gyroscopic­ gunsights, submarine­detection­devices,­self-sealing­fuel­tanks and­plastic­explosives. Tizard­ met­ with­ both­ Vannevar­ Bush,­ the chairman­of­National­Defense­Research­Committee, and­ George­ W.­ Lewis­ of­ the­ National­ Advisory Committee­for­Aeronautics­(NACA)­and­told­them about­jet­propulsion,­but­he­revealed­very­little­except the­seriousness­of­British­efforts.­Bush­later­recalled: ‘The interesting parts of the subject, namely the

Above: Sir Henry Tizard FRS (b. 23 August 1885 – d. 9 October 1959) Right: Air Commodore Sir Frank Whittle OM KBE CB FRS FRAeS (b.1 June 1907 – d. 9 August 1996)

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explicit way in which the investigation was being carried out, were apparently not known to Tizard, and at least he did not give me any indication that he knew such details’. It­was­not­until­later­that­Bush­realised­that­the development­of­the­Whittle­engine­was­far­ahead­of the­NACA­project.­ In­July­1941­he­wrote­to­General­‘Hap’­Arnold, commander­of­the­USAAF, ‘It becomes evident that the Whittle engine is a satisfactory development and that it is approaching production, although we yet do not know just how satisfactory it is. Certainly if it is now in such state that the British plans call for large production in five months, it is extraordinarily advanced and no time should be lost on the matter’. Bush­recommended­that­arrangements­should­be made­to­produce­the­British­engine­in­the­United States­by­finding­a­suitable­company. The­American­political­establishment­had­many proponents­of­neutrality­-­and­even­a­fair­number­of isolationalists­ -­ for­ the­ USA­ and­ so­ there­ were barriers­to­co-operation.­This­was­despite­the­fact­that there­were­a­large­number­of­‘Special­Observers’ operating­out­of­the­American­Embassy­in­London from­as­early­as­January­1939­whose­duties­included getting­their­hands­on­as­much­information­regarding British­ new­ technology­ as­ possible.­ However,­ it seems­that­the­information­regarding­British­activities gained­ by­ the­ Special­ Observers­ had­ not­ yet percolated­down­to­the­level­of­the­NACA. Tizard­decided­that­the­most­productive­approach to­circumvent­any­Congressional­‘objections’­would be­simply­to­give­the­information­and­use­America's productive­capacity.­Neither­Winston­Churchill­nor the­radar­pioneer,­Robert­Watson-Watt,­were­initially in­ agreement­ with­ these­ tactics­ for­ the­ mission. Nevertheless,­Tizard­first­arranged­for­Archibald­Hill,

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Two views of the Whittle W1.X and its installation in a Bell YP-59. (author’s collection)

another­scientific­member­of­the­committee,­to­go­to Washington­to­explore­the­possibilities.­ As­a­result,­the­National­Advisory­Committee­for Aeronautics­ set­ up­ a­ special­ Committee­ on­ Jet Propulsion,­ which­ in­ turn­ asked­ Allis­ Chalmers, General­Electric­and­Westinghouse,­the­nations­three leading­turbine­manufacturers­to­participate­in­the

Committees­investigations.­­ General­Arnold­arranged­for­an­example­of­the engine,­the­Whittle­W.1X­turbojet,­to­be­flown­to­the US­in­the­bomb­bay­of­a­USAAC­Consolidated­B24­ Liberator,­ along­ with­ drawings­ for­ the­ more powerful­W.2B/23­engine­and­a­small­team­of­Power Jets­engineers.

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On­4­September­1941­Hap­Arnold­offered­the General­Electric­engine­company­a­contract­to­‘build fifteen­‘Type­I­superchargers’­based­on­the­Whittle W2B­turbojet­design.­It­is­worthy­of­record­to­state that­the­letter­‘I’­designation­was­chosen­to­give­the appearance­that­GE,­which­was­then­manufacturing turbo-superchargers­ for­ contemporary­ aircraft engines-such­as­the­Type­B­fitted­to­the­Wright­R1820­radials­powering­Boeing­B-17s­-­would­merely be­working­on­an­improved­turbo-supercharger.­The American­version­of­the­Whittle­W2B­engine,­which subsequently­ became­ the­ General­ Electric­ I-A­ in order­to­disguise­its­origins.­ On­ the­ following­ day,­ Arnold­ approached Lawrence­ Dale­ Bell,­ head­ of­ Bell­ Aircraft Corporation,­to­build­a­fighter­to­utilise­it.­Bell­agreed and­set­to­work­on­producing­three­prototypes.­As­a disinformation­tactic,­the­USAAF­gave­the­project the­ designation­ ‘P-59A’,­ to­ suggest­ it­ was­ a development­ of­ the­ unrelated­ Bell­ XP-59­ fighter project­ that­ had­ been­ cancelled.­ The­ design­ was finalised­on­9­January­1942,­and­construction­began. In­ March,­ long­ before­ the­ prototypes­ were completed,­an­order­for­13­‘YP-59A’­pre-production machines­was­added­to­the­contract. Bench-testing­of­the­GE­Type­I­started­in­Lynn, Massachusetts,­ on­ 18­April­ 1942­ by­ a­ GE­ group under­Dale­Streid­and­a­pair­of­Type­I-A­engines powered­ the­ Bell­ XP-59B­ on­ its­ first­ flight­ on­ 1 October.­General­Electric­went­on­to­develop­uprated versions­of­the­Type­I­-the­I-14,­I-16,­and­1-20. Thirteen­ service­ test­ YP-59As­ had­ a­ more powerful­engine­than­its­predecessor,­the­General Electric­J31,­but­the­improvement­in­performance was­negligible­with­top­speed­increased­by­only­5 mph­and­a­reduction­in­the­time­they­could­be­used before­an­overhaul­was­needed.­One­of­these­aircraft, the­third­YP-59A­(S/n:­42-22611)­was­supplied­to­the Royal­Air­Force­(receiving­British­serial­RG362/G), in­exchange­for­the­first­production­Gloster­Meteor I,­ EE210/G.­ British­ pilots­ found­ that­ the­ aircraft compared­very­unfavorably­with­the­jets­that­they were­ already­ flying.­ The­ YP-59A­ also­ compared unfavourably­to­the­propeller-driven­North­American P-51­Mustang.­Two­YP-59A­Airacomets­(42-108778 and­42-100779)­were­also­delivered­to­the­US­Navy where­they­were­evaluated­as­the­YF2L-1­but­quickly found­completely­unsuitable­for­carrier­operations. The­ United­ States­ Army­ Air­ Force­ was­ not impressed­by­the­P-59’s­performance­and­cancelled the­ contract­ when­ fewer­ than­ half­ of­ the­ aircraft ordered­had­been­produced.­Although­no­P-59s­went into­ combat,­ it­ paved­ the­ way­ for­ another­ design generation­of­US­turbojet-powered­aircraft­and­was

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the­first­turbojet­fighter­to­have­its­turbojet­engine­and air­inlet­nacelles­integrated­within­the­main­fuselage. The­ Lockheed­ XP-80­ had­ a­ conventional­ allmetal­airframe,­with­a­slim­low­wing­and­tricycle undercarriage­ and­ had­ straight­ wings­ like­ the previous­propeller-driven­machines.­Concept­work began­on­the­XP-80­in­1943­with­a­design­being­built around­the­blueprint­dimensions­of­a­British­Halford H-1B­turbojet,­manufactured­by­and­later­called­the De­ Havilland­ Goblin,­ an­ engine­ to­ which­ the Lockheed­design­team­did­not­initially­have­actual access.­Lockheed's­team,­­of­twenty-eight­engineers, was­ led­ by­ the­ legendary­ Clarence­ L.­ ‘Kelly’ Johnson.­ This­ teaming­ was­ an­ early­ product­ of Lockheed's­Skunk­Works. Previously,­Kelly­Johnson­had­approached­the War­Department­to­build­an­experimental­design,­but was­turned­down,­it­is­alleged­because­Johnson’s design­required­an­entirely­new­type­of­engine­and the­Air­Forces­were­more­eager­to­obtain­multitudes of­existing­piston-engined­aircraft­than­to­experiment with­new­kinds­of­machines. Then,­ on­ 17­ June­ 1943­ while­ at­ Eglin­ Field, Florida,­Johnson­met­with­Colonel­M­S­Roth­of­the Materiel­ Command's­ Wright­ Field­ research­ and development­ division.­ Roth­ told­ him­ of­ the­ poor flight­tests­of­the­Bell­P.59A.­Roth­is­supposed­to have­asked­Johnson­‘Kelly, why can’t you design a jet plane around that British engine?’ With­the­Germans­and­British­clearly­far­ahead in­development,­Lockheed­was­pressed­to­develop­a comparable­jet­in­as­short­a­time­as­possible.­Kelly Johnson­submitted­a­design­proposal­in­mid-June­and promised­ that­ the­ prototype­ would­ be­ ready­ for testing­ in­ 180­ days.­ The­ Skunk­ Works­ team, beginning­26­June­1943,­produced­the­airframe­in 143­days,­delivering­it­to­Muroc­Army­Air­Base.­­This was­the­XP-80A.­The­project­was­so­secret­that­only five­of­the­more­than­130­people­working­on­it­knew that­they­were­developing­a­jet­aircraft. The­arrival­-­and­subsequent­use­-­of­some­of­the very­ few­ first­ jet­ engines­ by­ the­Americans­ was something­of­a­comedy­of­errors,­as­C­Martin­Sharp was­ later­ to­ describe­ in­ ‘DH a history of de Havilland’: ‘Information was being passed to the Americans all along and on October 30 1943, when de Havilland had done about thirteen hours of test flying with the Vampire, they sent off one of their first few engines to the Lockheed Company of California, to be installed in their new X.P.80A [sic]­aircraft, designed for jet propulsion. With it went one of the best DH development engineers, Bristow, who could ill be spared. That foggy Saturday the specially packed Goblin

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Left: A De Havilland Gobin jet turbine of a type supplied to the Americans. Below: Guy Bristow, chief test engineer for De Havillands (right) and tester Mr F Bench check over a Goblin on the test stands at Hatfield. Guy Bristow went over to the USA with two of the very early Gobins to get the American jet programme going. (both DH via BAE Hatfield)

left Welsh Harp, Hendon, on a lorry for Prestwick; by special concession the driver was allowed to use undimmed headlights. The case was loaded into a C-54 which left Prestwick on Sunday evening, transhipped at New York, and arrived (with the engineer) at Burbank, California, on Tuesday evening. The­ use­ of ‘undimmed­headlights’­was­highly­unusual­as­the­UK was­under­strict­wartime­blackout­restrictions.­By­the time­Guy­Bristow­reached­Burbank­with­his­charge, he­found­one­further­obstacle­in­his­way­-­he­was detained­by­the­police­because­Lockheed­officials could­not­vouch­for­him! Previously­ a­ well-finished­ mock-up­ had­ been flown­ across­ during­ June­ and­ used­ for­ the­ trial installation,­so­that­by­the­time­Guy­Bristow­arrived with­the­actual­engine,­it­slipped­into­place­in­three and­a­half­hours­without­any­troubles.­ However,­during­ground­runs­this­engine­was badly­damaged­by­sucking­in­its­own­intake­ducts, which­were­not­strong­enough,­and­so­a­hurredly despatched­telegram­asked­for­a­second­engine­to­be urgently­sent­from­Hatfield.­ Records­show­that­this­engine­went­north­by­train from­Camden­Town­and­was­flown­to­America­on Christmas­Eve,­accompanied­again­by­Guy­Bristow. The­first­prototype­(44-83020)­was­nicknamed Lulu-Belle (also­ known­ as­ the­ ‘Green Hornet’ because­ of­ its­ paint­ scheme).­ Powered­ by­ the replacement­Halford­H1­taken­from­the­prototype­de Havilland­ Vampire­ jet­ fighter,­ it­ first­ flew­ on­ 8

January­ 1944,­ with­ Lockheed­ test­ pilot­ Milo Burcham­ at­ the­ controls.­ Following­ this­ flight, Johnson­said, ‘It was a magnificent demonstration, our plane was a success – such a complete success that it had overcome the temporary advantage the Germans had gained from years of preliminary development on jet planes.’ Clearly­the­donated­British­jet­programme­data and­hardware­had­proved­invaluable.­ The­second­prototype­was­designed­for­the­larger General­Electric­I-40­engine­(an­improved­RollsRoyce­ Derwent,­ later­ produced­ by­Allison­ as­ the J.33).­Two­aircraft­(44-83021­and­44-83022)­were built.­44-83021­was­nicknamed­the­Gray Ghost after its­ pearl­ gray­ paint­ scheme,­ while­ 44-­83022,­ left unpainted­for­comparison­of­flight­characteristics, became­known­as­the­Silver Ghost. Two­months­before­General­Electric­had­begun to­adapt­the­Whittle­design­to­US­specifications­as the­Type­I,­the­three­industrial­turbine­manufacturers which­had­been­supporting­research­by­the­NACA Special­Committee­on­]et­Propulsion­were­awarded development­contracts.­Navy­contracts­went­to­Allis Chalmers­for­the­development­of­a­ducted-fan­engine

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and­ to­ Westinghouse­ for­ turbojets.­An­Army­Air Forces­ contract­ went­ to­ General­ Electric­ for­ the design­of­a­turboprop­engine. The­Allis­Chalmers­ducted-fan­engine­did­not­pan out,­and­the­General­Electric­TG100,­which­in­May 1945­ became­ the­ world’s­ first­ turbine­ propeller engine­to­be­bench­tested,­ended­up­powering­only the­Consolidated-Vultee­XP-81­(the­first­turboproppowered­flight­in­the­United­States­was­made­on­21 December­ 1945,­ just­ two­ months­ after­ the experimental­Gloster­Meteor-Trent­had­become­the world’s­first­turboprop­aircraft­to­fly­in­England). More­ successful,­ the­ series­ of­ small­ diameter turbojets­developed­by­Westinghouse­resulted­in­the WE-19XB-2B­powering­the­first­USN­carrier­jet,­the McDonnell­XFD-1­Phantom,­on­its­maiden­hop­on 2­January­1945.­A­development­of­the­WE-19,­the first­American­axial-flow­turbojet,­went­on­largescale­production­as­the­J34­for­naval­fighters. While­ working­ on­ improved­ models­ of­ the Whittle­ turbo-jet­ and­ on­ its­ TG100­ turboprop, General­Electric­took­an­early­lead­in­US­turbojet development­by­incepting­two­turbojet­designs.­First bench­tested­in­January­1944,­the­1-40­centrifugalflow­turbojet­powered­the­Lockheed­XP-80A,­the production­prototype­of­the­Shooting­Star,­on­its­first flight­in­June­1944.­Redesignated­J-35­and­mostly built­under­license­by­Allison,­the­I-40­became­the first­American­turbojet­engine­to­be­mass­produced. Even­more­successful,­the­General­Electric­TG-180 axial-flow­turbojet­was­built­in­large­numbers­as­the I-35,­mostly­by­licensees­Allison­and­Chevrolet. However,­when­the­war­ended,­Allison,­Pratt­& Whitney­ and­ Wright­ were­ left­ to­ catch­ up­ with turbine­technology.­At­first,­Allison­fared­a­bit­better, as­ it­ had­ been­ selected­ as­ a­ licensee­ for­ General

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Electric­ J33­ centrifugal-flow­ and­ I.35­ axial-flow turbojets,­but­Pratt­&­Whitney­and­Wright­had­to­turn to­Britain­to­get­into­the­turbojet­engine­business. Pratt­ &­ Whitney­ started­ negotiating­ for manufacturing­and­sales­rights­for­the­Rolls-Royce Nene­in­April­1947,­eight­months­after­the­original American­licensee,­the­Taylor­Turbine­Corporation, had­acquired­initial­rights­in­this­centrifugal-flow turbojet.­Wright,­which­initially­favoured­turboprop engines,­ was­ even­ slower­ to­ grasp­ the­ turbojet potential­and­only­acquired­the­license­rights­for­the Armstrong­ Siddeley­ Sapphire­ axial-flow­ turbojet after­war­had­broken­out­in­Korea. The­ 1945­ surrender­ of­ Germany­ revealed substantial­ wartime­ discoveries­ and­ inventions. General­Electric­and­Pratt­&­Whitney,­added­German lessons­ to­ those­ of­ Whittle­ and­ other­ British designers.­Early­jet­engines,­such­as­those­of­the­Me 262,­gulped­fuel­rapidly.­Thus,­an­initial­challenge was­posed:­to­build­an­engine­that­could­provide­high thrust­with­less­fuel­consumption. Pratt­&­Whitney­resolved­the­fuel­consumption dilemma­in­1948­by­combining­two­engines­into­one. The­engine­included­two­compressors;­each­rotated independently,­the­inner­one­giving­high­compression for­good­performance.­Each­compressor­drew­power from­its­own­turbine;­hence­there­were­two­turbines, one­behind­the­other.­This­led­to­the­J-57­engine.­ This­two-spool­turboprop­was­launched­as­the PT4,­ funded­ by­ the­ Air­ Force­ as­ the­ XT45. Components­were­made­in­late­1947,­while­parallel studies­were­made­of­the­two-spool­JT3-8­turbojet, which­by­March­1948­was­supercharged­by­adding two­stages­at­the­front,­giving­10,000­pounds­of thrust.­During­1948­Air­Force­interest­hardened­on a­ high-compression­ turbo-­ jet­ for­ long-range

A General Electric I-40 seen in a NACA facility on 9 March 1945. GE was repeatedly unable to deliver enough engines for Army and Navy demand, and production of the I-40 (now known as the J33) was also handed to Allison Engines in 1944. (NACA)

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bombers,­ and­ the­ XT45­ was­ terminated­ in September­1948.­Instead­the­J57-P-1­specification was­ written,­ and­ the­ shops­ began­ building­ two actual­engines,­the­X-176­(JT3-8)­and­X-184­(JT310).­ Even­ as­ they­ were­ being­ built,­ rig­ testing indicated­poor­performance,­mainly­because­of­the very­small­HP­compressor­blades,­poor­turbine­disc design­and­excessive­weight. Mechanical­design­came­under­Andrew­Willgoos and­ aerodynamic­ design­ under­ Perry­W.­ Pratt.­ In February­1949­they­worked­out­a­scheme­to­re-design the­ JT3­ in­ a­ wasp-waisted­ form,­ the­ rotor­ discs having­a­constant­diameter­but­the­casings­tapering towards­ the­ HP­ end­ amidships,­ to­ give­ higher efficiency,­better­sealing­and­cut­600­pounds­off­the weight,­ besides­ improving­ the­ arrangement­ of accessories­to­give­a­more­compact­installation­in fighters­or­in­bomber­pods.­Pratt­got­the­go-ahead­to redesign­in­May­1949,­but­it­was­decided­to­complete both­the­barrel­engines,­the­X-176­running­on­28­June 1949­ and­ the­ X-184­ in­ February­ 1950.­ Both confirmed­the­poor­performance.­The­wasp-waisted design­ threw­ up­ its­ own­ problems,­ notably­ with bearings­and­compressor-blade­vibration,­but­with massive­ effort­ these­ were­ eliminated.­ The­ first redesigned­JT3­ran­on­21­January­1950,­flew­under a­B-50­in­March­1951,­completed­a­150-hour­test­in J57-3­production­configuration­in­November­1951, powered­the­8-jet­YB-52­on­15­April­1952,­and­with afterburner­took­the­YF-100A­beyond­Mach­One­on its­first­flight­on­25­May­1953. It­ initially­ gave­ 10,000­ pounds­ dry­ thrust­ or 15,000­pounds­with­afterburner­yet,­because­of­its pressure-ration­of­12.5,­it­set­totally­new­standards­in jet­fuel­economy.

Developments in aeronautics Technological­change­during­World­War­Two­had proceeded­ at­ an­ almost­ frightening­ pace. Developments­ in­ aircraft­ design,­ propulsion,

weapons,­and­electronics­all­contributed­vitally­to­the outcome­of­events­in­the­global­conflict.­ There­ were,­ however,­ a­ number­ of­ scientists, largely­civilians,­who­initially­invented­and­designed military­ equipment­ and­ then­ drove­ these developments­forward­to­turn­the­tide­of­the­war. After­that­came­the­might­of­production. Among­the­scientists­and­thinkers­was­Hungarian aerodynamicist­Dr.­Theodore­von­Kármán.­Since­his arrival­in­the­United­States­from­Europe,­and­having obtained­Guggenheim­funding­and­hoping­to­avoid rising­ nationalism­ and­ Nazism,­ he­ had­ become acquainted­with­several­high-ranking­Army­Air­Force officers,­including­Henry­‘Hap’­Arnold. Since­their­first­meeting­at­the­California­Institute of­Technology­(CalTech)­in­the­early­1930s,­Arnold had­ witnessed­ the­ professor’s­ skilled­ use­ of mathematical­ equations­ to­ solve­ complex aerodynamic­problems. Arnold’s­trust­in­Kármán­grew­as­the­CalTech programme­ continued­ to­ tackle­ the­ most­ difficult projects­without­hesitation.­During­the­early­part­of 1943,­the­Experimental­Engineering­Division­of­the United­States­Army­Air­Forces­Material­Command forwarded­ to­ von­ Kármán­ reports­ from­ British intelligence­ sources­ describing­ German­ rockets capable­of­reaching­more­than­100­miles­.­In­a­letter dated­2­August­1943­von­Kármán­provided­the­Army with­his­analysis­of­and­comments­on­the­German programme. Only­after­D-Day­and­the­realization­of­several key­ elements­ in­ wartime­ operations­ did­Arnold believe­ that­ Allied­ victory­ in­ Europe­ was­ a foregone­conclusion.­The­air­war­had­become­a deadly­routine­and­was­becoming­a­mere­numbers game­ -­ growing­ Allied­ air­ strength­ versus dwindling­Axis­air­capability. By­ now­ General­Arnold­ had­ decided­ that­ the Army­Air­Force­was­in­a­position­to­capitalise­on­the many­ technological­ developments.­ Following­ the

An early Pratt & Whitney JT3 in its wasp-waisted form.

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shipment­of­several­tons­of­captured­German­material back­from­France­by­US­Intelligence­not­long­after the­start­of­Operation­Overlord,­Arnold­realised­that the­United­States­and­its­Allies­by­no­means­led­the world­in­military­aeronautical­development.­He­used his­influence­with­Kármán­at­a­super-secret­meeting on­the­runway­at­La­Guardia­Airport,­New­York, convincing­him­to­head­a­task­force­of­scientists­who would­evaluate­captured­German­aeronautical­data and­laboratories­for­the­Army­Air­Force. Kármán­ –­ who­ was­ recovering­ from­ recent abdominal­surgery­-­was­transported­by­Army­Staff car­to­the­end­of­the­runway­at­La­Guardia,­where­he met­ Arnold’s­ recently­ arrived­ aircraft.­ Arnold dismissed­Kármán’s­driver­and­then­discussed­his plans­for­Kármán­and­his­desires­for­the­exploitation project.­ Supposedly­ General­Arnold­ spoke­ of­ his concerns­for­the­future­of­American­air­power­and wondered­how­jet­propulsion,­radar,­rockets­and­other gizmos­might­affect­the­future.­In­response­to­the question­as­to­what­he­wanted­Kármán­to­do,­Arnold told­ him­ that­ he­ wanted­ Kármán­ to­ go­ to­ the Pentagon,­gather­a­group­of­scientists­together­and work­out­a­blueprint­for­air­research­for­the­next­fifty

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years. To­ accomplish­ his­ mission,­ Kármán­ officially became­an­AAF­consultant­on­scientific­matters­on 23­October­1944.­His­first,­unofficial­AAF­report­was organisational­in­nature,­naming­as­his­deputy­Dr. Hugh­ L.­ Dryden,­ longtime­ head­ of­ the­ National Bureau­of­Standards.­November­1944­saw­endless conferences­and­establishment­of­‘...relations­with­the various­ agencies­ in­ the­ labyrinth­ of­ military­ and scientific­aviation’.­Arnold­drafted­official,­written instructions­ on­ 7­ November,­ solidifying­ the­ La Guardia­Agreement,­a­four-page­letter­that­set­the boundaries­for­the­report­of­Kármán’s­group.­They were­not­very­restrictive:­‘...Except perhaps to review current techniques and research trends, I am asking you and your associates to divorce yourselves from the present war in order to investigate all the possibilities and desirabilities for postwar and future war’s development as respects the AAF. Upon completion of your studies, please then give me a report or guide for recommended future AAF research and development programs.’ Initially,­Kármán’s­group­was­called­the­Army­Air Force­ Consulting­ Board­ for­ Future­ Research,­ but

On 18 February 1963 President John F. Kennedy presented the National Medal of Science to Dr. Theodore von Kármán in the Rose Garden of the White House, Washington, DC. Left to right: Chairman of the President’s Committee on the National Medal of Science, Frederick Seitz; Air Force Aide to the President, Brigadier General Godfrey T. McHugh; General Bernard Schriever; President John F. Kennedy; Judge Victor L. Anfuso of the New York State Supreme Court; Dr. von Kármán; Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force, General Curtis E. LeMay; Special Assistant to the President for Science and Technology, Dr. Jerome B. Wiesner; President of the California Institute of Technology, Dr. Lee A. DuBridge; unidentified; Director of Defense Research and Engineering, Dr. Harold Brown.

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apparently­AAFCBFR­proved­too­long­an­acronym, even­ for­ the­ Army.­ Redesignated­ the­ Scientific Advisory­ Group­ (SAG)­ on­ 1­ December­ 1944,­ it reported­ directly­ to­ General­ Arnold.­ In­ 1944 intelligence­experts­at­Wright­Field­had­developed lists­of­advanced­aviation­equipment­they­wanted­to examine.­ The­ US­ Army­ Air­ Forces­ Intelligence Service­sent­teams­to­Europe­hard­on­the­heels­of­the invading­ armies­ to­ gain­ access­ to­ enemy­ aircraft, technical­and­scientific­reports,­research­facilities,­and weapons­ for­ study­ in­ the­ United­ States.­ The­Air Technical­ Intelligence­ (ATI)­ teams,­ trained­ at­ the Technical­Intelligence­School­at­Wright­Field,­Ohio, collected­enemy­equipment­to­learn­about­Germany's technical­developments.­The­ATI­teams­competed with­ thirty-two­ other­ allied­ technical­ intelligence groups­to­gain­information­and­equipment­recovered from­crash­sites. One­ member­ of­ Von­ Karman’s­ Scientific Advisory­Group­was­Boeing's­chief­aerodynamicist, George­S­Schairer.­ After­ working­ for­ Bendix­ Aviation,­ Schairer joined­ Consolidated­ Aircraft,­ where­ he­ led­ the aerodynamic­design­effort­of­the­Consolidated­XP4Y Corregidor­and­the­Consolidated­B-24­Liberator.­In particular,­he­was­one­of­the­engineers­responsible for­ the­ incorporation­ of­ the­ Davis­ wing­ in­ these designs.­At­ Consolidated­Aircraft,­ he­ also­ gained extensive­experience­in­the­design­of­controls­for aircraft. In­1939­Eddie­Allen­hired­Schairer­to­be­chief­of the­aerodynamics­unit­at­Boeing,­replacing­Ralph Cram,­who­had­been­killed­in­the­crash­of­the­Boeing 307­prototype.­In­this­position,­he­helped­develop­and test­the­Boeing­307­Stratoliner,­the­first­pressurised airliner,­including­the­redesign­of­the­vertical­tail­in response­to­the­18­March­1939­crash­of­the­prototype. He­ also­ was­ involved­ in­ the­ development­ of­ the Boeing­ B-17­ Flying­ Fortress­ particularly­ the incorporation­of­aerodynamically­balanced­control surfaces­on­the­B-17E,­replacing­spring­tabs.­During the­design­of­the­Boeing­B-29­Superfortress­he­was responsible­ for­ the­ incorporation­ the­ Boeing­ 117 wing­ airofoil,­ previously­ designed­ for­ use­ on­ the Boeing­XPBB­Sea­Ranger.­Schairer­helped­defend the­use­of­a­much­higher­wing­loading­-­69­pounds per­square­foot­-­on­the­B-29­than­had­been­used­on previous­designs.­This­was­accomplished­by­the­use of­a­powerful­flap­system­that­allowed­good­lowspeed­performance. Boeing­had­started­work­on­a­jet­bomber­design in­ 1943,­ when­ an­ informal­ requirement­ for­ a­ jetpowered­reconnaissance­bomber­drawn­up­by­the­US Army­Air­Forces­was­received.­This­‘requirement’

was­issued­to­prompt­manufacturers­to­start­research into­ jet­ bombers.­ Boeing­ was­ among­ several companies­that­responded­to­this­request;­its­initial design,­the­Model­424,­was­basically­a­scaled-down version­ of­ the­ piston-engined­ B-29­ Superfortress equipped­with­four­jet­engines. In­1944­this­had­evolved­into­a­formal­requestfor-proposal­ to­ design­ a­ new­ bomber­ with­ a maximum­ speed­ of­ 550  mph,­ a­ cruise­ speed­ of 450 mph,­a­range­of­3,500 miles­and­a­service­ceiling of­45,000 feet.­In­December­1944,­North­American Aviation,­the­Convair­Corp.,­Boeing­and­the­Glenn Martin­Company­submitted­proposals­for­the­new long-range­ jet­ bomber.­ Wind­ tunnel­ testing­ had shown­that­the­drag­from­the­engine­installation­of the­Model­424­was­too­high,­so­Boeing's­entry­was­a revised­design,­the­Model­432,­with­the­four­engines buried­in­the­forward­fuselage. The­USAAF­awarded­study­contracts­to­all­four companies,­ requiring­ that­ North­ American­ and Convair­ concentrate­ on­ four-engined­ designs­ (to become­B-45­and­XB-46),­while­Boeing­and­Martin were­to­build­six-engined­aircraft­(the­B-47­and­XB48).­The­powerplant­was­to­be­General­Electric's­new TG-180­turbojet­engine. When­Schairer­visited­Germany­at­the­end­of­the war,­he­was­already­aware­of­the­controversial­sweptwing­theory­of­Robert­T.­‘Bob’­Jones­at­Langley, Virginia.­Jones’­work­there­allowed­the­development of­ the­ delta­ wing,­ based­ on­ thin-aerofoil­ theory. Others­ were­ extremely­ skeptical­ until­ supersonic testing­of­models­was­done­by­Robert­Gilruth­and­in April­by­Theodore­von­Karman.­Jones’­theory­was not­truly­accepted­until­that­summer,­when­Schairer found­ that­ German­ experts­ had­ been­ working­ on swept-wing­ designs­ for­ several­ years­ at­ the Völkenrode­ research­ centre,­ The­ discovery­ was backed­ up­ with­ test­ results­ showing­ the­ drag reduction­offered­by­swept­wings­at­transonic­speeds. Jones­thin-wing­design­ultimately­proved­superior­to thick­aerofoils­developed­by­Alexander­Lippisch­in Germany.­For­his­pioneering­work,­he­was­given­the IAS­Sylvanus­Albert­Reed­Award­in­1946.­ Schairer­is­supposed­to­have­wired­home­office ‘Stop the Bomber Design’ and­then­on­10­May­it­is recorded­that­he­wrote­a­seven-page­letter­to­Boeing colleague­Bob­Withington­that­included­a­drawing­of the­ swept­ wing­ and,­ in­ cramped­ handwriting, presented­the­key­mathematical­formulas.­To­avoid delay,­Schairer­wrote­‘Censored’­on­the­envelope­and mailed­it.­Upon­returning­from­Germany,­Schairer led­an­effort­to­overhaul­Boeing's­design­for­what became­the­Boeing­B-47­Stratojet­by­incorporating wings­that­were­swept­back­35­degrees.­The­swept

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wing­proved­to­be­crucial­in­Boeing's­efforts­to­win the­design­competition­to­build­the­B-47.­In­addition, he­is­credited­with­the­incorporation­of­the­podded engine­concept­on­the­B-47. NACA­wind­tunnel­tests­showed­that­the­model under­consideration­for­the­Air­Force­suffered­from excessive­drag.­Boeing­engineers­then­tried­a­revised design,­ the­ Model­ 432,­ that­ had­ the­ four­ engines buried­in­the­forward­fuselage,­but­though­the­Model 432­had­some­structural­advantages,­changing­the engine­layout­didn't­really­reduce­drag­very­much. The­Boeing­engineers­turned­to­the­swept-wing­data obtained­ from­ the­ Germans­ and­ promoted­ by Schairer.­ Further­ design­ work­ by­ Boeing aerodynamicist­ Vic­ Ganzer­ led­ to­ an­ optimum sweepback­of­35­degrees. Boeing­then­modified­the­Model­432­design­with swept­wings­and­tail,­resulting­in­the­Model­448, which­was­presented­to­the­USAAF­in­September 1945.­The­Model­448­had­the­four­TG-180s­in­the forward­fuselage­as­had­the­Model­432,­plus­two­TG180s­buried­in­the­rear­fuselage.­The­Boeing­project manager,­ George­ Martin,­ had­ decided­ that­ the

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company's­entry­into­the­bomber­competition­needed greater­range­and­performance,­and­that­led­to­six engines­rather­than­four. The­flush-mounted­air­intakes­for­the­rear­engines were­ inadequate,­ while­ the­ USAAF­ disliked­ the installation­ of­ engines­ within­ the­ fuselage, considering­it­a­fire­hazard. The­engines­were­moved­out­to­pylon-mounted streamlined­pods­under­the­wings,­leading­to­the­next iteration,­the­Model­450,­which­featured­two­TG180s­in­a­twin­pod­mounted­on­a­pylon­about­a­third of­ the­ way­ outboard­ on­ each­ wing,­ plus­ another engine­at­each­wingtip.­The­Army­Air­Force­liked­this new­configuration,­and­so­Boeing's­team­of­engineers continued­to­refine­it,­with­the­outer­engines­being moved­further­inboard,­to­about­three-quarter­span.­ By­the­time­the­mockup­of­the­Boeing­Model­450 was­approved­in­April­1946,­the­B-47­had­moved even­further­from­the­conventional­configuration.­A tandem­‘bicycle’­landing­gear­was­adopted,­and­a retractable­ outrigger­ wheel­ was­ mounted­ in­ each inboard­jet­pod­for­lateral­ground­stability.­Because of­the­location­of­the­main­wheels­relative­to­the

The B-47 - to quote Boeing’s publicity machine ‘The Stratojet’s revolutionary design and construction endow it with performance entirely new to aircraft of its dimensions’. (USAF)

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In 1953, two B-47Bs were modified for testing the probe-and-drogue refueling system. The tanker was given the designation KB-47G and was known as ‘Maw’ by flightcrews, and was fitted with a British-built tanker kit. The refuelling test aircraft was given the designation YB-47F and was known as ‘Paw', though other aircraft (including the YB-52 prototype) were also used as refueling targets. The program was cancelled in 1954; it turned out that the KB-47G simply could not carry enough fuel to make it a useful tanker. The idea of fielding B47 tanker conversions came up again a few years later, but the economics did not make sense, and the notion was finally put to rest for good. (USAF)

centre­of­gravity,­the­B-47­sat­on­the­ground­in­takeoff­attitude­and­took­off­and­landed­at­the­same­angle without­‘rotating’­in­the­traditional­manner­of­aircraft with­conventional­landing­gear.­Because­of­its­high wing­ loading­ and­ the­ slow­ acceleration characteristics­of­the­early­turbojet­engines,­18­JATO rocket­ units,­ developed­ during­ the­ war­ for­ ‘jetassisted­ takeoff’,­ were­ built­ into­ the­ sides­ of­ the fuselage.­On­later­models,­these­units­were­carried on­a­jettisonable­external­rack­as­a­weight-saving measure.­ The­ heavy­ weight­ of­ these­ units­ also resulted­in­faster­landing­speeds­and­a­severe­braking problem,­which­was­met­by­deployment­of­a­ribbontype­parachute­-­another­German­wartime­invention -­from­the­tail­just­as­the­wheels­touched­the­ground. On­later­models,­this­practice­was­modified­to­trail­a small­drogue­parachute­while­in­the­landing­pattern and­deploy­the­main­braking­parachute­just­before the­aircraft­touched­down.­Wartime­experience­with stripped-down­B-29Bs­revealed­that­bombers­with near-fighter­speeds­could­be­successfully­intercepted only­from­the­rear,­so­the­only­defensive­armament of­the­B-47­was­in­the­form­of­tail­turret­guns­that could­be­aimed­and­fired­remotely­from­the­cockpit or­automatically­by­radar. The­USAAF­was­very­pleased­with­the­refined

Model­ 450­ design,­ and­ in­April­ 1946­ the­ service ordered­ two­ prototypes,­ to­ be­ designated­ XB-47. Assembly­began­in­June­1947. The­first­XB-47­was­rolled­out­on­12­September 1947,­ a­ few­ days­ before­ the­ USAAF­ became­ a separate­service,­the­US­Air­Force,­on­18­September 1947.­The­XB-47­prototype­made­its­first­flight­on 17­December­1947­with­test­pilots­Robert­Robbins and­Scott­Osler­at­the­controls.­It­flew­from­Boeing Field­in­Seattle­to­the­Moses­Lake­Airfield­in­central Washington­ state,­ in­ a­ flight­ that­ lasted­ just­ 27 minutes,­with­no­major­problems.­Robbins­had­to pull­ up­ the­ flaps­ with­ the­ ‘emergency­ hot­ wire system’,­and­the­‘engine­fire’­warning­indicators­were falsely­ lit.­ Robbins­ reported­ that­ the­ flight characteristics­of­the­aircraft­were­good. In­February­1949,­Russ­Schleeh­and­Joe­Howell broke­all­coast-to-coast­speed­records­flying­from Moses­Lake­Air­Force­Base­to­Andrews­Air­Force Base.­They­averaged­607.8­miles­per­hour. Although­heavier­than­the­heaviest­bomber­of World­War­ll­-the­B-29­-the­B-47­was­classed­as­a medium­bomber.­lt­normally­was­operated­by­a­threeman­crew:­pilot­and­copilot­in­tandem­under­a­fightertype­canopy­and­a­bombardier-navigator­in­the­nose. The­total­number­of­B-47s­built­was­2,032.

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Chapter­Three

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The­Journey­From­Paper­To­Metal When­Boeing­began­jet­airliner­development­the­air transportation­industry­in­America­-­Boeing’s­main customers­-­was­very­different­than­it­is­today.­The all-important­trans-continental­routes­linking­the­East and­West­coasts­were­flown­by­unpressurised­twinengine­Douglas­DC-3s­in­sixteen­to­twenty­hours, depending­on­the­number­of­intermediate­stops.­ During­ 1946,­ the­ introduction­ of­ four-engine airliners,­ unpressurized­ Douglas­ DC-4s­ and pressurised­ Lockheed­ Constellations,­ enabled fiercely­ competing­ trunk­ carriers­ to­ operate transcontinentally­with­one­intermediate­stop­and­to fly­the­2,500-mile­routes­in­thirteen­to­fourteen­hours with­DC-4s­and­eleven­hours­with­Constellations.­An east-bound­transcontinental­service­was­not­offered until­October­1953,­when­TWA­began­1049C­Super Constellation­service­between­Los­Angeles­and­New York­in­less­than­eight­hours.­West-bound­nonstop scheduled­ services­ began­ the­ next­ month­ when American­Airlines­ introduced­ the­ Douglas­ DC-7, making­the­flight­against­prevailing­winds­in­eight and­a­quarter­hours. The­other­route­that­played­a­significant­part­in determining­the­payload-range­characteristics­of­the first­generation­of­jet­airliners­as­far­as­the­Americans were­concerned­was­that­across­the­North­Atlantic. Although­ a­ limited­ passenger­ service­ had­ been initiated­with­a­Boeing­314­flying-boat­first­taking twenty-two­passengers­from­New­York­to­Marseilles, France,­in­June­1939,­a­sustained­service­only­started after­the­war.­ Critical­ legs­ were­ between­ either­ Shannon, Ireland,­ or­ Prestwick,­ Scotland,­ and­ Gander, Newfoundland.­The­Shannon-Gander­leg­was­1,715 nautical­miles,­uncorrected­for­prevailing­winds­from the­west.­Over­the­North­Atlantic,­new­and­more capable­aircraft­were­introduced­in­January­1946­with use­of­the­Lockheed­Constellation­and­in­June­1949 the­Boeing­Stratocruiser,­both­by­Pan­American,­ North­Atlantic­operations­still­required­at­least one­stop­until­November­1954,­when­Pan­American began­flying­non-stop­eastbound­using­Stratocruisers fitted­with­additional­fuel­tanks.­Westbound­nonstop

flights­ between­ London­ or­ Paris­ and­ New­ York became­possible­only­with­the­introduction­by­TWA of­the­1049G­Super­Constellation­in­November­1955, but­even­then,­winter­winds­and/or­heavy­payload often­still­required­a­refueling­stop.­ All­domestic­and­international­US­services­were offered­in­a­single­class.­Coach­fares­were­introduced on­some­routes­by­the­end­of­1948­and­were­extended to­transcontinental­services­a­year­later.­On­North Atlantic­routes,­tourist­fares­and­economy­fares­were introduced­in­May­1952­and­April­1958­respectively. The­impact­of­these­lower­fares­was­dramatic. The­number­of­passengers­carried­by­the­nine­airlines offering­transAtlantic­services­-­Air­France,­BOAC, KLM,­Pan­American,­Sabena,­Scandanavian­Airline System,­Swissair,­Trans-Canada­Airlines,­and­TWA -­jumped­from­329,656­in­1951­to­452,272­in­1952. Nevertheless,­in­1952,­only­four­out­of­ten­North Atlantic­passengers­traveled­by­air.­Five­years­later, with­ the­ availability­ of­ cheaper­ fares­ air transportation­ finally­ overtook­ sea­ transportation across­the­North­Atlantic.­ In­1958,­the­introduction­of­economy­class­and jet­service­resulted­in­yet­another­jump­in­air­traffic over­ the­ North­ Atlantic,­ with­ the­ number­ of­ air passengers­first­exceeding­the­one­million­mark. Credit­for­introducing­turbine-powered­aircraft into­airline­service­goes­to­Great­Britain.­Both­the­De Havilland­Comet­and­the­Vickers­Viscount­resulted from­the­inspired­work­of­the­Brabazon­Committee. Chaired­by­Lord­Brabazon­of­Tara,­this­committee had­ been­ set­ up­ by­ the­ British­ Government­ in December­1942­to­make­recommendations­for­the postwar­development­of­airliners.­ Reporting­between­August­1943­and­November 1945,­the­second­Brabazon­Committee­came­up­with recommendations­for­five­classes­of­airliners:­The Type­I­called­for­the­development­of­a­500,000­pound machine­for­nonstop­operations­between­London­and New­York.­ This­ resulted­ in­ the­ Bristol­ Brabazon landplane­and­Saro­Princess­flying-boat,­neither­of which­proceeded­past­the­prototype­stage.­ The­Type­II­was­tailored­to­European­operations.

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Right: The World's first jet airliner, albiet in experimental form - the sole Rolls-Royce Nenepowered Vickers Viking which first flew as G-AJPH in 1948. (author’s collection)

It­resulted­in­the­design­of­three­aircraft:­the­Airspeed Ambassador,­which­was­built­in­limited­number;­the experimental­Armstrong­Whitworth­Apollo­powered by­four­turboprop­engines;­and­the­Vickers­Viscount.­ The­Type­III­was­aimed­at­airliners­for­operations on­the­Empire­routes­-­those­linking­Britain­with colonies­in­Africa,­Asia,­and­the­Pacific.­lt­resulted­in the­Avro­Tudor­which,­powered­by­four­Rolls-Royce Merlins,­ and­ was­ intended­ as­ an­ interim­ aircraft pending­availability­of­the­jet-powered­Avro­695. The­ Type­ IV­ began­ as­ a­ specification­ for­ a relatively­small­jet-powered­aircraft­to­transport­mail over­the­North­Atlantic.­However,­it­ended­up­as­the De­Havilland­Comet,­the­world’s­first­jet­airliner, which­ was­ initially­ built­ for­ operations­ over­ the Empire­routes. The­Type­V­resulted­in­two­types­of­feeder­liners, the­De­Havilland­Dove­and­the­Miles­Marathon. Brabazon­Committee­members­recognized­that British­ turbine­ engine­ manufacturers­ had­ a substantial­lead­over­their­American­competitors,­that resulted­in­the­turboprop-powered­Vickers­Viscount and­ turbojet-powered­ De­ Havilland­ Comet.­ With these­two­aircraft,­Britain­heralded­a­new­era­in­air transportation. Originally­ projected­ as­ a­ jet-powered­ North Atlantic­twin-boom­mailplane,­the­Brabazon­Type­IV evolved­into­the­commercially­more­justified­DH.l06. Adopting­ a­ remarkably­ clean­ layout­ with­ a pressurized­fuselage­and­moderately­swept­wings with­four­de­Havilland­Ghost­turbojet­engines­buried in­their­roots,­De­Havilland­ended­up­designing­an aircraft­ no­ longer­ meeting­ Brabazon­ Type­ IV requirements­for­a­North­Atlantic­mailplane.­Instead, the­revised­D.H.­106­to­Specification­22/46­met­Type IIIA­ requirements­ for­ a­ medium­ range­ turbinepowered­airliner­for­use­on­the­Empire­routes.­Two D.H.­106­prototypes­were­ordered­by­the­Ministry­of Supply­ in­ May­ 1946.­ Eight­ months­ later­ British Overseas­Airways­ Corporation­ (BOAC)­ placed­ a preliminary­order­for­eight­aircraft­on­21­January 1947,­thus­becoming­the­world’s­first­airline­to­step into­the­jet­age.­The­first­prototype­flew­at­Hatfield on­27­July­1949­and­was­first­shown­publicly­at­the Society­of­British­Aerospace­Companies­(SBAC)

Show­ less­ than­ two­ months­ later.­ Although generating­much­interest,­the­Comet­initially­failed to­attract­additional­orders,­as­airlines­felt­that­the­new jet­airliner­with­first-class­accommodation­for­up­to 36­passengers­would­be­too­expensive­to­operate, making­it­difficult­to­turn­in­a­profit­or­even­to­breakeven.­However,­a­series­of­record­flights­between London­ and­ European­ capitals­ at­ average­ speeds above­420­miles­per­hour­soon­demonstrated­that­the Comet­ was­ likely­ to­ have­ high­ passenger­ appeal. Before­ the­ first­ 36-set­ production­ aircraft­ was delivered­to­BOAC­on­2­April­1951,­export­orders for­eight­Comet­1As­were­received­from­Canadian Pacific­ Airlines­ and­ two­ French­ carriers,­ UAT­ Union­Aéromaritime­de­Transport­-­and­Air­France. After­setting­records­between­London­and­European capitals,­ the­ Comet­ 1­ was­ ready­ for­ commercial operations.­ Carrying­ 36­ passengers,­ the­ first production­Comet­left­London­on­2­May­1952­bound for­ South­Africa.­After­ five­ intermediate­ stops,­ it landed­in­Johannesburg­after­covering­6,724­miles­in 23­ hours­ 34­ minutes.­ First­ flown­ on­ 16­ February 1952,­ the­ Avon-powered­ Comet­ 2­ proved­ more attractive­to­prospective­customers,­and­orders­for this­longer-ranged­version­were­placed­by­Air­France, BOAC,­ British­ Commonwealth­ Pacific­ Airlines, Canadian­Pacific,­Japan­Airlines,­Linea­Aeropostal Venezolana,­ Panair­ do­ Brasil,­ and­ UAT. Unfortunately,­before­Comet­2s­could­be­delivered to­airlines­and­before­the­Comet­3­prototype­flew­on 19­July­1954,­six­of­the­pioneering­Comet­1s­had crashed­ or­ been­ destroyed,­ with­ the­ loss­ of­ 99 passengers­and­crew­members. The­UK­was­not­the­only­country­to­realise­that the­ development­ of­ turbine-engined­ transports offered­ an­ opportunity­ to­ challenge­ the­ US hegemony.­While­most­of­the­early­aircraft­in­this table­were­jet-powered­testbeds,­the­Avro­Canada C.102­ ]etliner­ was­ a­ genuine­ transport­ aircraft intended­for­one-stop­service­between­Montreal­and Vancouver.­Conceived­in­Great­Britain,­but­designed, built,­and­flown­in­Canada,­the­C.102­jet­airliner­was the­recipient­of­a­letter­of­intent­issued­in­April­1946 from­ Trans-Canada­ Airlines.­ However,­ nonavailability­ of­ the­ planned­ Rolls-Royce­ Avon

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Left and below: The Rolls-Royce Tay-powered Vickers Viscount. Originally it was registered as G-AHRG but redesignated as a Type 663 to specification 4/49 and serialled VX217.

The wide-axled, double mainwheel undercarriage is shown to advantage. It was completed with two Tay jet engines instead of Darts and was used for research into control systems.

To all intents and purposes this was the British 737 - at least fifteen years before Boeing came out with a similar design! (Author’s collection)

turbo-jets­forced­the­manufacturer­to­substitute­four less­ powerful­ and­ more­ fuel-thirsty­ Rolls-Royce Derwent­turbo-jets.­Performance­fell­below­those­for the­ projected­ twin-Avon­ version,­ and­ TCA­ lost interest­before­the­first­flight­of­the­Derwent-powered airliner­on­10­August­1949.­More­importantly,­design of­ the­ SNCASE­ Caravelle­ had­ been­ initiated­ in France­ before­ Boeing­ and­ Douglas­ committed­ to building­jet­airliners.­Stemming­from­a­request­for proposals­issued­in­November­1951­by­the­French government,­the­twinjet­Caravelle­was­intended­for operations­on­European,­Middle­Eastern,­and­North African­routes.­Selected­as­one­of­the­three­finalists in­March­1952,­one­month­before­the­Boeing­board authorized­development­of­the­367-80­demonstrator, the­Caravelle­first­flew­on­27­May­1955.­ While­at­first­the­French­challenger­was­not­taken seriously­in­the­United­States,­the­turbine-powered British­designs­elicited­serious­interests­from­several In its production form, the turbo-prop Vickers Viscount made deep inroads into the American airliner market, even outselling Lockheed’s Electra. Continental Airlines of Denver, CO. took fifteen. (Author’s collection)

US­carriers.­Capital­Airlines,­which­was­acquired­by United­Airlines­in­1961,­ordered­the­first­three­of­an eventual­fleet­of­seventy-five­Vickers­Viscount­turboprops­in­May­1954.­It­initiated­Viscount­service­in the­United­States­in­July­1955,­3½­years­before­the Lockheed­Electra­became­the­next­turboprop­airliner in­US­service.­Orders­from­Continental­Airlines­and Northeast­Airlines­eventually­resulted­in­147­of­the 445­Viscounts­built­by­Vickers­being­delivered­to­US airlines,­a­remarkable­achievement­for­the­British aircraft­industry,­particularly­in­the­light­of­the­fact that­Lockheed­only­built­170­turboprop-­powered Electras­and­never­quite­matched­the­Viscount­in­the home­market­(144­Electras­were­delivered­to­US carriers).­ When­BOAC­inaugurated­scheduled­jet­service on­2­May­1952,­US­airlines­suddenly­lost­their­apathy toward­jet­airliners.­Four­months­later,­Ronald­E. Bishop,­director­and­chief­engineer­for­De­Havilland,

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The Avro C102 Jetliner was a prototype mediumrange turbojet-powered jet airliner built by Avro Canada in 1949. It was beaten to the air by only 13 days by the De Havilland Comet, thereby becoming the second jet airliner in the world. (author’s collection)

proclaimed­ during­ the­ SBAC­ Show,­ “We feel we have a lead on the Americans of between four and five years on jet transport aircraft. They are now in the same position we were in 1946.” Among­those­in­attendance­at­the­1952­SBAC Show­were­George­T­Baker­and­Captain­Edward­V ‘Eddie’­ Rickenbacker,­ presidents­ respectively­ of National­and­Eastern­Airlines.­As­the­payload/range performance­ of­ even­ the­ original­ Comet­ 1­ were sufficient­ for­ operations­ on­ the­ New­York-Miami routes­on­which­their­airlines­competed­fiercely,­both airlines­were­ready­to­order­Comets.­Rickenbacker, after­a­trip­in­the­Comet­2X­development­aircraft,­was quoted­as­saying­‘It was all I expected—plus.’ He planned­an­initial­order­for­thirty-five­to­fifty­Comets, provided­ that­ de­ Havilland­ would­ deliver­ these aircraft­within­two­years­from­contract.­ ­­­­­­It­was­not­surprising­that­BOAC's­inaugural­jet service­should­cause­more­than­one­American­airline executive­to­sit­up­and­start­taking­a­keen­interest­in Comet­affairs,­although­it­is­doubtful­even­then­if­any of­ them­ would­ have­ been­ prepared­ to­ back­ the comparatively­ uneconomical­ Series­ I­ in­ the­ way BOAC­had­done. ­­­­­­It­was­BOAC's­announcement­that­they­intended to­put­Series­2­Comets­on­their­South­Atlantic­route in­less­than­18­months,­that­finally­shocked­the­US into­the­realization­that­Britain­had­stolen­a­clear­fiveyear­lead­over­them­in­prestige­travel.­It­was­not­long before­Pan­American­and­a­number­of­other­leading airlines­placed­orders­for­the­Comet­3,­a­‘stretched’ version­ of­ the­ Series­ 2,­ with­ still­ more­ powerful Rolls-­Royce­engines,­a­longer­fuselage­seating­up­to 78­passengers,­and­additional­nacelle-like­fuel­tanks near­ the­ wing­ tips­ that­ increased­ the­ range­ by

The Tupolev Tu-104 (NATO reporting name: Camel) was a twinengined medium-range narrow-body turbojetpowered Soviet airliner. (author’s collection)

something­like­sixty­per­cent­as­compared­with­the Series­I. ­­­­­­The­American­press­was­generous­in­its­tribute; as­the­influential­Christian­Science­Monitor­put­it,­"A good competitor knows how to congratulate a winner as well as how to carry off trophies himself.’ The­New York Daily Mirror was­brief­and­to­the­point­with­the headline ‘'Britain Out-Jets Us’ ­­­­­­Finally,­on­20­October­1952,­De­Havillands­were able­to­announce­the­purchase­of­three­Comet­Series 3­jet­airliners­by­Pan­American­World­Airways.­Thus for­ the­ first­ time­ in­ history­ a­ British­ main-line transport­aircraft­had­been­chosen­by­an­American airline­operator.­ ­­­­­­‘The contract just signed calls for delivery of the three Comets in 1956 and includes an option on seven additional aircraft for delivery in 1957. The advanced delivery date was made possible because Sir Miles Thomas, Chairman of the British Overseas Airways Corporation, agreed to release three of the 11 Comets Series 3 which have been earmarked for BOAC. The historic importance of this event to the British aircraft industry becomes apparent when it is realised that not for 20 years have American operators found it necessary to go beyond their own borders for equipment. It may be recalled that 95 per cent. of all the American production of aircraft for the 1914-18 war were to de Havilland design, and that Americanbuilt D.H.4s were used to carry United States mails in the years between 1919 and 1927. Thereafter, while British air transport developed under a policy of minimum subsidies and struggled to pay for itself with specialised aircraft, American civil aviation thrived in its naturally favourable circumstances and

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yielded in the early ‘thirties the Douglas DC-2 and a succession of fine American airliners. Just when British manufacturers were beginning to see broader opportunities the war broke out in 1939, debarring the British industry from further civil developments. British wartime progress with jet engines opened the way for the Comet. Now, with the advent of the Comet 3 and its forthcoming entry into the United States airline system, comes a fresh opportunity for Britain to become established in the airline markets of the world. With a payload capacity and a cruising range in tune with the expected requirements of the early 1960s and with a speed of travel and a degree of passenger comfort marking nothing less than a new era in world communications, the Comet Series 3, backed by many thousands of hours of routeoperating experience with the Series 1 and 2, shows every promise of international success. Pan American World Airways will now become the first American operator to put jet liners into service. Since before the war Juan Trippe, the President of Pan American, has been a leading advocate of the low-fare tourist- class air service. In 1948, alone among the world's airlines. Pan American instituted a tourist-class service between New York and Puerto Rico, but it was not until late

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in 1951 that the principle of the tourist fare was generally accepted, to go into effect internationally on May 1, 1952. Pan American's enthusiasm for tourist-class air travel emphasises the fact that the Series 1A and Series 2 Comets, seating 44 passengers, were not large enough for operation on their system; the Comet 3, with a capacity ranging from 58 to 78 seats, allows full scope for a service combining high-density traffic with high-speed operation. The Comet's ability, by reason of its speed, to cover more miles for a given rate of utilisation increases its work capacity far above that of piston aircraft of comparable seating capacity. In a statement issued by Pan American, Juan Trippe pointed out that the Series 3, capable of carrying a full payload of passengers, mail and cargo for about 2,700 miles against a headwind of 50 mph with adequate reserves, will be the first jet transport able to operate efficiently over the principal routes of the Pan American system. Plain business reasons brought about the American purchase of the Comet and it is to be hoped that plain technical satisfaction will bring about its airworthiness certification by the USA’. ­­­­­­That­ same­ month­ Trans­ World­ Airlines­ chief pilot,­Paul­S­Fredrickson,­and­TWA­Vice-President Robert­W­Rummel­-­acting­on­behalf­of­the­secretive

The­De­Havilland­Comet­-­in­this­case­G-AYLP­-­is­‘waved­away’­on­the­world’s­first­jet­airliner­passenger service.­The­date?­2­May­1952.­(DH Hatfield)

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American­ billionaire­ Howard­ R­ Hughes­ -­ visited Hatfield­ and­ Frank­ Lloyd,­ the­ Commercial­ Sales Manager. ­­­­­Here­ they­ were­ briefed­ on­ the­ programme about­the­Comet­I­and­1A,­the­building­of­the­Mk II,­work­being­done­on­engineering­the­Mk­III­and the­plans­for­the­Mk­IV.­Frank­Lloyd­told­them­that the­ Mk­ IV,­ powered­ by­ Rolls-Royce­ Conway engines,­ would­ be­ larger­ and­ fully­ competitive with­ anything­ that­ the­American­ market­ would offer­in­eight­to­ten­years­time. ­­­­­­As­with­many­comments­from­the­Americans, Rummel­was­privately­dismissive­and­disparaging about­ De­ Havilland’s­ efforts: ‘By American standards, De Havilland's production tooling seemed meager and rudimentary. Wings were being constructed in an inefficient horizontal position over pits rather than with the wing chord (the line between the leading and trailing edges) vertical, as was customary in the States. Production was very slow. Only nine Mark 1s had been delivered. De Havilland planned to establish additional production lines at Chester and Belfast rather than expand the Hatfield facility. Frank Lloyd explained that this would make use of existing factory facilities. It was necessary to move the work to the workman rather than the opposite because of the housing shortage and the extreme reluctance of workmen to move. He said, ‘They refuse to leave their homes, which in many cases have been in the family for generations.” ­­­­­­Rummel­ also­ raised­ one­ other­ point­ -­ that­ of

certification.­United­States­certification­of­the­Comet was­considered­a­major­problem,­for­the­authorities were­already­putting­obstacles­in­the­path­of­the­new airliner.­Lloyd­said­De­Havilland­wanted­complete reciprocity­to­permit­automatic­certification­in­the United­States­without­need­for­the­aircraft­design­to comply­with­US­Civil­Air­Requirements­(CAR).­ ­­­­­­While­Britain­and­the­United­States­had­agreed to­reciprocal­certification­during­the­1944­Chicago Convention,­which­resulted­in­the­formation­of­the International­Civil­Aviation­Organization,­the­United States­held­the­view­that­this­was­limited­to­piston engined­powered­aircraft­only­-­because­US­turbine aircraft­ certification­ requirements­ had­ not­ been written­then,­and­still­had­not­been­written­by­1952.­ ­­­­­­Rummel­expressed­the­view­that­the­expectation of­automatic­certification­was­unrealistic,­and­that­he thought­ it­ would­ be­ more­ constructive­ for­ De Havilland­ and­ the­ British­ authorities­ to­ assist­ the Americans­in­establishing­appropriate­US­turbinepowered­ aircraft­ certification­ requirements­ that would­have­to­be­complied­with. ­­­­­­‘I considered the Comet program to be a superb pioneering venture that quite obviously required pressing the state of the art of airplane design in nearly all significant technology areas to achieve the barest minimum acceptable overall efficiency. In the earlier models this produced marginal structure, minimal operating weights, and borderline performance. For example, the thin fuselage skin of the Comet had been stretched during manufacturing

At one stage Boeing referred to the work done on the jet transport as the infamous ‘Project X’, as demonstrated by this extract from a geneological chart from late 1953 shows. (author’s collection)

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to increase strength at the expense of ductility; every pound of empty weight was critical re payload or range; higher-thrust engines were clearly needed. The limited range, sluggish takeoff at high rotation angles, and the ability to stop after landing on slippery runways were also important concerns. Except for the lack of reverse thrust, I did not think any one of the marginal conditions ruled the airplane out, but the combination of them gave me serious pause. I thought it likely that the anticipated march of progress could lessen or erase these concerns in succeeding models, possibly in the Mark IV, which was years away. I had evaluated potential TWA Comet operations several times and recommended each time to Hughes that none be procured because of borderline design and performance or because of program timing with respect to the clearly superior US jets. My early negative recommendations, which Howard accepted, generated considerable high-echelon TWA criticism after BOAC's initial operations proved the extreme popularity of the Comet. One TWA board member even commented, "Bob, you could have been a hero." Clearly­the­USA­were­doing­all­that­they­could to­forstall­the­introduction­of­foriegn­jet-airliners­into service­on­American­soil­until­they­were­ready,­a process­that­was­unintentionally­aided­by­a­series­of disasters­ that­ struck­ the­ Comet­ 1­ and­ led­ to­ its grounding­in­April­1954.­ De­Havilland­announced­the­development­of­a much­ heavier­ version­ of­ the­ ­ Comet­ with­ greater range­and­increased­payload.­Powered­by­four­10,000 pounds­thrust­Rolls-Royce­Avon­turbojets­instead­of the­4,500­pounds­thrust­de­Havilland­Ghosts­of­the Comet­1,­this­Comet­3­was­optimized­to­carry­50 The US Navy ordered four Super Connies modified with four Pratt & Whitney YT34-P12A turboprop engines, squared propellers and a shortened wing, being designated R7V-2. Lockheed leased one back from the Navy to use as a test aircraft for the upcoming L-188 Electra. The Air Force ordered their own pair of turbo Connies, designated as the YC-121F. only six were built and none entered airline service. (author’s collection)

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passengers­on­single-stop­service­between­London and­New­York.­Consequently,­to­hedge­its­bet­and­be ready­to­compete­with­BOAC­soon­after­the­British flag­carrier­was­expected­to­start­Comet­3­service, Pan­American­ordered­three­of­these­aircraft­on­20 October­1952.­However,­before­the­Comet­3­first flew,­Comet­1s­were­withdrawn­from­use.­By­then the­367-80­was­about­to­fly­and­Pan­Am­cancelled­its Comet­3­order.­ Only­ one­ other­ US­ carrier,­ Capital­ Airlines, showed­sufficient­interest­in­the­pioneering­British jet­airliner­to­place­an­order­for­four­Comet­4s­and ten­stretched­Comet­4As­in­]uly­1956.­Two­years later,­financial­difficulties­forced­Capital­to­cancel­its order.­ American­ industry­ leaders­ still­ remained lukewarm­toward­the­development­of­jet­airliners,­as greater­benefit­would­be­derived­from­developing turboprop-powered­ derivatives­ of­ their­ Super Constellation/Starliner­and­DC-6/DC-7­series.­ ln­particular,­after­studying­a­32-­to­40-passenger CL-152­with­three­or­four­of­its­own­L-1000­turbojets in­ 1946,­ Lockheed­ concentrated­ its­ efforts­ on turboprop-powered­ aircraft­ and­ on­ flying experimental­Super­Constellation­models­powered by­Pratt­&­Whitney­T34­Turbo-Wasps­(four­R7V-2s for­the­USN,­with­two­becoming­YC-l21Fs­for­the USAF­and­one­being­re-engined­with­Allison­501 turboprops).­Convair­meanwhile,­preferred­turbine developments­of­its­Model­240/540/440­series­for operations­ over­ shorter­ routes.­ First­ flown­ on­ 29 December­1950­after­being­re-engined­with­a­pair­of Allison­501s,­its­Model­240­prototype­became­the first­US­airliner­powered­by­turboprops.­However, further­ turbine­ development­ of­ the­ 240/340/440 series­did­not­materialize­until­ten­years­later.­

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Dubbed ‘Avitruc’ by its manufacturer, the Chase Aircraft Company, the XC123A conducted its maiden flight on 21 April 1951, so becoming the first jetpowered transport aircraft to successfully fly in the United States of America. (author’s collection)

Douglas­ came­ close­ to­ launching­ a­ DC-7D powered­by­four­Rolls-Royce­Tyne­turboprops­but, reacting­ to­ customer­ preference­ for­ jet-powered aircraft,­the­Santa­Monica­manufacturer­announced in­ August­ 1952­ that­ it­ would­ launch­ a­ DC-8­ jet airliner.­This­announcement­preceded­by­one­month that­ by­ Boeing­ concerning­ the­ 367-80.­ Douglas however­lost­the­initiative­as,­unlike­Boeing,­it­sought to­ wait­ for­ airline­ orders­ before­ proceeding­ with construction­of­a­prototype.­ Historically­speaking,­the­honour­of­being­the first­American­pure-jet­transport­aircraft­fell­to­the little-known­Chase­XC-123A.­While­not­a­jet­airliner, this­testbed­was­the­first­US­jet-­powered­aircraft­with a­transport-type­airframe.­Powered­by­four­General Electric­J47­turbojets­in­paired­pods­under­the­wing and­ utilizing­ the­ airframe­ of­ the­ second­ XCG-20 experimental­cargo­glider,­this­aircraft­first­flew­on 21­April­1951.­However,­no­further­jet­development of­the­C-123­was­undertaken,­and­the­type­went­into production­for­the­USAF­with­two­Pratt­&­Whitney R-2800­radials­as­the­Fairchild­C-123B­Provider. The­ Air­ Transport­ Association­ (ATA,­ later­ to become­Airlines­for­America­(A4A)),­was­and­is­an American­trade­association­and­lobbying­group­based in­Washington, D.C.­to­which­all­American­scheduled carriers­belonged.­They­issued­detailed­jet­transport design­ recommendations­ in­ October­ 1952. Recommendations­included­provision­for­carrying all­fuel­outside­the­fuselage,­either­in­wings­or­pods or­ both;­ undercarriage­ wells­ designed­ to­ contain damage­following­tyre­explosion;­ability­to­operate in­ 40-miles­ per­ hour­ crosswinds;­ ability­ to manoeuver­ at­ low­ speeds­ despite­ failure­ of­ one engine­in­a­two­or­three-engine­aircraft­or­failure­of two­engines­in­a­four­or­five-engine­aircraft;­‘fail safe’­maintenance­to­preclude­incorrect­attachment of­parts;­improved­fire­warning­and­protection;­128inch­ internal­ cabin­ width­ to­ make­ possible five-abreast­ coach­ accommodation;­ and­ sealed electrical­ system­ to­ eliminate­ all­ electrical­ booby traps. The­ATA­favoured­individual­engine­pods­and expressed­ concerns­ over­ cabin­ pressurisation

problems.­ In­ the­ case­ of­ the­ powerplant,­ ATA considered­ it­ ‘...imperative that the engine installation assure an advancement in the safety of the airplane with respect to fire over that provided in present transport airplanes. An engine fire should not jeopardize the airplane primary structure, adjacent engines, or airplane and engine controls.’ Concerns­over­potential­structural­integrity­was expressed­ by­ ATA­ as­ there­ was­ no­ previous experience­in­pressurising­so­large­a­volume­as­the cabin­of­a­jet­airliner­flying­at­altitude­of­40,000­feet.­ ATA­Jet­Transport­Specification Cost­per­ton-mile: Equal­to­DC-6­ Cruise­speed: 550­miles­per­hour­ Range,­domestic: 2,000­miles­ Range,­international: 3,200­miles­ Runway­length,­domestic: 5,500­feet­ Runway­length,­international: 7,500­feet­ Fuselage­width,­inside­diameter: 128­inches­ Cabin­aisle­headroom: 80­inches­ Passenger­capacity,­first­class: 70-80­ ­ In­the­event,­early­Boeing­707s­and­Douglas­DC8s­ barely­ met­ ATA­ range­ specifications­ and completely­failed­to­meet­field-­length­requirements. However,­they­exceeded­ATA­requirements­in­terms of­ cabin­ width­ and­ seating,­ for­ ATA­ issued­ its specifications­six­years­before­economy­class­was introduced.­ Boeing Gambles. In­ the­ spring­ of­ 1947,­ four­ months­ after­ the undesignated­layout­mentioned­at­the­beginning­of this­chapter­had­been­prepared,­Boeing­initiated­more comprehensive­ preliminary­ design­ studies­ for­ jet airliners­under­the­Model­473­designation.­The­first of­these­studies,­the­473-1,­was­a­27-seat,­48,430pound­ gross­ weight­ aircraft­ with­ a­ tricycle undercarriage­and­four­6,000­pounds­thrust­RollsRoyce­Nene­turbojets­in­underslung­pods.­With­tanks for­ only­ 2,208­ gallons­ of­ fuel,­ the­ 473-1­ was optimized­for­domestic­operations­over­flight­sectors of­ less­ than­ 1,200­ miles.­ It­ was­ not­ long­ before several­other­configurations­were­studied­to­increase

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BOEING 473-1 Span: Length: Height: Fuselage dia: Powerplant:

116 feet 0 inches 107 feet 6 inches 31 feet 3 inches 110 inches 4 x R-R Nenes

© G.M.Simons

From December 1946 comes what is possibly the first three-view of the Boeing jet airliner. The layout that shows the B47 influence with podded engines and shoulder-mounted wing.

range.­Typical­of­these­studies­was­the­473-11­which, still­to­be­powered­by­a­pair­of­Nenes,­had­its­wing area­increased­from­790­to­1,000­square­feet,­carried 2,620­gallons­of­fuel,­had­a­bicycle­undercarriage, and­ range­ of­ up­ to­ 1,500­ miles.­ These­ early­ 473 configurations­had­limited­payload­(with­resulting very­ high­ seat-mile­ costs)­ and­ limited­ range­ that required­ one­ or­ two­ stops­ for­ transcontinental operations.­ It­ is­ not­ surprising­ therefore­ that­ they failed­to­attract­airline­interest.­However,­pending availability­of­more­powerful­and­more­fuel­efficient turbojets,­there­was­little­that­Boeing­could­do­to increase­payload­and­range.­ Two­years­later,­experience­gained­with­the­sixengined­B-47­that­was­first­flown­in­December­1947 and­ the­ eight-jet­ B-52­ together­ with­ anticipated availability­of­civil­derivatives­of­military­turbojets in­the­7,500-­to­10,000-pound­thrust­class,­enabled Boeing­to­scale­up­its­proposed­jet­airliners.­Typical of­these­configurations­was­the­473-25­detailed­in May­1949.­Bearing­a­strong­family­resemblance­with the­XB-52­but­powered­by­six­instead­of­eight­J57 turbojets,­the­285,000-­pounds­gross­weight­473-25 was­planned­to­carry­98­passengers­non-stop­across the­North­Atlantic.­Internal­and­external­tanks­were to­house­18,620­gallons­of­fuel­and­the­473-25­was expected­to­have­a­cruising­speed­of­530­miles­per hour­ at­ 53,000­ feet.­ This­ was­ a­ substantial

improvement­over­the­performance­of­early­Nene 473­ configurations­ but­ still­ a­ long­ way­ from satisfying­airline­requirements.­Notably,­the­use­of shoulder-mounted­wings­and­bicycle­undercarriage resulted­in­the­need­to­retract­the­four-wheel­forward bogie­ into­ the­ fuselage,­ between­ the­ twenty-seat forward­ cabin­ and­ the­ main­ cabin.­ Only­ limited improvements­ resulted­ from­ the­ adoption­ of­ a double-lobe,­inverted-eight,­fuselage­cross­section­for the­473-29,­as­housing­the­two­bogies­in­the­lower lobe­ limited­ space­ available­ for­ cargo,­ mail,­ and baggage.­ With­ the­ 473-47,­ Boeing­ returned­ to­ a Nene­ configuration­ for­ domestic­ operations­ in January­1950.­Seating­was­provided­for­32­first-class passengers­and,­with­its­engines­fitted­close­beneath the­low-mounted­and­moderately­swept­wings­-­an installation­not­unlike­that­adopted­in­the­mid-sixties for­the­Boeing­737­-­this­configuration­made­possible the­use­of­a­conventional­tricycle­undercarriage.­ Performance,­though,­left­much­to­be­desired. Because­significant­wing­sweep­was­necessary­to achieve­the­desired­cruise­performance,­while­at­the same­ time­ the­ airlines­ were­ expressing­ a­ strong preference­ for­ low-mounted­ wings,­ configuration engineers­were­frustrated­in­their­attempts­to­find­a satisfactory­housing­for­the­main­undercarriage­units. On­the­473-48,­for­example,­the­four-wheel­main bogies­were­to­retract­into­pods­projecting­forward

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BOEING 473-12 Span: Length: Height: Fuselage dia: Powerplant:

100 feet 0 inches 80 feet 10 inches 26 feet 6 inches 2 x Rolls Royce Nenes

© G.M.Simons

The Boeing 473-12, from July 1948. The machine would have carried a crew of three and twenty-seven passengers a range of 550 miles. The aircraft appears to have had a sideways retracting offset nosewheel.

of­the­leading­edge,­between­the­fuselage­and­the twin-engine­pods.­On­the­473-49B,­the­main­gear consisted­ of­ four­ separate­ legs,­ each­ with­ a­ large wheel­and­retracting­forward­with­the­wheel­turning 90­degrees­to­lay­flat­in­the­underside­of­the­wing. With­a­satisfactory­solution­still­eluding­the­project team,­the­Model­473­came­to­an­inconclusive­end shortly­after­the­473-57­configuration­with­three­J57 turbojets­and­accommodation­for­50­passengers­was elaborated­in­April­1950.­ While­one­team­at­Boeing­toiled­to­come­up­with a­satisfactory­Model­473­jet­airliner­configuration, another­worked­on­continued­developments­of­the Model­ 367­ transport­ and­ tanker­ for­ the­ USAF. Combining­ the­ wings­ and­ Wright­ R-3350­ radial engines­of­the­B-29­Superfortress­with­a­double-deck pressurized­ fuselage,­ the­ first­ of­ three­ XC-97 prototypes­ had­ flown­ on­ 9­ November­ 1944. Subsequent­developments,­with­more­powerful­Pratt &­Whitney­R-4360­radials­and­B-50­wings­and­tail surfaces,­led­to­the­production­of­888­Model­367s­as C-97s­and­KC-97s­for­the­USAF­and­56­Model­377 Stratocruisers­for­a­small­number­of­airlines.­As­a tanker,­the­Model­367­made­its­debut­in­1950­when three­C-97As­were­modified­as­KC-97A­prototypes. Thereafter,­no­fewer­than­811­of­the­888­Model­367s

were­ completed­ as­ KC-97Es,­ KC-97Fs,­ and­ KC97Cs.­While­these­numbers­reflected­the­Strategic­Air Command’s­pressing­need­for­tankers­in­the­early Cold­War­years,­they­hid­the­fact­that­these­piston engined­ aircraft­ proved­ only­ to­ be­ marginally satisfactory­ when­ refueling­ B-47­ jet­ bombers. Substituting­ turboprops­ for­ the­ radial­ engines­ to improve­C-97­performance­was­first­contemplated­as far­ back­ as­ April­ 1948­ when­ a­ 367-15-23 configuration­ was­ proposed­ with­Allison­ T38s,­ a lengthened­fuselage­of­increased­diameter,­longer span­wings,­and­a­nose-loading­ramp.­Two­months later,­ the­ dimensionally­ larger­ 367-18-28 configuration­ was­ studied­ with­ more­ powerful Allison­T40s.­ Although­these­design­exercises­did­not­result­in production­configurations,­they­provided­a­useful starting­ point­ for­ the­ 367-23-33­ configuration proposed­in­June­1949­as­a­boom-equipped­tanker with­T40­turboprops.­The­Air­Force­it­seems,­was­not overly­concerned­by­the­anticipated­difficulties­of refueling­jet­bombers­with­piston-engined­tankers. Work­on­a­turboprop-powered­KC-97­was­resumed in­December­1950­when­Boeing­attempted­to­counter the­Douglas­YKC-124B­with­its­Model­367-60-61 powered­by­four­Pratt­&­Whitney­T34­turboprops

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BOEING 473-25

The Boeing 473-25 clearly demonstrates its Model 464-67 parentage. The similarities with the XB-52 is striking.

© G.M.Simons

The Model 473-47 was almost a hark-back to earlier thinking.

BOEING 473-47 Span: 85 feet 6 inches Length: 69 feet 2 inches Height: Fuselage dia: 112 inches Powerplant: 2 x Pratt & Whitney JT6D

© G.M.Simons

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BOEING 707-6 Span: Length: Height: Fuselage height:

and­featuring­gull­wings­with­25­degrees­of­sweep­at the­quarter­chord.­During­the­following­month,­the 367-64­was­proposed­with­four­Pratt­86­Whitney­J57 turbojets­as­a­Navy­minelayer­or­Air­Force­tanker. Again,­Boeing­was­unsuccessful,­but­the­seed­for­a jet-powered­ development­ of­ the­ C-97­ had­ been planted,­ promising­ significant­ performance improvements.­ln­March­1951,­initial­B-47­refueling tests­ with­ a­ KC-97A­ had­ brought­ to­ light­ the performance­shortcoming­of­piston-­engined­tankers. As­by­then­Douglas­was­aggressively­marketing­its proposed­turboprop-powered­KC-124B­to­the­Air Force,­ Boeing­ put­ new­ emphasis­ on­ designing turboprop-­and­turbojet-­powered­derivatives­of­its KC-97.­These­design­efforts­resulted­in­proposals­for the­367-68­with­four­Bristol­Olympus­turbojets,­the 367-69­with­twin­J57­pods,­the­367-70­with­swept wings­ and­ Olympus­ turbojets,­ the­ similarly configured­367-71­with­1575,­and­the­367-77­with four­T34­turboprops.­Unfortunately­for­the­project team­ working­ on­ advanced­ developments­ of­ the Model­367,­in­1951­the­Air­Force­could­not­yet­afford turbine-engined­ tankers.­ This­ may­ have­ been­ a blessing­in­disguise­as,­until­funding­for­new­tankers became­likely­to­be­budgeted,­Boeing­would­again concentrate­on­jet­airliner­designs.­Starting­with­a clean­ sheet­ of­ paper­ after­ earlier­ Model­ 473 configurations­had­failed­to­result­in­a­satisfactory­jet airliner­ design,­ Boeing­ launched­ Model­ 707­ jet airliner­ preliminary­ design­ studies­ in­ September

130 feet 0 inches 126 feet 4 inches 39 feet 5 inches 164 inches

© G.M.Simons

1951.­From­the­start,­a­solution­was­found­for­the previously­frustrating­problem­of­main­undercarriage retraction.­With­the­basic­layout­now­calling­for­lowmounted­wings­with­thirty-five­degrees­of­sweep­at the­quarter­chord,­the­main­elements­of­the­tricycle gear­would­be­located­close­enough­to­the­centre­of gravity­to­facilitate­rotation­on­take-off­while­being placed­far­enough­aft­to­prevent­the­tail­from­coming in­contact­with­the­ground­during­aft­loading.­Using this­ arrangement,­ the­ 707-1­ layout­ dated­ 16 November­ 1951­ called­ for­ an­ aircraft­ providing accommodation­ for­ seventy-two­ first-class passengers­in­a­122-inch­wide­cabin­and­powered­by four­J57s­in­twin­pods.­In­the­months­that­followed, the­design­evolved­only­slightly,­while­wing­area­and fuselage­cross­section­were­enlarged.­By­the­early spring­of­1952,­engineers­finally­felt­that­the­707-6 layout­ shown­ on­ the­ accompanying­ three-view drawing­was­close­to­what­airlines­wanted.­Intended to­ be­ powered­ by­ four­ 9,500­ pounds­ thrust­ civil derivatives­ of­ the­ Pratt­ &­ Whitney­ J57-P-1,­ the aircraft­had­wings­with­span­of­130­feet,­area­of­2,510 square­feet,­and­thirty-five­degrees­of­sweep­at­the quarter­chord.­Its­fuselage­was­121­feet­3­inches­long and­ had­ a­ 132-inch­ diameter­ to­ accommodate­ 76 first-class­passengers­in­a­four-abreast­arrangement and­ to­ incorporate­ an­ eight-seat­ aft­ lounge. Performance­promised­to­be­substantially­better­than that­of­the­De­Havilland­Comet­1­with­which­BOAC was­about­to­start­jet­service.­

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Chapter­Four

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What’s­in­a­Name? The­ Boeing­ jet­ transport­ prototype­ finally emerged­through­the­C-97­development­line­although much­use­had­been­made­of­B-47­and­B-52­design elements.­ By­ this­ time­ the­ basic­ Model­ 367­ had reached­the­80th­study­configuration­and­it­bore­no resemblance­ whatever­ to­ the­ original­ C97/Stratofreighter­airframe­even­though­the­original model­number­had­been­retained. The­design­was­not­new,­for­it­contained­many­of the­aerodynamic,­structural­and­engineering­features introduced­to­Boeing­practice­by­the­B-47­and­B-52, as­ well­ as­ the­ standards­ of­ passenger­ comfort established­with­the­Model­377­Stratocruiser.­It­was a­ new­ model­ number­ that­ combined­ all­ the­ best features­of­Boeing's­many­years­of­experience­with performance­and­passenger­comfort,­allied­to­a­basic structure­ that­ was­ highly­ adaptable­ but­ easy­ to produce­ and­ thus­ economic­ in­ mass-production terms. Popular­books,­television­programmes,­and­even some­ specialized­ aviation­ publications­ have­ all fostered­and­propogated­the­myth­that­the­Boeing­707 airliner­ and­ KC-135­ tanker­ were­ the­ miraculous results­of­an­‘immaculate­conception’­following­a request­from­William­M.­Allen,­the­Boeing­president. That­was­simply­not­the­case. As­we­have­seen,­Boeing­had­been­conducting conceptual­studies­of­jet­airliners­since­1946­while, from­1948­on,­it­also­contemplated­turbine-powered tanker­versions­of­its­Model­367.­In­the­spring­of 1952,­the­Board­also­had­to­consider­the­company’s overall­competitive­position­and­financial­health.­On the­civil­side,­activities­had­come­to­a­grinding­halt with­the­deliveries­of­the­last­Model­377­Stratocruiser to­BOAC­in­May­1950.­On­the­military­side,­the company­ had­ experienced­ a­ growing­ number­ of disappointments,­ especially­ when­ the­ turboproppowered­ Model­ 495­ had­ lost­ the­Air­ Force­ 1951 medium­ transport­ competition­ to­ the­ Lockheed Model­ 082/YC-130,­ and­ the­ company­ suffered­ a string­of­failures­in­fighter­competitions.­However,

these­ disappointments­ were­ more­ than­ offset­ by numerous­successes. Notwithstanding­Douglas’­attempts­to­attract­Air Force­interest­in­its­turboprop-powered­KC-124B, Boeing­was­getting­additional­production­contracts for­piston-engined­tankers,­the­final­KC-97G­contract being­approved­by­the­Air­Force­in­June­1953.­The first­of­399­B-47B­medium­jet­bombers­were­about to­be­delivered­to­the­Strategic­Air­Command,­and more­contracts­were­expected.­The­XB-52­prototype was­rolled­out­on­29­November­1951,­nine-and-ahalf­months­after­a­letter­contract­had­been­awarded to­Boeing­for­thirteen­pre-production­B-52As,­and confidence­ran­high­that­the­B-52­would­become­a major­ production­ programme.­ Large-scale production­of­B-52s­-­which­were­known­to­require air-to-air­refuelling­in­order­to­increase­their­range asnd­endurance­-­would­also­mean­that­the­Air­Force would­ have­ to­ order­ tankers­ with­ compatible performance. Another­ myth­ that­ also­ has­ been­ almost impossible­to­dispel­is­the­notion­that­the­KC-135A was­somehow­a­military­version­of­the­Boeing­707 airliner.­It­was­and­is­not.­The­KC-135A­(or­Boeing 717)­preceded,­and­paved­the­way­for­the­commercial machine­ which­ became­ so­ successful­ with­ the world`s­ civil­ carriers.­ Of­ course,­ both­ shared­ a common­heritage­in­the­vision­of­Boeing’s­engineers and­ finance­ people,­ and­ both­ are­ progeny­ of­ the private­Model­367-80­prototype. This­one-of-a-kind­aircraft­was­referred­to­by­the press,­ and­ even­ by­ Boeing’s­ own­ house­ organ, Boeing News as­the­Boeing­707,­but­it­was­not.­ In­external­appearance­the­Model­367-80­was very­similar­in­appearance­to­the­Boeing­707­civil airliner­and­the­KC-l35A­tanker.­As­a­private­venture, a­risk­-­the­consequences­of­which­could­not­have been­predicted­for­certain­-­the­Dash­80­turned­out­to be­ a­ bold­ and­ successful­ move­ by­ Boeing­ and­ a milestone­in­the­history­of­aviation. The­ Model­ 367-80,­ with­ the­ civil­ registration

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A head-on shot of one of the B-52 prototypes - note the fighter-style tandem cockpit (USAF)

N70700,­was­rolled­out­on­14­May­1954­and­soon embarked­ on­ an­ exhaustive,­ company-financed. proof-of-concept­test­programme. To­get­the­Dash­80­to­this­point­is­supposed­to have­required­432,000­direct­design-engineer­manhours.­The­707-120,­the­first­true­707,­was­to­require a­further­772,000,­demonstrating­just­how­far­from being­a­commercial­airliner­the­367-80­really­was. From­then­until­it­­s­retirement­to­the­Smithsonian Institution,­one­of­the­key­roles­of­the­basic­Boeing design­has­been­as­a­test­aircraft­-­initially­for­the purpose­of­its­own­development­and­proving,­and much­ later­ as­ the­ platform­ for­ a­ variety­ of experiments­in­advanced­technology­including­‘Star Wars’­research.­ ­By­October­1956,­as­a­part­of­the­Boeing­test programme,­ the­ Dash­ 80­ was­ retrofitted­ with­ a flying­boom­for­mid-air­tanker­coupling­trials,­but the­US­Air­Force­shared­Boeing’s­boldness­and­did not­wait­for­proof­that­air-to-air­refuelling­by­jet tanker­was­feasible.­At­the­start­of­the­1955­fiscal year­-­11­July­1954­-­the­Air­Force­placed­an­order for­for­29­airframes­in­the­KC-135A­series,­starting with­aircraft­55-3118. The­K-135A­flew­eighteen­months­before­the­first genuine­707,­however,­and­differed­from­it­in­several important­respects,­having­a­more­narrow­fuselage and­entirely­different­cross-section,­so­that­the­two could­not­be­produced­on­the­same­factory­jigs. In­aerodynamic­terms­the­‘Dash-80’­-­as­the­type was­familiarly­known­by­those­concerned­with­the project­-­was­similar­to­the­B-47­and­B-52­series,­with characteristically­shaped­tail­surfaces­and­a­wing­of 35°­ sweep.­ Consideration­ had­ been­ given­ to­ the mounting­of­the­engines­in­twin­pods,­as­had­been used­for­the­inner­engines­of­the­B-47­and­for­all­the

engines­of­the­B-52,­but­safety­considerations­for­a civil­type­persuaded­the­designers­to­adopt­singleengine­pods.­The­main­problem­with­twin-engine pods­lay­in­the­fact­that­under­certain­circumstances, such­as­the­disintegration­of­a­compressor­stage­in one­ engine,­ both­ engines­ could­ be­ rendered inoperative. Thus­it­was­wise­to­separate­the­engines­as­far­as was­ possible,­ and­ the­ use­ of­ four­ singly-podded engines­ also­ had­ benefits­ for­ the­ wing­ structure, where­ the­ cantilevering­ of­ the­ pods­ forward­ and below­ the­ wings­ on­ special­ pylons­ allowed­ the engines­to­be­used­as­mass­balances­to­prevent­flutter. It­ also­ permitted­ the­ outer­ engines­ to­ be­ used­ to unload­the­outer­panels­of­the­wings,­so­that­the­roots would­thus­not­be­subject­to­such­severe­bending moments­in­flight.­The­fuselage­and­undercarriage were­entirely­new.­The­fuselage­was­designed­to­the fail-safe­philosophy­essential­for­pressurised­airline operations,­and­featured­provision­only,­in­the­‘Dash80’­austere­prototype,­for­a­large­number­of­windows; a­flight­crew­of­three­was­carried­in­the­nose­section, which­ was­ comprehensively­ instrumented­ and provided­with­space­for­weather­radar.­The­tandem type­ of­ undercarriage­ used­ on­ the­ company's­ jet bombers­had­been­rejected­as­being­impractical­for commercial­ operations,­ so­ a­ more­ conventional arrangement­ was­ installed,­ with­ four-wheel­ main units­retracting­into­the­lower­sides­of­the­fuselage, and­a­twin­wheel­steerable­nose­unit­retracting­into the­lower­fuselage­just­aft­of­the­flight­deck.­Fuel­was accommodated­in­six­main­tanks,­located­three­to­a wing. The­ Model­ 367-80­ was­ intended­ solely­ as­ a prototype,­ the­ company­ designation­ Model­ 707 having­ been­ allocated­ for­ the­ production­ version,

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which­was­also­given­the­name­Jet­Stratoliner.­ As­Maynard­L­Pennell,­the­367-80­Chief­Project Designer­explained:­‘In the case of the Boeing 707 jet tanker-transport design, the objective may be stated broadly as a desire to create a vehicle which could transport people or things more safely, more economically and faster than is possible by any other form of air transport today. As a result of preliminary studies, we convinced ourselves that improvements in safety and economy were achievable goals for a jet transport. Since this was contrary to the then common assumption that speed was the principal virtue of a jet transport and perhaps was achieved only at the expense of safety and economy, we scrutinized these preliminary studies carefully before proceeding. Today we are more than ever convinced that our conclusions were correct. Since it is perhaps the most controversial subject, let’s look first at the economics of a jet transport. Can it compete on the basis of economy with the best of today’s airplanes, carrying boxed goods or machinery, spare engines or spare fuel, combat

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troops, litter patients or commercial passengers as cheaply and as reliably as these jobs are being done today? The answer in our opinion is, emphatically, ‘yes’. The predicted direct operating cost of the 707 is below ten cents per ton mile, compared with commonly accepted operating costs of thirteen to fifteen cents for the most economical of the presentday transports. How does one account for this remarkable improvement in economy, with all the signs pointing to further improvements in years to come? The answer is in the work capacity of this new type of airplane. It can carry more payload, at more miles per hour. The work capacity as expressed in ton-knots (the product of payload times block speed in knots) is three to four times that of current transports. Another interesting aspect is the distribution of costs. For instance, fuel costs are found to be moderate, at least by today’s standards. Other costs are consistently less than those of today’s planes except for engine maintenance, which includes

Boeing constructed a full-scale wooden mockup of the Model 367-80 in secrecy at Renton during 1952.

Two very important men in the KC135 and 707 story are (left) Wellwood Edmeston Beall ( b. 28.10 1906. d. 28.1.1978) Boeing’s VicePresident, Engineering-Sales and Edward Curtiss ‘Ed’ Wells, (b. 26 August 1910 , d. July 1986) Boeing’s Chief Engineer. (both DGR Image Library)

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spares and overhaul on a very conservative basis. Crew costs, although higher per hour in accordance with Air Line Pilots Association formulas, are divided by the larger work capacity of the new plane and show how much more can be accomplished with the same people. In safety, the jet transport appears to offer definite improvements in such performance matters as climb after takeoff, en-route climb and terrain clearance. Approach and landing problems likewise appear to be easily solvable by available means. In fact, to the extent that the numerical approach can prove safety, the jet transport meets all available criteria. On another aspect of safety, it seems obvious that the structure of a jet airplane can be made fully as safe as that of any other airplane. True, this involves the acquisition of knowledge concerning the behavior of thin, sweptwing structures which change shape and airload distribution under load, but such information or the means of obtaining it is available from earlier sweptwing bombers and fighters. It also

requires a carefully designed pressure structure for the body -one which will not allow failures even under adverse maintenance or operating conditions or after years of continuous service. This might well appear to be an extremely difficult problem were it not for the fact that earlier Boeing airplanes, such as the B-29, B-50, C-97 and Stratocruiser, have been operated successfully for many years with a pressure differential of 6.5 pounds per square inch. Only slightly more - 7.5 to 8.5 - is desired for jet transport operation. Extra precautions against explosive decompression can and will be taken, but the problem is fully solvable. Clearly­ from­ this­ statement­ Boeing­ were­ heavily relying­ on­ data­ flowing­ back­ from­ a­ number­ of military­projects. However,­early­in­1952­the­construction­of­the prototype­tanker-transport­had­not­started,­largely­for lack­of­finance.­In­1951­the­company­had­tried­to float­the­project­with­orders­from­the­USAF,­to­which

‘See more in ‘54!’ Model Eddie Albright poses with a covered over model of the Dash 80 in late 1953. (via Peter M Bowers)

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it­had­promoted­the­type­as­a­jet-powered­‘Advanced KC-97’­tanker.­The­USAF­readily­conceded­that­such an­aircraft­was­ideally­suited­to­the­support­of­the Strategic­Air­Command's­B-47­fleet,­offering­exact compatibility­with­the­bombers­in­terms­of­speed­and altitude­for­rapid­operational­refuellings;­but­at­the same­time­the­service­pleaded­lack­of­finance­in­a period­when­burgeoning­appropriations­were­being gobbled­up­by­an­expanding­need for­tactical­aircraft­demanded­in the­Korean­arena,­and­for­the­new generation­ of­ strategic­ aircraft such­ as­ the­ B-52­ already­ under final­development. Boeing­rightly­appreciated­that few­airlines­would­be­prepared­to put­money­into­so­ambitious­but unproved­a­project,­and­also­that such­a­method­of­financing­would be­ unsuitable­ for­ its­ planned development­of­parallel­military Two views of the sole 367-80 in its assembly dock in Renton, Seattle. The aircraft is at the stage of having the vertical and horizontal stabilizers fitted, along with the two military-style cargo doors. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)

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and­civil­aircraft. ln­ April­ 1952,­ William­ Allen­ distributed­ a questionnaire­to­five­of­his­senior­engineering­and finance­executives;­Wellwood­Beall,­Fred­Collins, Fred­Laudan,­Ed­Wells,­and­John­Yeasting,­to­elicit their­ comments­ regarding­ the­ feasibility­ and desirability­ of­ proceeding­ with­ the­ design, manufacturing,­and­testing­of­a­jet­tanker/­transport

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demonstrator.­Positive­answers­were­received­on­21 April­and,­with­confidence­boosted­by­the­successful maiden­flight­of­the­YB-52­pre-production­prototype of­the­Stratofortress­strategic­bomber­six­days­earlier, William­Allen­recommended­to­the­board­of­directors that­the­program­be­initiated.­Reacting­favourably, board­members­authorised­a­$16­million­programme on­22­April­1952.­ Ever­since,­much­has­been­made­of­the­risk­taken by­the­Boeing­directors.­It­is­certainly­true­that­$16 million­in­1952­dollars­represented­two­and­a­quarter times­the­profit­realised­by­Boeing­in­the­preceding year.­However,­when­expressed­in­2016­dollars­that amount­was­$143­million­or­approximately­50%­of the­ current­ quoted­ price­ of­ a­ single­ Boeing­ 787 Dreamliner­-­when­looked­in­that­way,­it­was­a­not so­formidable­sum!­ Moreover,­Boeing­could­expect­to­charge­some of­ this­ expenditure­ to­ the­ US­ government­ as ‘Independent­Research­and­Development’.­It­did,­in

fact,­do­so­when­in­1957,­under­an­Air­Force­contract, the­XB-52­was­modified­by­replacing­the­outboard pairs­ of­ J57s­ by­ single­ J75s­ to­ help­ in­ the development­of­the­JT4A­installation­for­Boeing­707 Models­220­and­320.­ When­the­Boeing­Board­decided­to­proceed­with the­367-80­demonstrator,­it­was­with­the­intention that­production­military­tankers­and­civil­jetliners would­be­closely­related­and­would­therefore­be­built using­ similar­ if­ not­ identical­ tooling.­ This­ led­ to protracted­negotiations­between­the­Air­Force­and­the manufacturer,­as­the­government­sought­to­recover some­of­the­money­seemingly­spent­for­the­benefit of­commercial­derivatives.­In­the­end,­however,­the 707­ and­ the­ KC-135­ only­ had­ some­ 20% commonality­as­competitive­pressures­forced­Boeing to­adopt­a­wider­fuselage­cross-section­and­wings­of greater­span­and­area­for­production­707­models. Moreover,­designed­for­a­longer­service­life,­the­707 used­2024­aluminum­alloy­instead­of­the­lighter­7178

By March 1954 Boeing were prepared to release pictures of the Dash 80 under construction, along with the build team. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)

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The insulated but almost empty cabin of the Dash 80. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)

alloy­adopted­for­‘shorter-lived’­Air­Force­tankers. This­was­something­which­eventually­proved­to­be­a costly­mistake,­as­KC-135s­and­derivatives­remained in­ service­ long­ after­ the­ last­ 707s­ were­ cut­ by blowtorches­of­metal­smelters. Although­the­tanker/transport­demonstrator­was based­on­the­707-6­preliminary­design­layout,­it­was given­the­misleading­367-80­designation­to­make­it to­ appear­ as­ being­ merely­ a­ jet­ derivative­ of­ the C/KC-97­series.­ With­the­passing­of­time,­one­must­now­wonder

how­Boeing­could­seriously­expect­to­succeed­with this­ bit­ of­ disinformation­ -­ during­ the­ 1950s­ the Soviets­were­not­the­sole­experts­when­it­came­to disinformatsiya -­ as­ aeronautical­ engineers­ freely moved­ from­ Boeing,­ to­ Douglas,­ and­ then­ to Lockheed,­in­search­for­better­jobs.­In­the­process, they­took­along­knowledge­of­what­was­going­on­at Boeing.­ It­ is­ doubtful­ that­ their­ rivals­ were­ long fooled­ into­ believing­ that­ the­ 367-80­ was­ a­ mere development­of­the­KC-97­instead­of­being­the­all new­design­it­was. By­the­time­the­367-80­was­officially­announced in­September­1952,­some­three­weeks­after­Douglas had­announced­its­intent­to­develop­their­DC-8­jet airliner,­Boeing­had­switched­from­twin-engine­pods to­single-engine­pods­to­meet­ATA­recommendations. Detailed­design­also­resulted­in­the­adoption­of­multisurface­flight­controls.­For­control­at­high­speeds,­the 367-80­was­provided­(as­were­its­KC-135­and­707 derivatives)­with­inboard­ailerons­between­inboard and­outboard­trailing-edge­flaps­and­four-segment upper-surface­spoilers.­For­control­at­low­speeds, these­ surfaces­ were­ supplemented­ by­ outboard ailerons­which­were­locked­in­neutral­position­when flaps­were­up.­Quite­surprisingly,­the­team­led­by Chief­Design­Engineer­Maynard­L.­Pennell­elected to­dispense­with­servo-hydraulic­boost­for­all­primary flying­controls­in­favour­of­aerodynamically­balanced

The Dash 80 is readied for the rollout ceremony, and appears to be undergoing undercarriage retraction tests. One of the two cargo doors is also open. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)

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Mrs William E Boeing breaks a bottle of champagne over the nose of the Model 367-80 at Renton on 14 May 1954 while Boeing President William M Allen looks on. According to Boeing Magazine, she christened it Boeing Jet Stratotanker Stratoliner. The aircraft started ground running tests four days later. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)

and­manually­operated­controls­with­spring­tabs. Later,­however,­Boeing­adopted­powered­rudder controls­for­the­707­and­KC-135­and­retrofitted­the 367-80­ with­ 707­ powered-rudder­ controls­ in ]anuary­1958. The­ overall­ project­ leader­ was­ Ed­ Wells;­ the aerodynamic­design­was­the­responsibility­of­a­team led­by­the­brilliant,­yet­demanding­German­engineer George­S­Schairer,­himself­mentor­and­taskmaster­to draughtsman­Jack­Steiner,­who­turned­theories­into plans­for­the­structural­engineers,­led­by­Meynard Pennel­to­turn­into­blueprints­and­then­metal. The­all-important­cabin­design,­including­the doors­ and­ seating­ arrangements,­ were­ the responsibility­ of­ former­ systems­ engineer­ Milt Heinemann.­He­in­turned­hired­Frank­Del­Guidice from­ the­ company­ Dorwin­Teague­ to­ design­ the look­of­the­interior. Before­manufacturing­of­the­367-80­-­also­known as­the­707-7­-­got­much­under­way­Boeing­evaluated

alternative­ configurations­ and­ powerplant installations.­ A­ 707-7-27­ configuration­ dated­ 17 August­ 1952­ featured­ wingtip­ tanks­ and­ T34 turboprops­mounted­above­and­forward­of­the­35degree­swept­wings.­A­few­days­later,­a­707-7-39 configuration­retained­the­wingtip­tanks­but­was­to be­powered­by­six­J57s­in­two­twin­pods­and­two single­ pods.­ Thereafter­ only­ minor­ configuration changes­were­made­as­the­367-80­slowly­proceeded from­concept­to­reality. The­707's­swept-back­wings­may­have­reduced drag,­ but­ they­ came­ with­ a­ high­ price­ in­ other directions­-­for­they­display­an­undesirable­flying characteristic­ that­ is­ termed­ ‘Dutch­ roll’,­ an occurance­ that­ manifests­ itself­ as­ an­ alternating yawing­ and­ rolling­ motion.­ Boeing­ already­ had considerable­experience­with­this­on­the­B-47­and­B52,­and­had­developed­the­yaw­damper­system­on­the B-47­ that­ would­ be­ applied­ to­ later­ swept-wing configurations­like­the­707.­However,­many­novice 707­pilots­had­no­experience­with­this­phenomenon, as­ they­ were­ transitioning­ from­ straight-wing propeller-driven­aircraft­such­as­the­Douglas­DC-7 and­Lockheed­Constellation. On­one­customer-acceptance­flight,­where­the yaw­damper­was­turned­off­to­familiarise­the­new pilots­with­flying­techniques,­a­trainee­pilot's­actions violently­ exacerbated­ the­ Dutch­ roll­ motion­ and caused­three­of­the­four­engines­to­be­torn­from­the wings.­ The­ plane,­ a­ brand­ new­ 707-227,­ N7071, destined­for­Braniff,­crash-landed­on­a­river­bed­north of­Seattle­at­Arlington,­Washington,­killing­four­of the­eight­occupants. In­ his­ autobiography,­ Tex Johnston: Jet-age Test Pilot test­pilot­Johnston­describes­a­Dutch­roll incident­he­experienced­as­a­passenger­on­an­early commercial­707­flight.­As­the­aircraft's­movements did­not­cease­and­most­of­the­passengers­became

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The Dash 80 is tugged slowly out of the factory onto the ramp on 14 May 1954. According to Boeing Magazine, 8,000 employees and 500 visiting community leaders crowded onto the ramp to watch the proceedings. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)

ill,­he­suspected­a­mis-setting­of­the­directional autopilot.­He­went­to­the­cockpit­and­found­the crew­ unable­ to­ understand­ and­ resolve­ the situation.­He­introduced­himself­and­relieved­the ashen-faced­ captain­ who­ immediately­ left­ the cockpit­ feeling­ ill.­ Johnston­ disconnected­ the faulty­autopilot­and­manually­stabilised­the­aircraft ‘...with two slight control movements’. The­ first­ metal­ for­ the­ Dash-80­ was­ cut­ in October­1952,­with­the­intention­that­this­aircraft would­be­an­aerodynamic­and­structural­prototype that­would­validate­the­anticipated­performance­of the­type,­but­still­be­available­as­a­company-owned aircraft­for­the­large­number­of­major­and­minor development­ programmes­ that­ would­ hopefully emerge­as­the­type­proved­its­worth­as­a­civil­and military­ transport.­After­ steady­ progress­ on­ the Dash-80,­ the­ prototype­ was­ rolled­ out­ nineteen months­later.­ In­March­1954­Boeing­publically­revealed­that they­ were­ targetting­ the­ Dash­ 80­ at­ three­ distinct ‘customers’.­ The­ first­ was­ as­ a­ military­ tanker, designed­for­Strategic­Air­Command­(SAC)­of­the USAF­having­dual­duties­for­aerial­refuelling­and group­movement­transportation. The­ second­ -­ also­ for­ the­ USAF­ -­ was­ as­ a military­ troop­ and­ cargo­ transport­ tailored­ to­ the

needs­of­the­Military­Air­Transport­Service­(MATS). The­third,­and­mentioned­almost­as­an­afterthought, was­as­a­long­and­medium­range­commercial­airliner. By­the­time­the­367-80­flew­in­July­1954,­all pretence­had­been­dropped­and­the­aircraft­carried the­707­designation­on­its­fin. The­ Dash-80­ emerged­ from­ the­ construction facility­doors­on­14­May­1954,­complete­in­company livery­ of­ bare­ metal­ under­ surfaces,­ cream­ upper surfaces­and­chocolate­brown­trim­along­the­fuselage sides,­ wing­ leading­ edges­ and­ engine­ pods.­ The specially­chosen­registration­was­N70700,­picked­out in­ brown­ on­ the­ vertical­ tail­ and­ along­ the­ upper surface­of­the­starboard­wing. The­ Model­ 367-80­ could­ be­ regarded­ as­ a combination­of­the­fuselage­capacity­offered­by­the C/KC-97­series­with­the­aerodynamics­and­structure of­the­B-47­and­B-52,­together­with­a­conventional tricycle­landing­gear­arrangement.­The­Dash-80­was powered­by­four­Pratt­&­Whitney­JT3C­turbojets,­the civil­version­of­the­J57­used­in­the­B-52­bomber,­and rated­at­a­similar­10,000­pounds­thrust.­The­tail­unit was­very­closely­modelled­on­that­of­the­B-52­in design­and­basic­structure,­and­so­too­was­the­wing, which­was­considerably­more­rigid,­however,­and provided­with­a­pronounced­dihedral­angle­slightly reduced­from­that­of­the­tailplane.­Field­performance

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was­improved­by­the­provision­of­Fowler­type­flaps along­the­trailing­edges­of­the­wings­between­the roots­and­the­ailerons,­with­a­gap­to­the­rear­of­the inboard­ nacelles­ to­ remove­ the­ possibility­ of interference­with­the­exhausts­of­these­two­engines. Lateral­control­was­ensured­by­two­pairs­of­ailerons, a­small­inboard­pair­located­between­the­flap­sections being­used­at­high­speeds,­and­a­larger­outboard­pair located­in­the­conventional­tip­positions­being­used at­ low­ speeds,­ an­ interconnection­ with­ the­ flaps ensuring­that­these­latter­ailerons­became­operative only­when­the­flaps­were­lowered.­Extra­roll­control was­added­by­upper-surface­spoilers,­which­operated in­concert­as­airbrakes­or­differentially­as­ailerons. The­fuselage­was­again­a­double-bubble­(vertical figure­8)­as­used­in­the­C/KC-97­series,­but­with­the inward­crease­at­the­junction­of­the­two­lobes­faired out­to­a­superior­aerodynamic­profile.­Also­retained was­the­fuselage­width­of­the­C/KC-97,­exactly­12 feet;­ the­ cabin­ area­ was­ 90­ feet­ long.­ But­ as­ the Model­ 367-80­ was­ intended­ solely­ for­ flight­ and experimental­trials,­the­fuselage­interior­was­bare­to provide­space­for­batteries­of­instrumentation,­and though­facilities­were­provided­for­galleys,­lavatories and­the­like,­these­were­not­fitted;­neither­was­the­full row­of­windows­along­the­sides­of­the­fuselage.­The use­of­the­Dash-80­for­experimental­purposes­was greatly­facilitated­by­the­fitting­of­two­large­cargo doors­in­the­port­side­of­the­fuselage,­one­at­each­end of­the­cabin­area.­There­was­also­provision­of­cargo tie-downs­and­aerial­refuelling­equipment. The­first­flight­of­the­Dash-80­was­delayed­by­a near-disaster­when­the­port­main­landing­gear­leg collapsed­during­taxying­trials­on­22­May.­lt­was­six weeks­ before­ the­ damage­ was­ repaired,­ and

Above: Tex Johnson signs for the Dash 80 from the projects flight engineer L A ‘Bert’ Binegar.

Below: Johnson and Loesch climb into their flight gear and prepare to board the aircraft. (both Boeing via Peter M Bowers)

Boeing President William M Allen poses for photographs with Tex Johnson and Dix Loesch before the first flight of the Dash 80.

Legend has it that Allen is supposed to have told them ‘She’s in your hands boys. Good luck and we’ll be looking for you in a lttle while!’ (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)

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It flies! The Dash 80 climbs away from Renton. Alongside the runway are a number of KC-97 tankers and, lining the side of Interstate 5, literally hundreds of vehicles. (Robert Winans via Peter M Bowers)

examination­of­the­broken­unit­revealed­that­the­basic steel­stock­had­been­delivered­with­a­flaw;­Boeing thus­altered­its­quality­control­procedures­to­involve closer­ examination­ of­ raw­ materials­ before­ the expensive­machining­process.­All­was­ready­on­15 July­1954.­ At­2.14­pm­Alvin­M.­‘Tex’­Johnson,­the­chief­of flight­test,­lined­up­the­Dash­80­on­the­threshold­of runway­13­and­opened­up­the­throttles;­thirty­seconds later­he­released­the­brakes­for­the­take-off­roll.­With Interstate­Five­on­his­left,­seventeen­seconds­and­two thousands­ one­ hundred­ feet­ later­ the­ aircraft­ was airborne. The­first­flight­had­been­scheduled­for­7am,­but this­being­Seattle,­the­day­dawned­with­a­watery,­low overcast­Thursday­morning.­Daylight­was­diluted with­ gray­ mist.­ The­ weather­ bureau­ promised clearing­by­noon.­The­flight­therefore­was­postponed until­ 2­ pm.­The­ gathered­ press­ grumbled­ and­ sat down­to­a­five-gallon­jug­of­hot­coffee.­Many­of­them had­been­up­since­3:45­that­morning­to­prepare­for the­7­am­flight.

By­ noon­ the­ weather­ was­ starting­ to­ clear.­At 12:52­pm­an­aircraft­tug­was­attached­to­the­nosewheel­unit­and­the­aircraft­began­a­three-quarter-mile tow­to­the­Renton­field­apron.­ William­ M.­ Allen,­ president­ of­ the­ Boeing Airplane­Company­and­the­man­most­responsible­for Boeing’s­entry­into­the­jet­transport­field,­was­an­early arriver­at­the­airport.­He­waited­until­Johnston­and co-pilot­ Richard­ L.­ ‘Dix’­ Loesch­ had­ posed­ for cameras­and­answered­reporters’­questions­before­he caught­Johnston’s­arm­in­a­firm­grip­and­checked­on the­progress. Interestingly,­nowhere­in­any­of­the­contemporary reports­or­documentation­relating­to­the­early­flights of­ the­ Dash­ 80­ is­ there­ any­ mention­ of­ the­ third crewmember­-­the­flight­engineer­being­carried.­This is­somewhat­surprising­for­the­aircraft­-­along­with its­successors­the­KC-135/717­and­the­707­-­all­had flightdecks­arranged­for­three­man­operation,­indeed, much­of­the­aircraft’s­fuel­system­management­could only­be­done­from­the­flight­engineer’s­station. According­to­some­sources,­these­early­flights

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A spectacular low-level head-on picture of the 367-80 taken during one of the early test flights. (Vernon Manion via Peter M Bowers)

were­flown­without­a­flight­engineer­so­as­to­keep­the flight­crew­to­a­minimum­-­the­reason?­the­aircraft had­no­escape­hatches! The­ occasion­ was­ definitely­ a­ media­ circus­ white-overalled­ground­crew­began­asking­the­crowd to­move­back.­Cars­of­other­spectators­lined­the­hills around­and­alongside­Interstate­5­that­ran­along­one side­of­the­airport;­some­had­been­waiting­more­than eight­hours.­ Let­us­let­a­contemporary­newsman­pick­up­the story:­‘Tex and Dix entered the plane and the hatch closed behind them. Engine No. 1 was started. The time was 1:58. The wind was west northwest 7 knots. A small plane came in just as Tex began to wheel out on the runway. He pulled the big transport to a stop and waited for the ‘puddle-jumper’ to get out of the way. Then the sound of jet engines echoed off the valley walls as the takeoff roll began. The airplane gathered speed. Sunlight glinted on the bright yellow skin. Along the sidelines, it was time for the customary holding of breath. Spectators were as motionless as the new plane’s older sisters, the KC-97 tankers which flanked the runway in two rows. Twenty-one hundred feet from the start of her run, the

plane lifted off the ground. ‘She­wanted­to­go­up­a­little­before­that...’­Tex was­reported­to­have­said­later,­‘...but­I­held­her­down to­slightly­exceed­minimum­control­speed’. ‘Onlookers, expecting a gradual climb-out, were loudly surprised. For the new jet took to the air like a seal to water - with almost an eager leap. Her angle of climb was sharp’. Aboard­ the­ aircraft,­ the­ two-man­ crew­ settled quickly­into­the­routine­of­test­flying.­At­5000­feet Loesch­climbed­out­of­his­seat­and­went­down­to-­the lower­cargo­deck­to­make­sure­the­landing­gear­was up­and­locked.­At­195­knots,­the­undercarriage­was retracted,­taking­twelve­seconds­for­the­mains,­seven seconds­for­the­nose.­ To­check­control­characteristics,­Johnson­turned the­control­wheel­full­over­with­one­hand,­then­let­go. The­Dash­80­righted­itself­and­levelled­off­quickly.­ The­ first­ flight­ constituted­ a­ preliminary evaluation­of­the­machine’s­flight­characteristics.­Its maximum­speed­during­this­flight­was­about­355 miles­per­hour.­Most­of­the­flying­was­done­at­10,000 feet,­but­some­at­18,500.­ The­ tests­ included­ checking­ the­ aircraft’s characteristics­in­roll,­pitch­and­yaw.

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To­ learn­ the­ landing­ characteristics­ of­ the machine,­ Johnston­ went­ through­ stall­ tests­ and established­ data­ used­ in­ computing­ best­ landing attitude­and­speed.­The­pilots­were,­in­effect,­writing an­operator’s­manual­on­the­prototype­at­the­same time­they­flew­the­aircraft­so­that­they­could­use­the information­for­the­landing.­This­first­flight­lasted­one hour,­twenty-four­minutes.­ A­contemporary­news­report­again:­‘Newsmen, anticipating a landing at Boeing Field in Seattle, several miles away from Renton, again waited patiently. Across the runway’s south end from them, the usual complement of first-flight fire trucks were stationed for possible emergency. A wind shift changed the plan to come in from the south. The first indication the newsmen had of the change was at 3:30 p.m., when they saw the fire-trucks turn and race for the other end of the runway. ‘Where are they going?’ asked a cameraman. ‘The plane isn’t in yet’ ‘That’s too bad...’ cracked an Air Force major without smiling. ‘...The fire department quits at 3 :30.” But there was time for everyone to catch up with the fire trucks at the north end before Tex and Dix brought the big ship in.

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Throats still aching from the pre-takeoff tension were again swallowing dryly as a sweptwing shape settled on the horizon and began to get larger. The plane touched down on the eight wheels of the main landing gear first and then settled to the two nose wheels. With light to moderate braking, she pulled up easily, turned and taxied off the 10,000-foot landing strip at the 5000-foot mark. Bill Allen let his elbows relax against his sides, breathed deeply and wiped a drop of perspiration from the tip of his nose. The first flight was over and he could be proud. Boeing’s new baby had performed gracefully. Tex Johnston felt the same way, and summed his thoughts thus: “This is a very good airplane. So far it meets all of our expectations. I have always had great confidence in both Boeing engineering and Boeing manufacturing. This airplane has not only confirmed’ that confidence—it has increased it.”

In­the­course­of­this­and­another­seven­flights­during the­following­week,­the­Dash-80­was­in­the­air­for­a fraction­ under­ seventeen­ hours.­ Officially­ and publically,­the­aircraft­had­excellent­performance­in the­parts­of­the­flight­envelope­explored­as­well­as

The Dash 80 is towed past a line-up of KC-97s for the US Air Force - the jet would be the forerunner to the design that replaced them. (Vernon Manion via Peter M Bowers)

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impeccable­ handling­ characteristics.­ The­ longest flight­lasted­three­hours­fifty-five­minutes. Then­the­flight­programme­was­again­delayed­by landing­gear­problems,­when­on­5­August­1954­the Dash-80­careered­straight­over­the­end­of­the­runway and­broke­its­nose­leg­when­the­pilot's,­co-pilot's­and emergency­hydraulic­braking­systems­all­failed.­It happened­ after­ Johnston­ had­ been­ heating­ up­ the brakes­with­a­series­of­high-speed­ground­runs­and stops,­then­taking­off­to­see­what­happened­in­the­cold temperatures­aloft­a­process­called­‘cold­soaking’­by the­engineers.­What­happened­was­an­expansion­of the­hydraulic­fluid­on­the­ground­and­a­contraction in­the­air.­Johnston­did­not­realise­that­the­hydraulic system­ had­ responded­ by­ forming­ bubbles­ in­ the lines,­which­sensors­interpreted­as­a­broken­brake line.­Performing­as­designed,­the­sensors­promptly shut­off­fluid­flow­to­the­brakes. Johnston­landed­daintily,­stepped­on­the­brakes, then­realised­he­had­none.­On­one­side­of­the­field­sat a­row­of­private­aircraft;­on­the­other,­a­line­of­B-52s. Johnston­ had­ one­ place­ to­ go:­ a­ grassy­ median between­the­runway­and­taxiway.­He­hoped­the­soft earth­would­slow­Dash­80­enough­to­let­him­swing the­airplane­around­and­roll­to­a­stop.­He­recalls­a sudden­crunch.­Contractors­making­runway­repairs had­left­a­big­block­of­concrete­exactly­where­Dash 80­would­find­it.­It­knocked­the­nose­gear­off­and damaged­the­belly,­but­Boeing­had­Dash­80­flying again­in­about­three­days.­A­redesign­of­the­braking system­sensors­solved­the­hydraulics­problem­and­the Dash-80­returned­to­the­trials­process. Not­long­after­that,­Dash­80­chalked­up­a­midair

landing­gear­explosion­and­fire­when­the­new­antiskid­brakes­turned­out­to­be­spectacularly­efficient heat­reservoirs.­Johnston­had­heated­the­brakes­doing a­series­of­ground­runs,­then­had­flown­around­with the­wheels­down­for­fifteen­minutes­to­cool­them.­But as­soon­as­the­landing­gear­was­retracted,­there­were several­loud­explosions­accompanied­by­the­smell­of burning­rubber.­As­Johnston­was­to­recall:­‘There was smoke everywhere, so I speeded up, put the gear down, and blew the fire out.’ He­didn’t­need­brakes to­stop­after­landing:­five­of­the­ten­tyres­were­flat! Publicly,­Tex­Johnston­praised­the­performance of­the­Dash­80.­‘...Without going into specifics, ‘this airplane [was]­ not likely to be outperformed by anything this side of the supersonic era’. In­his­flight­test­report­to­Boeing,­however,­he criticised­the­stability­as­‘marginal’­in­some­flight regimes.­Unfortunately,­this­finding­was­somewhat forgotten­ in­ the­ aftermath­ of­ the­ undercarriage collapse­incident,­and­no­corrective­modifications were­made­until­after­several­early­707­accidents. Flight­testing­also­showed­that­the­Dash­80­could take­ off­ too­ soon­ at­ too­ high­ an­ angle­ of­ attack, resulting­in­an­over-rotation­and­a­much-increased take-off­run.­A­small­leading-edge­flap­cured­this problem­ and­ was­ introduced­ into­ the­ early­ 707 production­ line.­ Fixed­ and­ moveable­ flaps­ were tested­on­the­Dash­80­and­a­sudden­application­of­the latter­was­found­to­convert­a­take-off­roll­to­a­climb of­700-800­feet­per­minute­without­application­of elevator­or­trailing­edge­flaps. The­final­thrill­involving­Dash­80’s­undercarriage occurred­during­a­test­of­the­thrust­reversers.­After­a

General Albert Boyd in the left hand seat of the Dash 80, with Tex Johnston in the right. It seems that the early flights may have been done without a flight engineer, but by the time this mission was flown, someone was clearly in that role. The tubular-frame seats are a clear sign that this is indeed the Dah-80 airframe. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)

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Left: the forward end of the main cabin of the Dash 80, with flight test equipment and engineers.

Below: ground running. (both Boeing via Peter M Bowers)

series­of­landings,­a­hydraulic­line­let­go­and­the flammable­fluid­leaked­out­onto­a­hot­brake.­The resulting­blaze­caused­the­crew­to­call­for­the­fire truck­and­abandon­ship.­Boeing­replaced­the­entire hydraulic­system­with­one­that­used­less­flammable liquid.­Flight­testing­resumed­on­20­September.

Air Force interest. So­far­the­whole­development­and­trials­programme had­ netted­ Boeing­ precisely­ nothing.­ But­ the breakthrough­of­sorts­came­in­August­1954.­Boeing had­extended­every­facility­to­the­USAF­for­the examination­of­the­Dash-80­on­the­ground­and­in the­ air,­ even­ allowing­ General­ Albert­ Boyd, commander­of­the­Wright­Air­Development­Center, to­take­a­turn­at­the­controls­of­the­new­Boeing­jet tanker-transport­ in­ October­ 1954.­ Since­ General Boyd­was­one­of­the­top­Air­Force­pilots­of­the­jet

era,­ what­ he­ had­ to­ say­ after­ his­ flight­ was­ of particular­interest­to­the­company. ‘This airplane...’ said­the­general,­‘...is one of the most important projects for the Air Force today. I am pleased with its simplicity and impressed with the rapid progress made in the short time the airplane has been flying. From a pilot‘s standpoint it is a simple, straightforward plane and very delightful to fly.’

It­seems­that­General­Boyd­was­not­the­only­one­who was­impressed.­Other­men­in­the­Boeing­flight­crew who­ completed­ Phase­ I­ tests­ of­ the­ Dash­ 80 expressed­ similar­ reactions.­ Tex­ Johnston:­ ‘On September 28 we flew the plane from Seattle to Portland in thirteen minutes. That was a distance of 138 air miles at the rate of 636 mph. At this speed it was entirely smooth riding.

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Boeing President William M Allen was aboard for this check-out flight, and so were E C Wells, vicepresident engineering, and William G Reed, a Boeing director. I doubt that any airplane has had three more enthusiastic passengers, and it wasn’t only the speed that impressed them. What they liked most were the quietness and smooth riding characteristics of the plane. I remember Allen’s words after the flight: ‘I don’t see why anyone would want to travel any other way.’ We made some outstanding discoveries about the ‘707’ during these Phase I flight tests. In the first place, the plane had better lateral control at most speeds than any airplane of this size previously built. One of the most unusual features of the Stratoliner-Stratotanker prototype is the air brake furnished by the spoilers. By raising the spoilers on both wings, the wing lift is decreased and the drag is increased. This feature makes possible a fast rate of descent if required. As far as the crew is concerned, the ‘707’ is very comfortable to fly and has excellent pilot vision. Cockpit controls are greatly simplified compared to the control and instrument arrangements of pistonengine transports. This is made possible, of course, by the greater simplicity of the jet engines, but it took some design skill to capitalize so thoroughly on the advantage The four jet engines which power the ‘707’ are JT3s, commercial adaptations of the J57 engine presently used in the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress and certain other military airplanes.

Checking the brake system - the knobbly tyres are ‘interesting’! (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)

Engine performance during 100 hours of flight-testing provided essential date for later production. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)

Soon­others­were­checked­out­as­first­pilots­on the­Dash­80,­including­Loesch­and­Lt­Col­Guy­M Townsend,­Air­Force­representative­at­the­Boeing Flight­Test­Center.­Others­serving­as­flight­crew­for the­Phase­I­programme­included­L­A­Binegar,­flight test­ project­ engineer;­ Bell­ Whitehead,­ lead­ test engineer;­P­L­Clark­and­R­R­Larson,­test­engineers, and­W­B­Mengel,­lead­ground­operations­engineer. In­addition,­several­staff­and­project­engineers­were carried. Instruments­ on­ the­ aircraft­ recorded­ all­ the pertinent­ data­ that­ was­ brought­ back­ to­ the­ flight centre­ and­ reduced­ to­ their­ most­ useful­ form­ by special­equipment­and­specially­trained­employees, before­being­turned­over­to­Boeing­aerodynamicists for­almost­immediate­evaluation.­ The­Dash­80’s­Phase­I­programme­included­tests of­ longitudinal­ stability­ and­ control,­ lateral­ and directional­ stability­ and­ control,­ stalls,­ airspeed calibration­and­vents,­performance,­power-plant­and equipment­function. As­many­tests­as­possible­were­made­on­each flight­-­which­did­not­stray­more­than­250­miles­from Seattle.­It­was­on­this­basis­that­the­aircraft’s­loading and­other­factors­were­established.­ All­ this­ hard­ work­ was­ rewarded­ with­ an announcement­from­Air­Force­Secretary­Harold­E Talbott,­who­stated­that­the­Air­Force­intended­to buy­a­‘limited­number’of­the­Boeing­jet­tankers based­on­the­Dash-80­and­intended­as­cargo­and tanker­aircraft,­primarily­for­use­in­support­of­the

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the­basic­type's­suitability­for­the­tanker­and­transport roles­demanded­by­the­USAF,­and­paved­the­way­for one­ of­ the­ most­ important­ USAF­ procurement programmes­since­the­end­of­World­War­Two.­This whole­ programme,­ centred­ round­ the­ airframe designated­Model­717­by­Boeing,­is­discussed­in detail­later.

The quintessential test pilot: basball cap, shades and headphones. Tex Johnston at the controls of the Dash 80. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)

B-52­ fleet­ of­ the­ Strategic­ Air­ Command.­ In making­ his­ announcement,­ Talbott­ declared­ that ‘...aerial refueling of jet bombers with compatible jet tanker aircraft will vastly increase the range, flexibility and capability of the Air Force’s bomber force.’ Talbott­ gave­ no­ indication­ of­ how­ many Stratotankers­were­involved­in­the­‘limited­number’ the­Air­ Force­ had­ decided­ to­ order,­ nor­ of­ when production­ was­ expected­ to­ begin.­ He­ did­ say, however,­ that­ the­ tankers­ would­ be­ produced­ at Boeing’s­Renton,­Washington,­plant. Neither­the­Air­Force­or­Boeing­revealed­when deliveries­of­the­jet­tanker­would­start.­The­Boeing company­did­point­out,­though,­that­its­building­and flight­ experience­ with­ the­ Dash­ 80­ would­ make possible­a­production­model­many­months­sooner than­would­otherwise­be­the­case. Meanwhile,­according­to­Talbott,­the­Air­Force would­go­ahead­with­a­jet­tanker­design­competition which­ it­ recently­ initiated­ among­ major­ aircraft manufacturers.­The­results­of­this­competition,­he said,­would­be­used­in­connection­with­determination of­total­tanker­requirements.­Boeing­was­among­the bidders­entering­designs. The­order­for­29­KC-135A­aircraft­was­placed on­5­October­1954,­and­marked­the­beginning­of­the Boeing­design's­great­success­story.­As­part­of­the validation­programme­for­the­KC-135A­series,­the Dash-80­ was­ rapidly­ converted­ into­ an­ in­ flightrefuelling­ tanker­ configuration,­ a­ Boeing­ ‘Flying Boom’­system­being­added­under­the­rear­fuselage and­hook-ups­with­a­B-52­being­made­(though­no fuel­was­transferred)­before­the­contract­was­finally signed.­The­in­flight-refuelling­trials­fully­confirmed

Shake, rattle and Roll Despite­ the­ tentative­ faith­ shown­ in­ the­ Dash­ 80 design­by­the­USAF,­there­were­ongoing­problems with­the­design­of­Dash­80’s­tail.­All­three­test­pilots had­been­aware­of­them­from­the­start­of­the­test flights,­and­apparently­they­were­noticeable­to­others as­well. Flutter­ is­ a­ vibration­ in­ the­ airframe­ that­ is induced­at­high­speed­in­response­to­aerodynamic forces.­It­usually­arises­on­an­extremity,­and,­if­left unchecked,­ it­ can­ intensify­ until­ it­ breaks­ up­ the strongest­airframe.­Dutch­roll—so­called­because­of its­resemblance­to­the­rolling­side-to-side­gait­of­iceskating­Dutchmen­-­occurs­in­all­aircraft,­but­is­harder to­check­in­those­with­swept­wings.­As­the­machine yaws­ from­ side­ to­ side,­ one­ wing­ advances­ and develops­additional­lift,­causing­the­airpcraft­to­roll to­the­opposite­side,­which­results­in­a­combined rolling­and­yawing­motion.­If­this­motion­continues, it­creates­a­cycle­of­alternating,­increasing­yaw­angles that­can­result­in­uncontrollable­roll. The­ Dash­ 80’s­ original­ tail­ fin­ was­ short compared­with­the­fin­of­the­B-52,­and­not­much­of a­yaw­inhibitor.­Its­size,­coupled­with­the­lack­of­a power­boost­for­the­rudder,­may­have­contributed­to Left to right : Loesch, Johnston and Binegar aboard ground transportation. The forward cargo door of the Dash 80 doubled up as a crew door. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)

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its­tendency­to­flutter.­‘Flutter was a black science then...’ Dix­Loesch­is­reported­to­have­said.’...When the flutter guys started talking to their bosses, everybody else just sort of looked at the ceiling.’ Johnston­hunted­for­flutter­in­Dash­80­early­on, and­he­found­it­where­it­could­be­expectded­-­at­near maximum­speed.­Even­though­the­flight­engineer’s instrument­panel­was­shaking­so­hard­the­mounting bolts­ broke,­ Johnston­ coolly­ reported,­ ‘We’re experiencing an appreciable vibration up here’. Later Loesch­encountered­flutter­during­normal­climb:­‘I did the normal things to fight it - leveled out, throttled back. They didn’t work. I thought the airplane was going to shake itself to pieces. All of a sudden the rudder froze, and the flutter stopped.” They­were­extremely­lucky­-­a­structural­failure saved­the­day­for­a­balance­weight­had­broken­loose and­jammed­the­rudder. Whatever­it­was­that­caused­the­Dash­80­to­shake, rattle,­and­roll,­it­was­not­great­enough­to­prevent Johnston­from­doing­a­seemingly­impromptu­barrel roll­in­front­of­200,000­or­more­spectators.­Then,­for anyone­who­had­missed­it,­he­rolled­Dash­80­again.­ The­ legend­ that­ had­ grown­ up­ around­ the demonstrations­ have­ reached­ almost­ mythical proportions­ -­ over­ the­ years­ the­ story­ has­ been embellished­with­the­telling­until­it­became­a­part

of­aviation­folklore. It­ started­ from­ the­ second­ National­ TurbinePowered­Air­Transportation­meeting­of­the­Institute of­Aeronatical­Sciences­held­in­Seattle.­Delegates gathered­to­hear­a­panel­symposium­on­the­first­year of­Dash­80­flying­delivered­by­the­team­from­Boeing who­were­directly­involved.­Boeing­Chief­engineer George­C­Martin­presented­the­panel.­Joseph­‘Joe’ Sutter,­ in­ charge­ of­ aerodynamics­ work­ on­ the prototype;­Tex­Johnston,­Calvin­E.­Pfafman,­assistant project­engineer­-­systems,­and­Donald­W­Finlay, Boeing­chief­of­preliminary­design. The­reports­covered­the­year’s­activities;­by­now Boeing­was­calling­the­367-80­the­‘707’­-­note­the inverted­ commas,­ meaning­ pseudo­ 707.­ They detailed­how­the­testing­programme­had­influenced production­design,­what­uses­had­been­made­of­test results­and­how­the­tests­were­contributing­to­the ongoing­programmes­in­the­growth­of­this­family­of aircraft. The­ two­ phases­ of­ the­ test­ programme­ were outlined­by­Sutter.­The­first­he­called­a­check­of­basic design­ concepts­ and­ objectives­ of­ the­ aircraft, together­with­analysis­to­discover­further­needs.­In Phase­II,­fixes­were­incorporated­in­the­prototype­and the­aircraft­reflown­to­check­their­validity.­‘We have done a year’s flying. In June of this year we have been

Delegates to the National Turbine-Powered Air Transportation meeting of the Institute of Aeronatical Sciences watch a flyby of the Boeing 367-80, by now termed the ‘707’. Just visible under the tail is the dummy refuelling boom fitted for formation trials with a B-52. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)

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The Boeing 367-80 with a dummy refuelling boom in formation with a B-52. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)

able to finalize the airplane’s configuration; the airplane can be pinned down so production can go ahead and meet delivery schedules.’ Sutter­showed­a­chart­detailing­test­areas­which, as­ he­ pointed­ out,­ covered­ checks­ from­ ground handling­through­a­complete­high­speed­programme. Pfafman­ provided­ insights­ into­ systems­ and structural­ dynamics.­ He­ told­ of­ problems encountered­and­corrections­made.­He­brought­out several­ specific­ items­ in­ which­ complete information­ could­ be­ obtained­ only­ through prototype­testing.­Flight­test­results­on­the­lateral control­system­was­one­instance­cited.­The­system consisted­of­four­ailerons­and­eight­spoilers.­The ailerons­were­interconnected­by­a­cable­system­and were­tab­powered.­The­spoilers,­connected­in­pairs, were­hydraulically­powered­and,­at­the­outset,­were actuated­by­one­control­valve­in­each­wing. Among­items­which­Pfafman­said­could­not­be evaluated­without­flight­testing­were­control­loads, spoiler­synchronisation,­­control­sensitivity­and­the up-float­loads­of­ailerons­and­of­spoilers. As­a­result­of­flight­test,­it­was­possible­to­lower lateral­ control­ centering­ force­ since­ satisfactory centering­of­the­ailerons­was­obtained­in­flight­even though­centreing­was­not­positive­on­the­ground. The­ simplified­ single-valve­ control­ for­ the spoilers­ in­ each­ wing­ was­ found­ to­ be­ erratic­ in ground­check,­due­to­differences­in­line­length­and system­friction.­Individual­control­valves­for­each pair­of­spoilers­were­installed­to­solve­the­problem. In­ lateral­ control­ sensitivity,­ he­ went­ on,­ the characteristics­without­dive­brakes­were­good,­but with­the­dive­brakes­partially­up­it­was­necessary­to add­a­mechanical­linkage­to­reduce­the­sensitivity. Up-float­loads­on­the­ailerons­were­found­to­have been­predicted­accurately,­requiring­only­adjustments

with­the­tab.­Spoiler­up-float­loads­proved­to­be­less than­ had­ been­ determined­ in­ wind-tunnel­ tests, greatly­simplifying­the­design. Tex­Johnston­spoke­of­‘707’­flight­characteristics and­ safety­ aspects.­ ‘We have had considerable experience with swept-wing aircraft, the B-47 and the B-52, and have had no adverse problems from the handling characteristic standpoint. This airplane is as good in all respects, and better in some.’ It­seems­that­Johnston­was­particularly­pleased with­ the­ lateral­ control­ system­ which­ gave excellent­handling­characteristics­in­low­speed­or cross­ wind­ operations.­ The­ plane’s­ high­ speed capability,­new­to­commercial­transport­aircraft, called­for­the­lateral­control­spoiler­configuration in­conjunction­with­ailerons.­Used­as­drag­devices on­approach,­he­said,­they­permittted­practically any­angle­of­approach­desired. Johnston­ characterised­ takeoff,­ climb-out­ and cruise­ conditions­ as­ entirely­ normal­ save­ that­ the pilot’s­ duties­ were­ considerably­ reduced­ by­ the engine,­and­thus­resultant­flightdeck,­simplicity. Rudder,­aileron­and­elevator­controls­on­the­‘707’ were­manual­and,­in­Johnston’s­terminology,­‘...very light. In either low or high-speed range it is possible to actuate full control with one hand and without experiencing muscular exertion.’ In­ high­ speed­ tests­ Johnston­ said­ a­ Mach number­and­airspeed­placard­had­been­placed­on­the aircraft­when­he­felt­it­had­exceeded­the­maximum flight­speed­it­might­ever­approach­in­use.­This­was where­neither­stability­nor­buffeting­problems­had intruded.­Trim­changes­necessary­in­all­high-speed aircraft­at­high­Mach­numbers­he­described­as­easy to­make­on­the­‘707.’ ‘At these (high)­speeds the airplane can be flown hands-off. The airplane is solid. We have no flutter

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problems and no stability problems.’ He­went­on­to­describe­letdown­characteristics­at high­speed­with­lateral­control­spoilers­used­as­dive brakes­as­very­good.­‘With this configuration, we can make descents at as much as 12 to 13,000 feet per minute from altitude to the deck.’ Donald­W­Finlay,­who­supervised­the­structure of­the­‘707’­from­its­inception­and­now­headed­the preliminary­design­section­at­Boeing,­presented some­aspects­of­future­planning­to­conclude­the panel­presentation. ‘We believed that there was a place in the world for a whole family of airplanes of this type. The ‘707’ family concept showed a wide range of weight from a basic commercial model to the heaviest military transport and tanker ultimately desirable from the fundamental design. A growth parallel to such weight spread, had been achieved with the B-47.’ The­prototype­was­built­lighter­than­the­ultimate objectives,­but­heavy­enough­to­reveal­in­tests­all about­large,­high-speed­jet­aircraft­not­available­from contemporary­data­or­through­model­work. ‘We recognized the physical problems of changing the strength, changing space for cargo and fuel as the airplane grew. We had to plan ahead, with a tooling philosophy. A­number­of­other­papers­were­presented­to­the conference.­A­year­earlier­at­the­first­one,­Boeing’s

‘707’­had­just­made­its­initial­flight;­now­the­facts­of 200­hours­airborne­were­available. To­the­initiate,­there­was­a­sound­backgrounding all­sessions­of­the­turbine­meeting.­This­roar­of­jet engines­was­brought­into­the­open­in­an­address­by Vice­Admiral­Charles­E.­Rosendahl,­Ret.,­executive director­of­the­National­Air­Transport­Coordinating Committee.­He­challenged­industry­and­airlines­with the­statement­that­the­noise­problem­in­connection with­jet­aircraft­could­not­be­ignored.­‘You cannot persuade people that the industry which has produced so many miracles cannot control sound.’ Anticipated­ economics­ of­ the­ projected Douglas­DC-8­jet­transport­were­presented­by­Ivar L.­Shogran,­chief­project­engineer­of­the­series.­Of particular­interest­to­delegates­was­the­statement that­the­jet­airplane’s­economy­in­comparison­to the­current­DC-7­was­expected­to­be­better­down to­ranges­as­low­as­500­miles. Raymond­ D­ Kelly,­ United­ Air­ Lines’ superintendent­of­technical­development,­reported on­the­ground­handling­of­jet­transports­which­he called­ ‘a­ new­ machine­ tool­ for­ the­ airlines.’ Cutting­of­ground­time­he­listed­as­a­major­factor in­the­economics­of­jet­transports.­‘...Each wasted minute of ground time deprives a jet of almost nine flight miles.’ It­was­during­this­conference­that­Tex­Johnson

The famous - or should that be infamous? - barrel roll of the Dash 80 over Lake Washington.(via Peter M Bowers)

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heard­rumours:­‘I’d heard that Douglas was telling people our prototype was an unstable airplane, and I believe that when you fly for a company, you sell the product by demonstrating what it can do.’ On­7­August­1955­conference­attendees­moved to­the­shores­of­Lake­Washington­for­the­Gold­Cup hydroplane­ races.­ The­ American­ Power­ Boat Association­Challenge­Cup,­­known­to­all­as­the­Gold Cup,­is­to­power­boat­racing­what­the­Super­Bowl­is to­ football,­ what­ the­ Kentucky­ Derby­ is­ to­ horse racing,­what­the­World­Series­is­to­baseball,­and­what the­Indianapolis­500­is­to­automobile­racing,­and­is the­ultimate­prize­that­every­competitor­strives­to­win at­least­once,­and­the­race­was­watched­by­tens­of thousands­around­a­three­mile­course.­William­Allen asked­Tex­Johnson­to­fly­the­Dash­80­over­the­course as­a­kind­of­demonstration. Johnston,­ wearing­ a­ flight­ suit­ and­ his trademark­cowboy­boots,­was­in­the­pilot's­seat. Alongside­ him,­ in­ the­ co-pilot's­ seat,­ was­ Jim Gannett.­A­ Boeing­ engineer,­ along­ for­ the­ ride, was­in­the­cabin­with­a­camera. Co-pilot­ Gannett­ had­ an­ inkling­ of­ what­ was coming­several­hours­earlier,­when­Johnston­flew­the aircraft­through­a­couple­of­rolls­during­a­test­flight. Allen,­however,­had­no­idea.­When­he­looked­up­and saw­his­company’s­biggest­investment­on­its­back,­he looked­like­a­clinical­example­of­apoplexy,­according to­people­seated­near­him.­After­rolling­the­aircraft for­the­first­time­as­he­passed­over­the­race­course, Johnston­ made­ a­ wide­ turn­ and­ then­ returned­ repeating­the­roll. The­crowds­below­oohed­and­aahed.­They­had just­witnessed­aviation­history.­Carl­Cleveland,­then head­of­Boeing­public­relations,­says­that­at­the­time Piling on the flight time! As the Dash 80 entered its third one hundred hours of flying, on one week it was flown flown by pilots of four American and one foreign airlines. Here is Captain ‘Gus’ Sommermeyer of United Airlines in the captain’s seat with Tex Johnson alongside. Given the positioning of Tex’s ‘bone dome’, this must have been taken pre-flight! Pilots from American, KLM, Northwest, Pan Am and United took turns at the controls. (Boeing via Peter M Bowers)

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of­ the­ manoeuvre,­ he­ was­ on­ a­ yacht­ in­ Lake Washington­ with­ assorted­ bigwigs­ in­ the­ airline industry,­including­Bill­Allen:­‘After the first barrel roll, Bill Allen turned to me and said, ‘I don't think we should have anything in the papers about that.’ But I said, `All those people just saw it. I don't know how we can stop it.’ It­was­rumoured­that­Boeing­surpressed­the­story, but­ Cleveland­ always­ claimed­ that­ the­ reporters covering­the­race­simply­forgot­to­mention­it­‘...for some­damned­reason.’­He­thought­that­members­of the­ press­ -­ mostly­ sports­ writers­ -­ were­ more interested­in­the­outcome­of­the­race­than­in­what­was happening­overhead. Everyone­ loved­ the­ stunt,­ but­ William­Allen, Boeing’s­ President,­ never­ got­ over­ it.­ He­ fired Johnston­at­least­a­thousand­times­before­they­met the­ next­ morning­ and­ cooler­ heads­ prevailed. Nonetheless,­ the­ infamous­ manoeuvre­ was­ a forbidden­subject­in­Allen’s­presence­for­many­years. At­his­retirement­dinner­in­1980,­he­was­given­a­huge photograph­taken­from­one­of­Dash­80’s­windows while­the­Dash­80­was­upside­down.­He­left­it­behind. The­stunt­may­have­impressed­airline­executives, but­it­didn’t­cure­the­problems­in­Dash­80’s­tail­fin. Boeing­eventually­discovered­that­changing­the­fin’s internal­ balance­ weights,­ increasing­ its­ size,­ and adding­an­electronic­yaw­damper­and­a­hydraulically boosted­ rudder­ control­ ended­ the­ problems­ with flutter,­yaw,­and­Dutch­roll. It­has­often­been­said­that­since­Tex­Johnston­did this­with­the­Dash-80,­no­one­since­had­deliberately rolled­a­jet­airliner.­It­is­possible­however,­that­the loss­of­a­Lufthansa­Boeing­720­-­D-ABOP­-­on­15 July­1964­during­a­training­flight­was­another­such

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occasion,­but­this­time­with­tragic­results.­It­seems that­the­pilot-in-command­was­‘proving­it­could­be done’­to­his­companions­on­board;­he­sucessfully accomplished­one­roll,­but­on­the­second­attempt­the aircraft­ lost­ control­ when­ inverted,­ broke­ up­ and crashed­near­Nuremberg,­killing­the­three­on­board.

Initial Airline discussions Having­successfully­attracted­orders­for­the­C/KC135A­ variant­ from­ USAF,­ Boeing­ moved­ their attention­to­winning­orders­from­the­airlines­for the­707.­The­Dash-80,­however,­suffered­the­same fate­as­the­Model­247­-­the­cabin­was­not­large enough.­Boeing­then­tried­to­save­money­by­going on­ a­ charm­ offensive­ to­ the­ airlines,­ trying­ to justify­the­use­of­the­same­144­inch­width­fuselage (and­therefore­making­use­of­the­same­fuselage tooling)­as­the­KC-135­which­they­thought­was sufficient­for­four­First­Class,­five­Standard­Class or­ six­ Tourist­ Class­ seating­ but­ the­ airlines demanded­ even­ more­ room­ and­ eventually­ the fuselage­ width­ was­ increased­ by­ another­ four inches­ over­ the­ KC-135­ and­ the­ length­ was extended­by­a­further­ten­feet. A­ series­ of­ protracted­ discussions­ with­ the airlines­began,­and­Pan­American­in­particular,­due to­their­transatlantic­services,­to­try­and­convince them­of­their­need­for jet­aircraft.­Since­the existing­ piston engined­aircraft­were capable­ of­ flying New­York­to­London direct,­Pan­American and­ the­ other­ major airlines­ were unwilling­ to­ accept less­range­in­the­next generation­ of airliners­and­the­707,

as­ originally­ proposed,­ was­ marginal­ in­ this respect.­ Boeing­ were­ reluctant­ to­ modify­ the design,­ while­ Douglas,­ who­ had­ a­ much­ better relationship­with­the­airlines,­had­recognised­the importance­of­the­707­on­air­travel­and­announced the­ launch­ of­ their­ DC-8­ competitor­ on­ 7­ June 1955.­ The­ original­ DC-8­ was­ also­ marginal­ on range­but­was­still­a­paper­exercise,­so­Douglas offered­modifications­to­produce­a­heavier,­longer range­ variant­ to­ meet­ the­ airline's­ requirements powered­by­Pratt­and­Whitney­JT4As. As­ a­ result,­ Juan­ Trippe­ and­ Pan­American decided­on­the­Douglas­DC-8­and­ordered­twentyfive­for­transatlantic­services­but,­because­the­707 had­an­unassailable­lead­in­terms­of­time,­they­also ordered­twenty­707s­to­protect­their­commercial interests­and­to­act­as­insurance­across­the­Atlantic until­the­DC-8s­were­available.­ These­historic­orders­were­announced­on­13 October­1955.­Pan­Am­intended­to­use­the­new type­ on­ tran-Atlantic­ and­ trans-Pacific­ services from­December­1958,­the­last­of­the­20­being­in service­by­November­1959.­ Both­Boeing­and­Pan­Am's­Sales­and­Public Relations­people­made­much­of­the­reduction­in flight­times. ‘Transoceanic non-stop flights will be made in about half the present scheduled time. Jet

Above: Walt W Braznell, Director of Flying Operations, American Airlines in the right hand seat of the Dash 80.

Left: C R Smith, President of American Airlines (left) and William Allen of Boeing sign the contract for Boeing 707s to be delivered in 1959. (both Boeing via Peter M Bowers)

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flight will carry the passenger above the weather. The Boeing 707 Jet Stratoliner will provide soothing, vibration-free travel to the far reaches of the earth.’ Juan­ Trippe­ went­ on­ record­ as­ saying:­ ‘The planes will provide a new high standard in speed and in passenger comfort in Pan American’s pattern of non-stop over-ocean service. ‘The vibration and noise caused by propellers will be eliminated. In fact, there is complete absence of all vibration and the sound of the jet turbine engines is audible only to passengers in the very after part of the cabin.’ Pan­American­later­disposed­of­the­DC-8s­and continued­ to­ operate­ 707s­ right­ up­ to­ the introduction­ of­ 747s­ and­ beyond;­ they­ ordered their­last­ones­in­late­1967­and­withdrew­them­in early­1981,­a­full­22­years­of­service­by­the­type. Boeing­reacted­to­the­disappointment­of­being second-best­ in­ the­ eyes­ of­ Pan­ American­ by announcing­new­variants­of­the­707­-­the­original version­ordered­by­Pan­American­was­powered­by the­JT3C­engine­of­12,500lbs­thrust,­and­they­now announced­that­this­was­to­be­known­as­the­707120­and­there­would­be­JT4A­powered­707-220 and­707-320­variants. The­ 707-120­ was­ offered­ with­ two­ fuselage lengths,­the­standard­and­a­special­short­version while­ the­ 707-220­ was­ offered­ with­ the­ JT4A turbofans­ of­ 15,800lbs­ thrust,­ again­ in­ both fuselage­ lengths­ and­ the­ 707-320­ was­ the­ long range­version,­it­had­a­lengthened­fuselage,­greater wing­ span,­ more­ fuel­ capacity­ but­ the­ same engines­as­the­-220.­ When­Rolls-Royce­Conway­508­engines­were specified­ in­ place­ of­ the­ JT4A,­ the­ 707-320 became­the­707-420.­this­proliferation­of­models meant­that­the­break-even­point­for­the­707­was pushed­ a­ long­ way­ back.­ As­ a­ result­ of­ these improved­ versions,­ Pan­ American­ decided­ in December­1955­to­amend­its­order­from­twenty 707-120s­to­six­707-120s­and­fourteen­707-320s. Following­Pan­American's­decision­to­take­air travel­into­the­jet­age,­other­airlines­were­faced with­the­decision­of­following­suit­and­remaining competitive­or­falling­behind­the­pace­makers­and as­a­result­sales­teams­from­Boeing­and­Douglas were­busy­with­potential­customers. Boeing­received­their­next­orders,­however,­not from­ another­ transatlantic­ carrier,­ but­ from­ a domestic­trunk­airline,­namely­American­Airlines, who­ordered­thirty­707-120s­on­9­November­1955. The­ last­ five­ of­ this­ order­ were­ subsequently cancelled­when­720s­were­ordered­in­their­place.

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The early JT-3C engines were incredibly noisy, so various styles of noise-reducing nozzles were experimented with. A least ten different styles were flight-tested after more than two hundred paper designs were studied. This one, in front of test pilot Jim Gannet and flight test engineer Bruce Mengel was not accepted. (DGR Photo Library)

Walt­W­Braznell,­Director­of­Flying­Operations, took­ part­ in­ some­ of­ the­ demonstration­ flying aboard­the­Dash­80­on­15­September­1955,­as­was reported­ in­ Flight Deck, American­ Airlines publication­for­pilots­and­flight­engineers:­‘I had been asked to take a look at the Boeing 707 cockpit as part of an evaluation team looking over new airplanes. En-route to Seattle I was informed there might be a ride in the 707 in store for us. I visualized the usual bucket seat, windowless flight associated with prototype demonstrations, with the added attraction of a glimpse of the instrument panel over someone’s shoulder - if you were lucky. In Seattle I read in the paper that Boeing was demonstrating the 707 and some of the airline people would be permitted to occupy the righthand pilot’s seat. Tex Johnston welcomed our group aboard the 707. I noticed immediately the right cockpit seat was filled - with Tex Johnston. Motioning to the left seat, Tex asked of Dan Beard and myself, who wanted the first go at it. The thought immediately occurred to me that

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In a Manhatten NY warehouse Boeing and the Teague organisation built a mock-up of the Boeing 707 airliner. Walter Dorwin Teague Associates was one of the USA’s leading industrial design companies and, under the direction of Frank J Del Giudice, came up with the design and layout of not only the mock-up but also equipment for the interiors of the actual aircraft. They also produced a brochure for perusal by potential airline buyers.

☜ ‘...Four lavatories are available in the 707, styled to duplicate the effect of a small power-room in a private home’

☟‘...Five abreast seating provides seat-widths equalling those of conventional four-abreast airliners. Versatility permits change to either four or six-abreast configuration while retaining comfort.’

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☜ ‘...Cantilevered seats permit unobscructed legroom, armrests fold up. Opaque window shades provide restful darkness. Smoke-tinted shade cuts glare, permits view’.

☟‘...Dual galleys permit greatest flexibility in food service. As many as 180 meals can be served.’

☝‘...Galleys on the 707 are equipped to serve the most tempting of cuisine, in the best tradition of every airline’ A stream of airline executives and such luminaries as Charles Linbergh - at the time an advisor to TWA - were led through the interior mock-up. Boeing added some Hollywood style effects, such as recordings of engine noise and cabin announcements in order to give the impression of jet flight.

☝‘...While a lounge is available fore or aft, it may be removed and replaced with additional seating.’

☜ ‘...The possibilities for color and decor is evident in one version of the 707 club-like lounge.’

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(a) Johnston considered Dan and me finished jet pilots or (b) he knew his craft was so easy to handle that even a couple of desk pilots could not get into trouble with it. The answer of course was that Johnston knew Dan had little experience on jets, I had none at all, and both of us were desk pilots. I bowed to age and Dan took over first. For the next hour-and-a-half we really had fun. For myself the flight was easily the most exhilarating of my flying career, and I’ll include my solo ride in this statement. To me, a most remarkable part of the experience was that I felt so at ease in a completely strange airplane. The operational simplicity was obvious and invited quick confidence. While weather threatened to close the field (which had neither GCA nor ILS) and thus held our flight to low altitudes, 2000 and 3000 feet, Tex had no reluctance to demonstrate engine and engines out (on the same side) performance. As a matter of fact, we did slow flight and stall nibbles with gear

and flaps down while 2000 feet above terrain. My impression from these maneuvers was that the airplane has the greatest forgiveness factor of any I have ever flown. I had heard stories about the complexities of air starts. Had gathered such was like betting on the Irish Sweepstakes. Tex demonstrated the simplicity of air starts by flicking a switch and

Above: Braniff officials aboard the Dash 80: J H Alexander, R V Carleton and Robert E ‘Bob’ Sawyer. In the right hand seat is Dix Loesch of Boeing. (Braniff) Below: Three SABENA vice presidents fly aboard the Dash 80. From left to right: M C Stainler, Anselme Vernieuw and Fecicen Pirson. (SABENA Belgian World Airlines) From the lack of view out of the windows, it is thought that both these were posed pictures taken on the ground.

Above: Henri J Lisieur and Max Hymans of Air France appear delighted with their trip aboard the Dash 80. (Air France)

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Left: The ice machine flown on the Dash 80 to test the effects of ice formation on the engine pylons.

placing the throttle in the Idle-Start position. The simplicity of this operation is a good example of many such comparisons of the jet operation versus present-day airplane operation. Tex had us chuckling like a bunch of kids watching a magician pulling rabbits out of a hat. The acceleration and deceleration capabilities of the 707 were of course very impressive, but even though expecting great things in the way of a quiet, vibrationless cockpit, I wasn’t ready for what I found. You must experience it to believe it. The only thing disturbing the churchlike quiet of the front end was the ‘clacking’ of the fuel totalizer, a sound problem that must be brought to the attention of the instrument manufacturer. Braniff­followed­on­1­December­1955­with­an order­for­five­707-220s­for­use­on­its­hot­and­high South­ American­ routes,­ then­ Continental announced­ an­ order­ for­ four­ 707-120s­ on­ 12 December­1955. Overseas­orders­came­in­from­Air­France­who wanted­ten­Intercontinental­707s,­with­options­on more;­ SABENA­ Belgian­ World­ Airlines announced­its­order­for­three­-­later­increased­to four­Intercontinental­707s­-­on­the­same­day;­28 December­1955. On­the­down­side,­the­expected­United­sales were­lost­to­Douglas,­they­ordered­thirty­DC-8-21s on­ 25­ October­ 1955­ and­ were­ followed­ by National­ and­ Eastern.­ Both­ United­ and­ Eastern later­ ordered­ 720s­ however,­ and­ all­ three subsequently­operated­large­727­fleets. By­the­end­of­1959,­a­hundred­707s­had­rolled off­the­production­line­at­Renton,­and­the­first­of several­hundred­KC-135s­had­been­delivered­to the­ USAF’s­ Strategic­Air­ Command.­The­ ­Dash

Below: the fifth engine fitted to the Dash 80 for 727 design trials so as to test the effects of an aft mounted engine.

80’s­career­as­a­prototype­and­dealer­demo­was finished,­but­Boeing­was­not­yet­ready­to­put­it­out to­pasture.­Although­it­was­very­different­to­any­of the­707s­-­or­KC-135s­for­that­matter­-­and­was­by no­means­a­jet­airliner,­it­was­to­become­involved in­a­great­number­of­test­programmes­to­improve the­safety,­efficiency­and­comfort­of­commercial aircraft. Most­of­these­trials­began­after­the­707s­started to­roll­off­the­Seattle­production­line­and­included noise­reduction,­cabin­interior­linings,­Boundary Layer­Control­and­slotted­flap­studies. A­ number­ of­ design­ studies­ involved­ major changes­ in­ the­ Dash­ 80’s­ appearance.­ By­ all accounts­it­seems­that­for­a­period­in­1959­it­was fitted­ with­ a­ large­ nose­ radome­ for­ the­ Bendix AN/AMQ-15­weather­reconnaissance­radar­that was­later­used­on­WC-135Bs.­The­Dash­80­was also­fitted­with­addtional­equipment­to­collect­high altitude­data­and­to­monitor­drop­and­rocket­sonde weather­probes. In­the­early­1960s,­Dash­80­was­used­to­test­a

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By the time this picture was taken in 1959, the Dash 80 had grown all sorts of lumps and bumps, and a new nose. There are different engines and pylons on the inboard positions, and the airframe carries a few roughly patched up marks. (DGR Picture Library)

modification­that­would­later­show­up­in­the­727, with­a­fifth­engine­fitted­at­the­rear­of­the­fuselage to­validate­this­location­for­the­727’s­engines. These­ tests­ led­ in­ turn­ to­ a­ long­ stint­ with NASA­ and­ Boeing­ testing­ wings­ that­ could generate­ enough­ lift­ for­ the­ aircraft­ to­ remain airborne­ at­ extremely­ low­ speeds.­ Dash­ 80­ had averaged­612­mph­during­a­transcontinental­speed record­flight­in­1957.­Now­it­was­creeping­around Seattle­skies­at­80­mph­and­landing­at­92­mph. Dismayed­commuter­airline­pilots­had­to­S-turn their­Douglas­DC-3s­on­final­approach­to­Boeing Field­to­avoid­overrunning­what­appeared­to­be­a 707.­To­preserve­control­at­such­ridiculously­low speeds,­ the­ Dash­ 80­ sprouted­ a­ profusion­ of leading­and­trailing-edge­devices­on­its­wings.­ Gannett­continued­to­fly­Dash­80­throughout the­low-speed­tests,­but­Johnston­and­Loesch­had moved­on­and­were­replaced­by­S.­Lewis­Wallick, and­Thomas­Edmonds.­In­test­of­leading-edge­slats for­ the­ wing,­ engineers­ experimented­ with­ the curve­ of­ the­ slats­ by­ applying­ fibreglass­ to­ the devices­ and­ shaping­ them­ between­ flights. Leading-edge­symmetry­was­critical—without­it, the­aircraft­tended­to­roll­uncontrollably­in­a­stall. This­ imprecise­ shaping­ of­ the­ wing­ made­ for occasional­imbalance­and­some­very­sporty­flying. Edmonds­ recalls­ a­ day­ when­ one­ flight­ was enough:­ ‘We stalled, rolled over to about 90 degrees to the horizon, did a split-S, and ended up headed in the opposite direction. We looked around, kind of startled, and decided there was no point in doing any more stalls that day.’ The­Dash­80­wore­its­high-lift­wings­to­the­end of­ its­ career,­ and­ Boeing­ and­ NASA­ engineers tested­a­series­of­design­ideas­that­depended­on solid­control­at­slow­speeds.­The­aging­aircraft­was landed­on­grass,­dusty­lake­beds,­soft­earth,­and

even­ mud,­ using­ a­ landing­ gear­ system­ being considered­ for­ what­ would­ become­ Boeing’s ultimately­ unsuccessful­ submission­ for­ what would­ eventually­ become­ the­ Air­ Force’s enormous­ C-5A­ Galaxy­ transport.­ The­ landing gear­spread­the­weight­of­the­aircraft­over­twenty tyres­instead­of­Dash­80’s­ten.­The­tyres’­flotation allowed­the­aircraft­­ to­land­on­dust-covered­mud only­marginally­more­supportive­than­yogurt. In­1965,­with­a­long­needle-like­sensing­unit, a­comical­face­painted­on­its­nose­in­honour­of­its 11th­anniversary,­and­computer-mediated­controls, it­imitated­the­landing­characteristics­of­a­series­of supersonic­ designs­ for­ NASA.­A­ second­ set­ of controls­enabled­the­copilot­to­take­over­and­fly the­airplane­normally,­a­precaution­that­allowed the­ computer­ to­ crash­ without­ the­ Dash­ 80 following­suit.­The­Dash­80­also­tested­scores­of cockpit­instruments­and­controls,­some­of­which later­showed­up­in­the­video­display­cockpits­of the­757­and­767.­ On­22­January­1970,­after­completing­the­last of­a­series­of­flights­designed­to­test­an­automatic landing­system­for­the­space­shuttle,­Dash­80­went into­retirement.­Its­logbook­showed­1,691­flights over­sixteen­years­for­a­total­of­2,349­hours­and­46 minutes,­but­it­was­not­quite­closed.­ As­a­company-owned­aircraft­it­played­a­vital part­in­the­success­of­the­Model­707­and­related C/KC-135­families,­but­was­also­modified­in­an almost­ unbelievable­ number­ of­ ways­ to­ test features­for­later­versions­of­its­own­family,­and also­ structural,­ aerodynamic­ and­ power­ plant aspects­ of­ other­ Boeing­ aircraft.­ with­ the development­of­heavy­military­transports­capable of­operations­from­relatively­small­and­unprepared airfields­close­to­combat­areas. After­2,350­hours­and­1,691­flights­the­aircraft

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Blown flaps and high lift wings (above), and highfloatation landing gear that could not be retracted (left) were just some of the devices tested on the Dash 80.

Below: A needle nose sensing unit - with a comical face painted on it in honour of the 11th Anniversary of the Dash-80s first flight - was used to test computermediated controls for the landing characteristics for a number of supersonic designs. (all DGR Picture Library)

was­withdrawn­from­use­in­1969­and­placed­in storage­ at­ Davis-Monthan­Air­ Force­ Base­ near Tucson,­ Arizona.­ In­ 1972­ there­ was­ a­ huge international­ aviation­ trade­ fair­ planned­ for Washington­ Dulles­ Airport­ under­ the­ title­ of Transpo­‘72.­A­star­attraction­was­to­be­N70700 and­so­the­Dash­80­was­ferried­back­to­Seattle, where­Boeing­employees­refurbished­the­airframe, fitted­a­707­nose­and­repainted­it­in­the­original house­ colours.­ On­ 26­ May­ Boeing­ donated­ the 367-80­to­the­Smithsonian­Air­and­Space­Museum, which­had­designated­it­one­of­the­twelve­most significant­ aircraft­ of­ all­ time.­At­ that­ time­ the National­ Air­ and­ Space­ Museum­ had­ not­ even opened­its­new­building­on­the­Mall­in­Washington and­ the­ Dulles­ exhibition­ centre­ and­ resoration facility­was­only­a­distant­dream,­so­the­Dash­80 returned­to­the­Arizona­desert. For­ the­ next­ eighteen­ years­ the­ aircraft­ was stored­at­the­309th­Aerospace­Maintenance­and Regeneration­Group­(AMARG).­In­1988­it­was

noticed­ that­ the­ condition­ of­ the­ machine­ was starting­to­deteriorate,­so­arrangements­was­made with­the­Smithsonian­for­Boeing­to­conduct­a­full analysis­of­the­aircraft's­structural­and­operational condition.­before­being­retrieved­by­Boeing.­The arrangement­was­simple:­the­aircraft­would­return to­Seattle­and­Boeing­would­act­as­its­custodian until­the­museum­could­build­an­annex.­ Early­in­April­1990,­with­Boeing­project­pilot Paul­Bennett­at­the­controls,­it­was­flown­from Arizona­to­Boise,­Idaho,­for­refuelling,­then­from Boise­to­Moses­Lake,­Wash.,­to­prepare­for­the

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N70700 - the famous Boeing 367-80 - The Dash 80 On display at the Steven F. UdvarHazy Center, an annexe of the Smithsonian Institution's he National Air and Space Museum near Washington DC.

Right: the flight deck area can be seen through a bulkhead displaying part of the aircraft’s history. This area is not usually open to members of the public.

brief­flight­home­to­Seattle­on­19­May. Over­the­next­year­or­so­Boeing­used­the­Dah 80­in­numerous­public­events­and­flew­it­a­few times,­including­on­15­July­1991,­to­commemorate the­75th­birthday­of­The­Boeing­Company. In­ 1996­ the­ Smithsonian­ finally­ found someone­to­support­the­annexe­concept:­Steven­F Udvar-Hazy,­ the­ CEO­ of­ International­ Lease Finance­Corporation­and­a­good­Boeing­customer, but­it­was­not­until­2002­that­plans­were­made­to return­the­Dash­80­to­the­museum. In­ the­ spring­ of­ 2003­ a­ completely­ new restoration­ team­ was­ selected,­ the­ aircraft­ was taken­out­of­storage­in­Plant­2­and­the­machine­was prepared­once­again­for­flight. This­occurred­on­2­August,­and­the­next­day­it flew­at­Seafair­over­the­same­hydroplane­course

where­Tex­Johnston­performed­his­barrel­rolls­48 years­earlier.­ Three­weeks­later,­on­24­August,­the­Dash­80 left­ Seattle­ for­ the­ last­ time.­ The­ flight­ plan included­ stopping­ for­ fuel,­ first­ in­ Rapid­ City, South­Dakota­followed­by­two­days­at­WrightPatterson­Air­Force­Base­in­Dayton,­Ohio.­Sitting on­the­tarmac­in­Dayton­next­to­the­aircraft­was a­KC-135,­the­first­derivative­of­the­Dash­80.­ The­ Dash­ 80's­ final­ flight­ was­ to­ Dulles International­Airport­near­Washington,­DC­on­27 August­ 2003,­ where­ it­ was­ met­ by­ crowds­ of specators­and­media.­The­aircraft­was­then­put­on display­ in­ the­ Steven­ F­ Udvar-Hazy­ Center,­ an annex­of­the­Smithsonian­Institution's­National­Air and­ Space­ Museum,­ located­ adjacent­ to­ Dulles Airport­in­Chantilly,­Virginia.

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Chapter­Five

‘Passin Gas’... and so much more. The 135 series.

Boeing­may­well­have­been­busy­both­designing­and building­ a­ jet­ tanker/transport­ as­ well­ as­ the­ next generation­civil­airliner­in­the­shape­of­the­Model 367-80­as­a­company­funded­prototype,­but­that­was not­the­only­machine­which­the­United­States­Air Force­was­interested.­ The­USAF­considered­several­other­proposals including­ a­ tanker­ version­ of­ the­ Douglas­ DC-8 airliner,­a­proposed­Douglas­turboprop­design,­their own­design­as­well­as­two­from­Boeing­-­one­at­a take-off­weight­of­261,00­pounds­and­one­at­295,00 pounds.­The­turboprop­option,­although­slow,­was initially­favourite­but­was­later­dropped.­ At­ Strategic­ Air­ Command’s­ Requirements Conference­ in­ November­ 1953,­ General­ Curtis LeMay­called­for­two­hundred­jet­tankers.­The­Air Force­announced­a­design­competition­for­a­jet­tanker

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on­5­May­1954,­inviting­Boeing,­Convair,­Douglas, Fairchild,­Lockheed,­and­Martin­to­participate.­At that­point­Boeing’s­leaders­could­only­forge­ahead with­the­Dash-80,­which­had­its­first­successful­flight test­ on­ 15­ July,­ and­ pray­ that­ it­ would­ win­ the competition. From­as­early­as­1949,­the­Lockheed­Aircraft Corporation­had­been­quietly­working­on­their­own jet­ airliner­ design,­ the­ Model­ L-193,­ named­ the Constellation­ II,­ with­ a­ swept­ wing­ and­ engines mounted­at­the­tail.­Lockheed­proposed­the­same­as Boeing­-­both­an­airliner­and­tanker­version.­ Lockheed­sought­input­from­Howard­Hughes’ Trans­World­Airlines­for­the­airline's­requirements and­several­sub-variants­were­developed.­Technically, they­ were­ quite­ advanced.­ Notably,­ they­ featured unconventional­ engine­ installations­ such­ as­ a

The Dash 80 being formated on by a B-52 during a simulated tanking, watched by a T-33 chase aircraft.

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staggered­configuration­with­four­turbojets­mounted on­the­aft­fuselage­sides,­with­the­inboard­engines mounted­aft­of­the­outboard­pair­but­fed­by­side-byside­intakes.­Another­configuration­had­either­four­or five­ turbojets­ mounted­ side­ by­ side­ beneath­ the fuselage.­Others­had­a­swept­wing­with­the­engines mounted­at­the­tail­similar­to­an­Ilyushin­Il-62­or Vickers­VC-10.­It­was­designed­to­be­slightly­smaller than­the­Boeing­707­and­Douglas­DC-8­of­the­time. Lockheed­used­features­seen­in­its­previous­designs, including­ tip­ tanks­ similar­ to­ the­ Lockheed Constellation­and­a­double-deck­fuselage­similar­to the­ Lockheed­ Constitution.­ A­ modified­ L-193­ supposedly­designated­the­CL-291­-­was­entered­into the­SAC­tanker­competition,­­­ On­the­Dash­80’s­seventh­flight­in­July­1954­it practised­a­mock­refuelling­sortie­with­a­B-52­and­on 3­August­1954,­with­the­jet-tanker­design­competition still­in­progress,­the­Air­Force­decided­to­buy­interim tankers.­The­Air­Force­Secretary,­Harold­E.­Talbott, announced­an­order­to­buy­twenty-nine­tankers­from Boeing.­Less­than­two­weeks­later­the­Air­Force­said it­would­buy­a­further­eighty-eight­Boeing­tankers.­It looked­as­if­Boeing­was­set­to­win­the­competition, but­it­didn’t. In­February­1955­the­Air­Force­announced­that Lockheed­had­won­the­competition­and­at­least­one of­its­tankers­would­be­funded­for­construction.­In the­very­same­announcement,­however,­Talbott­said the­Air­Force­would­buy­an­additional­169­tankers from­ Boeing.­ By­ some­ accounts­ the­ aircraft­ was designated­ KCX-LO,­ -­ presumably­ standing­ for ‘Tanker­Cargo­Experimental­-­Lockheed’­and­was­redesignated­the­CL-391­to­take­into­account­a­number of­USAF­changes.­The­same­accounts­suggest­that first­prototype­would­have­been­the­XK-1.­ By­now­Boeing­was­suggesting­that­the­KC-135 could­ be­ delivered­ two­ years­ earlier­ than­ the Lockheed­ design,­ and­ was­ able­ to­ be­ put­ into squadron­service­four­years­earlier.­So­despite­having won­ the­ aerial­ refueling­ competition­ and­ was apparently­preferred­by­the­USAF­over­the­Boeing KC-135­Stratotanker­orders,­the­Lockheed­proposal was­cancelled. A­few­months­later,­in­June,­the­Chattanooga Times uncovered­that­Talbott­was­using­Air­Force stationery­to­solicit­business­from­contractors­who sold­to­the­Air­Force­for­an­engineering­firm­of­which he­owned­fifty­percent.­After­a­swift­Congressional investigation,­Talbott­resigned­from­his­position­as Secretary­in­August.

Right: Boeing employees installed insulationsoundproofing material in the interior of the first KC-135. (DGR Picture Library)

General Curtis Emerson LeMay, Head of Strategic Air Command, who did so much to promote the KC-135 and the B-52, one of the prototypes of which he is seen in here. Upon receiving his fourth star in 1951 at age 44, LeMay became the youngest four-star general in American history since Ulysses S. Grant. (USAF)

Possibly­ as­ a­ result­ of­ the­ Congressional Investigation,­extreme­political­pressure­was­brought to­bear­to­attempt­to­overturn­the­purchase­of­KC135As­and­even­cancel­the­programme.­Protracted contract­negotiations­eventually­led­to­the­placing­of orders­ for­ 810­ aircraft­ but­ only­ 732­ tankers­ were delivered­-­eighty-eight­were­built­as­variants­after SAC­realised­its­potential­for­other­duties­such­as Airborne­ Command­ Posts­ and­ Reconnaissance platforms­as­well­as­a­transport­for­MATS. Some­myths­die­hard,­and­it­is­important­to­dispel the­suggestion­that­the­KC-135A­was­somehow­a military­version­of­the­Boeing­707­airliner.­It­was­not. The­KC-135A­(or­Boeing­717)­preceded,­and­paved the­way­for,­the­commercial­machine­which­became so­successful­with­the­world’s­civil­carriers.­Without doubt,­both­shared­a­common­heritage­in­the­vision

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of­Boeing’s­engineers­and­finance­people,­and­both are­progeny­of­the­private­Model­367-80­prototype. The­K-135A­flew­eighteen­months­before­the­first genuine­707,­however,­and­differed­from­it­in­several important­respects,­having­a­­more­narrow­fuselage and­ completely­ different­ cross-section.­ It­ was­ so different­in­fact­that­the­two­could­not­be­produced on­the­same­factory­jigs.­ Boeing­eventually­received­USAF­approval­to use­the­KC-135­assembly­process­for­the­707­models since­USAF­did­not­pay­any­development­costs,­and provided­ Boeing­ assured­ that­ the­ 707­ would­ not cause­problems­with­KC-135­production,­and­they would­pay­a­‘royalty’­per­707­airframe­built­with­KC135­tooling.­ Publically,­ Boeing­ credited­ the­ major­ role­ in driving­the­speed­of­KC-135­production­through­on schedule­to­a­planning­committee.­Meeting­once­a week,­it­grasped­­problems­as­they arose­and­set­out­to­solve­them. For­ instance,­ when­ a­ report came­ that­ certain­ forgings­ were not­going­to­be­available­on­time, the­committee­acted.­A­committee member­representing­the­materiel department­ contacted­ the­ subcontractor­ making­ the­ rough forgings­and­persuaded­him­to­go on­ a­ seven-day­ work­ week. Another­ member­ representing traffic­ arranged­ for­ high-speed shipments.­ A­ quality­ control member­ established­ priority­ for the­receipt­and­inspection­of­the forgings­ on­ arrival.­ A­ member representing­the­Boeing­machine

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shop­set­up­an­accelerated­schedule­of­machine­work on­the­rough­forgings.­Result:­the­finished­forgings were­delivered­to­the­assembly­line­on­time. A­wide­range­of­problems­were­brought­to­the committee­as­the­KC-135­production­picked­up.­Each item­was­tackled­from­the­viewpoint­that­no­delay­in production­would­be­tolerated.­In­consequence,­the first­production­KC-135­was­expected­to­roll­out­of the­Renton­factory­door­on­schedule­in­the­summer of­1956.­ Clearly,­ however,­ other­ factors­ besides­ the planning­committee’s­determination­contributed­to the­ KC-135­ programme.­ Harvey­ Kent,­ factory manager­of­the­transport­division,­went­on­record saying­that­the­aircraft­was­engineered­to­the­highest degree­of­good­production­practices­he­had­ever­seen. This,­he­claimed,­not­only­made­production­easier, but­ held­ costs­ to­ a­ minimum,­ with­ consequent

Above: The first KC-135 wing section is prepared for joining to the fuselage. Just visible is the assembly line rails on which the major aircraft components moved to bring them all together.

Left: The assembly line for the KC-135. It was extended in the winter of 1956. (both DGR Picture Library)

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The first KC-135, 55-3118 ‘City of Renton’ nears completion at Renton, with the KC-97 production line behind. (USAF)

savings­to­be­passed­on­to­the­Air­Force. Having­a­prototype­machine­built­and­flying­was of­ great­ value­ to­ both­ KC-135­ production­ and commercial­airliner­production.­By­late­1956,­the Dash­80­had­undergone­extensive­tests­on­the­ground and­ more­ than­ 400­ hours­ of­ flight­ test,­ so­ Kent estimated­that­the­experience­gained­cut­production time­on­the­first­KC-135­by­at­least­20­per­cent. The­ horseshoe-shaped­ KC-97­ final­ assembly track­was­reduced­to­a­single­line­with­an­assembly line­for­the­KC-135­established­alongside­it.­Aircraft on­the­two­lines­stood­almost­wing­tip­to­wing­tip,­so the­transfer­of­skilled­employees­from­one­operation to­ the­ other­ could­ be­ done­ with­ a­ minimum­ of expense­and­wasted­motion.­In­the­autumn­of­1956, the­last­KC-97­was­completed,­­the­KC-135­final assembly­line­was­lengthened­into­an­S­shape­and production­accelerated. One­of­many­effective­steps­taken­to­aid­KC-135 production­ was­ the­ construction­ of­ a­ full-scale

The static test ‘airframe’, part of 45 feet wide, 100 feet long and 24 feet high KC-135 aircraft was taken from Renton, Washington, to a ‘torture chamber’ at Boeing’s Seattle Plant. (DGR Picture Library)

mockup­of­the­tanker/transport.­The­mockup­was constructed­ from­ engineering­ drawings­ which included­ design­ refinements­ made­ as­ a­ result­ of experience­ building­ and­ flying­ the­ Dash­ 80.­ The mockup­proved­the­feasibility­of­all­installations. Even­ before­ any­ aircraft­ flew,­ Boeing­ began testing­a­static­airframe­at­Seattle.­To­achieve­this result­a­partial­fuselage,­complete­with­wing­centre section­and­front­and­rear­spar­fittings,­was­subjected to­various­forces­in­a­water­tank­and­after­a­simulated 70,000­ hours­ flying­ it­ was­ damaged­ to­ check­ for potential­problems.­It­seems­Boeing­had­learned­their lesson­from­the­De­Havilland­Comet­tragedy. This­test­airframe,­built­between­the­seventh­and eighth­ aircraft,­ was­ not­ allocated­ a­ construction number­by­Boeing.­There­were­some­minor­design changes­ as­ a­ result­ of­ the­ tests­ and­ these­ were incorporated­in­actual­production­aircraft­while­data from­the­trials­and­the­later­cyclic­test­airframe­were used­in­the­reskinning­programme.­

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The­first­order­of­twenty-nine­aircraft­were­built under­the­Boeing­designation­of­Model­717-100A with­ constructors­ numbers­ 17234­ to­ 17262­ and USAF­serials­55-3118­to­55-3146.­Unsubstantiated rumours­abound­about­the­USAF­ordering­the­KC135­following­a­roll­by­the­Dash­80­during­a­test flight­-­the­feeling­being­that­this­demonstrated­that the­aircraft­was­capable­of­‘combat­manoeuvres’;­but that­myth­has­never­been­proven! Following­the­initial­order­Boeing­had­to­modify the­design­concept­to­reflect­the­USAF­requirements; these­were­increasing­the­length­by­eight­feet­three inches­and­making­the­fuselage­twelve­inches­wider and­two­inches­deeper,­to­164­inches.­The­rear­cargo door­was­deleted,­leaving­just­the­forward­fuselage door­ which­ opened­ upwards­ and­ outwards­ and increasing­the­gross­weight­to­316,000­pounds,­which was­68,000­pounds­more­than­the­first­civilian­707s.­ Thousands­of­Boeing­employees­observed­the roll-out­of­the­first­KC-135­-­a­ceremony­that­was accompanied­by­a­low-level­flyover­of­the­Dash­80 and­a­B-52­bomber.­A­predictable­group­of­dignitaries was­assembled­for­the­occasion,­including­Boeing President­William­Allen,­Air­Force­Lt-Gen­Clarence S­Irvine­(deputy­chief­of­staff­for­materiel),­Renton’s Mayor­Joseph­R­Baxter,­and­Karen­McGarrigle­who had­ the­ distinction­ of­ being­ ‘Miss­ Renton­ 1956’. Miss­McGarrigle­christened­55-3118­City of Renton,

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although­it­was­the­mayor’s­wife­who­swung­a­bottle of­Cedar­River­water­against­metal­for­the­event, assisted­by­Renton­factory­manager­Harvey­Kent.­ Engineering­ ground­ tests­ of­ engines­ and­ preflight­work­on­City of Renton began­during­the­week of­ 23­ August­ 1956.­ Kent­ reported­ satisfactory progress­ with­ Boeing’s­ ‘shakedown’,­ Air­ Force inspections­and­taxi­runs,­and­indicated­that­the­first eight­production­tankers­would­take­off­from­Renton and­land­at­Boeing­Field­in­Seattle­for­delivery­to­the Air­Force.­The­ninth­airframe­was­to­go­to­the­nearby Moses­Lake­Flight­Center­for­delivery.­ Dix­Loesch,­now­the­project­pilot­on­the­KC-135 programme,­told­the­gathered­press­that­the­first­nine production­tankers­would­undergo­an­estimated­1,380 hours­ of­ flight­ testing,­ with­ one­ airframe­ to­ be subjected­to­three­months­of­sub-zero­investigations in­simulated­Arctic­conditions­in­the­climatic­hangar at­ Eglin­AFB,­ Florida.­Aircraft­ 1,­ 2,­ and­ 3­ were scheduled­for­flight­testing­by­the­company­at­Boeing Field­while­Aircraft­5­through­9­were­scheduled­for the­Air­Force­at­Edwards­AFB,­California;­Loring AFB,­Maine­(an­operational­SAC­base);­Eglin;­and a­special­adverse-weather­testing­location­at­Ladd AFB,­Alaska. At­the­end­of­August­1956,­Air­Force­Secretary Donald­A­Quarles­announced­that­the­production­of Stratotankers­would­be­speeded­up,­a­previouslyplanned­ production­ rate­ of­ 20­ per­ month­ to­ be realised­‘substantially­sooner’.­General­LeMay­had told­the­Senate­Armed­Services­Sub-committee­of SAC’s­need­for­more­jet­tankers.­‘We [can]­increase our intercontinental strike capability considerably from our planned base structure and with the same Left: Mrs Joseph Baxter breaks a bottle of Cedar River water over the nose of City of Renton.The Cedar River provides drinking water for the greater Seattle area and drains into Puget Sound via Lake Washington and the Lake Washington Ship Canal.

Below: 55-3118, the first KC-135, is rolled out alongside the last KC-97, 53-3616, built. (USAF)

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size bomber force if we [have] more jet tankers than we are now programmed to have’. LeMay­compared­the­KC-135A­to­the­pistonengine­KC-97: ‘The slower conventional tanker, in order to make proper contact with its bomber, must depart several hours before the bomber. The bomber, forced to wait on the ground, is then exposed to enemy attack. The airplanes we are now refuelling are jet airplanes. ‘A jet tanker has the same general performance characteristics as the bomber, and therefore can accompany the bomber, eliminating the rendezvous problems. In addition, the performance of the jet tankers is such that the refuelling altitude is at a height above most of the weather ...and adds to range because the bomber does not have to descend to piston-engine altitudes to receive its load of fuel’. Ten­ days­ ahead­ of­ the­ planned­ schedule,­ just before­ 1pm­ on­ 31­August­ 1956,­ ‘City of Renton’ made­a­trial­taxi-run­at­Renton­and­took­position­at the­south­end­of­the­runway­for­its­maiden­flight. Aboard­ were­ Boeing’s­ chief­ of­ flight­ test,­ Tex Johnston,­ and­ senior­ experimental­ test­ pilot­ Dix Loesch,­ the­ latter­ occupying­ the­ left-hand­ seat­ as pilot-in-command.­Loesch­took­the­KC-135A­aloft and­after­one­hour­nineteen­minutes­landed­at­Boeing Field­in­Seattle.­Also­on­board­was­Boeing­President William­Allen.­He­commented­on­the­trouble-free flight:­‘In the first place it was remarkable that the plane was in the air about a week and a half ahead of schedule and in the second place, it was my first time to fly a new-type airplane on its maiden flight’. From­ the­ outset­ of­ its­ rigorous­ flight­ test programme­it­was­apparent­that­the­KC-l35A­had been­ designed­ to­ a­ standard­ of­ performance consistent­with­LeMay’s­high­expectations.­Powered by­four­Pratt­&­Whitney­turbojets­which­were­as advanced­as­anything­in­their­day.­It­was­a­heavier and­ more­ solid­ aircraft­ than­ its­ 707­ civilian contemporary­and­thus­needed­a­runway­as­long­as 13,700ft­in­tropical­weather,­a­distance­which­would have­been­completely­unacceptable­for­an­airliner. After­three­test­flights­and­three­hours­thirty-eight minutes­ in­ the­ air,­ City of Renton was­ laid­ up­ at Boeing­Field­for­installation­of­additional­equipment and­flight­test­instrumentation.­By­October­1956­the KC-135A­ was­ flying­ again,­ and­ made­ its­ first successful­delivery­of­fuel­in­flight,­to­a­B-52. ‘The KC-135 has had fewer systems problems than any plane I know of’, Loesch­was­quoted­in­one press­statement. Loesch­could­not­have­predicted­how­successful the­KC-135A­would­be,­but­the­flight­test­programme continued­ through­ the­ end­ of­ 1956­ with­ so­ little

difficulty­that­all­scheduling­goals­were­exceeded.­On 24­ January­ 1957 City of Renton was­ officially delivered­to­the­US­Air­Force,­Maj­Erich­Schleier signing­its­acceptance.­ In­early­1957­‘City of Renton’ took­part­in­Phase II­flight­testing­which­showed­that­it­could­off-load nearly­80%­more­fuel­than­the­KC-97­at­altitudes­up to­35,000­feet­-­compared­to­the­KC-97's­ceiling­of 18,000­ feet.­ It­ was­ not­ all­ roses­ however,­ as­ the aircraft­suffered­from­severe­rudder­flutter­at­high speed,­it­experienced­‘Dutch­Roll’­-­exactly­the­same as­with­the­Dash­80­-­especially­during­landing­and refuelling,­the­boom­required­high­stick­forces­and the­aircraft­suffered­from­‘unsafe’­take-off­control with­an­engine­out.­Boeing­had­intended­to­fit­a­yaw damper­as­part­of­the­autopilot­but­its­development was­delayed­‘so­the­Dutch­Roll­remained­a­problem even­ when­ the­ yaw­ damper­ was­ fitted­ as­ it­ was considered­ineffective.­‘City of Renton’ had­J57-P29A’s­ of­ 10,500­ pounds­ of­ dry­ thrust­ or­ 12,100 pounds­ with­ water­ injection­ while­ all­ subsequent aircraft­had­J57-P/F-43W’s­of­12,925­pounds­thrust with­water­injection.­ Take-off­power­was­marginal­when­fully­loaded and­in­an­attempt­to­increase­power­a­demineralised water­injection­system­was­installed­to­boost­power by­2250­pounds­of­thrust­per­engine,­but­the­original system­was­designed­that­one­pump­control­system powered­the­left­hand­engines­and­one­the­right­with catastrophic­results­when­one­side's­system­failed­on take-off.­It­was­later­redesigned­so­that­one­provided

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power­to­the­inner­engines­and­one­to­the­outer­pair.­ The­ engine-out­ performance­ on­ take-off­ and climb­out­remained­critical­and­was­only­really­cured with­ the­ KC-135E­ and­ KC-135R/T­ re-engining programmes.­Later­the­-43W­was­replaced­by­the­59W­which­was­identical­except­that­the­titanium parts­were­replaced­by­steel­ones­as­a­cost­saving move­(in­1950's­costs­the­saving­was­in­the­order­of $100,000­per­engine­even­though­there­was­a­weight penalty­of­400­pounds­per­engine).­Incidentally,­the letter­P­related­to­engine­built­by­Pratt­&­Whitney­and F­ meant­ it­ was­ assembled­ by­ Ford­ Aerospace, otherwise­they­were­identical. The­rudder­flutter­problem­which­plagued­both the­Dash­80-­and­the­KC-135­design­was­helped­by adding­extra­layers­of­aluminiu­m­to­the­top­of­the­fin and­fitting­dual­rudder­dampers­while­a­hydraulically powered­boom­improved­its­operation­but­was­not perfect.­The­fitting­of­a­tall­fin­-­increasing­its­height by­forty­inches­-­and­powered­rudder­boost­reduced the­pilot's­input­during­instances­of­engine-out­and was­introduced­on­the­583rd­KC-135A­produced­(623532)­and­subsequently­refitted­to­the­remainder.

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The­second­aircraft,­55-3119,­was­used­for­static air­load­survey­tests­while­five­others­were­involved in­over­1000­hours­of­acceptance­testing.­55-3121 was­ flown­ to­ Wright-Patterson­ AFB­ for­ adverse weather­tests­that­would­take­it­to­Elgin’s­climatic hangar­and­then­included­Arctic­icing­trials­and­cold temperature­soaks­down­to­-65°­Fahrenheit­followed by­high­temperature­trials­in­Arizona;­55-3122­in performance­evaluation;­55-3124­in­stability­tests­and 55-3125­and­55-3126­City of Moses Lake both­took part­ in­ functional­ tests­ and­ 56-3591­ was­ used­ by Boeing­for­refuelling­compatibility­testing. Normal­ flight­ crew­ was­ four;­ pilot,­ co-pilot, navigator­ and­ boom-operator­ or­ ‘boomer’,­ while power­was­provided­by­four­Pratt­&­Whitney­J57P/F-43WB­ non-afterburning­ turbojets­ of­ 11,200 pounds­thrust­dry­and­12,925­pounds­thrust­wet­with water­ injection.­ This­ meant­ that­ the­ aircraft­ was restricted­to­a­minimum­13,000­foot­long­runway when­fully­loaded­even­when­using­water/methanol injection­as­take-off­run­was­9,250­feet­at­normal operating­ weight­ when­ at­ sea­ level­ and­ 59° Fahrenheit.­Although­the­original­USAF­requirement

KC-135 55-3118 in flight with the Dash-80 and T-33 chase aircraft. (DGR Picture Library)

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The classic water-methanol ‘smokey-joe’ take-off is demonstrated by this unidentified KC-135. The smoke stopped as soon as the water-meth was switched off. (USAF)

was­a­maximum­take-off­weight­of­295,000­pounds, Boeing­ showed­ that­ the­ airframe­ was­ capable­ of operating­at­325,000­pounds,­but­the­engines­had insufficient­ power­ for­ this­ weight.­At­ hot­ or­ high elevation­airfields­the­aircraft­could­not­take­off­fully laden!­The­J-57­engines­gave­the­KC-135A­a­top speed­of­about­600mph,­a­ceiling­of­45,000ft­and­a range­of­9,942­miles­using­all­internal­fuel.­Mission range­ was­ 2900­ nautical­ miles­ with­ a­ transfer­ of about­ 95,000­ pounds­ of­ fuel.­ The­ use­ of water/methanol­injection­led­to­a­characteristic­black smoke­trail­on­take-off­but­as­soon­as­the­injection was­switched­off­the­trail­ceased,­KC-135As­carried a­700­gallon­water­tank­for­take-off,­but­supplies­of sufficiently­pure­water­was­sometimes­a­problem, especially­on­overseas­deployments.­ Initially­fuel­was­carried­in­six­wing­tanks­as well­ as­ an­ integral­ centre­ wing­ tank­ and­ two fuselage­tanks,­one­forward­and­one­aft­of­the­wing

although­ later­ a­ rear­ upper­ deck­ tank­ was­ also fitted­-­the­body­tanks­were­beneath­the­main­deck and­comprised­several­cells­in­each.­There­were two­refuelling­pumps­installed­(one­forward,­one aft)­and­fuel­could­be­moved­from­tank­to­tank­in flight.­The­KC-135A­could­either­use­all­the­fuel itself­ or­ off-load­ it­ to­ a­ receiving­ aircraft­ (a minimum­300­US­gallons­is­retained­in­each­main wing­tank)­and­the­maximum­fuel­load­is­30,000 US­ gallons­ -­ or­ 195,000­ pounds­ -­ while comparative­figures­for­the­KC-135R­are­31,725 US­gallons.­or­203,300­pounds. There­ was­ a­ distinct­ difference­ in­ service-life ideals­between­the­civil­and­military­variants;­the­civil 707s­were­designed­to­be­fail-safe­while­the­KC-135, which­would­probably­fly­a­lot­less,­was­designed­to a­safe-life­requirement­including­the­use­of­different aluminium­alloys­in­the­fuselage­and­on­the­lower wing­surfaces­(7178­in­the­military­version­and­2024 in­ the­ 707).­ The­ original specification­was­for­a­life­of­only 10,000­hours­which­was­reached by­some­of­the­aircraft­in­the­early 1970s. The­use­of­the­7178­aluminium alloy­ led­ to­ fatigue­ problems caused­ by­ engine­ exhaust impinging­on­the­rear­fuselage,but this­ was­ cured­ by­ the­ fitting­ of twenty-five­ stiffeners­ around­ the fuselage­ between­ the­ rear­ of­ the The boomer’s position in the rear of a KC-135. The centre couch, complete with head/chin rest belonged to him, those either side was for either Instructors or observers. (USAF)

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Above: The boomer’s position from outside and below showing the three windows there and the aerodynamic visor raised. The rear fuselage also clearly shows the additional stiffeners fitted to the KC-135s to help prevent damage caused by engine exhaust efflux. Below: the business end of the high speed refuelling boom, showing the probe in the retracted position. (both USAF)

wing­fillet­and­the­dorsal­fin.­Using­data­from­the cyclic­test­airframe­and­in-service­histories­it­became apparent­ that­ wing­ underskins­ were­ an­ area­ of concern­so­from­1975­onwards­the­entire­tanker­force was­modified­with­new­lower­wing­skins­to­increase the­expected­life­to­approximately­30,000­hours.­ Absolute­ maximum­ fuel­ capacity­ of­ the­ KC-

135A­was­31,200­US­gallons,­carried­either­in­the wings­or­under­the­main­cabin­-­all­of­which­could be­ used­ by­ the­ tanker­ to­ extend­ its­ own­ range­ or transferred­to­receiver­aircraft­at­a­rate­of­up­to­1,000 US­gallons­per­minute.­The­fuel­in­the­wing­was usually­for­tanker­use­while­the­fuel­intended­for transfer­ was­ normally­ carried­ in­ the­ lower­ unpressurised­fuselage­compartments.­ The­ initial­ means­ of­ transfer­ was­ the­ Flying Boom­nozzle­but­this­was­later­changed­to­allow probe­and­drogue­refuelling­from­the­boom­since­the majority­of­US­Navy­and­NATO­air­forces­use­this method’.­Two­types­of­Flying­Boom­could­be­fitted, one­for­use­at­all­speeds­and­one­that­can­only­be­used up­to­330­knots.­The­boom­is­normally­against­the underside­of­the­rear­fuselage­when­not­in­use­and operated­in­cone­of­movement;­plus­12.5°,­minus­50° vertically­and­30°­horizontally­either­side­of­the­flight datum. Operation­of­the­boom­is­from­a­pod­under­the fuselage,­ where­ the­ boom­ operator­ lays­ on­ their stomach­facing­rearwards­with­the­controls­in­front of­them,­also­fitted­are­additional­positions­for­use­by instructors,­students­or­observers.­The­boom­contains a­ probe­ which­ extends­ to­ make­ contact­ with­ the receiver's­refuelling­receptacle,­when­contact­is­made fuel­is­transferred.­ By­June­1957,­testing­and­deliveries­of­the­KC135A­were­proceeding­so­smoothly,­with­so­little difficulty,­ that­ Boeing­ could­ only­ get­ their achievements­into­local­newspapers­by­trotting­out another­beauty­queen­-­Margery­Barr,­who­held­the title­Miss West Seattle -­and­posing­her­with­a­135. Like­many­stories­in­aviation,­the­KC-135A­was­now something­of­a­non-story.­The­media­only­carried reports­ when­ an­ aircraft­ splattered­ against­ a mountainside­or­disintegrated­above­a­crowded­city, not­when­a­flight­development­and­production­effort proceeded­with­minimal­difficulty. Even­at­the­end­of­June­when­the­first­three­KC135As­to­reach­SAC­were­delivered­to­the­93rd­Air Refueling­Squadron,­part­of­the­93rd­Bomb­Wing­at Castle­AFB,­California­(the­first­of­these­being­553127),­the­event­was­newsworthy­only­because­of­the presence­ of­ Colonel­ Winston­ Close,­ the­ Wings deputy­ commander.­ Close,­ by­ all­ accounts,­ had scored­ a­ hat­ trick,­ picking­ up­ the­ first­ B-29 manufactured­by­Boeing­in­Wichita­in­1943­and­also the­first­B-52D! A myriad of variants When­is­a­KC-135­not­a­KC-135?­With­well­over sixty­variants­of­the­basic­aircraft­a­KC-135­may­not be­a­tanker­at­all­but­may­be,­instead,­a­transport,­a

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The refuelling boom was far more than just a tube within a tube, as this picture of six booms undergoing deep maintenance shows. The boom adjacent to the one being worked on shows some of the mechanism involved in controlling it via the flying ‘vanes’. (USAF)

command­post­or­a­reconnaissance­aircraft.­One­of the­KC-135’s­many­roles­is­the­test­function.­Others carry­out­full-time­or­part-time­duties­which­may­or may­not­require­the­aircraft­to­be­modified.­ It­may­seem­obvious,­but­the­first­thing­is­to­look at­the­designation.­KC­aircraft­are­usually­tankers,­but not­ always.­ C­ aircraft­ -­ for­ cargo­ -­ are­ always transports,­not­just­usually,­but­some­of­the­time­VC aircraft­are­transports,­too,­used­to­carry­dignitaries. EC­aircraft­have­an­electronic­role­of­some­sort­and are­usually­flying­command­posts.­RC­aircraft­have the­reconnaissance­role.­ Every­machine­in­the­KC-135­Stratotanker­series has­ such­ a­ prefix,­ but­ machines­ derived­ from­ the Boeing­ 707­ airliner­ have­ wholly­ different designations.­ The­ US­ Air­ Force’s­ system­ for designating­ its­ aircraft­ dates­ to­ 1924­ and­ is straightforward­enough­but­is­far­from­perfect,­so there­are­inconsistencies. Fuselage differences: A­ narrower­ double-lobe fuselage­ 128­ feet­ 10­ inches­ long­ with­ very­ few windows­identifies­one­of­the­many­machines­in­the KC-135­ series.­A­ fuselage­ with­ larger­ width,­ full double-lobe­cross-section,­windows­(sometimes)­and greater­length­identifies­a­military­derivative­of­the Boeing­707­airliner. Other­external­features­peculiar­to­the­KC-135 series­and­not­found­on­derivatives­of­the­Boeing­707

airliner­include­the­plain­pylon­struts­which­support the­ engines­ (the­ 707­ having­ some­ or­ all­ struts terminating­ in­ a­ ram­ air­ inlet­ for­ cabin,­ air-cycle conditioning)­and,­of­course,­the­boom­operator’s position­ and­ high-speed­ refuelling­ boom­ pivoted under­the­rear­fuselage. Powerplant differences: All­KC-135A­tankers and­ some­ other­ members­ of­ the­ family­ were originally­ powered­ by­ the­ annular-intake­ Pratt­ & Whitney­ J57­ (civil­ designation­ JT3C)­ two-spool, axial-flow­turbojet­engine­with­water­injection­which produced­about­13,000­pounds­thrust­at­8,200­rpm and­ was­ notorious­ for­ smoky­ take-offs.­ Thrust reversers­were­not­fitted.­This­engine­weighed­3,870 pounds­and­had­a­diameter­of­38.90­inches.­It­was the­ same­ powerplant­ employed­ by­ the­ B-52 Stratofortress. All­C-135B­variants,­all­Boeing­707­derivatives (except­ the­ E-6A­ and­ Saudi­ KE-3A)­ and­ many rebuilds­of­the­KC-135­series­were­powered­by­the Pratt­ &­ Whitney­ TF33­ (civil­ designation­ JT3D) turbo-fan­ engine­ which­ produced­ about­ 18,000 pounds­thrust­at­8,700rpm­and­was­developed­from the­J57­through­removal­of­the­first­three­compressor stages­and­replacement­by­two­fan­stages,­the­result being­a­nacelle­which­was­longer­and­more­perfectly cylindrical­ in­ appearance.­ Thrust­ reversers­ were employed.­This­engine­weighed­from­4,130­pounds

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to­4.570­pounds­with­a­diameter­of­53­inches.­ Newer­KC-135R­and­French­C-135FR­aircraft employed­the­F108­-­as­called­in­US­military­use,­and known­ in­ civil­ use­ as­ CFM56-2B-1­ and manufactured­by­CFM­International,­a­consortium­of General­ Electric­ and­ France’s­ Sociefe­ Nationale d'Etude­et­de­Construction­de­Moteurs­d'Aviation (SNECMA).­Saudi­KE-3As­and­the­E-6A­had­the almost­identical­CFM56-2A-2.­This­engine­weighed 4,612­pounds­and­is­95.7­inches­in­length.­A­subsonic turbofan­in­the­20,000­pounds­thrust­class,­it­was shorter­ and,­ more­ importantly­ ‘fatter’­ than­ other powerplants.­lt­is­not­an­exaggeration­to­say­that­this engine­on­the­KC-135R­gives­the­illusion­of­almost dragging­the­ground,­the­simple­result­of­its­girth. Vertical fin differences: Early­KC-135A­tankers

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were­ delivered­ with­ a­ manually-operated­ rudder. These­so-called­‘short-finned’­aircraft­had­a­height­of thirty-eight­feet­five­inches­and­were­identifiable­by the­fin­cap­being­mounted­directly­above­the­rudder. They­were­retrofitted,­and­later­production­KC-135s were­delivered­with­a­powered­rudder.­This­produced a­forty­inch­fin­extension­and­was­identified­by­a­fin extension­above­the­rudder­with­the­fin­cap­installed on­top,­the­height­of­the­aircraft­being­increased­to forty-one­feet­eight­inches. Firstly,­let­us­look­at­the­new-build­aircraft,­as supplied­ from­ the­ original­ Boeing­ C/KC-135 production­line.­This­comprised­of­732­KC-135As, 4­RC-135A,­10­RC-135Bs,­15­C-135As,­10­C-135Bs and­12­C-135Fs.

KC-135A The­first­order­of­29­aircraft­were­built­under­the Boeing­ designation­ Model­ 717-100A­ with constructors­numbers­17234­to­17262­and­USAF serials­55-3118­to­55-3146.­The­order­was­placed by­the­USAF­on­5­October­1954.­ The­first­three­aircraft­were­delivered­to­93rd ARS­at­Castle­AFB,­CA­on­30­April­1957­and­they began­ KC-135A­ operations­ in­ June­ 1957. Eventually­deliveries­of­the­KC-135As­peaked­at 15­aircraft­a­month­and­all­732­were­completed­by 12­January­1965,­when­64-14840­was­delivered­to 380th­ARS. C-135A Both­ Boeing­ and­ Douglas­ proposed­ swing-tail cargo­aircraft­to­USAF­in­the­late­1950s­to­update their­ strategic­ airlift­ capability.­This­ resulted­ in forty-five­Boeing­C-135A­aircraft­ordered­without the­refuelling­system­as­cargo­or­troop­transports with­ the­ Model­ number­ 717-157­ following President­Kennedy's­decision­to­create­a­quickThe classic Strategic Air Command photograph - a B-52 tanking with a KC-135A.

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Boeing C-135A-BN Stratolifter 60-0376 of MATS landing at Prestwick in 1961. The aircraft has dayglo red areas by the cockpit and at the base of the vertical fin.

response­ capability.­ The­ C-135A­ was­ not­ as advanced­ as­ the­ proposed­ designs­ and­ was basically­a­KC-135A­minus­the­refuelling­boom, a­strengthened­floor­and­fuel­dumping­facilities­not­a­specific­transport­aircraft­although­they­were seen­ as­ an­ interim­ aircraft­ before­ the­ C-141 Starlifter­ was­ delivered.­ Seating­ capacity­ was increased­to­126­troops­up­to­a­possible­maximum of­160,­and­additional­‘passenger’­facilities­were installed,­ such­ as­ toilets­ and­ increased soundproofing.­ C-135s­had­a­cargo­handling­system­built­in but­ this­ reduced­ the­ capacity­ of­ the­ cargo compartment­ and­ was­ seldom­ used.­ The requirement­for­a­fork­lift­truck­with­ten­foot­reach also­caused­some­loading­problems.­The­last­thirty were­ completed­ as­ Model­ 717-158/C-135Bs. Following­delivery­of­the­Starlifters­the­C-135s were­relegated­to­other­missions­such­as­command support,­airborne­command­posts­and­test­beds.

RC-135A Nine­RC-135As­were­originally­ordered­in­1962 to­ replace­ a­ fleet­ of­ RB-50­ Superfortresses although­this­was­later­reduced­to­four­due­to­cost overruns.­ These­ aircraft­ were­ built­ as­ Boeing Model­number­739-700­for­reconnaissance­duties but­ were­ the­ last­ of­ the­ variants­ of­ C/KC-135s delivered­to­the­USAF­in­the­mid­60s,­although they­were­not­declared­fully­operational­until­about 1971.­They­were­built­with­the­J57-P­turbojets­of the­KC-135As­but­carried­cameras­just­aft­of­the nose­ undercarriage­ bay­ in­ place­ of­ the­ forward fuselage­fuel­tank­while­the­refuelling­system­was omitted­with­a­fuel­dump­tube­replacing­it.­They were­used­for­photographic­and­surveying­work and­ their­ cameras­ could­ distinguish­ ten­ foot objects­from­a­height­of­40,000­feet.­In­1972­they were­relegated­to­support­aircraft­status­then,­in­the late­70s,­they­were­converted­to­tankers­as­KC135D.­Mission­crew­was­nominally­ten­but­not­all crew­members­flew­all­missions.­

63-8061 was one of four RC-135As and was used by the 1370th Photo Mapping Wing. Note the camera bay under the lower front fuselage. (author’s collection)

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Boeing C-135B-BN Stratolifter 62-4137 of MATS gets airborne from Prestwick, Scotland in 1963.

C-135B The­original­order­for­C-135As­was­for­forty-five aircraft­but­only­the­first­fifteen­were­completed as­ such,­ the­ remaining­ thirty­ being­ built­ as­ C135Bs.­The­power­units­were­Pratt­&­Whitney TF33-P-5­turbofans­(the­military­designation­of the­JT3Ds­of­16,050­pounds­thrust­used­to­power civilian­ 707s)­ and­ this­ extra­ thrust­ required modifications­to­the­horizontal­and­vertical­tail surfaces­ resulting­ in­ the­ new­ Boeing­ Model number­717-158. Like­ the­ C-135A­ they­ retained­ the­ boom operators­ pod­ but­ the­ refuelling­ probe­ was deleted.­ Maximum­ load­ was­ 89,000­ pounds­ or 126­combat­troops­or­44­litters­and­54­seats­in med-evac­ role­ but­ they­ were­ used­ mainly­ as transports­until­superseded­by­the­Lockheed­C141­Starlifter.­Some­were­used­as­transports­for middle­ ranking­ staff,­ others­ were­ converted­ to weather­reconnaissance­aircraft­as­WC-135Bs.­On 20-21­February­1963­a­C-135B­flew­from­Clark AFB­ in­ the­ Philippines­ to­ McGuire­ AFB,­ a distance­of­9,868­miles­to­set­a­new­world­record for­ transport­ aircraft.­ The­ last­ C-135Bs­ were converted­to­RC-135Ws­in­the­mid­1990s,­Most of­the­C-135Bs­were­modified­to­reconnaissance

variants­or­other­designations­but­three­were­lost while­still­operating­as­C-135Bs,­one­during­the Cuban­ missile­ crisis­ while­ supplying­ the Guantanamo­Naval­Base­in­Cuba.

KC-135B These­were­fitted­with­the­flying­boom­installation but­ were­ also­ provided­ with­ air­ refuelling receptacles­so­their­normal­eight­and­a­half­hours endurance­ could­ be­ extended­ by­ in-flight refuelling.­KC-135Bs­were­powered­by­the­TF33P­turbofans­(but­without­thrust­reversers)­as­the C-135B­ and­ were­ used­ as­Airborne­ Command Posts.­ The­ cargo­ deck­ was­ divided­ into­ office, communications­ and­ living­ compartments;­ the plan­being­that­at­any­one­time­a­command­post aircraft­would­be­airborne­(with­one­on­standby) with­a­staff­officer­-­that­is­a­general­or­above­capable­of­maintaining­communications­with­the Armed­ Forces­ in­ case­ of­ war.­ This­ operation ceased­in­early­1990­following­the­ending­of­the Cold­ War­ and­ they­ now­ stand­ runway­ alert. Shortly­after­delivery­the­majority­of­the­aircraft were­re-designated­EC-135C­with­SAC­while­the remaining­three­became­EC-135J­with­National Command­Authority.

61-2667 was originally built as a C-135B Stratolifter, but was converted to WC-135B standard in 1965. (author’s collection)

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63-8054 was built as a KC-135B and was later converted to an EC-135C (author’s collection)

RC-135B Similar­to­the­RC-135As­but­fitted­with­TF33-P turbofans­ without­ thrust­ reversers,­ these­ were electronic­intelligence­(ELINT)­aircraft­and­were the­ first­ variant­ specifically­ built­ for­ use­ as­ a reconnaissance­ platform.­ They­ were­ the­ final aircraft­produced­from­the­original­C/KC-135A family­with­the­last­deliveries­made­in­1965­and were­delivered­direct­to­Glenn­L­Martin­Co­for storage­prior­to­conversion­to­RC-135Cs.

C-135F The­French­Air­Force­(Armee­de­l'Air)­ordered twelve­tankers­in­1962­to­refuel­their­Mirage­IVA strategic­nuclear­bombers­and­they­were­delivered in­ 1964.­ They­ were­ originally­ ordered­ with turbofan­ engines­ but­ the­ French­ accepted­ J57 engines­because­of­costs.­They­do­not­have­the­‘K’ tanker­prefix­as­they­were­planned­to­be­used­ln the­dual­tanker/transport­role,­but­are­permanently fitted­with­the­probe­and­drogue­adapter­since­the French­ employed­ this­ refuelling­ system.­ They were­test­flown­using­USAF­serials­and­reserialled with­ the­ last­ five­ of­ the­ USAF­ serial­ in­ French

service.­They­were­powered­by­J57-P­turbojets, eleven­being­converted­to­C-135FR­and­operated by­ERV.93.

Modifications The­basic­design­of­the­C/KC-135­was­soon­seen as­ being­ highly­ suitable­ for­ a­ number­ of specialised­missions­that­spawned­a­proliferation of­designations­which­emanated­from­the­changes of­role­from­one­use­to­another,­or­in­some­cases also­switches­between­services. The­following­listing­is­an­alphabetical­order by­prefix­letter.

C-135A ‘Falsies’ Three­ KC-135As­ were­ built­ to­ partial­ C-135A standard­prior­to­delivery­of­the­proper­aircraft;­these were­ 60-0356,­ 60-0357­ and­ 60-0362­ and­ were referred­to­as­C-135A­‘Falsies’­due­to­the­refuelling system.­ The­ C-135As­ were­ built­ with­ the­ boom operators­pod­in­place­but­no­refuelling­probe­while the­three­converted­tankers­could­be­reconverted­to tankers­if­required.­They­were­converted­into­KC135A-II­‘Office­Boy’­by­Ling­Temco­Vought­(LTV)

12739 of the French Armee de l'Air coded ‘CK’ formerly 61-2739 of the USAF. (author’s collection)

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Scenes from inside an EC-135 in the role of Airborne Command Post . Top left, the Intel Team, top: the Data Operator. Above and left: the Battle Staff. Below: the lumps, bumps and aerials are clearly visible on this ‘Looking Glass’ aircraft flying ‘on station’

For fifteen years, SAC's airborne command post fleet remained constant in numbers, mission, and organisation. Centred around a EC-135C ‘Looking Glass’ operated by the 2nd ACCS, the fleet included two on 15 minute ground alert. The 4th ACCS provided ALCCs No. 1, 2 and 3, and the 70th AREFS supported Radio Relays No. 1 and 2. All were on satellite alert at Minot AFB, and Radio Relay No. 2 was on alert at Rickenbacker ANGB, Ohio (formerly Lockbourne AFB). (2AACS/USAF)

(all 2AACS/USAF)

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NKC-135A of the US Navy's Fleet Electronic Warfare Systems Group (US Navy)

from­September­1961-April­1963­and­re-designated as­RC-135Ds­by­January­1965. EC-135A These­aircraft­were­fourteen­KC-135As­converted with­additional­avionics­to­act­as­radio­relay­link aircraft­ in­ support­ of­ the­ SAC­ Post-Attack Command­Control­System,­an­airborne­command and­communication­system­with­the­capability­to take­ over­ from­ destroyed­ ground­ installations following­a­nuclear­attack.­The­first­machine,­623579,­ was­ delivered­ to­ Andrews­ AFB­ on­ 2 September­ 1964­ followed­ by­ two­ more­ in November­and­the­other­eleven­were­redesignated on­1­January­1965.­The­air­refuelling­system­was retained­but­the­aircraft­could­also­be­refuelled­to enable­ an­ extended­ flight­ envelope­ of­ up­ to seventy-two­hours­duration. They­were­powered­by­the­J57-P­turbojets­but received­extra­antenna.­All­were­either­reconverted to­tankers,­withdrawn­from­use­or­modified­to­EC135Ps.­The­five­FY58­aircraft­were­transferred­to USCINCPAC­as­‘Blue­Eagle’­airborne­command posts­ in­ 1965­ while­ the­ remainder­ operated­ as ‘Looking­ Glass’­ machines,­ so­ called­ as­ they mirrored­ SAC’s­ underground­ command­ post. Those­converted­were­known­as­(RT)­aircraft.

GKC-135A The­82nd­TW­at­Sheppard­AFB,­TX­used­one­retired

tanker­ for­ training­ on­ the­ heavy­ airframes­ in­ the USAF's­inventory.­The­aircraft­was­handed­over­in October­1992­and­received­the­above­designation.

GNC-135A This­ex-test­aircraft­was­withdrawn­in­June­1976­and transferred­to­Chanute­AFB,­lL­as­an­instructional airframe,­and­broken­up­in­October­1991­with­the­aft fuselage­moving­to­Wright-Patterson­AFB,­OH. GNKC-135A 55-3124­was­a­retired­tanker,­previously­used­as­a­test airframe.­Located­at­Sheppard­AFB,­TX­it­was­used as­a­ground­instructional­airframe­by­the­82nd­TW.

JNKC-135A Sixteen­early­KC-135As­were­dedicated­to­full-time testing­roles­and­were­given­the­J-prefix­to­show­their status­as­test­aircraft.Those­converted­to­NKC-135A status­were­intended­to­be­long­term­test­airframes and­not­be­converted­back­to­tanker­configuration.

NC-135A 60-0377­ started­ out­ as­ a­ standard­ C-135A Stratofreighter.­ It­ was­ converted­ to­ the­ NC-135A configuration­ when­ it­ was­ adapted­ to­ be­ the­ B-2 avionics­testbed,­on­which­the­radar­and­navigation systems­ were­ tested­ and­ validated­ with­ over­ 300 sorties,­ before­ the­ B-2­ took­ to­ the­ air.­ (In­ some sources,­it's­referred­to­as­an­NC-135A­and­a­C-135E,

At some stage in its life 717-148 60-0377 was used as an avionics test aircraft for the B-2 ‘Spirit’ stealth bomber. (author’s collection)

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USAF NKC-135 ‘Big Crow’ with oversized nose at a forward deployed operating base. (TSgt Robert J Horstman USAF)

but­there's­no­indication­that­these­are­correct).­After the­B-2­program­came­to­an­end,­the­aircraft­was retired­and­put­into­storage­at­Edwards­AFB.

KC-135A Relay During­the­conflict­in­South­East­Asia­the­USAF converted­two­KC-135A­to­communications­relay role­to­provide­airborne­communications­capability for­ tactical­ aircraft­ conducting­ combat­ operations where­they­operated­as­‘Combat­Lightning’­aircraft. They­acted­as­communications­relay­between­the EC-121T­airborne­warning­and­control­aircraft­and the­ground­processing­station­for­operational­combat missions­as­well­as­MEDEVAC­and­rescue­ops,­and could­also­pass­information­between­ground­units. Modifications­included­numerous­small­antennae­on both­the­upper­and­lower­fuselage­and­they­carried an­AN/ARC-89­communications­relay­set­internally. Following­conversion­by­LTV­Electrosystems­the first­two,­(61-0271,­61-0280),­arrived­in­Japan­in September­1966­and­operations­began­in­October. They­ were­ later­ supplemented­ by­ two­ EC-135Ls until­five­more­converted­KC-135As­were­delivered. While­the­primary­role­was­radio­relay­they­could also­ act­ as­ tankers­ in­ an­ emergency.­ Following withdrawal­ from­ SE­ Asia­ in­ 1973,­ two­ were converted­back­to­tankers­while­the­others­lost­some of­the­radio­relay­equipment­and­were­also­used­as

tankers­ but­ retained­ their­ antennae­ as­ well­ as provision­for­relay­gear.­At­least­two­other­KC-135As were­converted­to­Relay­role­in­the­late­1970s.

NKC-135A Three­C-135As­were­converted­to­NC-135A­for­the Atomic­Energy­Commission,­they­were­developed under­ the­ ‘Rivet­ Digger’­ programme­ to­ monitor Nuclear­ Test­ Ban­ Treaty­ violations.­ Following conversion­by­General­Dynamics,­one­was­assigned to­each­of­the­AEC­labs­and­were­used­to­monitor atomic­fireballs,­optical­and­spectral­data­collection and­radiation­analysis.­They­were­later­reassigned­to Air­Force­Systems­Command. These­were­modifications­to­the­original­tanker aircraft­that­would­prove­uneconomical­to­reconvert to­that­purpose.­Different­aircraft­were­converted­for different­purposes,­some­by­alternative­services­such as­the­US­Navy.­They­were­used­in­a­wide­range­of trials­ ranging­ from­ weightlessness­ training­ for astronauts,­through­ECM­and­related­fields,­ALL, airframe­ icing­ trials,­ communications­ research, advanced­ air­ refuelling­ techniques­ to­ some reconnaissance­system­testing­including­some­highly classified­programmes.­All­were­later­assigned­to­Air Force­Systems­Command­except­the­USN­examples. Some­of­the­many­programmes­undertaken­by the­NKC-135A­fleet­include­High­Energy­Laser­and

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Airborne­Laser­Lab­(55-3123);­winglet­testing­(553129);­celestial­navigation­testing­(55-3134);­‘Big Crow’­ICBM­vulnerability­programme­(55-3132); and­ALOTS­(Airborne­Lightweight­Optical­Tracking System)­testing.­The­pod­was­mounted­on­the­a­C135­cargo­door­and­could­be­fitted­to­the­aircraft when­ needed.­ 55-3123,­ the­ aircraft­ in­ the­ USAF Museum,­was­used­as­the­original­Airborne­Laser Lab­ and­ is­ credited­ with­ shooting­ down­ five Sidewinder­air-to-air­missiles­and­a­target­drone!­553129­ was­ employed­ by­ NASA­ to­ test­ Whitcomb winglets­ to­ determine­ fuel­ cost­ savings­ but­ the programme­ was­ not­ proceeded­ with­ while­ others have­been­used­for­various­ECM­equipment­testing. In­the­case­of­55-3135,­converted­to­TF33-PW-102 (JT-3D)­turbofan­engines­and­used­for­refuelling­tests with­new­aircraft­while­the­‘Big­Crow’­aircraft­(553132)­was­also­re-engined­in­January­1991­having been­fitted­with­IFR­in­1986.­55-3134­and­56-3596 were­ transferred­ to­ the­ US­ Navy­ for­ the­ Fleet Electronic­Warfare­Support­Group­(FEWSG)­which was­ later­ named­ Fleet­ Tactical­ Readiness­ Group (FTRG)­in­September­1994­then­Fleet­Information Warfare­Center­(FIWC)­in­October­1995.­They­were allocated­ US­ Navy­ serials­ 553134­ and­ 563596 respectively­ and­ used­ for­ ECCM­ (Electronic Counter-Counter­Measure)­training­and­testing­and resulted­in­the­service's­later­order­for­E-6A­aircraft. One­of­the­FTRG­aircraft,­due­a­major­service,­was flown­to­Davis-Monthan­AFB­in­mid-1995­following a­ period­ of­ storage­ at­ Greenville,­ TX­ and­ was followed­by­the­other­eight­months­later.

EC-135B Two­ aircraft­ from­ the­ original­ C-135B­ T/RIA (Telementry/Range­ Instrumentation­ Aircraft)

The ARIA nose with its ten foot diameter cover off, revealing a seven foot diameter steerable radar dish. (USAF)

conversions­were­themselves­converted­in­1979/80 to­ EC-135B­ ARIA­ configuration­ following­ the installation­ of­ PMEE­ (Prime­ Mission­ Electronic Equipment)­from­two­EC-135N­ARlA’s­(60-0372, 62-41333),­ when­ they­ were­ demodified­ for­ other uses.­Subsequently­the­PMEE­was­installed­in­C18A’s­ 81-0891/6­ respectively­ when­ they­ were converted­to­EC-18B­ARlAs.­The­EC-135B­retained the­TF33-P-5­engines­of­18,000­pounds­thrust. The­ two­ EC-18B­ Advanced­ Range Instrumentation­ Aircraft­ were­ retired­ 24­ August 2001.­Both­EC-18Bs­assigned­to­Edwards­AFB­were transferred­ to­ the­ Air­ Force's­ Joint­ STARS programme­by­September­2001.­The­costs­associated with­ maintaining­ the­ aircraft­ and­ its­ capability became­ a­ major­ factor­ in­ ending­ the­ ARIA programme. The­452nd­Flight­Test­Squadron­at­Edwards­Air Force­ Base­ operated­ a­ variety­ of­ unique,­ highly modified­C-135­and­C-18­aircraft­to­plan­and­execute DoD,­NASA,­and­operational­flight­test­programmes. Missions­ supported­ include­ worldwide­ telemetry gathering,­international­treaty­verification,­spacecraft launches,­ballistic­missile­defence,­electronic­combat and­vulnerability­analysis,­aircraft­icing­tests,­and aerial­refueling­certification. The­452­FTS­accomplished­its­primary­mission using­the­Advanced­Range­Instrumentation­Aircraft (ARIA)­ and­ the­ Cruise­ Missile­ Mission­ Control Aircraft­ (CMMCA).­The­ARIA,­ which­ originally stood­ for­Apollo­ Range­ Instrumentation­Aircraft, travelled­the­globe­and­served­as­airborne­tracking and­telemetry­data-recording­and­relay­stations.­They flew­over­land­where­ground­tracking­stations­are limited­by­geographical­constraints­and­over­broad ocean­areas­where­tracking­stations­do­not­exist.­The

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OC-135B from the 55th Wing, Offutt AFB, Nebraska, seen arriving for Royal International Air Tattoo 2000 held at RAF Cottesmore in the UK (author).

unit­supported­a­variety­of­national­and­international customers,­both­military­and­commercial,­including NASA­ and­ Department­ of­ Defense­ missions supporting­unmanned­space­launches,­cruise­missile tests,­Army,­Navy­and­Air­Force­ballistic­missile­tests and­space­shuttle­launches. The­Advanced­Range­Instrumentation­Aircraft (ARIA­-­pronounced­Ah-RYE-ah)­were­EC-135E and­ EC-18B­ aircraft­ used­ as­ flexible­ airborne telemetry­data­recording­and­relay­stations.­These aircraft­ were­ designed­ and­ developed­ to supplement­land­and­marine­telemetry­stations­in support­ of­ DOD­ and­ NASA­ space­ and­ missile programs.­ The­ ARIA­ have­ the­ capability­ to acquire,­ track,­ record,­ and­ retransmit­ telemetry signals,­primarily­in­the­S-band­(2200-2400­MHz) frequency­range.­ARIA­possesses­a­sagging­and misshapen­nose­as­its­most­distinguishing­feature, earning­ it­ the­ nicknames­ ‘Droop­ Snoot’­ and ‘Snoopy­Nose.’­The­bird's­bulbous­beak­is­actually a­ten-foot­radome­housing­a­seven-foot­steerable dish­antenna.­ OC-135B Three­WC-135Bs­were­converted­by­4950th­TW­at 62-4125, one of five VC-135Bs. (USAF)

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Wright­Patterson­AFB,­OH­to­OC-135B­standard­for operation­under­the­‘Open­Skies’­treaty.­Under­this treaty­the­US­was­allocated­up­to­42­flights­annually over­former­Eastern­Bloc­countries.­They­are­fitted with­various­cameras­(one­panoramic,­two­oblique mounted­framed­cameras­and­one­vertical­mounted framed­camera)­and­the­first­example­was­rolled­out on­30­June­1993­and­was­delivered­to­55thW­on­19th November­93.­They­are­powered­by­the­TF33-PW102­(JT-3D)­engines­removed­from­airliners,­but­­one of­the­proposed­airframes­was­placed­in­storage­at Davis-Monthan­AFB,­AZ­on­28­September­1993­and replaced­ by­ another.­ Since­ they­ are­ operated­ in civilian­airspace­they­must­comply­with­ICAO­Stage 3­noise­regulations­and­the­USAF­announced­plans to­hush-kit­the­aircraft­with­new­QNC­Stage­3­hushkits,­the­first­one­flew­with­the­hushkit­in­early­1996 although­the­requirements­for­the­other­two­was­later dropped.­ A­ programme­ to­ remove­ the­ flight engineer’s­station­from­the­OC-135B’s­led­to­their redesignation­ as­ OC-135Ws.­ The­ aircraft­ had provision­to­carry­up­to­thirty-eight­crew,­the­first training­flights­took­place­over­USA­between­2431August­ 1994­ with­ a­ team­ of­ American­ and Ukrainian­observers­on­board.

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TC-135B One­WC-135B­which­had­been­utilised­by­several units­as­a­flight­deck­crew­trainer­was­converted­to this­designation­and­was­known­as­the­‘Silk­Purse’ trainer,­ and­ used­ to­ train­ OC-135B­ ‘Open­ Skies’ crews­under­the­designation­WC-135W­following­the removal­of­flight­engineer’s­station. VC-135B Five­aircraft­from­an­original­C-135B­order­were converted­as­VIP­transports­with­special­facilities justifying­the­V-prefix.­They­were­originally­used­for high­ranking­staff­but­this­perk­was­reduced­during the­ Carter­ administration­ and­ the­ aircraft­ were downgraded­to­C-135B­again.

C-135B (T/RIA) Four­aircraft­from­the­C-135B­production­line­were converted­by­Douglas­at­Tulsa,­OK­from­1967­with a­ten­foot­‘platypus’­nose­extension­to­house­a­seven foot­diameter­radar­dish­for­special­electronic­work; they­also­carried­a­theodolite­pattern­on­the­starboard fuselage­ side­ just­ behind­ the­ cockpit­ to­ aid­ in tracking.­They­were­used­as­Apollo­support­aircraft designated­T/RIA­(Telemetry/Range­Instrumented Aircraft)­and­although­similar­to­the­ARlAs­did­not carry­the­ALOTS­pod.­They­retained­the­TF-33-P-5 turbofans­ and­ remained­ as­ C-135Bs­ until­ the remaining­three­aircraft­were­converted­from­1980 onwards. Ten­ C-135Bs­ were­ converted­ by­ Hayes International­ in­ 1965­ to­ WC-135B­ for­ weather reconnaissance­role­for­operation­by­the­Air­Weather Service.­ Used­ to­ provide­ low­ to­ medium­ altitude weather­reconnaissance­(and­complemented­by­high altitude­U-2s)­they­replaced­WB-50s­and­were­easily identified­by­the­sampling­points­mounted­on­the over-wing­escape­hatches­which­were­used­to­gather ambient­air­for­subsequent­analysis.­They­retained the­ fuel­ dump­ facility­ and­ had­ the­ ARR­ system installed.­Two­of­the­aircraft­were­converted­to­C-

135Cs­for­Military­Airlift­Command­and­one­for­Air Force­Systems­Command.­One­of­the­MAC­aircraft was­loaned­to­Tactical­Air­Command­for­use­as­an­E3A­trainer­at­Tinker­AFB,­OK­until­replaced­by­two converted­707s­operated­by­Boeing.­Three­more­were converted­to­OC-135B,­one­to­WC-135W­and­the remainder­were­stored. 61-2666­ and­ -2672­ provided­ atmospheric sampling­missions­around­the­world­during­April­and May­1986­following­the­Chernobyl­nuclear­reactor accident­in­the­Ukraine,­then­another­was­used­in 1993­ to­ collect­ data­ that­ confirmed­ the­ Peoples Republic­of­China­had­performed­a­nuclear­test­at Lop­Nor­on­5­October.­They­were­also­used­during NASA­Space­Shuttle­launches. C-135C Three­aircraft­-­61-2668,­61-2669­and­61-2671­-­were demodified­ in­ 1974­ from­ WC-135B­ back­ to­ a transport­role.­They­retain­the­air-refuelling­capability and­ were­ the­ only­ C-135­ transports­ to­ have­ this facility.­Also­one­of­the­C-135Bs­was­converted­to C-135C­ status­ and­ operated­ as­ a­ VIP­ aircraft­ for Pacific­Air­Forces­based­at­Hickman­AFB.­HI. EC-135C Seventeen­KC-135Bs,­either­already­delivered­or on­order,­were­redesignated­EC-135C­on­1­January 1965­ and­ were­ equipped­ with­ communications gear­ to­ allow­ them­ to­ operate­ in­ the­ ‘Looking Glass’­Airborne­Command­Post­role­replacing­KC135As.­They­retained­the­TF33-P-9­turbofans­and were­fitted­with­the­refuelling­probe­in­the­nose, interestingly­they­could­also­draw­fuel­through­the flying­boom­by­reverse­action­in­an­emergency. These­ aircraft­ carried­ a­ variety­ of­ antennae including­ a­ ‘saddle’­ antenna,­ various­ blade­ and dipole­ antennas.­ HF­ probes­ and­ a­ VLF­ trailing wire­antenna.­They­received­several­updates­and were­ equipped­ with­ AFSATCOM­ UHF communications­equipment.­Three­were­converted

This KC-135D was previously an RC-135A before conversion (via Simon Peters)

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An RC-135 Rivet Joint reconnaissance aircraft moves into position behind a KC-135T/R Stratotanker for an aerial refuelling over Southwest Asia 14 March 2006. (US Air Force photo by Master Sgt. Lance Cheung)

to­ EC-135J­ ‘Night­Watch’­ machines­ in­ the­ mid 1960's­with­a­fourth­conversion­undertaken­from May­ 1979-February­ 1980.­ Up­ to­ 1990,­ and­ the ending­ of­ the­ Cold­ War,­ one­ EC-135C­ was airborne­at­any­one­time­flying­eight­hour­missions -­now­they­stand­runway­alert.­Beside­the­Staff officer­in­charge­as­Airborne­Emergency­Actions Officer,­there­is­his­10-man­staff­on­board­as­well as­the­standard­five-man­flight­crew.­Four­aircraft (62-3581,­62-3585,­63-8046­and­63-8054)­were fitted­ with­ the­ MILSTAR­ system­ from­ 1990 onwards,­ but­ this­ was­ removed­ and­ used­ to upgrade­ E-6As­ to­ E-6B­ standard­ for­ the­ USN. Following­the­introduction­of­the­E-6A­into­the ACP­ function,­ the­ EC-135Cs­ were­ retired­ to Davis-Monthan­AFB,­AZ­by­October­1998­when the­ E-6Bs­ become­ operational­ (the­ similar­ last remaining­EC-135J­was­retired­in­October­1993). The­type­was­officially­retired­in­a­ceremony­at Offutt­AFB,­NE­on­25­September­1998.

RC-135C The­ten­RC-135Bs­ordered­by­USAF­were­delivered direct­to­Glenn­L­Martin­Co.­at­Baltimore,­MD­(later Martin-Marietta)­ and­ placed­ in­ long­ term­ storage pending­the­installation­of­reconnaissance­equipment. The­first­one­was­delivered­on­27­January­1967­and all­ten­were­in­service­by­the­end­of­the­year,­allowing the­RB-47Hs­operated­on­SIGINT­missions­to­be retired.­The­ refuelling­ boom­ was­ replaced­ by­ the dump­ tube­ and­ the­ boom­ operator's­ position­ was turned­ into­ a­ camera­ bay­ occupied­ by­ a­ KA-59

camera.­ Modified­ and­ re-designated­ RC-135B aircraft­were­used­for­strategic­reconnaissance­duties, equipped­with­the­AN/ASD-1­electronic­intelligence (ELINT)­system.­This­system­was­characterised­by the­ large­ ‘cheek’­ pods­ on­ the­ forward­ fuselage containing­the­Automated­ELINT­Emitter­Locating System­(AEELS­–­not­Side­Looking­Airborne­Radar –­SLAR,­as­often­quoted),­as­well­as­numerous­other antennae­and­a­camera­position­in­the­refuelling­pod area­of­the­aft­fuselage.­The­aircraft­was­crewed­by two­ pilots,­ two­ navigators,­ numerous­ intelligence gathering­ specialists,­ inflight­ maintenance technicians­and­airborne­linguists.­When­the­RC135C­was­fully­deployed,­SAC­was­able­to­retire­its fleet­ of­ RB-47H­ Stratojets­ from­ active reconnaissance­ duties.­ All­ ten­ continue­ in­ active service­as­either­RC-135V­Rivet­Joint­or­RC-135U Combat­Sent­platforms.­ KC-135D The­ RC-135As­ delivered­ to­ Military­ Airlift Command­were­turned­over­to­SAC­in­1972,­initially as­ command­ support­ aircraft­ but­ were­ quickly converted­into­KC-135D­tankers,­they­were­given­a unique­designation­because­they­were­originally­built with­a­flight­engineer­on­the­flight­deck.­They­have since­been­updated­with­the­retrofit­of­TF33-PW-102 turbofans­ without­ further­ change­ of­ designation. They­underwent­a­cockpit­update­to­bring­them­in line­with­the­KC-135Es­also­operated­by­the­unit, they­were­due­to­be­re-engined­with­CFM.56-2As and­­then­operated­under­the­KC-135R­MDS.

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RC-135D Three­KC-135As­were­redesignated­on­1­January 1965­as­RC-135Ds­‘Office­Boy’­for­use­in­‘Rivet Brass’­SIGINT­operations­-­later­used­on­‘Burning Candy’­missions.­The­refuelling­boom­was­replaced by­the­fuel­dump­tube­and­air-refuelling­equipment installed;­they­also­had­SLAR­antenna­fitted­in­a cylinder­shaped­fairing­below­and­slightly­forward of­ the­ wing­ on­ both­ sides­ of­ the­ fuselage­ and­ an elongated­Hognose­radome­as­well­as­fence­aerials above­the­fuselage.­They­retained­the­J57-P­turbojets so­had­restrictive­range,­the­last­‘Burning­Candy’ mission­being­flown­13­March­1975­when­they­were replaced­by­RC-135Ms­and­Vs.­The­RC-135Ds­were declared­surplus­and­were­converted­back­to­KC135A­ tankers,­ later­ KC-135R­ and­ they­ retain­ the ability­to­air-refuelled.­A­fourth­aircraft­(59-1491,­the ‘Wanda­Belle’­airframe)­was­operated­with­the­RC135Ds­but­retained­its­RC-135S­designation. C-135E Three­C-135As­were­retrofitted­with­the­TF33-PW102­ turbofans­ and­ redesignated­ EC-135Ns­ later C-135Es­for­use­in­combat­support­roles.

­ C-135E E This­ designation­ refers­ to­ surviving­ C-135N conversions­that­were­re-engined­with­TF33-PW-102 turbofans.­They­have­been­replaced­in­their­original A/RIA­role­by­ex-airline­707s­converted­to­EC-18B standard­ and­ are­ now­ used­ as­ test­ aircraft­ with 412thTW.­ One­ was­ ALOTS­ capable­ while­ two supported­cruise­missile­testing. KC-135E ANG­ and­ AFRes­ (later­ AFRC)­ units­ usually operated­ from­ noise­ sensitive­ civilian­ airports rather­than­remote­military­bases­and­the­noise­of a­water­injected­fully­laden­KC-135A­was­louder than­most­fighters­with­afterburners­on.­Also,­the safety­ implications­ in­ densely­ populated­ areas from­an­engine­loss­on­take-off­was­enormous­(and some,­such­as­Salt­Lake­City,­UT­and­Phoenix-Sky Harbor,­AZ­ also­ suffered­ from­ altitude­ or­ high temperatures)­ so­ the­ USAF­ had­ to­ look­ at alternatives.­With­the­demise­of­many­airline­707s the­United­States­Air­Force­took­the­opportunity to­buy­the­surplus­airframes­and­use­the­engines­to re-engine­the­KC-135As­with­the­civilian­JT3D

A KC-135A is re-engined with JT3Ds from former civilian Boeing 707s at MASDC, Davis-Monthan Az, 1984. (USAF)

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(designated­ TF33-PW-102).­ Over­ 150­ aircraft were­modified­and­the­former­KC-135A­were­redesignated­the­KC-135E.­ In­an­attempt­to­improve­the­performance­the­first contract­was­signed­with­Boeing­on­18­September 1981­with­a­scheduled­delivery­of­the­first­aircraft­on 30­January­1982.­The­first­aircraft­(59-1514.­one­that was­air-refuellable)­was­delivered­to­Boeing­on­30 September­and­after­re-engining­flew­again­on­10 January­1982­and­was­returned­to­USAF­four­days ahead­of­schedule­on­26­January.­The­first­18­aircraft converted­were­all­special­purpose­airframes­(EC135s,­RC-135s­plus­some­NKC-135s­and­C-135Ns). Donor­ 707s­ were­ flown­ to­ AMARC­ at­ DavisMonthan­AFB,­AZ­where­they­were­stripped­and­the parts­ shipped­ to­ the­ BMAC­ conversion­ line­ at Wichita,­ KS.­ Changes­ were­ the­ JT-3D­ engines (redesignated­ the­ TF33-PW-102­ by­ the­ USAF) including­ thrust­ reversers,­ removal­ of­ the­ water injection­ system,­ new­ brakes­ plus­ the­ horizontal stabiliser.­In­the­cockpit­there­were­new­throttles­and various­instruments­from­the­707­-­besides­the­new engines­ the­ provision­ of­ a­ yaw­ damper­ with­ the increased­size­of­the­new­stabiliser­finally­eliminated the­problem­of­‘Dutch­Roll’­on­final­approach. Improvements­included­an­increase­in­available take-off­thrust­from­13,750­to­18,000­Ib.­per­engine meaning­a­fully-laden­KC-135E­required­2000­feet less­runway­than­a­KC-135A­to­get­airborne.­The­new engines­also­gave­12%­better­fuel­consumption,­60% noise­reduction,­90%­reduction­in­pollution­and­an amazing­estimated­400%­increase­in­reliability. The­initial­contract­covered­128­airframes­but was­ extended­ to­ 161­ airframes­ and­ this­ option provided­ USAF­ with­ a­ cost­ effective­ and­ quick programme­for­upgrading­the­underpowered­KC135A­ airframe.­ Two­ KC-135Es­ (57-2589­ and 59-1514)­were­operated­by­55th­Wing­in­addition­to the­ANG­and­AFRC­aircraft.­In­1996­the­first­KC135E­ from­ 196thARS/CA­ANG­ was­ delivered­ to Boeing-Wichita­ for­ conversion­ to­ KC-135R standard. The­-135E­fleet­was­­slowly­modernised­over a­fifteen­year­period,­largely­as­a­result­of­funds added­by­Congress­for­the­KC-135E­to­R­engine conversion­ programme.­ The­ Air­ Force­ initially replaced­ the­ TF33­ engines­ on­ 20­ Guard­ and Reserve­KC-135E­aircraft­with­CFM-56­engines­at a­ cost­ of­ about­ $436­ million.­ These­ aircraft represent­ the­ last­ of­ the­ KC-135s­ for­ which­ reengining­ funds­ were­ approved.­ The­ last­ four aircraft­were­completed­in­fiscal­year­1998.­By­the completion­ of­ the­ programme,­ it­ had­ installed CFM-56­engines­on­410­KC-135s.­However,­the

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March­2004­Defense­Science­Board­Task­Force Report­on­Aerial­Refueling­Requirements­found that­'...Usage, which induces material fatigue, is not the driving problem. Total flying hours are relatively low for the KC-135s: the current airframe average is about 17,000 hours. Fatigue life is estimated to be 36,000 hours for the E, 39,000 hours for the R. Cycles are commensurately low on average (3800 for the R and 4500 for the E). Thus, the airframes should be capable to the year 2040 based on current usage rates.’ The­KC-135­Assessment­Report.­published­by the­Air­Force­Fleet­Viability­Board.­Wright-Patterson AFB­in­September­2005­­estimated,­with­numerous caveats,­that­KC-135E­aircraft­upgraded­to­the­'R' configuration­would­remain­viable­until­2030.­­ The­ E-model­ economic­ service­ life­ was markedly­different­because­of­the­difference­in­age and­technology­of­some­of­its­major­components, most­ notably­ the­ engines.­ The­ basic­ airframe should,­in­theory,­last­as­long­as­the­R-model,­but the­age­of­the­engines­points­to­the­likelihood­that upkeep­could­become­expensive­in­terms­of­parts and­maintenance­man-hours.­The­TF-33­(E-model) engines­were­previously­used­but­refurbished­to­an expected­6,000­hour­service­life.­The­TF-33­began to­need­another­major­overhaul­around­the­turn­of the­century.­Additionally,­since­the­TF-33­did­not meet­FAA­Stage­III­noise­requirements­for­the­year 2000,­ more­ time­ and­ money­ would­ have­ be expended­to­ensure­compliance.­ There­was­also­a­major­problem­with­the­KC135E­engine­struts­obtained­from­retired­707­and­720 airframes.­Because­of­their­exposure­to­engine­heat, severe­ heat-induced­ corrosion­ and­ fatigue­ have occurred.­The­Oklahoma­City­Air­Logistics­Center at­Tinker­Air­Force­Base­depot­developed­an­interim strut­ repair­ for­ about­ $100­ thousand­ per­ strut, awaiting­an­Fiscal­Year­06­program­initiation­of­a fully­reworked­strut­repair­with­a­cost­of­about­$1 million­per­strut. The­March­2004­Defense­Science­Board­Task Force­ Report­ on­ Aerial­ Refueling­ Requirements found­that­'The­struts­that­attach­the­engine­to­the wings­of­the­KC-135E­models­are­a­prime­example of­the­problems­of­aging­and­environment.­The­struts are­near­the­end­of­their­service­life­due­to­exposure to­high­temperatures­and­corrosive­environments­and, assuming­ the­ KC-135Es­ are­ not­ retired,­ a­ major structural­repair­to­the­KC-135E­struts­is­planned.'­ On­ 16­ September­ 2004­ Gen.­ John­W.­ Handy, commander­ of­ Air­ Mobility­ Command,­ directed twenty-nine­KC-135Es­with­identified­engine­strut problems­be­removed­from­the­flying­schedule­while

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Air­Force­leaders­evaluated­a­report­from­the­Fleet Viability­ Board­ and­ recommendations­ of­ the Oklahoma­ City­ Air­ Logistics­ Center's­ KC-135 system­program­office.­

NKC-135E Two­of­the­original­test­aircraft­have­been­re-engined with­ex­707­JT3D­engines,­the­first­being­the­fully instrumented­ tanker­ used­ in­ refuelling­ trials­ (553135)­ in­ March­ 1982­ while­ the­ ‘Big­ Crow’ NKC-135A­ was­ retrofitted­ with­ TF33-PW-102 engines­from­October­1990­to­January­1991­and­then returned­to­the­same­test­duties­with­412thTW.­It­had been­fitted­with­ARR­in­1986­to­extend­the­aircraft's range­ and­ mission­ capability­ which­ had­ been curtailed­by­the­removal­of­most­of­the­fuselage­fuel tanks­to­allow­ECM­equipment­installation. RC-135E Originally­designated­C-135B-II,­project­name­Lisa Ann,­the­RC-135E­Rivet­Amber­was­a­one-of-a-kind aircraft­equipped­with­a­large­7­MW­Hughes­Aircraft phased-array­radar­system.­Originally­delivered­as­a C-135B,­62-4137­operated­from­Shemya­Air­Force Station,­Alaska­from­1966­to­1969.­Its­operations were­performed­in­concert­with­the­RC-135S­Rivet Ball­aircraft.­The­radar­system­alone­weighed­over 35,000­pounds­and­cost­over­US$35­million­in­1960 dollars,­making­Rivet­Amber­both­the­heaviest­C-135 aircraft­ flying­ and­ the­ most­ expensive­Air­ Force aircraft­for­its­time.­The­radiation­generated­by­the radar­was­sufficient­to­be­a­health­hazard­to­the­crew, and­ both­ ends­ of­ the­ radar­ compartment­ were shielded­by­thick­lead­bulkheads.­This­prevented­the forward­and­aft­crew­areas­from­having­direct­contact after­boarding­the­aircraft.­The­system­could­track­an object­the­size­of­a­soccer­ball­from­a­distance­of­300 miles,­and­its­mission­was­to­monitor­Soviet­ballistic

missile­ testing­ in­ the­ reentry­ phase.­ The­ power requirement­ for­ the­ phased­ array­ radar­ was enormous,­necessitating­an­additional­power­supply. This­took­the­form­of­a­podded­Lycoming­T55-L5 turboshaft­engine­under­the­left­inboard­wing­section, driving­a­350kVA­generator­dedicated­to­powering mission­equipment.­On­the­opposite­wing­in­the­same location­ was­ a­ podded­ heat­ exchanger­ to­ permit cooling­ of­ the­ massive­ electronic­ components­ on board­the­aircraft.­This­configuration­has­led­to­the mistaken­impression­that­the­aircraft­had­six­engines. On­5­June­1969,­Rivet­Amber­was­lost­at­sea­on­a ferry­ flight­ from­ Shemya­ to­ Eielson­ AFB­ for maintenance,­and­no­trace­of­the­aircraft­or­its­crew was­ever­found. EC-135G Three­KC-135As­and­one­EC-135A­were­converted by­TEMCO­to­EC-135Gs­and­although­redesignated in­1965­they­were­not­fully­operational­until­1967. They­were­modified­to­ALCC­in­1968­and­offered radio­ relay­ service­ between­ NCA­ (National Command­ Authority,­ a­ euphemism­ for­ the­ US President)­ and­ SAC's­ command­ structure.­ They retained­the­standard­boom­refuelling­system­and were­also­fitted­with­aerial­refuelling­receptacles. Following­the­ending­of­the­Cold­War­in­the­early­90s they­were­retired­in­May­1992­and­stored.

EC-135H Commencing­in­late­1964­LTV­converted­four­KC135As­tankers/ACP's­to­EC-135Hs­incorporating­the ‘Silk­Purse’­ACP­role,­allowing­the­Douglas­C-118s to­be­retired.­A­fifth­aircraft­(61-0274)­was­similarly modified­in­1968­as­at­least­one­EC-135H­was­on aerial­alert­until­December­1969­when­they­began full-time­ground­alert.­They­had­a­dorsal­‘saddle’ antenna­ on­ the­ fuselage­ spine­ and­ various­ blade

62-4137, ‘Rivet Amber'. The aircraft was originally called Lisa Ann, after Lisa Ann O'Rear, daughter of Big Safari program director Mr. F E O'Rear prior to changes in 1967. The additional underwing pods used to create the extra power required for the radar array are visible in this picture. (USAF)

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62-4137 was a model RC-135E and the only one of its kind. Rivet Amber and Rivet Ball operated together as a team from Shemya. The location of the phased radar array within the fuselage is clearly visible. (USAF)

antennae­ as­ well­ as­ trailing­ wire­ antenna­ while improvements­ were­ made­ to­ the­ radio­ and communications­ equipment.­ The­ interior­ was originally­fitted­out­for­sixteen­battle­staff­personnel, thirteen­ command­ staff,­ two­ radio­ operators,­ two switchboard­ operators­ and­ one­ secure communications­teletype­operator,­but­later­this­was changed­ to­ nine­ CINCEUR­ personnel­ and­ four Supreme­ Allied­ Commander­ Europe­ battle­ staff. They­retained­the­boom­refuelling­equipment­and also­have­the­aerial­refuelling­receptacle­system­and were­re-engined­in­1982­with­TF33-PW-102­engines from­retired­airliners.­They­were­operated­by­USAFE (USAF­Europe)­prior­to­deactivation­in­1991.

GEC-135H Two­retired­Electronic­variants­were­handed­over­at Sheppard­AFB,­TX­as­ground­instructional­aircraft with­the­TTC,­later­82nd­TW. EC-135J Four­KC-135Bs­that­were­modified­to­EC-135Cs

were­later­converted­to­EC-135Js­-­the­first­one from­ 1965,­ two­ more­ were­ redesignated­ on­ 31 May­1967­and­a­final­one­was­converted­from­May 1979­ to­ January­ 1980­ as­ Airborne­ National Command­ Posts­ for­ the­ National­ Command Authority­ and­ are­ fitted­ with­ a­ dorsal­ ‘saddle’ antenna.­ They­ were­ modified­ with­ fifteen operating­stations­and­expansion­of­the­EC-135Cs communications­ capability.­ The­ mission­ suites were­ removed­ and­ installed­ in­ E-4As­ and­ the aircraft­were­transferred­to­PACAF­as­‘Blue­Eagle’ EC-135P­replacements­in­short­term.­Two­were retired­from­service­in­March­1992­while­one­of the­ remaining­ pair­ crashed­ days­ before­ being placed­ in­ storage,­ the­ final­ one­ was­ retired­ in October­1993. C-135K In­late­1996­one­of­the­remaining­EC-135Ks­was redesignated­as­C-135K­and­is­operated­as­a­VIP aircraft­ for­ CINCPAC­ by­ 89thAW­ from­ Hickam AFB,­HI.

59-1491 was a RC-135S and operated in concert with 62-4137, ‘Rivet Amber'. On 13 January 1969 59-1491 was returning from a reconnaissance mission when it landed back at Shemya. The aircraft hydroplaned and slid off the ice covered runway, plunging into a 40 feet ravine and was written off. (USAF)

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EC-135K Originally­two­KC-135As­were­converted­to­EC135K­standard­to­provide­communications­links­and accurate­navigational­data­to­TAC­aircraft­on­long deployments,­(with­effect­from­1­June­1992­the­name of­the­operating­command­was­changed­to­ACC). They­were­originally­known­as­‘Head­Dancer’­for their­role­in­fighter­deployments­to­Europe­and­Asia. The­boom­refuelling­was­replaced­by­the­fuel-dump pipe.­Following­the­loss­of­one­of­the­original­aircraft, a­third­conversion­(59-1518)­was­made­-­both­the survivors­ were­ retrofitted­ with­ TF33-PW-102 turbofans.­ One­ of­ these­ aircraft­ was­ the­ first production­aircraft­which­first­flew­on­31­August 1956­and­was­delivered­on­24­January­1957,­they were­transferred­to­89thAW­in­late­1995.­The­first production­ aircraft­ was­ finally­ retired­ in­ October 1996,­over­40­years­since­its­first­flight.

EC-135L Eight­ KC-135As­ were­ converted­ to­ EC-135L PACCS­standard­by­Lockheed­from­1965­to­1967 and­replaced­EB-47Ls­as­airborne­radio­relay­radio and­ amplitude­ modulation­ dropout­ capability platforms.­Their­ role­ was­ to­ provide­ secure­ radio links­and­had­blade­antennae­above­and­below­the fuselage­for­communications­relay.­They­retained­the boom­refuelling­equipment­and­also­had­airborne radio­relay­but­were­still­powered­by­the­original­J57P­engines.­Three­were­demodified­to­tanker­status­but two­of­these­were­redesignated­EC-135L­again­on­6 January­1971­then­back­to­KC-135A­again­on­14 September­1971!­Normal­crew­was­four­on­flight deck­and­three­mission­staff­and­two­were­involved during­Operation­‘Desert­Storm'.

RC-135M Six­C-135Bs­were­converted­by­LTV­Electrosystems to­ RC-135Ms­ from­ early­ 1966­ and­ received­ the extended­nose­of­the­RC-135D­to­cover­radar­antenna as­well­as­tear­drop­blisters­on­either­side­of­the­rear fuselage,­ they­ were­ used­ for­ ‘Rivet­ Card/Rivet Quick’­operations.­ The­RC-135M­was­an­interim­type­with­more limited­ELINT­capability­than­the­RC-135C­but­with extensive­additional­COMINT­capability.­They­were converted­from­Military­Airlift­Command­C-135B transports,­and­operated­by­the­82nd­Reconnaissance Squadron­during­the­Vietnam­War­from­Kadena­AB, gathering­signals­intelligence­over­the­Gulf­of­Tonkin and­Laos­with­the­programme­name­Combat­Apple (originally­Burning­Candy)­There­were­six­RC-135M aircraft,­62-4131,­62-4132,­62-4134,­62-4135,­624138­and­62-4139,­all­of­which­were­later­modified by­E-Systems­in­the­early­‘80s­and­were­redesignated RC-135W,­ still­ with­ TF33-P-5­ engines.­ They continued­in­active­service­as­RC-135W­Rivet­Joints by­the­early­1980s. EC-135N Converted­ by­ Douglas,­ the­ EC-135N­ had­ the ‘platypus’­nose­extension­as­well­as­provision­for­the Northrop­A-LOTS­pod.­This­was­carried­by­four­and was­suspended­from­the­cargo­door­and­contained both­a­telescope­and­cameras.­The­fist­flight­of­the ARIA­aircraft­was­on­19­September­1966­and­their main­tasks­were­vehicle­tracking­and­two-way­voice relay­ between­ astronauts­ and­ mission­ control­ in Houston,­TX.­They­were­originally­employed­during the­Apollo­lunar­landing­programme­and­all­eight were­involved­in­the­Apollo­6­mission­in­1986.­Total

58-0022 was an EC-135P that formed part of Operation Blue Eagle that provided five EC-135J/P command post aircraft to the Commander in Chief, US Pacific Command (USCINCPAC), which were based at Hickam AFB, HI. (USAF)

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USAF RC-135M 62-4138 seen from a KC-135 tanker. (USAF)

crew­could­be­23­including­18­or­19­mission­staff. After­ the­Apollo­ flights­ finished,­ four­ of­ the­ EC135Ns­ were­ redesignated­ Advanced­ Range Instrumentation­ Aircraft­ (ARIA)­ still­ with­ J57-P engines,­but­they­were­later­re-engined­with­TF33PW-102s,­converted­to­EC-135E,­and­assigned­to special­ test­ programmes.­ The­ aircraft­ have­ been replaced­in­the­tracking­role­by­EC-18Bs. EC-135P Five­ KC-135As­ that­ were­ the­ original­ EC-135As were­redesignated­EC-135P­‘Blue­Eagle’­Airborne Command­Post­status­on­31­March­1967­with­the reverse­ refuelling­ system­ as­ well­ as­ the­ ARR equipment­ for­ extending­ their­ endurance.­ These aircraft­were­originally­used­by­Commander­in­Chief, Pacific­ Command­ but­ later­ transferred­ to Commander­ in­ Chief,­ Atlantic­ Command­ and retained­the­J57-P­engines­although­two­(55-8109, 55-8022)­ were­ retrofitted­ with­ the­ TF33-PW-102 turbofans.­ Two­ extra­ aircraft­ have­ also­ been converted­to­this­designation­(61-0274­in­1988­and 55-3129­to­replace­58-007)

KC-135Q Originally­considered­for­refuelling­the­Lockheed A-12­high­speed­and­high­altitude­reconnaissance aircraft­with­its­PF-1­fuel,­­the­KC-135Q­was­also modified­ to­ handle­ the­ JP-7­ fuel­ of­ the­ SR-71 Blackbird­which­was­the­follow-on­from­the­A-12. Fifty-six­KC-135As­were­then­modified­to­KC135Qs­to­support­the­SR-71­in­USAF­service­and were­operated­by­two­squadrons­attached­to­9th SRW­based­at­Beale­AFB,­CA.­Internally­they­had a­ modified­ fuel­ system­ to­ handle­ the­ JP-7­ fuel while­ externally­ they­ had­ a­ single­ antenna­ for secure­communication­with­the­Blackbird­prior­to refuelling,­which­was­conducted­at­the­extremes of­either­aircraft's­operating­limits.­They­also­have

the­ability­to­handle­the­standard­JP-4­fuel­used­by the­remainder­of­the­USAF­fleet,­just­an­air­purge is­required­between­the­two.­With­the­retirement of­the­SR-71­the­remaining­aircraft­were­used­to refuel­the­F-117A­fleet.­From­late­1993­the­KC135Qs­ were­ fitted­ with­ the­ F108-CF-100 (CFM.56-2A-2)­ engines­ and­ Aerial­ Refuelling Receptacles­ and­ redesignated­ as­ KC-135T.­ 580099­was­the­last­aircraft­to­undergo­conversion­to KC-135T­ standard­ when­ it­ departed­ Fairchild AFB,­WA­on­29­September­1995­for­Boeing­at McConnell­AFB,­KS.

KC-135R Three­ original­ reconnaissance­ KC-135As­ were redesignated­KC-135R­on­1­June­1967­and­a­fourth (58-0126)­was­converted­in­1969;­their­primary­role remained­associated­with­nuclear­testing­by­foreign nations­ under­ ‘Burning­ Light’­ but­ they­ had­ a secondary­ SIGINT­ role­ and­ supported­ RC-135M operations­in­SE­Asia.­Each­one­appeared­unique­but they­all­had­an­antenna­along­the­top­of­the­fuselage and­were­the­only­reconnaissance­variants­to­retain the­ refuelling­ boom.­ The­ elongated­ nose­ first appeared­on­the­KC-135R,­as­did­the­rear­fuselage tear­ drop­ fairing.­ 55-3121­ was­ modified­ with­ an ELINT­capsule­that­was­reeled­out­from­the­aircraft in­flight;­it­eventually­received­five­rows­of­fence aerials­on­the­upper­fuselage.­55-3121­was­used­in the­ClA's­‘Briar­Patch’­and­‘Iron­Lung’­programmes while­two­aircraft­had­camera­bays­installed­in­the fuselage­cargo­door.­Two­retained­their­refuelling booms. C-135T C-135R­55-3121­was­modified­in­1969­by­Lockheed Air­Services­to­the­unique­KC-135T­configuration under­the­Cobra­Jaw­programme­name.­Externally distinguished­by­the­‘hog­nose’­radome,­the­aircraft

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also­featured­spinning­‘fang’­receiver­antennas­below the­nose­radome,­a­large­blade­antenna­above­the forward­fuselage,­a­single­‘towel­bar’­antenna­on­the spine,­teardrop­antennas­forward­of­the­horizontal stabilizers­on­each­side,­and­the­trapeze-like­structure in­place­of­the­refueling­boom.­The­aircraft­briefly carried­ nose­ art­ consisting­ of­ the­ Ford­ Cobra­ Jet cartoon­cobra.­It­was­later­modified­into­an­RC-135T Rivet­Dandy. KC-135R This­is­the­definitive­update­programme­for­the­KC135A­ series.­ USAF­ evaluated­ various­ engines, including­ the­ TF33.­ JT-10D­ (which­ became­ the PW2037)­and­CFM.56­as­well­as­possibly­refitting retired­707-320­wings­to­the­existing­fuselage.­The requirement­was­to­be­able­to­fly­fully­laden­to­a rendezvous­point­2,000­nautical­miles­away,­offload 91,000­pounds­of­fuel­and­then­fly­another­1,000 nautical­miles­before­landing.­Numerous­proposals were­put­forward,­with­the­five­‘finalists’­being: KC-135P-7 This­ involved­ fitting­ TF33-P-7 engines­that­would­increase­thrust­by­8,000­pounds per­engine,­increase­the­fuel­load­to­202,800­pounds and­all-up­weight­to­315.400­pounds.­­This­option would­ also­ have­ the­ 707­ stabiliser­ fitted­ and strengthened­undercarriage. KC-135ME A­ hybrid­ scheme­ involving­ the use­of­two­engine­types,­the­‘Mixed­Engine’­proposal involved­the­use­of­CFM.56­turbofans­on­the­inboard pylons­while­retaining­the­J57­turbojets­on­the­outer ones.­Fuel­capacity­would­remain­the­same­as­the KC-135-P-7­ with­ a­ maximum­ all-up­ weight­ of 317,800­ pounds­ and­ would­ again­ require

strengthened­undercarriage­and­wider­stabiliser. KC-135H This­ involved­ the­ KC-135-P-7 modifications­with­the­addition­of­the­707-320­wing, leading­to­an­all-up­weight­of­374,400­pounds. KC-135X The­first­of­two­proposals­using four­CFM.56s­or­JT.10Ds,­the­KC-135X­also­used the­707-320­wing­and­saw­all­up­weight­increase­to 376,400­pounds.­It­also­included­the­wider­stabiliser and­strengthened­undercarriage. KC-135Y­­­­ This­ also­ used­ the­ CFM.56­ or JT.10Ds­and­the­other­changes­from­the­KC-135X but­with­a­new­more­efficient­wing­leading­to­an­allup­weight­of424,000­pounds. As­it­happened­USAF­settled­for­a­new­engine (the­CFM.56)­but­not­the­wing­modification­as­the aircraft­had­already­undergone­modifications­to­their stabilisers.­­BMAC­rolled­out­the­first­KC-135R­on 22­June­1982­with­a­proposed­service­life­through­to 2050­and­while­original­intentions­were­to­re-engine 642­ aircraft­ by­ 1993,­ budget­ restrictions­ kept­ the numbers­down.­The­cost­was­$16.3m­per­aircraft­but BMAC­ estimated­ fuel­ saving­ to­ be­ $1.1­ bn­ over fifteen­years.­The­increased­power­and­more­modern technology­of­the­CFM.56­meant­that­the­KC-135R was­cleaner­and­quieter­than­its­predecessors­as­well as­more­fuel­efficient­-­in­a­typical­flight­profile­of 2000­ nautical­ miles­ to­ off-load­ point­ then­ 2000 nautical­miles­return­the­KC-135A­could­off­load 40,000­pounds­while­the­KC-135R­could­dispense 70,000­pounds­-­while­at­extreme­distances­from­base it­could­off­load­more­fuel­than­a­KC-10A­since­it burned­less­fuel­to­reach­the­rendezvous­point.­Two Turbomach­ T-62T­ APUs­ were­ fitted­ as­ were strengthened­undercarriage,­yaw­dampers,­brakes­and

A KC-135T refuels NASA’s two-seat SR-71B trainer in 1995 (USAF)

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A KC-135R Stratotanker from the 434th Air Refueling Wing provides mid-air refuelling to a F-22 fighter aircraft. (USAF)

major­instrumentation­updates­while­a­spine­mounted refuelling­probe­allowed­the­KC-135R­to­be­refuelled itself­by­other­boom­equipped­tankers.­Maximum unrefuelled­range­was­increased­to­11,309­miles­and maximum­weight­to­322.000­pounds­-­surprisingly only­6,500­pounds­more­than­the­standard­KC-135A. Initial­deliveries­to­384th­ARW­were­in­July­1984. The­ USAF­ planned­ to­ re-engine­ all­ existing­ KC135As­to­KC-135Rs­and­the­original­batch­was­for 397­aircraft­to­be­so­converted,­but­the­US­Senate dropped­ funding­ from­ the­ project­ in­ Fiscal­ 1994 Defense­Budget­-­also­the­ending­of­the­Cold­War meant­that­the­number­of­tankers­placed­in­storage increased­ and­ the­ programme­ was­ completed. Boeing-Wichita­had­also­conducted­the­same­updates on­the­KC-135Q­and­was­due­to­start­a­similar­one on­some­of­the­RC-135­variants­although­some­ANG and­ AFRes­ KC-135Es­ began­ conversion­ at­ the beginning­ of­ 1996.­ Plans­ to­ introduce­ wing­ tip drogue­re-fuelling­system­were­initially­dropped­due to­lack­of­funding­but­the­aircraft­were­being­fitted with­the­pallet/roller­system­to­enable­the­aircraft­to operate­in­the­cargo­role­due­to­a­fleet­shortage­caused by­ the­ late­ introduction­ into­ service­ of­ the­ C-17 Globemaster­III­and­also­the­possible­reduction­in­the C-17's­inventory.­­ The­Multi-Point­Refueling­System­Program­was an­effort­to­enhance­the­efficiency­and­flexibility­of the­ Air­ Force's­ air­ refuelling­ fleet,­ 45­ KC-135R Stratotanker­aircraft­were­­outfitted­to­accept­wingtip,­ hose-and-drogue­ and­ air­ refuelling­ pods­ for refueling­NATO­and­US­Navy­aircraft.­US­Navy­and many­NATO­aircraft­cannot­be­refuelled­using­the boom­and­receptacle­refueling­method­of­Air­Force aircraft,­and­instead­use­a­probe-and-drogue­system where­probes­on­the­receiver­aircraft­make­contact

with­a­hose­that­is­reeled­out­behind­a­tanker­aircraft. KC-135s­have­been­capable­of­refuelling­probe-anddrogue­aircraft­for­years,­by­fitting­a­hose-and-drogue attachment­to­a­tanker's­refuelling­boom.­However, when­tankers­are­flying­with­this­configuration­they are­ incapable­ of­ refuelling­ boom-and-receptacle aircraft.­With­ the­ number­ of­ worldwide­ joint­ and combined­ military­ operations­ on­ the­ rise,­ the Department­ of­ Defense­ directed­ the­Air­ Force­ to outfit­part­of­its­KC-135­fleet­with­the­capability­of refueling­ both­ probe-and-drogue­ and­ boom receptacle­aircraft­on­the­same­mission.­This­also allows­refuelling­up­to­two­probe-and-drogue­aircraft at­the­same­time. The­pods­were­very­similar­to­the­wing­pods­that were­added­to­KC-10­Extenders.­They­contained­a collapsible,­funnel-shaped­drogue­on­the­end­of­a hose­that­can­be­reeled­out­to­an­awaiting­aircraft­with a­refuelling­probe.­The­hose­was­connected­with­a spring­to­provide­constant­tension,­and­the­drogue was­outfitted­with­small­lights­around­it­to­aid­night operations.­Additional­fuel­controls,­indicators,­and circuit­breakers­had­to­be­installed­in­the­flight­deck. Modifications­ to­ valves­ and­ a­ bladder­ cell­ in­ the fuselage­were­also­necessary.­Tubes,­valves,­and­a vent­ system­ had­ to­ be­ modified­ in­ the­ wing­ fuel system­to­accommodate­the­new­system.­The­wings were­modified­as­well.­They­were­strengthened­to support­ new­ fuel­ tubes­ and­ wire­ bundles­ being installed­on­the­aircraft­for­the­­installation­of­the pods,­hardpoints,­fittings,­and­pylons.­Floodlights were­added­to­engine­pylons,­wing­pods,­and­boom area­to­assist­in­night­refuelling.­An­aerial­refuelling pod­ controller­ was­ added­ to­ the­ boom­ operator's station,­so­boom­operators,­in­conjunction­with­the copilot,­could­monitor­wing-pod­refuelling.­

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Thirty-three­pod­sets­were­manufactured­to­outfit 45­KC-135R­aircraft.­The­pods­could­be­moved­from one­ wing-pod-outfitted­ tanker­ to­ another,­ thereby remaining­ mission-ready,­ even­ when­ a­ particular aircraft­ was­ not.­ Managed­ by­ the­ KC-135 Development­System­Office­at­Aeronautical­Systems Center,­Wright-Patterson­Air­Force­Base,­Ohio,­the programme­ completed­ the­ engineering, manufacturing­ and­ development­ portion­ of­ the programme­ in­ 1998­ year­ and­ began­ follow-on operational­test­and­evaluation­early­in­1999.­The programme­included­an­installation­rate­of­about­six aircraft­per­year,­and­initial­operational­capability­in February­2000­with­twelve­aircraft.­All­forty-five aircraft­ were­ expected­ to­ be­ operational­ by September­ 2008.­ The­ forty-five­ modified Stratotankers­were­to­be­assigned­to­active­units­at McConnell­ and­ Grand­ Forks­ Air­ Force­ Bases; MacDill­Air­Force­Base,­Fla.;­Fairchild­Air­Force Base,­Wash.;­guard­and­reserve­bases­at­March­Air Reserve­Base,­Calif.;­and­overseas­at­Kadena­Air Base,­Japan,­and­Royal­Air­Force­Mildenhall,­in­the United­Kingdom.­­­ The­ C-135Rs­ were­ also­ subject­ of­ the­ Pacer CRAG­ (Compass­ Radar­ and­ Global­ Positioning System)­Program­which­was­designed­to­­extend­the functional­ life­ to­ 2040,­ the­ airframe's­ projected decommissioning­date.­The­Pacer­CRAG­avionics

upgrade­to­the­KC-135­fleet­was­a­commercial­offthe-shelf­modification­program­that­would­eliminate the­ need­ for­ a­ navigator­ on­ most­ missions.­ Pacer CRAG­upgrades­allowed­the­aircraft­to­be­flown­by a­pilot,­co-pilot­and­boom­operator.­The­new­design could­also­quickly­be­reconfigured­for­a­navigator­if the­mission­required­it. The­ existing­ cockpit­ consisted­ of­ electromechanical­ equipment­ of­ 1950s­ technology­ with individual­ control­ panels­ and­ instrumentation distributed­throughout.­Failure­rates­were­high­and repair­capability­had­been­restricted­significantly­as technology­has­changed.­Not­only­were­repairs­to­the KC-135's­existing­avionics­suite­costly­for­the­Air Force,­but­they­also­meant­more­down-time­for­the tanker­while­repairs­were­made.­ The­project­provided­for­a­major­overhaul­of the­KC-135­cockpit­to­improve­the­reliability­and maintainability­ of­ the­ aircraft's­ systems.­ In addition,­the­programme­met­the­congressionally mandated­ requirement­ to­ install­ the­ global positioning­ system­ in­ all­ Defense­ Department aircraft­by­the­turn­of­the­century.­ Other­ modifications­ included­ state-of-the-art colour­weather­radar,­improved­compass­and­radar systems­and­an­on-board­global­positioning­system. An­additional­safety­measure,­the­traffic­collision avoidance­system­or­TCAS,­was­also­installed­which

Doing the elephant walk! Twelve KC-135Rs line up on the taxiway, just before takeoff, at the Kadena Air Base in Japan (USAF)

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1 2

KC-135R­57-1439­walkround McDill­AFB,­2­March­2017 (all­pictures­Dennis­Cole)

1. The crew access door, along with the access ladder.

2. The view up the access ladder into the area immediately aft of the flightdeck.

3 USAF tankers now have reasonably low-visibility markings applied. The cargo door is open, with a pick-up truck mounted airstair in position.

3 4

5

4. Nose gear details. Many airframes bear ‘scars’ in the shape of patches as testiment of nearly 60 years of use. 5. Wing mounted lights.

6. 1439 6 AMW 927 ARW denotes the aircraft’s tail number - 57-1439 - 6th Air Mobility Wing, 927th Air Refuelling Wing. 6

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7 8

7. From the rear, with tail support in place

8. Refuelling boom capped, with vortex generators under the tailplane.

9 The boomer’s main and side windows, with the fairing in place. The apparent yellow stripe on the glass is a reflection of the taxi-line on the ground! 10. The rear fuselage strenthening strips, and aft body tank refuelling point on the right.

11. The back end of 57-1439, showing the MacDill fin stripe. All these images were taken during a school event focusing on Science, Technology, Engineering and Math on base.

9

10

11

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12

12. The ‘front office’ the flight deck of KC-135R 571439, showing the semi-glass cockpit, with CRT screens for the main flight displays. Later, KC-135R Block 45 Upgrade aircraft have been fitted with fully digital displays.

13. The main landing gear, showing the intricate array of elements that go into the doors.

13

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14 14. From the somewhat gloomy rear fuselage, looking forward, showing the myriad of pipes and trunking in the roof.

15. Entry to ‘the hole’, otherwise known as the boomer’s position. There are two hatches, either side of the rack of oxygen bottles. 16, 17, 18, 19 Four views taken down in the boomer’s position, with the aerodynamic visor - the zincchromate yellow item - in the lowered psition. The panels and gauges show their age and amount of use.

15

16

18

17

19

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20. The area immediately aft of the flight deck, with the cargo door in the raised position. 21. KC-135s were designed with three roles in mind: tankers, cargo and people carriers. The main cabin floor is fitted with a pallet roller system, and each side of the fuselage has seats for the carriage of troops. The main fuel tanks for the tanking role are underfloor in the aircraft’s belly.

21

helps­with­formation­flying.­The­Pacer­CRAG­digital system­ includeD­ a­ more­ accurate­ and­ reliable altimeter,­ compass,­ airspeed­ indicator,­ and­ other navigational­ equipment,­ replacing­ the­ KC-135's outdated­inertial­navigation­and­doppler­navigation systems. One­of­the­biggest­benefits­was­that­the­system allowed­ pilots­ to­ view­ several­ functions­ through multifunction­glass­displays.­As­a­result,­pilots­could

concentrate­on­one­area­to­view­certain­functions rather­than­looking­at­a­number­of­instruments­to­get the­ same­ information.­ Using­ the­ improved­ radar, pilots­could­detect­cloud­formations,­wind­shear­and other­ weather­ hazards.­ With­ GPS,­ pilots­ could identify­their­position­anywhere­in­the­world­within a­few­metres.­ AMC­ developed­ an­ integrated­ programme­ to enhance­ KC-135­ cockpit­ avionics­ and­ reduce­ or

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eliminate­the­navigator­requirement­in­KC-135s.­The initial­programme­was­to­replace­Compass,­Radar and­install­GPS­systems.­Operational­testing­led­to the­ addition­ of­ Traffic­ Advisory­ and­ Collision Avoidance­System­(TCAS).­TCAS­was­an­off-theshelf­fix­to­problems­with­formation­station-keeping. The­cost­increased­from­$426.3M­to­$686.5M­due­to the­TCAS­requirement.­Other­recent­additions­to­the Pacer­ CRAG­ program­ include­ Standby­Air­ Data Indicator­(ADI)­and­an­Advanced­Central­Air­Data Computer­(CADC)­for­Reduced­Vertical­Separation Minimums­ (RVSM)­ certification­ an­ Enhanced Ground­Proximity­Warning­System­(E-GPWS),­and a­ Reduced­ Vertical­ Separation­ Minima­ (RVSM) Compliant­Air­Data­Computer.­These­systems­will serve­as­the­foundation­for­future­Global­Air­Traffic Management­(GATM). Growth­in­air­traffic­volume­spurred­on­initiatives to­ manage­ increasingly­ congested­ airspace­ and improve­ safety.­ Global­ Air­ Traffic­ Management (GATM)­ technology­ was­ needed­ to­ comply­ with proposed­changes;­aircraft­without­GATM­equipment would­be­prevented­from­using­heavily­traveled­air corridors.­Exclusion­of­US­strategic­mobility­aircraft from­the­world's­busiest­air­routes­would­increase­fuel costs­ and­ travel­ time­ while­ decreasing­ allowable cabin­loads­and­delaying­force­deployments.­GATM elements­ included­ data­ links­ replacing­ voice communication,­integrated­global­positioning­and flight­management­systems,­and­automatic­aircraft position­reporting­instead­of­radar­monitoring. As­an­added­safety­measure­for­formation­flying, TCAS­gave­pilots­the­ability­to­see­other­aircraft­and provided­ advance­ warning­ of­ possible­ mid-air collisions.­ GPS­ receivers­ provided­ aircrews­ with near-pinpoint­ navigational­ accuracy.­ These­ new systems­ are­ primarily­ controlled­ through­ flightmanagement­computers­that­automate­many­aircrew functions­and­reduce­the­overall­workload. The­programme­was­structured­in­two­segments, Block­ 10­ and­ Block­ 20.­ Both­ blocks­ underwent stringent­ testing­ to­ assess­ the­ new­ systems' operational­effectiveness­and­suitability.­Production kits­began­delivery­by­the­contractor­in­mid-1997, with­ installations­ immediately­ following­ at­ the Oklahoma­City­Air­Logistics­Center. Block­ 10­ replaced­ the­ APN-59­ radar­ with­ a Collins­commercial­colour­weather­radar­on­128­Air National­ Guard­ aircraft.­These­ aircraft­ eventually transitioned­to­the­Block­20­upgrade. Block­ 20­ was­ a­ fleet-wide­ modification.­ It includes­the­same­Collins­radar,­new­aircraft­heading references,­and­installation­of­­GPS­­equipment.­The N-1­and­J-4­compass­systems­were­replaced­by­a

GPS­ inertial­ navigation­ system­ and­ the­ existing Carousel­IV-E­inertial­navigation­system.­Two­flightmanagement,­ system-control­ display­ units­ also provided­access­to­the­fuel-savings­advisory­system. A­data-transfer­and­storage­system­allowed­crews to­access­50­flight­plans­with­up­to­200­waypoints each.­ Information­ was­ viewed­ on­ the­ same multifunctional­ displays­ used­ in­ Block­ 10,­ but­ in Block­ 20­ the­ displays­ replace­ the­ horizontal situational­ indicators­ and­ attitude­ directional indicators­at­the­pilots'­stations.­Information­projected on­the­displays­was­selectable­by­each­operator­and included­radar­and­route-of-flight­mapping,­and­orbit patterns­for­air­refuelling.­All­aircraft­had­wiring­to the­navigator­station­for­placement­of­these­same units,­should­the­mission­dictate.­A­new­glare­shield houses­the­radar­and­multifunctional­display­control panels.­Some­of­the­old­round-dial­instruments­and warning­lights­were­removed­and­their­data­viewed on­the­new­displays.­The­upgrades­provide­a­cleaner layout­to­the­entire­instrument­panel. Some­ KC-135Rs­ were­ fitted­ with­ Reduced Vertical­Separation­Minimum­(RVSM)­equipment, known­as­the­­Pacer­CRAG­Block­25­configuration.­­ In­an­effort­to­deal­with­the­tremendous­growth­of­air traffic,­ International­ Civil­ Aviation­ Organization member­nations­have­agreed­to­comply­with­RVSM as­ one­ of­ many­ planned­ air­ traffic­ management changes.­ RVSM­ reduces­ the­ vertical­ separation between­aircraft­from­2,000­to­1,000­feet­at­altitudes between­ 33,000­ and­ 37,000­ feet.­ The­ RVSM­ kit consists­ of­ Group­ B­ components­ and­ Group­ A hardware­ including­ wiring­ harnesses,­ pitot­ static tubing­and­metal­fabricated­parts.­Due­to­receptacle type­variations,­modifications­required­to­the­GFP RVSM­kits­will­vary­from­aircraft­to­aircraft.­With the­high­utilisation­of­these­aircraft,­minimum­aircraft down­time­and­flexible­scheduling­of­modification dates­were­necessary­to­meet­a­critical­operational requirement. In­order­to­maintain­the­KC-135­fleet,­in­1999­Air Mobility­ Command­ developed­ a­ new­ 'block­ 30' programme­to­perform­additional­modifications­to the­ fleet­ at­ the­ same­ time­ as­ Pacer­ CRAG modifications.­Some­additional­modifications­under the­block­30­programme­included­enhanced­ground proximity­ warning­ system,­ which­ uses­ aircraft position­and­a­digital­terrain­database­to­provide­lookahead­awareness­to­the­aircrew.­The­Reduced­Vertical Separation­Minima,­equipped­the­fleet­to­operate­in reduced­vertical­separation­airspace.­This­included an­additional­digital­air­data­computer,­new­digital altimeters­ and­ digital­ airspeed­ indicators.­ The navigation­and­safety­modification­installed­a­flight

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The earlier NKC-135A AIT 55-3128 with spray rig extended and right, a close up of the spray ‘head’. Its use gave rise to a crazy decades-long conspiracy theory that ‘the establishment were using aircraft to spray chemicals into the atmosphere to alter the weather or reduce the population known as ‘chem-trails’. (USAF)

data­recorder,­cockpit­voice­recorder­and­emergency locator­ transmitter.­This­ initiative­ brought­ a­ large package­of­modifications­together,­essentially­into­a single­modification,­termed­the­block­30­airplane. This­ programme­ had­ the­ effect­ of­ reducing­ the amount­of­time­that­each­aircraft­is­unavailable­to­the KC-135­fleet.­

KC-135R AIT The­Airborne­Icing­Tanker­(AIT)­is­a­modified­KC135R­Statotanker­aircraft,­that­simulates­rain­and­ice, allowing­the­military­to­determine­their­effects­on aircraft.­Such­an­aircraft­allows­testing­to­occur­at Edwards­Air­Force­Base­rather­than­having­to­deploy other­locations­throughout­the­world. The­Air­Forces­only­AIT­was­modified­by­BAS Systems­ in­ Mojave,­ CA,­ after­ receiving modifications­to­its­navigation­system­that­will­bring it­in­line­with­operational­KC-135­aircraft.

The­$12­million­AIT­programme,­which­began in­February­1999,­reinstituted­an­environmental­test capability­to­simulate­airborne­rain­and­ice­conditions under­controlled­conditions. The­AIT­conducted­­testing­on­a­number­of­DOD aircraft,­as­well­as­Federal­Aviation­Administration certification­testing­on­commercial­aircraft. It­ was­ a­ multi-service­ project,­ Edwards­ AFB having­lead­responsibilities­for­the­project,­the­Army providing­ system­ and­ user­ requirements­ and­ the Navy­­heading­up­a­team­to­design­and­build­the spray­array­system.­The­Air­Force­was­responsible for­the­instrumentation,­water,­boom­and­bleed­air systems,­as­well­as­integration­of­all­the­components onto­ the­ airframe.­ The­ 412th­ Logistics­ Group instrumentation­ division­ designed­ the­ on-aircraft system­and­installed­it­on­the­aircraft. C-135FR In­ a­ programme­ approved­ in­ January­ 1980­ and starting­ in­ 1984,­ the­ eleven­ remaining­ C-135Fs delivered­to­France­were­converted­with­the­CFM International­CFM.56-2A-2­to­make­them­identical (engine­and­systems­wise)­to­the­KC-135Rs­used­by the­USAF,­the­first­delivery­being­in­August­1985. Problems­with­corrosion­and­possible­cracks­in­the undercarriage­ resulted­ in­ three­ USAF­ KC-135Rs being­loaned­to­the­Armee­de­I'Air­while­repairs­were conducted.­They­were­delivered­on­19­December 1992­with­a­projected­stay­of­eighteen­months­and were­noted­at­Birmingham,­AL­in­June­1994­awaiting attention­but­two­returned­on­extended­loan­and­were

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A stunning picture of a re-engined ‘Combat Sent’ aircraft (USAF)

replaced­by­purchased­aircraft,­this­time­stored­KC135As­being­converted­to­KC-135R­standard.­After repairs­one­of­the­C-135FRs,­(12736/93-CH),­was returned­to­Boeing­in­May­1993­and­fitted­with­wing mounted­hose­and­drogue­pods­as­well­as­retaining the­ flying­ boom­ installation,­ thus­ enabling­ three aircraft­to­be­refuelled­simultaneously.­First­flight­was in­October­1993­and­the­remaining­ten­aircraft­were converted­by­Air­France.

RC-135S The­RC-135Ss­were­converted­from­NKC-135A­or C-135B­ for­ Telemetry­ Intelligence­ (TELINT)­ to gather­ information­ on­ Soviet­ missile­ tests­ and­ to confirm­ compliance­ with­ the­ SALT­ treaty.­ From 1958­this­mission­was­flown­by­EB-47E(TT)­aircraft but­ these­ lacked­ optical­ collection­ capability­ so NKC-135A­ 59-1491­ was­ allocated­ to­ the­ ‘Nancy Rae’­programme­in­1962­to­assist­in­the­development of­this­option.­It­was­redesignated­RC-135S­on­1 March­1963­when­transferred­to­SAC.­The­first­one was­later­renamed ‘Wanda Belle’ but­was­lost­in­1969 (it­retained­the­J57-P­engines­while­other­RC-135S were­converted­C-135Bs­with­TF33-P-5­turbofans). The­configuration­varied­between­the­aircraft­and also­ at­ different­ stages­ of­ their­ operational­ life. Consistent­was­the­elongated­nose­and­IFR­but­there were­varying­numbers­of­antennae­on­the­forward fuselage­and­the­addition­of­round­circular­windows with­ sliding­ covers.­ Initially­ used­ for­ ‘Rivet Ball/Cobra­Ball’­operations,­they­later­had­cameras fitted­and­then­flew­‘Burning­Star’­missions­-­during

the­mid-1970s­they­had­the­starboard­wing­painted black­(including­insides­of­the­nacelles)­for­anti-glare projects.­They­were­on­standby­at­Shemya­AFB,­AK until­31­March­1975,­when­they­began­world-wide deployments­with­a­typical­crew­of­four­on­the­flight deck­ and­ twelve­ mission­ specialists.­ Plans­ were proposed­to­re-engine­with­the­F108-CF-100­but­this was­ later­ dropped­ due­ to­ Congressional­ Budget Restrictions.­ In­ 1995­ the­ decision­ was­ taken­ to convert­the­stored­RC-135X­‘Cobra­Eye’­aircraft­into a­RC-135S­by­Raytheon­E-Systems.­On­1­June­1998 the­USAF­announced­that­all­RC-135­variants­would be­re-engined­with­the­F108­engines­between­August 1998­and­2002. TC-135S Following­the­loss­of­the­RC-135T,­­an­EC-135B­was converted­by­E-Systems­from­early­1985­to­serve­as a­training­aircraft­for­the­RC-135S­crews­since­the aerodynamic­effects­differ­from­the­standard­aircraft. It­did­not­carry­the­sophisticated­electronic­equipment of­the­RC-135Ss,­was­powered­by­TF33-P-5­engines, and­had­IFR­systems­but­no­boom.­On­1­June­1998 USAF­announced­that­all­RC-135­variants­would­be re-engined­with­the­F108­engines­between­August 1998­and­2002.

KC-135T Following­ retirement­ of­ the­ SR-71­ Blackbird­ the remaining­ KC-135Qs,­ which­ were­ used­ to­ refuel these­high­flying­reconnaissance­aircraft­with­their special­JP-7­fuel,­were­adapted­by­the­fitting­of­F108-

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Two Cobra Ball aircraft on the flightline at Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska in 2001.(SRA Jeremy Smith, USAF) Right: the interior of the main cabin of a Cobra aircraft. (USAF)

CF-100­(CFM.56)­engines­and­ARR­to­KC-135T standard­for­use­as­general­tankers­(they­can­also handle­the­standard­JP-4­fuel).­All­surviving­KC135Qs­were­converted­by­the­end­of­1995,­the­last aircraft,­58-0099­entering­the­process­at­the­end­of September­1995.

RC-135T One­of­the­first­KC-135Rs­(and­later­RC-135Rs)­was redesignated­in­May­1971­and­operated­as­‘Rivet Dandy’­mission­aircraft­with­flight­crew­of­four­and mission­ crew­ of­ eleven.­ It­ was­ de-modified­ to­ a trainer­in­July­1973­and­the­PMEE­transferred­to­580126.­It­retained­the­hognose­and­wingtip­static­boom while­the­IFR­was­inactivated.­It­was­retrofitted­with TF33-PW-102­ turbofans­ in­ 1982­ then­ used­ as­ a training­aircraft­for­RC-135­pilots­and­navigators.­It was­ due­ to­ be­ replaced­ in­ mid­ 1985­ by­ a­ newly converted­ TC-135S­ and­ move­ to­ 55thSRW­ as­ a trainer­but­was­lost­before­the­transfer. RC-135U Three­ RC-135Cs­ were­ converted­ by­ General Dynamics­to­RC-135Us­starting­July­1970­and­the only­original­external­difference­was­the­addition­of

a­extended­tailcone­and­a­fairing­on­the­fin­above­the rudder.­Later­modifications­included­the­fitting­of­a chin­radome,­a­large­SLAR­fairing­on­each­side­of the­fuselage­just­behind­the­cockpit­and­‘Rabbit­Ears’ antenna­ arrays­ above.­ Aircraft­ flew­ ‘Combat Sent/Combat­Pink’­missions­during­the­latter­stages of­the­Vietnam­conflict.­ RC-135V Commencing­in­1972­E-Systems­converted­one­RC135B­and­seven­RC-135Cs­to­RC-135Vs­to­provide

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I­cannot­let­this­chapter­on­the­KC-135­pass­by without­mentioning­an­alleged­‘incident’­at­the 1987­Finningly­Battle­of­Britain­Airshow.­At­the time­ it­ was­ the­ fashion­ for­ units­ or­ groups­ to ‘zap’­-­that­is­to­apply­a­sticker­-­to­each­other’s aircraft.­One­‘group’­although­not­official,­was­a squad­of­girls­called­‘Pilot’s­Pals’­organised­by former­ RAF­ member­ Joseph­ Merchant,­ who owned­and­ran­a­publishing­organisation­of­the same­name­that­produced­specialist­calenders. Joe’s­girls­-­who­were­all­into­serious­fun,­chaos and­mayhem­-­were­special­guests­at­the­show. With­their­black­flying­suits­and­white­boots­and belts­drew­a­lot­of­media­attention. Legend­has­it­that­Joe­was­determined­that­his­organisation­was­going­to­make­its­mark­with­the biggest,­boldest­zap­ever­-­and­it­would­be­applied­to­the­biggest­aircraft­at­the­airshow.­ One­of­the­participants­on­static­display­was­KC-135E­63604­of­the­Kansas­Air­National­Guard. There­were­rumours­that­certain­display­routine­patterns­chalked­on­the­display­briefing­boards­bore a­strange­resemblance­to­the­erect­male­organ,­but­that­was­vigorously­disputed­by­a­certain­YUGO Cars-sponsored­wing-walker,­claiming­that­a­Boeing­Strearman­could­not­fly­that­pattern!­On­the Saturday­evening­after­the­first­day­of­the­show­there­was­a barbeque­on­base,­hosted­by­the­Dominie­Squadron.­The­girls and­Joe­were­the­centre­of­attention­amongst­the­air­and­ground crew­alike.­ As­dawn­broke­on­the­Sunday­morning­there­was­much attention­around­the­tail­of­the­KC-135­-­which­now­bore­a three­foot­diameter­‘zap’­of­the­puppy­in­a­bone-dome­that­was the­logo­of­Pilots­Pals.­Word­has­it­that­the­Station­Commander ‘was­ not­ amused’­ having­ such­ a­ thing­ done­ to­ an­ aircraft guesting­on­his­airfield,­and­so­the­zap­was­quickly­removed, and­just­as­quickly­vanished,­allegedly­to­surface­again­in­a crew­room­in­the­USA.­Joe­and­the­girls­of­course,­denied­all knowledge­of­it­-­and­no­pictures­seem­to­have­been­taken­of the­event­-­or­if­they­were,­they­have­been­kept­quiet!

COMINT and­ ELINT.­ Both­ the­ large­ SLAR fairings­referred­to­above­in­the­RC-135Us­and­the elongated­nose­of­other­reconnaissance­variants were­ fitted­ and­ there­ were­ also­ other­ blade antennae­under­the­fuselage.­The­RC-135Vs­could also­be­used­as­an­Airborne­Command­Post­and­as combat­support­aircraft­on­missions­like­policing the­no-fly­zone­in­Iraq­or­patrolling­over­Bosnia. One­RC-135U­(63-9792)­was­converted­to­RC135V­status­by­E-Systems­in­1976/77.­Power­was from­TF33-P-9­engines­but­budget­approval­was granted­to­re-engine­with­F108-CF-100s­although nothing­was­finalised­and­Boeing,­in­association

with­Rolls-Royce/Allison­Engines­put­forward­an unsolicited­proposal­to­re-engine­the­whole­RC135­fleet­(as­well­as­AWACS­and­J-STAR­aircraft) with­engines­leased­from­the­suppliers­to­save­the USAF­money­over­their­planned­service­life.­On 1­ June­ 1998­ USAF­ announced­ that­ all­ RC-135 variants­ would­ be­ re-engined­ with­ the­ F108 engines­between­August­1998­and­2002. OC-135W Following­the­removal­of­the­flight­engineer's­station from­the­three­OC-135B­‘Open­Skies’­aircraft­they were­redesignated­OC-135W.

Opposite page: an unusual vertically down view of a Türk Hava Kuvvetleri (the aerial warfare service branch of the Turkish Armed Forces) KC-135R in formation with the Turkish Stars aerobatic display team, flying Northrop NF-5s. The THK operate seven KC-135Rs that received the Pacer CRAG upgrade. The aircraft were operated by the 101st Squadron, stationed at Incirlik Air Base. (Türk Hava Kuvvetleri)

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RC-135W The­six­RC-135Ms­were­converted­by­E-Systems and­redesignated­as­RC-135W­standard­following rebuild­in­the­1980s­and­were­equipped­to­a­similar standard­ to­ the­ RC-135Vs­ but­ with­ additional antennae.­Currently­powered­by­TF33-P-5­engines they­were­due­to­be­re-engined­with­F108-CF-100s but­this­option­was­ater­cancelled.­Three­C-135Bs were­modified­by­Raytheon­E-Systems­from­1996/97 to­RC-135W­status­to­join­the­hard­pressed­‘Rivet Joint’­fleet.­On­1­June­1998­USAF­announced­that all­RC-135­variants­would­be­re-engined­with­the F108­engines­between­August­1998­and­2002.

TC-135W One­ C-135B­ was­ converted­ to­ the­ TC-135W,­ a similar­aerodynamic­platform­to­the­RC-135W,­but without­the­delicate­avionics,­to­serve­as­a­training aircraft,­it­was­also­powered­by­TF33-P-5­engines­but reengining­was­planned­but­not­completed­initially although­USAF­gave­approval­on­1­June­1998­for reengining­of­all­RC-135­variants­with­F108s. WC-135W In­1995,­to­consolidate­disparate­airframes,­all­former WC-135Bs­not­otherwise­converted­and­redesignated were­given­the­WC-135W­MDS­even­though­each undertook­different­missions!­61-2665­was­used­as­a trial­aircraft­for­the­OC-135­fleet­and­was­fitted­with Stage­3­hush-kits­before­being­retired­to­AMARC, 61-2666­was­leased­to­(Raytheon)­E-Systems­from May­1995­as­a­trials­aircraft­and­a­trainer­while­the third­ aircraft,­ 61-2667,­ was­ used­ as­ a­ flight­ deck trainer­operated­by­55th­Wing­for­EC/RC-135­crews and­was­known­as­the­Silk­Purse­trainer.

RC-135X The­ sole­ RC-135X­ Cobra­ Eye,­ 62-4128,­ was converted­to­RC-135X­for­use­in­the­SDI­‘Star­Wars’

project­to­gather­information­on­Soviet­missile­tests. This­was­done­during­the­mid-to-late-1980s­making use­ of­ a­ C-135B­ Telemetry/Range­ Instrumented Aircraft.­ When­ the­ funding­ for­ its­ project,­ titled ‘Optical­Aircraft­Measurement­Program’,­finished the­ aircraft­ withdrawn­ from­ use.­ In­ 1993,­ it­ was converted­into­an­additional­RC-135S­Cobra­Ball.­In late­ 1995­ it­ began­ conversion­ to­ RC-135S configuration­by­Raytheon­E-Systems­and­was­reengined­with­F108­engines.

EC-135Y Two­EC-135Ns­were­converted­to­EC-135Ys­with additional­equipment­for­use­by­CINCENTCOM. They­are­powered­by­TF33-PW-102s­from­retired airliners­ and­ were­ both­ active­ during­ Operation ‘Desert­Storm',­both­as­support­for­General­Norman Schwarzkopf­and,­occasionally,­as­a­tanker­as­they retain­the­boom. RC-135W Rivet Joint (Project Airseeker) The­United­Kingdom­bought­three­KC-135R­aircraft for­ conversion­ to­ RC-135W­ Rivet­ Joint­ standard under­the­Airseeker­project.­Acquisition­of­the­three aircraft­ was­ budgeted­ at­ £634m,­ with­ entry­ into service­in­October­2014.­The­aircraft­formed­part­of 51­Squadron­RAF,­based­at­RAF­Waddington­along with­ the­ RAF's­ other­ ISTAR­ assets.­ They­ are expected­to­remain­in­British­service­until­2045. The­RAF­had­gathered­signals­intelligence­with three­Nimrod­R1s,­converted­in­the­1970s­from­the Nimrod­MR1­maritime­patrol­aircraft.­When­the­time came­to­upgrade­the­maritime­Nimrods­to­MRA4 standard,­Project­Helix­was­launched­in­August­2003 to­study­options­for­extending­the­life­of­the­R1­to 2025.­The­option­of­switching­to­Rivet­Joint­was added­to­Helix­in­2008,­and­the­retirement­of­the­R1 became­inevitable­when­the­MRA4­was­cancelled under­ the­ UK's­ 2010­ budget­ cuts.­ The­ R1's

A Royal Air Force Rivet Joint aircraft arries at Mildenhall before taking up duties from RAF Waddington. The aircraft carries the 51 Squadron ‘droopy goose’ emblem on the fin. (USAF)

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ZZ664 with the 100th Anniversary markings of 51 Squadron on its fin. This version of the ‘droopy goose’ appears to be not quite so droopy! Although the aircraft retains the boomer’s position, it does not carry the full refuelling boom. ( USAF)

involvement­over­Libya­in­Operation­Ellamy­delayed its­retirement­until­June­2011. Helix­ became­ Project­Airseeker,­ under­ which three­ KC-135R­ airframes­ were­ converted­ to­ RC135W­ standard­ by­ L-3­ Communications,­ who provide­ongoing­maintenance­and­upgrades­under­a long-term­agreement.­The­three­airframes­are­former United­States­Air­Force­KC-135Rs,­all­of­which­first flew­in­1964­but­were­modified­to­the­latest­RC135W­standard­before­delivery.­The­three­airframes are­the­youngest­KC-135s­in­the­USAF­fleet. 51­ Sqn­ personnel­ began­ training­ at­ Offutt­ in January­2011­for­conversion­to­the­RC-135.­The­first RC-135W­(ZZ664)­was­delivered­ahead­of­schedule to­the­RAF­on­12­November­2013,­for­final­approval and­testing­by­the­Defence­Support­and­Equipment team­ prior­ to­ its­ release­ to­ service­ from­ the­ UK MAA.­The­ second­ one­ was­ once­ again­ delivered ahead­ of­ schedule­ on­ 4­ September­ 2015­ at­ RAF Mildenhall­in­Suffolk.­The­third­is­scheduled­to­be delivered­and­fully­operational­by­December­2017.

Extending the life - KC-135R Block 45. It­was­through­the­activities­of­AMARC­that­the 418th­Flight­Test­Squadron­at­Edwards,­along­with a­multitude­of­testers,­the­KC-135­Block­45­test team­were­able­to­complete­a­series­of­tests­­to­help extend­the­aircraft’s­service­life­for­decades. “There are currently around 400 KC-135s that enhance the Air Force’s capability to accomplish its primary mission of Global Reach while providing aerial refueling support to Air Force, Navy, Marine Corps and allied nation aircraft. These aircraft also provide mission support including cargo, aeromedical evacuation, personnel transport, and a variety of other specialized missions,” said­ Major­ John­ Mikal, 418th­ FLTS­ KC-135­ Block­ 45­ lead­ project­ test pilot.­ ‘Increasing the life expectancy of the current

Air Force tanker fleet is critical. Ongoing upgrade programs help to ensure there is no gap in these mission capabilities, while the new KC-46 program starts replacing the aging KC-135 fleet.” The Block 45 modification was needed to extend the KC-135 aircraft as a viable weapon system through fiscal year 2040. The Block 45 systems mitigate capability gaps and improve overall KC-135 shortcomings in reliability, maintainability and supportability. At­ the­ initial­ start­ of­ the­ KC-135­ Block­ 45 program,­it­was­originally­estimated­that­testing would­ end­ in­ March­ 2011,­ but­ the­ technical challenge­of­integrating­the­new­digital­systems proved­to­be­very­challenging,­according­to­the­test team. ‘It took an amazing amount of ingenuity and hard work by the collective KC-135 Block 45 upgrade team, due to the program experiencing a two-month stop in test in early 2012 to determine the cause of a structural coupling event which occurred during flight test. While clearing the aerial refueling envelope, the performance of the new autopilot altitude hold was so good, readjustment was required to improve stability during aerial refueling coupled flight.’ Along­with­the­418th,­the­massive,­multi-year task­ required­ support­ from­ more­ than­ ninety members­to­overcome­technical­hurdles­and­prevent the­very­real­threat­of­program­cancellation.­Of­those included,­individuals­were­acquired­from­the­412th Test­Wing,­412th­Operations­Group,­412th­Test­and Engineering­Group,­773rd­Test­Squadron,­775th­Test Squadron,­370th­Flight­Test­Squadron,­445th­Flight Test­Squadron,­the­KC-135­Special­Programs­Office, Rockwell­Collins,­Air­Mobility­Command­Test­and Evaluation­Squadron­Detachment­3,­AMC­Air,­Space and­Information­Operations­(A3),­and­McConnell­Air Force­Base,­Kan. ‘There were only two KC-135 aircrew in the

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The old, and the new!

The KC-135R Block 45 Upgrade required a massive update to the flight deck, moving from analogue instrumentation in the pilot’s centre console above, to a fully digital verson, as seen on the right. ( USAF)

A flight test crew from Edwards AFB evaluate the glass cockpit of a Block 45 KC-135R. (USAF)

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418th FLTS when the program started. Eventually, the 418th FLTS KC-135 aircrew numbered four; even so, Test Operations was largely instrumental in supporting the program with their KC-135 aircrew,’ said­Major­John­Mikal. Most­notably­though­was­the­Edwards­team, which­ was­ able­ to­ complete­ the­ final­ testing $200,000­ below­ cost­ and­ three­ weeks­ ahead­ of new­schedule­through­extremely­efficient­testing and­test­execution­flexibility­despite­regular­scope changes,­ priority­ changes,­ funding­ rebaseline, weather­ cancellations,­ maintenance­ issues, resource­rescheduling/constraints,­and­the­ultimate challenge­of­addressing­the­AR­oscillation­issue with­no­additional­schedule­or­funding­impacts. Maj­John­­Mikal:­‘In the end, the Global Reach Combined Test Force test team proved to be a pivotal contributor, bringing this challenged program to a successful completion. Successful completion of this program has secured the opportunity to field Block 45 to the KC-135 fleet, while preventing the otherwise inevitable reduction in overall mission effectiveness due to avionics obsolescence and CNS/ATM airspace access issues. Without the KC-135 Block 45, 88percent of the USAF tanker assets would eventually be unable to complete their mission. The Block 45 modification was needed to extend the KC-135 aircraft as a viable weapon system through fiscal year 2040. The Block 45 systems mitigate capability gaps and improve overall KC-135 shortcomings in reliability, maintainability and supportability.’

Tanking with the 100 ARW In­1976,­due­to­budget­reductions,­Strategic­Air Command­ consolidated­ its­ Strategic Reconnaissance­ assets.­ The­ 99th­ Strategic Reconnaissance­ Squadron­ and­ its­ U-2s­ were returned­from­U-Tapao­in­Thailand­and­assigned to­the­9th­Strategic­Reconnaissance­Wing­(9­SRW) on­ 1­ July­ 1976.­ This­ brought­ all­ the­ Strategic Reconnaissance­assets­of­SAC­under­one­wing­at Beale­ AFB,­ California.­ The­ 9th­ SRW­ already controlled­ the­ 1st­ Strategic­ Reconnaissance Squadron,­which­operated­the­SR-71­Blackbird. The­U-2Rs­of­the­349th­SRS­and­the­AQM-34 Firebee/DC-130­Hercules­drone­operations­of­the 350th­ SRS­ were­ discontinued,­ the­ squadrons becoming­KC-135­tanker­squadrons­of­the­100th Air­Refuelling­Wing­in­support­of­the­9th­SRS­SR71­Blackbird.­The­U-2Rs­in­South­Korea­became the­ 9th­ Strategic­ Reconnaissance­ Wing Detachment­2.­The­AQM-34s,­associated­DC-130

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Hercules­ launch­ aircraft­ and­ CH-3­ Jolly­ Green Giant­recovery­helicopters­were­reassigned­to­the Tactical­ Air­ Command­ 22nd­ Tactical­ Drone Squadron­and­remained­at­Davis-Monthan­AFB. With­the­redesignation,­the­100th­and­its­349th and­350th­Air­Refueling­Squadrons­were­moved administratively­to­Beale,­taking­over­the­assets­of the­ 17th­ Bombardment­ Wing,­ which­ was inactivated.­The­349th­and­350th­assumed­the­KC135s­ of­ the­ 903d­ and­ 922d­ Air­ Refueling Squadrons.­ With­ the­ re-designation,­ the­ 100th ARW­ assumed­ responsibility­ for­ providing worldwide­air­refuelling­support­for­the­9th­SRW's SR-71s­and­U-2s­on­30­September­1976. The­100th­ARW­was­inactivated­on­15­March 1983­ when­ its­ two­ KC-135­ squadrons­ were reassigned­ to­ the­ host­ 9th­ Strategic Reconnaissance­Wing­at­Beale,­which­became­a composite­ wing­ under­ the­ one-base,­ one-wing concept. After­an­inactive­status­for­over­seven­years, SAC­again­reactivated­the­100th,­but­this­time­as the­ 100th­ Air­ Division­ at­ Whiteman­ AFB, Missouri,­ on­ 1­ July­ 1990,­ an­ intermediate command­echelon­of­Strategic­Air­Command.­It assumed­host­unit­responsibilities­at­Whiteman.­In addition,­ the­ division­ controlled­ the­ 509th Bombardment­Wing,­which­was­not­operational while­ waiting­ for­ production­ B-2­ Spirit­ stealth bombers­to­arrive­and­appropriate­facilities­for­the B-2s­to­be­constructed.­It­also­controlled­the­351st Missile­Wing,­an­LGM-30F­Minuteman­II­ICBM wing­at­Whiteman. Air­ Force­ reorganization­ put­ the­ 351st­ MW under­the­reactivated­Twentieth­Air­Force­on­29 March­1991,­and­the­509th­Bomb­Wing­took­over host­ duties­ at­ Whiteman.­ As­ a­ result,­ SAC inactivated­the­100th­AD­again­on­1­August­1991. Six­ months­ after­ its­ inactivation­ as­ an­ Air Division,­and­over­46­years­after­leaving­England at­ the­ end­ of­ World­ War­ Two,­ the­ Air­ Force activated­ the­ 100­ ARW,­ stationed­ at­ RAF Mildenhall,­United­Kingdom,­on­1­February­1992. It­ was­ assigned­ to­ Strategic­ Air­ Command, Fifteenth­Air­Force,­14th­Air­Division.­It­was­then reassigned­to­Third­Air­Force­on­1­February­1992. From­the­time­of­its­reactivation,­the­100­ARW­has served­as­the­United­States­Air­Forces­Europe's lone­air­refuelling­wing.­It­also­serves­as­the­host unit­at­RAF­Mildenhall,­where­it­deployed­aircraft and­ managed­ the­ European­ Tanker­ Task­ Force. One­of­the­Wing's­honours­is­that­it­is­the­only modern­ USAF­ operational­ Wing­ allowed­ to display­ on­ its­ assigned­ aircraft­ the­ tail­ code

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(Square-D)­of­its­World­War­Two­predecessor. At­ the­ 100­ARW­ operations­ centre,­ the­ premission­ briefing­ reviewed­ once­ again­ all­ the pertinent­features­of­the­day’s­task­and­rounded­off the­planning­sessions­which­had­been­held­earlier in­the­week.­The­briefing­got­underway­with­a­roll call­to­act­as­a­final­check­to­confirm­call­signs, the­aircraft­to­be­manned­and­their­locations­on­the airfield. ‘Capt Smith?’ ‘All present’. ‘Astra Eight One, 0267, Hardstand 28’. ‘Capt Jones?’ ‘Present’. ‘Astra Eight Two, 01 17 Q model, Hardstand 16’. The­ customary­ time­ check­ followed:­ ‘In 40 seconds, Gentlemen, it will be zero six zero two Local; 15… 10… 5, 4, 3, 2, 1- Hack! 0602 — is anyone for 03 ?’ The­ resume­ of­ the­ day’s­ mission,­ ­ was straightforward.­ The­ Mildenhall­ Tanker­ Task Force­was­to­provide­air­refuelling­support­for­the redeployment­ of­ twenty-four­ F-16­ Fighting Falcons­from­Spangdahlem­AB,­Germany­to­Shaw AFB,­SC.­A­total­of­twenty­aircraft­would­covering air­ refuelling­ sectors­ 1-5­ and­ there­ would­ be twenty-four­tankers­from­Pease­AFB,­NH­covering ARS­ 6-10.­ The­ crews­ were­ referred­ to­ their

‘Square D’ 61-0267 of the 100 ARW at RAF Mildenhall. ( USAF)

mission­ document­ packages­ containing­ all­ the relevant­ paperwork­ on­ timings,­ fuel­ offloads, communications­frequencies,­abort­bases,­etc.­The information­covered­all­four­five-tanker­cells­so that­any­crew­would­be­able­to­fly­in­any­one­of the­ twenty­ mission­ slots­ should­ last-minute changes­necessitate­a­switch­of­tankers­between formations­or­within­cell­sequences.­ Next,­ the­ all-important­ weather­ forecast:­ in general,­the­outlook­was­favourable.­Europe­was covered­by­an­area­of­high­pressure­which­offered the­ prospect­ of­ another­ fine­ day,­ but­ there­ was some­ uncertainty­ about­ the­ time­ at­ which­ the mission­could­get­under­way­as­fog­was­covering all­ the­ bases­ in­ Germany.­ Spangdahlem­ was reporting­three-tenths­of­a­mile­visibility­with­200 feet­obscured­and­not­expecting­it­to­lift­before 08.00-09.00hrs,­so­there­could­be­a­delay­in­the fighters­departure.­Some­mist­and­fog­patches­at Mildenhall­were­expected­to­disperse­after­sunrise, giving­four­miles­visibility­in­haze­for­the­early tanker­take-­offs.­At­the­abort­bases­in­the­UK, everything­ was­ good,­ similarly­ at­ Lajes­ in­ the Azores,­ but­ Keflavik­ in­ Iceland­ was­ reporting strong­winds­gusting­to­40­knots­or­more,­with­rain showers. The­briefing­then­turned­to­the­airfield­status and­pre-departure­procedures.­The­active­runway was­29,­all­the­navigation­aids­were­operable­and

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there­were­no­restrictions.­In­assessing­take-off performance,­the­crews­were­reminded­that­there was­ a­ downhill­ slope­ on­ runway­ 29,­ and­ if­ the action­ should­ switch­ to­ runway­ 11,­ a corresponding­slight­uphill­grade­in­that­direction. All­taxi­and­take-off­clearances­were­to­be­called by­ the­ cell­ leaders­ with­ the­ rest­ of­ the­ cell acknowledging­ the­ leader’s­ radio­ calls.­ The Supervisor­of­Flying’s­last­chance­checks­would be­conducted­on­the­hold­line­to­one­side­of­the threshold­ and,­ once­ cleared,­ the­ aircraft­ could proceed­on­to­the­runway. Exploiting­all­the­available­surface,­take-offs at­Mildenhall­were­to­be­initiated­from­the­end­of the­over-run­beyond­the­threshold,­so­that­tankers had­to­taxi­to­the­extremity­of­the­runway,­pick-up the­180°­guided­turn-round­line­and­line-up­for departure.­ Back­in­the­days­before­the­KC-135­were­reengined­with­the­CFM-56s,­it­would­have­been­at this­ point­ that­ crews­ using­ water­ injection­ for assisted­take-offs­would­be­reminded­to­get­water on­ all­ engines­ before­ brake­ release­ rather­ than attempting­to­bring­up­the­water­on­the­roll. ‘The­ old­ water­ technique’,­ substantially increased­the­take-off­power­available­from­the KC-135’s­ four­ J57­ engines.­ At­ maximum­ dry power,­these­were­rated­at­some­15,500­pounds thrust­ each,­ but­ with­ water­ injection­ the­ thrust rating­ is­ increased­ by­ about­ 4,000­ pounds­ per engine,­a­useful­gain­for­high­weight­take-offs.­The various­ methods­ for­ coping­ with­ water­ supply problems­ were­ outlined,­ including­ throttle adjustments­and­application­of­power­and­water­to two­engines­at­a­time. Although­the­take-offs­were­scheduled­at­two minute­intervals,­it­would­take­some­time­to­get the­five-aircraft­formations­together;­the­flight­plan called­initially­for­a­fifty­mile­sector­to­the­north and­back­to­Mildenhall­during­which­the­cells­were to­ form-up­ using­ differential­ airspeeds­ and,­ if necessary,­some­cut-offs­on­the­turns. After­take-off­from­runway­29­the­aircraft­were to­ turn­ right­ to­ intercept­ the­ 335°­ radial­ from Mildenhall,­proceeding­out­on­this­course­to­the fifty­ mile­ mark­ near­ Coningsby,­ then­ arcing eastwards­over­the­Wash­to­maintain­this­distance from­ base­ until­ crossing­ the­ 010°­ radial­ from Mildenhall,­at­which­point­a­right­turn­would­be made­on­to­the­reciprocal­heading­of­190°­to­bring the­ cells­ southwards­ and­ back­ to­ a­ position overhead­Mildenhall. The­basis­of­the­air­refuelling­plan­was­that­the third,­fourth­and­fifth­tankers­in­each­cell­would­be

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solely­responsible­for­the­first­three­hook-ups,­AR l-3,­each­KC-135­taking­two­of­the­F-16s­in­the six-aircraft­receiver­formations.­At­the­conclusion of­AR3,­the­three­tankers­which­had­worked­AR 1-3­would­break­away­from­the­cell,­leaving­the lead­and­number­two­tankers­to­take­three­F-16s each­ through­ AR4­ and­ 5­ to­ the­ mid-Atlantic rendezvous­with­the­Pease­TTF.­This­pattern­of operation­ensures­that­there­are­tankers­with­the receivers­the­whole­way­across­the­Atlantic,­with a­ definite­ hand-­ off­ to­ the­ US-based­ KC-l35s taking­place­at­mid-ocean,­while­the­early­breakaway­of­part­of­the­European­TTF­eases­the­traffic control­situation­during­the­tanker­handover.­ Accompanying­the­mission­would­be­an­EC135,­ call­ sign­ Chine­ 99,­ tasked­ as­ Tactical Deployment­ Control­ Aircraft­ (TDCA)­ with­ an airborne­ movement­ control­ team­ aboard.­ The TDCA­would­join­the­stream­at­Land’s­End­and

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position­five­nautical­miles­behind­the­fifth­tanker in­the­second­KC-l35­cell. Interspersed­through­the­briefing­were­re-caps on­the­altitude­reservations­-­or­‘ALTRV’­as­they are­ known­ in­ the­ trade­ -­ for­ each­ phase­ of­ the mission,­ the­ communications­ frequencies­ to­ be used­and­the­procedures­for­ensuring­correct­fuel offloads­and­transmission­of­the­latter­information to­the­Wing’s­staff­personnel­flying­in­each­cell who­would,­in­turn,­report­the­numbers­to­TDCA. Before­the­gathering­dispersed­to­individual tanker­cell­briefings,­the­floor­was­given­over­to the­TTF­Commander:­‘It’s been a long briefing and an early morning, and we’ve all got to go to work - so I’ll keep this quick. Five-ship - its been a long time maybe since some of you have flown Five-ship cells; may I remind ya’ll of the benefits of a good tight formation, especially if the weather gets tricky en-route. ' We­joined­the­crew­of­‘Astra­Seven­Three’,­the third­ tanker­ in­ the­ second­ cell,­ to­ sit­ in­ on­ the ‘Astra­ Seven­ One­ Flight’­ briefing.­There­ was­ a final­check­through­the­group’s­start-up,­taxi,­takeoff,­radio,­en-route­and­tanking­procedures,­the

objective­ being­ to­ ensure­ that­ the­ formation functioned­ as­ a­ cohesive­ unit­ and­ that­ airborne communications­ were­ kept­ to­ the­ minimum necessary.­The­cell­leader­was­succinct:­‘...as long as you’re on your timings and have no problems, don’t give me any calls at all. Try and hold the chatter down to an absolute minimum’. Then­it was­ out­ to­ the­ crew­ buses­ for­ the­ ride­ to­ the flightlines­on­the­other­side­of­the­airfield. Travelling­round­the­perimeter­road­in­the­pale light­ of­ the­ sunrise,­ it­ became­ evident­ that Mildenhall­ was­ unusually­ well­ occupied­ that morning­with­about­twenty-five­tankers­distributed on­parking­spots­either­side­of­the­taxiway.­As­the bus­passed­along­the­flight­lines,­the­distinctive Boeing­ 707-like­ shapes­ of­ the­ Stratotankers loomed­out­of­the­mist. While­the­other­members­of­the­crew,­co-pilot, navigator­and­boom­operator­continued­with­the preliminary­check­lists,­the­aircraft­Commander left­ the­ aircraft­ to­ run­ a­ pre-flight­ eye­ over­ the Stratotanker’s­exterior­in­company­with­the­crew chief.­Starting­up­front­with­the­nosewheel­tyres, lights,­doors­and­actuating­panel,­they­proceeded

A Polish air force F-16 pilot receives fuel from a US Air Force KC-135 from the 100th Air Refueling Wing during a NATO exercise on 7 April 2009. The KC-135 Stratotanker is capable of delivering fuel to more than 20 F-16 aircraft in a single mission. (USAF photo by Staff Sgt Jerry Fleshman)

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A KC-135 from the 100th Air Refueling Wing, RAF Mildenhall, England, refuels a pair of F-16 Fighting Falcons from Spangdahlem Air Base, Germany, during a multinational exercise on 7 April 2009. (USAF photo by Staff Sgt Jerry Fleshman)

via­ the­ nose-mounted­ pitot­ tubes­ and­ angle­ of attack­indicator­probe­to­the­main­gear­bay.­The right­ main­ gear­ was­ examined­ for­ any­ sign­ of hydraulic­leaks,­tyre­wear,­strut­damage,­and­the engines­ for­ any­ post­ maintenance­ debris­ in­ the inlets­or­for­loose­cowling­panels.­The­wing­flying surfaces­were­scrutinised­for­any­untoward­signs and­likewise­the­rear­fuselage­and­tail;­and­then the­reverse­sequence­followed­on­the­left­side­of the­aircraft.­All­was­in­order­and­was­signed­off accordingly. Back­in­the­cockpit,­the­pilots­made­contact with­the­ground­crew­below­to­check­the­responses of­the­moving­surfaces­against­the­stick­and­rudder pedal­movements.­A­running­commentary­came­up through­ the­ ground­ intercom­ as­ the­ cockpit controls­and­trim­devices­were­positioned­and­repositioned: 'Stabiliser leading edge moving up... inboard tabs following’. 'Stabiliser leading edge moving down... inboard. tabs follow’. ‘Rudder left... tab right’. ‘Rudder right... tab left’. ‘Rudder left... tab left’. ‘Rudder right... tab right’. The­ most­ noticeable­ feature­ of­ the­ cockpit layout­ was­ the­ absence­ of­ a­ flight­ engineer’s station,­the­right-hand­seat­immediately­aft­of­the

co-pilot­being­occupied­by­the­navigator.­So­the fuel­management­task­among­other­extras­is­also a­ front­ seat­ responsibility,­ and­ as­ the­ Aircraft Commander­explained,­it’s­really­the­co-pilot­who is­the­flight­engineer­and­who­develops­the­knack of­being­able­to­look­in­several­directions­at­once! The­space­between­the­central­instrument­panel and­the­throttle­quadrant­was­occupied­by­a­fuel panel.­ Criss-crossed­ by­ solid­ and­ broken­ lines, representing­fuel­lines­controlled­by­boost­pumps and­gravity­feed­respectively,­and­with­a­myriad of­valve­controls­and­switches,­the­panel­contained ten­gauges­-­one­for­each­tank,­plus­a­total­aircraft fuel­ gauge.­ That­ morning­ the­ Stratotanker­ was loaded­with­145,000­pounds­of­fuel,­considerably more­than­the­aircraft’s­own­weight­of­108,000lb. Also­ included­ in­ the­ fuel­ panel­ instrumentation was­ a­ totaliser­ showing­ the­ cumulative­ fuel quantity­offloaded­and­an­indicator­which­marks the­flow­rate­to­the­receiver.­The­offload­flow­rates vary­ a­ good­ deal­ between­ different­ types­ of receivers­-­with­a­B-52­on­the­boom­the­delivery is­normally­6,500lb/min­but­it’s­about­half­that­for an­F-16. The­fuel­valves­enable­the­pilot­or­co-­pilot­to select­the­fuel­routings­between­the­tanks­and­the engines,­or­to­the­refuelling­aircraft.­Fuel­can­be taken­out­of­any­of­the­wing­or­fuselage­tanks­to supply­the­boom,­but­it­is­most­frequently­given­to

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the­ receiver­ from­ the­ aft­ body­ tank­ as­ this simplifies­the­internal­fuel­movement­needed­to maintain­the­KC-l35’s­centre­of­gravity. After­the­completion­of­the­various­pre-­start check­lists­there­was­time­for­the­crew­to­relax­or­so­we­thought.­The­mission­timings­had­been put­back­by­an­hour­as­the­fog­at­Spangdahlem­was holding­up­the­F-16­departures­and,­in­addition, Astra­73­and­the­rest­of­the­second­cell­would­have to­wait­a­further­thirty­minutes­while­Astra­81-85 got­ away.­As­ the­ first­ cell­ started­ up­ and­ made ready­ to­ taxi,­ the­ temporary­ lull­ in­ ‘1475’­ was interrupted­by­the­news­that­Astra­83­was­unable to­go­with­the­first­cell­and­Astra­73­would­have­to take­its­slot.­Suddenly­it­was­all­activity­again,­and we­recalled­the­briefing­remarks­about­any­crew being­ able­ to­ refer­ to­ the­ mission­ document packages­and­fly­in­any­one­of­the­twenty­tanker positions.­ Now­ the­ new­ Astra­ 83­ sortie­ was­ off­ and running;­air­was­ducted­from­the­ground­power unit­ to­ No­ 4­ engine,­ its­ RPM­ rose­ to­ 15%,­ the throttle­was­advanced,­ignition,­and­the­power­was brought­ up­ to­ flight­ idle.­All­ four­ engines­ were started­in­a­prompt­sequence­and­the­ground­crew were­working­fast­to­clear­the­aircraft. Ground­Crew:­‘Ground calling’. Astra­83­Aircraft­Commander:­‘Go ahead’. Ground­Crew:­‘Roger sir; external power and air removed; chocks removed; all panels and hatches and secondary structures secure’. Astra­83­Aircraft­Commander:­‘And Ground, are we in a taxi configuration now?’ Ground­Crew:­‘Roger sir’. Astra­ 83­ Aircraft­ Commander:­ ‘OK, you're cleared off. Thank you very much !’ Ground­Crew:­‘Roger sir’. A­quick­check­round­the­crew­to­make­sure­that all­ was­ ready­ for­ the­ move­ out,­ and­ then­ the aircraft­ started­ to­ taxi.­ Once­ established­ on­ the taxiway,­there­was­a­steady­flow­of­pre-departure information.­First­was­Astra­81,­the­lead­tanker­in the­cell. Astra­81:­‘Astra Eight One Flight? ...are you ready to copy numbers?’ Astra­82:­‘Two’... Astra­83:­‘Three’ Astra­84: ‘Four’. Astra­85:­‘Five’. Mildenhall­ Tower:­ ‘Astra Eight One Flight, Roger. Temperature four two degrees; dewpoint three niner; pressure altitude minus two four two; altimeter three zero two one; wind calm, unstick wind calm. Visibility is three miles in fog; ceiling two zero thousand feet; and the visibility to the east through the south is two miles’.

Then­a­call­from­the­Mildenhall­Consolidated Command­ Post­ (callsign­ ‘Banner’­ to­ the Mildenhall­ Supervisor­ of­ Flying­ (callsign ‘Foxtrot’)­ enquiring­ as­ to­ the­ status­ of­ the American-based­KC-135s: Mildenhall­ Consolidated­ Command­ Post: ‘Roger sir, be advised Pease Tanker Task Force take-off times are 24,25, 26 and 27'. It­ was­ then­ just­ past­ 09.30hrs­ Local­ at Mildenhall­ so­ the­ first­ cell­ of­ tankers­ had­ got airborne­from­the­USA­as­scheduled,­some­twentyfive­ minutes­ before­ the­ initial­ European­ TTF take-offs.­At­the­head­of­the­queue­on­the­taxiway, Astra­81­was­being­cleared­out­of­the­last­chance check­to­be­followed­by­Astra­82. Mildenhall­Supervisor­of­Flying:­‘Eight One? Fox. Cleared the aircraft in take-off configuration, your APU doors are closed. Have a good flight! Break! Break! Astra Eight Two? Foxtrot. Turn in’. Astra­82:­‘Eight Two, cleared in. Moments­later,­the­Command­Post­was­advising the­departure­of­the­first­cell­of­six­F-16­Fighting Falcons­from­Spangdahlem­at­09.40hrs­Local.­Astra 83­was­given­a­final­look-over­from­the­ground­and the­crew­proceeded­through­the­pre­take-off­checks while­waiting­for­the­preceding­tankers­to­start­the take-off­stream­at­09.50hrs­Local.­On­the­button, Astra­81­taxied­out­of­the­hold­area,­turned­right down­the­over-run,­made­a­U-turn­at­the­far­end­and lined-up­for­departure.­As­the­aircraft­passed­the threshold­ on­ its­ take-off­ roll,­ Astra­ 82­ moved forward­to­repeat­the­procedure­and­then­the­Tower cleared­us­to­the­runway. Mildenhall­Tower:­‘Astra Eight Three? When airborne, change departure control frequency. Wind calm, clear for take-off’. Established­ at­ the­ end­ of­ the­ over-run,­ the throttles­were­advanced,­and­the­engine­instrument needles­spun­round­the­gauges­as­Astra­83­wound up­to­take-off­power.­And­then­we­were­rolling, past­Astra­84­on­the­hold­area,­over­the­threshold, accelerating­down­the­runway­centre­line­as­‘1475’ picked­up­speed­and­the­thousand­foot­markers were­passed­at­progressively­shorter­intervals.­A slight­back­pressure­on­the­control­column­as­we passed­160­knots­and­the­aircraft­rotated­to­lift-off after­a­7,000­foot-plus­run.­The­gear­came­up­as we­crossed­the­runway­11­threshold,­and­the­20° take-off­flap­setting­was­cancelled­at­l,000­feet­and 186­knots.­Time­to­confirm­our­departure: Astra­ 83:­ ‘Honington Radar? Astra Eight Three is airborne Victor Mike’. Honington­Control­Zone:­‘Astra Eight Three? Honington. Loud and clear and identified. Advise

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A Mildenhall 100 ARW KC-135 refuels an F-15C Eagle over Iceland during a training mission on 9 November 2013 (USAF Photo by Airman 1st Class Dana J Butler)

any change in flight conditions, climb Flight Level two four zero, report passing four thousand feet'. Astra­83:­‘Roger sir, cleared initial two four zero, report passing four’. Settled­on­the­335°­course­from­Mildenhall,­the navigator­ had­ the­ lead­ tanker,­Astra­ 81,­ on­ the radar­20­miles­ahead­and­Astra­82­was­reporting in­ trail­ six­ miles­ behind­ Lead.­ Between­ the scattered­ cloud­ tops,­ the­ black­ smudges­ in­ the distance­were­resolving­into­KC-l35s­as­we­closed on­the­first­two­tankers­of­the­cell.­As­we­skirted the­Wash­at­15,000­feet,­Astra­81­turned­right­on to­the­fifty­mile­arc,­followed­by­the­rest­of­the Flight.­On­the­inbound­leg­to­Mildenhall­the­cell closed­ up­ with­ two­ to­ three­ mile­ separations between­the­first­four­tankers­and­with­Astra­85, under­ Eastern­ Radar’s­ guidance,­ cutting­ the corners­at­the­rear­to­catch­up­the­trail.­The­‘in­the green’­boom­calls­had­been­made­to­Astra­82­for relay­to­Mildenhall­where,­shortly­afterwards,­the formation­turned­right­heading­for­Brize­Norton and­ levelling­ the­ climb­ at­ 27,000­ feet.­ Ground control­switched­from­Eastern­Radar­to­London Military­ and­ then­ at­ two-mile­ separations,­ the tankers­were­cleared­under­their­own­navigation from­Brize­Norton­to­Yeovilton. Astra­81:­‘Astra Eight One Flight, let's go left

- Heading 230°.’ Astra­82:­‘Two’. Astra 83: Three’. Astra 84: ‘Four’. Astra 85: ‘Five’. London­Military­Control:­‘Astra Eight One? London Military’. Astra­81: ‘Roger Mil, Astra Eight One. We're at Flight Level two seven zero at this time’. London­Military­Control: ‘Roger Eight One, you're identified, radar control Flight Level two seven zero. Confirm all tankers Flight Level two seven zero. And you read me loud and clear?’ Astra­81:­‘That's affirmative sir. Read you loud and clear. We've got five KC-135s, all level two seven zero'. On­a­converging­course­for­a­rendezvous­with the­tankers­near­Yeovilton,­and­then­just­past­the southern­fringes­of­London­heading­westwards­at 26,000­ feet,­ were­ six­ F-16­ Fighting­ Falcons. Behind­them,­again­at­thirty­minute­separations, three­more­six-aircraft­formations.­ Nearly­250­aircrew­in­some­seventy­aircraft were­about­to­make­a­reality­of­several­hundred hours­of­flight­planning­in­the­US,­Germany­and the­UK;­they­would­demonstrate­once­more­the vital­but­routine,­nature­of­the­aerial­tanker­lifeline which­accomplishes­the­rapid­and­direct­transfer of­ tactical­ fighter­ aircraft­ between­ the­ US­ and

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A KC-135 from the 100th Air Refueling Wing supporting Saudi Arabian-led coalition forces during operations against extremist groups like al-Qaida in Yemen since February 2016. (USAF photo)

Europe. As­the­tankers­swung­round­to­the­south-west, contact­with­the­lead­F-16­formation,­using­the­call signs­Epson­11-16,­was­imminent. London­Military­Control:­‘Astra Eight One? London Military. The fighters are at fife fife miles range, just about to come on this frequency’. Astra­81:­‘Astra Eight One copies’. Epson­11:­‘Epson One One, check’. Epson­12:­‘Two’ . Epson­13:­‘Three’ . Epson 14:­‘Four’ . Epson­15:­‘Five’ . Epson­16:­‘Six’. Epson­11:­‘London Mil? Epson One One, Flight Level two six zero, looking for Astra Eight One’. London­ Military­ Control:­ ‘Epson One One, Roger. You're identified, radar control Flight Level two six zero. Maintain two six zero. The tankers are right, in your one o'clock, range of fife zero miles at the moment. They are all at two seven zero - keep me advised’. Epson­11:­‘Roger. We're maintaining a heading of two seven fife degrees at this time, and say the tankers heading please’. London­ Military­ Control:­ The tankers are heading southwest for Yeovilton at the moment. I'll put them in an orbit overhead Yeovilton... just maintain your present heading’. Epson­11:­‘Epson One One. Roger. Thank you sir’. Approaching­Yeovilton­and­the­join-up­with the­fighters,­Astra­81­Flight­secured­clearance­for

altitude­separation­in­the­trail,­and­the­formation went­to­500ft­intervals­in­the­26,000-28,000­foot band.­ At­ the­ same­ time,­ Epson­ 11­ Flight­ was instructed­to­drop­a­thousand­feet­to­Flight­Level 250. Obliquely­ crossing­ the­ course­ of­ the­ F-16s, from­right­to­left­and­35­miles­ahead,­the­KC-135s turned­ left­ from­ their­ 230°­ heading­ on­ to­ an easterly­course­of­090°.­This­change­of­direction set­up­the­reciprocal­leg­of­a­racetrack­pattern,­and it­took­the­tankers­towards­the­oncoming­fighters which­were­still­maintaining­their­280°­westerly track.­As­the­range­decreased,­Epson­11­called­a radar­ contact­ ‘on the nose at 12 o’clock’. The tankers­were­requested­to­begin­a­gradual­U-turn at­25­miles­which­would­roll­them­out­on­a­255° heading,­a­few­miles­ahead­of­the­fighters­and­on a­near­parallel­course. Epson­11:­‘Astra Eight One? Epson One One. How do you read?’ Astra­81:­‘Roger, sir. I've got you Five by how many?’ Epson­ 11:­ ‘Roger, Five by Five. Say your distance off to Yeovilton’. Astra­81:­‘Roger, we're in a left turn, currently crossing zero fife zero degrees on our heading. We are looking for three four zero and are continuing it all the way around, and we are fifteen miles west of Yeovilton at the present time’. Epson­11: ‘Okay, I think I have a tally on all

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five of you'. London­Military­Control:­‘Epson One One? They're now left at eleven o'clock, range eleven miles, crossing left to right’. Epson­11:­‘Roger, One One has got a contact at my left, eleven o'clock, slightly high. Rest of Flight call contact.’ Epson­11: ‘Astra Eight One? Epson One One’. Astra­81:­‘Roger Epson One One, this is Astra Eight One’. ‘Epson­11:­Roger we have contact with all the tankers; we'll be going to our appropriate tankers’. Astra­81:­‘Roger, sir’. The­rendezvous­of­the­first­cell­of­tankers­and their­receivers­was­completed,­and­the­combined formation­proceeded­west-southwest­towards­the first­ air­ refuelling­ sector.­ It­ had­ been­ an impressively­ smooth­ join-up­ reflecting­ the thoroughness­of­the­mission­briefings. After­ the­ two­ cells­ were­ established­ on­ the same­track,­which­would­take­them­across­Devon and­Cornwall­and­out­over­the­coast­near­Land’s End,­the­tankers­moved­out­from­trail­to­a­20°­right echelon­ formation­ with­ one­ mile­ lateral separations­ and­ maintaining­ the­ 500ft­ vertical

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intervals­in­the­Flight­Level­260-280­‘ALTRV’. As­the­AR1­sector­approached,­Astra­83’s­Boom Operator­ reported­ the­ fighters­ in­ sight,­ got­ the boom­cleared­down­and­switched­to­the­‘Comm­1’ channel­to­make­contact­with­the­F-16s. Astra­ 83­ Boom­ Operator:­ ‘Epson One One, One Two? This is Eight Three Boom, how copy?’ Epson­11:­‘One One's loud and clear’ . Epson­12:­Two's loud and clear’. Astra­83­Boom­Operator:­‘And I read you loud and clear, One One, One Two’. Epson­11:­‘And One One cleared in?’ Astra­ 83­ Boom­ Operator:­ ‘One One, you're cleared in pre-contact’. Both­halves­of­the­air­refuelling­equation­made a­close­in­visual­check­on­each­other,­while­Capt Wartburg­notified­the­F-16s­that­he­was­increasing the­airspeed­slightly­to­restore­the­correct­distance from­Astra­82,­which­had­pushed­out­to­two­miles ahead­of­us.­Then­Epson­One­One­was­cleared­in to­the­boom. Astra­ 83­ Boom­ Operator:­ ‘Eight Three, Contact!’ Epson­11:­‘Yes, One One's contact’. Astra­83­Boom­Operator:­‘Taking gas now’.

Looking like a bandit! The lean mean look of some KC-135s has been enhanced over the years by extending the matt black paint of the anti-glare nose up and around the flight deck windows to give the machine the ‘look’ of wearing a bandit’s mask. (Simon Peters Collection)

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‘And One One you're taking gas’. Epson­11:­‘Roger’. After­about­three­minutes­the­boom­operator advised­an­unscheduled­disconnect­light,­though Epson­ 11­ was­ reporting­ his­ fuel­ gauges­ were reading­almost­full.­A­reconnection­was­quickly effected­for­a­top-up­until: Epson­11:­‘And One One ‘s now showing full all the way across. How are you reading Eight Three ?' Astra­83­Co-pilot:­‘Boom? . . . no flow 11.5’. Astra­83­Boom­Operator:­‘And One One, we've got no flow at 11.5’. Epson­11:­‘All right to disconnect?’ Astra­ 83­ Boom­ Operator:­ ‘Eight Three, disconnect’. Epson­11:­‘One One, disconnect’. Astra­ 83­ Boom­ Operator:­ ‘And One One, you're clear dry’. The­procedure­was­repeated­with­Epson­12, and­the­replenished­F-16s­took­up­a­close­escort formation­on­both­sides­of­Astra­83.­Towards­the end­of­AR1,­two­of­the­fighters­pulled­ahead­for­a systems­check­hook-up­on­Astra­81­and­Astra­82, to­make­sure­all­would­be­in­order­for­AR4­and AR5,­and­then­returned­to­the­Astra­83-85­area­of the­formation.­The­AR1­leg­was­completed­some fifty­miles­out­from­formation­and­was­established along­a­50°­North­latitude­track,­having­turned­due West­some­time­earlier.­After­ARI­the­‘ALTRV’ moved­down­4,000­feet­and­the­aircraft­descended to­FL210-230,­with­Astra­82­going­into­trail­on Astra­81,­and­83,­84­and­85­flying­a­20°­echelon off­82.­The­rear­three­tankers­then­conducted­AR2 starting­at­50°N10°W­followed­by­the­lengthier AR3­ which­ took­ the­ mission­ out­ beyond 50°N20°W.­At­ the­ conclusion­ of­AR3,­ the­ KC135s­ returned­ to­ trail­ formation­ prior­ to­ the division­of­the­cell,­which­was­to­see­Astra­81­and 82­taking­the­fighters­out­to­mid-ocean­while­Astra 83-85­turned­back­for­Mildenhall. First,­a­check­on­the­coordinates­at­the­turn: Astra­ 83­ Navigator:­ ‘Eight One? . .. Eight Three, say your present position’. Astra­81:­‘Roger Eight Three, we're showing Fifty Zero Four North, Eighteen Twenty-One West’. Astra­83:­‘Roger, thank you’. Astra­81:­‘Have a good flight back!’ Astra­ 83­ Navigator:­ ‘Zero eight one is the heading’. Astra­83­Pilot:­‘Eight Four and Eight Five? Eight Three is turning right now to zero eight one’. As­we­flew­back­towards­the­Bristol­Channel

and­the­UK­West­Coast,­the­crew­settled­into­some paperwork­and­Boom­took­orders­for­their­own fuel­supply­in­the­form­of­lunch.­Away­to­the­right, the­Astra­ 81­ and­ Epson­ 21­ Flights­ were­ on­ the westerly­track­and­could­be­heard­over­one­of­the Comm­channels. A­call­to­London­Military­control­to­confirm Astra­83­Flight’s­route­via­Brecon,­Brize­Norton and­Daventry­also­brought­confirmation­that­the Flight­could­move­to­the­ten-mile­separations,­as per­the­flight­plan,­for­individual­recoveries­back at­ Mildenhall.­ The­ separation­ was­ effected­ by speed­variation­with­Astra­83­going­to­330­knots, Astra­84­establishing­at­310­knots­and­Astra­85 dropping­back­to­285­knots. Before­initiating­the­descent­from­our­en-route height­ of­ 22,000­ feet,­ the­Aircraft­ Commander briefed­ the­ crew­ on­ the­ approach­ and­ landing procedures,­ and­ then­ called­ up­ the­ Mildenhall Command­Post­to­advise­of­our­estimated­time­of arrival­and­fuel­remaining­‘over­the­fence’,­and­the maintenance­write-ups­which­would­need­to­be actioned­after­our­return.­Banner­Control­logged the­ details­ and­ provided­ the­ base­ weather­ and landing­details. ‘Wind two four zero degrees at fife knots; six miles visibility; six-eighths Alpha Q at eight thousand; ceiling measured at temperature fife six degrees. QNH three zero decimal one seven; pressure altitude minus two zero fife; and the active runway two nine. Be advised, sir, the ILS is inoperative at this time. Your parking spot is fifteen'. Initially­cleared­down­to­eleven­thousand­feet by­ London­ Military,­ Astra­ 83’s­ descent­ was authorised­to­five­thousand­feet­after­handover­to Eastern­ Radar;­ past­ the­ former­ airfield­ at Alconbury,­we­turned­further­right­to­transit­south of­Mildenhall­on­the­downwind­leg,­being­given renewed­clearance­down­to­2,200ft­by­Honington Zone.­ Another­ change­ of­ control­ brought instructions­from­Mildenhall­Approach­to­turn­left on­to­the­base­leg­and­finally­we­touched­down almost­ imperceptibly,­ and­ rolled­ out­ along­ the centreline;­it­was­14.06hrs­local,­and­the­mission had­lasted­just­over­four­hours.­The­working­day, however,­was­already­eight­hours­old­and­for­the crew­it­would­last­a­good­while­longer­as­they­went through­a­mission­debrief.­ Replacement - the KC-X saga. Around­the­turn­of­the­century­moves­were­starting to­ be­ made­ in­Washington­ DC­ and­Washington State­to­find­a­replacement­for­the­ageing­design.

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Northrop and EADS based their design for the KC-X on the A330, while Boeing baased theirs on their 767. After losing out on the contract, they then claimed if they knew the Air Force wanted a larger aircraft, they would have based their scheme on the 777.

The­ initial­ plan­ was­ for­ the­ USAF­ to­ lease Boeing­KC-767­tankers­on­a­sole-source­basis;­at that­ time­ Boeing­ was­ claimed­ to­ be­ the­ only American­company­with­the­requisite­industrial capability­to­manufacture­large-body­aircraft.­As such,­the­KC-767­was­selected­in­2002­and­in­2003 was­awarded­a­US$20­billion­contract­to­lease­KC767­tankers­to­replace­the­KC-135. Led­ by­ Senator­ John­ McCain,­ several­ US government­leaders­protested­the­lease­contract­as wasteful­ and­ problematic.­ In­ response­ to­ the protests,­ the­Air­ Force­ struck­ a­ compromise­ in November­2003,­whereby­it­would­purchase­80 KC-767­aircraft­and­lease­20­more. Yet­ in­ December­ 2003,­ the­ Pentagon announced­the­project­was­to­be­frozen­while­an investigation­of­allegations­of­corruption­by­one of­its­former­procurement­staffers,­Darleen­Druyun (who­had­moved­to­Boeing­in­January­2003)­was begun.­ Druyun­ pleaded­ guilty­ of­ criminal wrongdoing­and­was­sentenced­to­prison­time­for ‘…negotiating a job with Boeing at the same time she was involved in contracts with the company'. Druyun,­would­serve­nine­months­at­a­minimum security­ prison­ and­ another­ seven­ months­ at­ a

halfway­house­or­on­home­detention.­She­also­was fined­$5,000­and­ordered­to­perform­150­hours­of community­service. As­ part­ of­ the­ plea­ bargaining,­ Druyun admitted­ that­ she­ did ‘…favor the Boeing Company in certain negotiations as the result of her employment negotiations and other favors provided by Boeing to the defendant.’ Previously,­Druyun­had­admitted­to­negotiating a­post-government­job­with­Boeing,­but­steadfastly maintained­that­she­had­never­favoured­them­at­the negotiating­table. Prosecutors­said­Druyun­admitted­to­favouring the­defence­contractor­after­failing­a­lie­detector test.­ She­ also­ confessed­ to­ altering­ a­ personal journal­ to­ make­ it­ appear­ that­ there­ were­ no conflicts­with­Boeing. Her­ plea­ agreement­ outlined­ four­ specific contract­negotiations­where­she­favoured­Boeing: Druyun­agreed­to­a­higher­price­than­appropriate for­ a­ proposed­ deal­ to­ lease­ 100­ tanker­ aircraft from­Boeing,­which­she­called­‘a­parting­gift’­to her­future­employer.­She­also­shared­a­competitor's proprietary­ data­ with­ Boeing.­ In­ 2000,­ Druyun agreed­ to­ pay­ $412­ million­ to­ Boeing­ as­ a

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settlement­over­a­clause­in­a­C-17­aircraft­contract. She­admitted­to­favouring­the­payment­because her­son-in-law­was­seeking­a­job­with­Boeing.­In 2001,­ Druyun­ oversaw­ a­ $4­ billion­ award­ to Boeing­ to­ modernise­ the­ avionics­ on­ C-130J aircraft.­She­admitted­she­favoured­Boeing­over four­competitors­because­the­company­had­given her­son-in-law­a­job.­In­2002,­Druyun­awarded $100­million­to­Boeing­as­part­of­a­restructuring of­ the­ NATO­ Airborne­ Warning­ and­ Control System­contract.­She­said­the­payment­could­have been­lower,­but­she­favoured­Boeing­because­her daughter­and­son-in-law­worked­there­and­she­was considering­working­there­as­well. On­30­June­the­Department­of­Justice­released the­ result­ of­ its­ own­ and­ other­ departments investigations.­ ‘Deputy Attorney General Paul J. McNulty announced today that the United States reached final agreement with The Boeing Company on a record $615 million settlement to resolve criminal and civil allegations that the company improperly used competitors’ information to procure contracts for launch services worth billions of dollars from the Air Force and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Assistant Attorney General Peter D. Keisler, and the US Attorneys for the Central District of California and the Eastern District of Virginia, Debra Wong Yang and Chuck Rosenberg, joined Deputy Attorney General McNulty in the announcement. Boeing has agreed to pay a total of $615 million dollars to resolve the government’s investigations and claims relating to the company’s hiring of the former Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Acquisition and Management, Darleen A. Druyun, by its then Chief Financial Officer, Michael Sears, and its handling of competitors information in connection with the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) Program and certain NASA launch services contracts. “The American people rightly expect government officials and contractors to act with integrity,” said Deputy Attorney General Paul J. McNulty. “The outcome of these investigations sends a clear message to those doing business with the government: harsh consequences await anyone whose conduct falls short of the highest legal and ethical standards.” The $615 million settlement includes a $565 million civil settlement and a $50 million monetary penalty according to a separate criminal agreement. The amount is a record for government

procurement fraud, for the Department of Defense (DOD), and for NASA. Under the agreement with the US Attorneys’ Offices, the United States agrees not to bring criminal charges related to the conduct that is the subject of the settlement agreement in part because the company is fully cooperating with the government’s investigation. Boeing has agreed to accept responsibility for the conduct of its employees in these matters, continue its cooperation with federal investigators, pay a monetary penalty of $50 million, and maintain an effective ethics and compliance program, with particular attention to the hiring of former government officials and the handling of competitor information. The US Attorneys’ Offices may seek to prosecute Boeing for charges relating to the Druyun conduct, or to assess a further penalty of up to $10 million, if during the two year term of the criminal agreement, an executive management employee of Boeing commits federal crimes as outlined in the agreement, and the company fails to report the misconduct to the Department of Justice. The settlement with the Justice Department’s Civil Division provides for Boeing to pay $565 million in exchange for a complete release from any civil liability arising from the Druyan matter as well as the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle Program (EELV) and certain NASA launch services contract. The government’s investigation focused on Boeing’s relationship with the former Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Acquisition and Management, Darleen A. Druyun. Druyun was the Air Force’s top career procurement officer before she retired from the Air Force in 2002. In that position, she wielded influence over billions of dollars in contract awards, modifications, and settlements. In 2000, Boeing, at Druyun’s request, hired Druyun’s daughter and future son-in-law. Then in 2002, Boeing’s then Chief Financial Officer, Michael M. Sears, recruited Druyun for an executive position with Boeing following her retirement. During this period (2000 - 2002), Druyun was responsible for dozens of Boeing contracts, as well as for the controversial $23 billion procurement to lease a fleet of KC-767 aerial refueling tankers that has since been canceled. Sears and Druyun both pleaded guilty to violations of the conflict of interest statutes. In documents filed with the criminal court, Druyun admitted that Boeing’s favors in hiring her

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children and in offering her a position influenced her contracting decisions. The government’s investigation also focused on the EELV program, with which the Air Force sought to usher in a new generation of space launch vehicles to serve the government’s critical satellite needs through 2020. Air Force strategy called for two sources to reduce the risk of failure and cost through competition. Those sources ended up being Boeing and Lockheed, with Boeing’s low pricing leading the Air Force to favor Boeing in awarding it 19 of the original 28 launch services contracts awarded in October 1998. The United States alleged that, prior to this award, Boeing obtained more than 22,000 pages of documents from Lockheed Martin, certain of which contained confidential competition-sensitive or other proprietary information that related to Lockheed’s EELV program and that some of this information was used to unfairly assist Boeing in the EELV competition. When this was subsequently discovered by the Air Force, it sought to ‘right the wrong’ by re-balancing the contracts, at great expense. Boeing’s conduct resulted in a record 20month suspension of three of its business units from government contracting. NASA also had launch services contracts with Boeing and Lockheed that required the contractors to compete for missions. The United States alleged that Boeing’s possession and use of Lockheed’s proprietary information, including additional documents obtained through different channels than the EELV documents, plus the unfair advantage the company had gained in the EELV, enabled Boeing to persuade NASA to award 19 missions, known as the 19 Pack, on a sole source basis. The United States further alleged that the

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lack of competition plus Boeing’s false claims for certain costs, resulted in Boeing charging NASA much more for the 19 Pack than NASA should have paid. NASA Inspector General Robert W. Cobb expressed his appreciation for the ‘superb efforts of the DOJ, DOD, and NASA team that brought about this historic settlement. In addition to fulfilling our statutory mandate to protect the public’s and NASA’s fiscal interests, this settlement also serves as a testament for holding accountable those who abuse the government’s procurement system. Indeed, the settlement represents a significant accomplishment in our continuing fight against fraud, waste, and abuse.’ “Now, the Boeing settlement is behind us,” said Dr. Ron Sega, Under Secretary of the Air Force. “It wasn’t a proud time in their history and in some ways it wasn’t a proud time in our history, but Boeing is a competent and capable contractor and we look forward to a positive working relationship.” “This settlement sends a clear message that integrity in DOD contracting is indispensable and that the American public deserves no less than honest government and aggressive vigilance over the expenditure of the nation's resources,” said Acting Department of Defense Inspector General Thomas F. Gimble. The Druyun investigation was conducted by the US Attorney’s Office for the Eastern District of Virginia, the Mid-Atlantic Field Office of DCIS (DOD OIG) and the Air Force Office of Special Investigations. The EELV and 19 Pack investigations were conducted by the US Attorney’s Office for the Central District of California, the Air Force’s Space and Missile Systems Center at Los Angeles Air Force Base, the Western Field Office of the Defense Criminal Investigative Service (DCIS) within the Defense Department’s Office of the Inspector General (OIG), the

Deputy Secretary of Defense William Lynn speaks about KC-X at a press conference at the Pentagon on 24 September 2009.

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Air Force of Special Investigations, and the NASA Office of the Inspector General at the Kennedy Space Center. The civil investigation and negotiations were conducted by the Civil Division of the Department of Justice, with the assistance of the US Attorneys’ Offices’ civil attorneys and the investigative agencies.

The­ USAF­ then­ began­ the­ KC-X­ tanker replacement­program.­The­DoD­posted­a­request for­ proposal­ on­ 30­ January­ 2007.­ The­ US­ Air Force's­main­requirements­were­‘fuel­offload­and range­ at­ least­ as­ great­ as­ the­ KC-135’,­ airlift capability,­ ability­ to­ take­ on­ fuel­ in­ flight,­ and multi-point­refuelling­capability. Two­ manufacturers­ expressed­ interest­ in producing­ this­ aircraft.­ The­ team­ of­ Northrop Grumman­and­European­Aeronautic­Defence­and Space­Company­NV­(EADS)/Airbus­proposed­a version­ of­ the­Airbus­A330­ Multi­ Role­ Tanker Transport­(MRTT),­based­on­the­Airbus­A330-200. Boeing­proposed­a­version­of­the­KC-767,­based on­the­Boeing­767.­ Both­ competitors­ submitted­ their­ tanker proposals­before­the­12­April­2007­deadline.­In September­2007,­the­USAF­dismissed­having­a mixed­fleet­of­new­tankers­from­both­Boeing­and Northrop­Grumman­as­being­unfeasible­because of­increased­costs­from­buying­limited­numbers­of two­types­annually­-­after­all,­they­were­already operating­a­mixed­fleet­of­Boeing­KC-135s­and McDonald­Douglas­KC-10s.­In­December­2007, it­was­announced­that­the­KC-X­tanker­would­be designated­ KC-45A­ regardless­ of­ which­ design wins­the­competition.­The­DoD­anticipated­that­the KC-45A­would­start­to­enter­service­in­2013. On­3­January­2008,­the­competitors­submitted final­revisions­of­their­proposals­to­the­USAF.­On 29­ February­ 2008,­ the­ DoD­ announced­ the selection­of­the­Northrop­Grumman/EADS's­KC30. A­few­days­later,­on­11­March­2008,­Boeing filed­a­protest­with­the­Government­Accountability Office­(GAO)­of­the­award­of­the­contract­to­the Northrop­ Grumman/EADS­ team.­ Boeing­ stated that­ there­ are­ certain­ aspects­ of­ the­ USAF evaluation­ process­ that­ had­ given­ it­ grounds­ to appeal. The­ Air­ Force­ responded­ with­ a­ somewhat terse­ statement:­ ‘Air Force officials received a copy of Boeing's formal protest March 11 on the KC-45A contract award, recently submitted to the Government Accountability Office. It is the company's right to formally submit a

protest. Air Force members will carefully evaluate the protest, defend their source selection decision and allow the GAO to make its final decision, officials said. In order to protect the integrity of the procurement process, Air Force officials do not publicly comment on the merits or specifics on any issues under review. Proposals from both offerers were evaluated thoroughly in accordance with the criteria set forth in the Request for Proposals. The proposal from the winning offerer is the one Air Force officials believe will provide the best value to the American taxpayer and to the warfighter. Air Force members follow a carefully structured process, designed to provide transparency, maintain integrity and promote fair competition. Air Force members and the offerers had hundreds of formal exchanges regarding the proposals throughout the evaluation process. Air Force officials provided all offerers with continuous feedback through discussions on the strengths and weaknesses of their proposals. Several independent reviews assessed the process as sound and thorough. The­protest­was­upheld­by­the­GAO­on­18­June 2008,­which­recommended­that­the­Air­Force­rebid the­contract. ‘The Boeing Company protested the award of a contract to Northrop Grumman Systems Corporation under solicitation No. FA8625-07-R6470, issued by the Department of the Air Force, for KC-X aerial refueling tankers to begin replacing its aging tanker fleet. Boeing challenged the Air Force’s technical and cost evaluations, conduct of discussions, and source selection decision. Our Office sustained Boeing’s protest on June 18, 2008. The 69-page decision was issued under a protective order, because the decision contains proprietary and source selection sensitive information. We have directed counsel for the parties to promptly identify information that cannot be publicly released so that we can expeditiously prepare and release, as soon as possible, a public version of the decision. Although the Air Force intends to ultimately procure up to 179 KC-X aircraft, the solicitation provided for an initial contract for system development and demonstration of the KC-X aircraft and procurement of up to 80 aircraft. The solicitation provided that award of the contract would be on a “best value” basis, and stated a

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detailed evaluation scheme that identified technical and cost factors and their relative weights. With respect to the cost factor, the solicitation provided that the Air Force would calculate a ‘most probable life cycle cost’ estimate for each offerer, including military construction costs. In addition, the solicitation provided a detailed system requirements document that identified minimum requirements (called key performance parameter thresholds) that offerers must satisfy to receive award. The solicitation also identified desired features and performance characteristics of the aircraft (which the solicitation identified as ‘requirements,’ or in certain cases, as objectives) that offerers were encouraged, but were not required, to provide. The agency received proposals and conducted numerous rounds of negotiations with Boeing and Northrop Grumman. The Air Force selected Northrop Grumman’s proposal for award on February 29, 2008, and Boeing filed its protest with our Office on March 11, supplementing it numerous times thereafter. In accordance with our Bid Protest Regulations, we obtained a report from the agency and comments on that report from Boeing and Northrop Grumman. The documentary record produced by the Air Force in this protest is voluminous and complex. Our Office also conducted a hearing, at which testimony was received from a number of Air Force witnesses to complete and explain the record. Following the hearing, we received further comments from the parties, addressing the hearing testimony as well as other aspects of the record. Our decision should not be read to reflect a view as to the merits of the firms’ respective aircraft. Judgments about which offerer will most successfully meet governmental needs are largely reserved for the procuring agencies, subject only to such statutory and regulatory requirements as full and open competition and fairness to potential offerers. Our bid protest process examines whether procuring agencies have complied with those requirements. Our review of the record led us to conclude that the Air Force had made a number of significant errors that could have affected the outcome of what was a close competition between Boeing and Northrop Grumman. We therefore sustained Boeing’s protest. We also denied a number of Boeing’s challenges to the award to Northrop Grumman, because we found that the record did not provide us with a basis to conclude that the agency had violated the legal requirements with

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respect to those challenges. Specifically, we sustained the protest for the following reasons: 1. The Air Force, in making the award decision, did not assess the relative merits of the proposals in accordance with the evaluation criteria identified in the solicitation, which provided for a relative order of importance for the various technical requirements. The agency also did not take into account the fact that Boeing offered to satisfy more non-mandatory technical ‘requirements’ than Northrop Grumman, even though the solicitation expressly requested offerers to satisfy as many of these technical ‘requirements’ as possible. 2. The Air Force’s use as a key discriminator that Northrop Grumman proposed to exceed a key performance parameter objective relating to aerial refueling to a greater degree than Boeing violated the solicitation’s evaluation provision that “no consideration will be provided for exceeding [key performance parameter] objectives.” 3. The protest record did not demonstrate the reasonableness of the Air Force’s determination that Northrop Grumman’s proposed aerial refueling tanker could refuel all current Air Force fixed-wing tanker-compatible receiver aircraft in accordance with current Air Force procedures, as required by the solicitation. 4. The Air Force conducted misleading and unequal discussions with Boeing, by informing Boeing that it had fully satisfied a key performance parameter objective relating to operational utility, but later determined that Boeing had only partially met this objective, without advising Boeing of this change in the agency’s assessment and while continuing to conduct discussions with Northrop Grumman relating to its satisfaction of the same key performance parameter objective. 5. The Air Force unreasonably determined that Northrop Grumman’s refusal to agree to a specific solicitation requirement that it plan and support the agency to achieve initial organic depot-level maintenance within two years after delivery of the first fill-rate production aircraft was an ‘administrative oversight,’ and improperly made award, despite this clear exception to a material solicitation requirement. 6. The Air Force’s evaluation of military construction costs in calculating the offerers’ most probable life cycle costs for their proposed aircraft was unreasonable, where the agency during the protest conceded that it made a number of errors in evaluation that, when corrected, result in

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Boeing displacing Northrop Grumman as the offerer with the lowest most probable life cycle cost; where the evaluation did not account for the offerers’ specific proposals; and where the calculation of military construction costs based on a notional (hypothetical) plan was not reasonably supported. 7. The Air Force improperly increased Boeing’s estimated non-recurring engineering costs in calculating that firm’s most probable life cycle costs to account for risk associated with Boeing’s failure to satisfactorily explain the basis for how it priced this cost element, where the agency had not found that the proposed costs for that element were unrealistically low. In addition, the Air Force’s use of a simulation model to determine Boeing’s probable non-recurring engineering costs was unreasonable, because the Air Force used as data inputs in the model the percentage of cost growth associated with weapons systems at an overall program level and there was no indication that these inputs would be a reliable predictor of anticipated growth in Boeing’s non-recurring engineering costs. We recommended that the Air Force reopen discussions with the offerers, obtain revised proposals, re-evaluate the revised proposals, and make a new source selection decision, consistent with our decision. We further recommended that, if the Air Force believed that the solicitation, as reasonably interpreted, does not adequately state its needs, the agency should amend the solicitation prior to conducting further discussions with the offerers. We also recommended that if Boeing’s proposal is ultimately selected for award, the Air Force should terminate the contract awarded to Northrop Grumman. We also recommended that the Air Force reimburse Boeing the costs of filing and pursuing the protest, including reasonable attorneys’ fees. By statute, the Air Force is given 60 days to inform our Office of the Air Force’s actions in response to our recommendations.

On­9­July­2008,­Defense­Secretary­Robert­Gates put­ the­ tanker­ contract­ in­ an­ ‘expedited recompetition’­with­Defense­Undersecretary­John Young­in­charge­of­the­selection­process­instead of­the­Air­Force.­A­draft­of­the­revised­request­for proposal­(RFP)­was­provided­to­the­contractors­on 6­August­2008­for­comments­with­the­revised­RFP to­be­finalized­by­mid-August.­Proposals­would­be due­in­October­2008­and­selection­was­to­be­done by­ the­ end­ of­ 2008.­ In­ mid-August,­ there­ was speculation­that­Boeing­was­considering­a­‘no­bid’

position.­ On­ 21­August­ 2008­ Boeing­ asked­ the DoD­ for­ an­ additional­ four­ months­ to­ submit­ a proposal­ centered­ on­ a­ larger­ aircraft,­ but­ they opposed­ further­ delay.­ Then­ on­ 10­ September 2008,­Defense­Secretary­Robert­Gates­decided­that the­new­competition­could­not­be­fairly­completed before­ the­ end­ of­ 2008.­ The­ DoD­ canceled­ the request­for­proposals­and­delayed­the­decision­on when­ to­ issue­ another­ request­ until­ the­ new presidential­administration­was­in­office.­ On­ 16­ September­ 2009,­ Secretary­ Gates announced­ a­ renewed­ effort­ for­ the­ KC-X programme.­The­selection­process­was­to­be­under the­Air­Force­with­a­‘robust­oversight­role’­by­the Office­ of­ the­ Secretary­ of­ Defense­ (OSD)­ to prevent­a­repeated­failure.­On­25­September­2009 the­ USAF­ issued­ a­ draft­ request­ for­ proposals seeking­ comments­ for­ the­ official­ tanker replacement­ RFP.­ The­ RFP­ for­ a­ fixed-price contract­specified­373­requirements­for­the­new aircraft,­and­stated­that­the­price­of­each­tanker would­be­adjusted­to­reflect­how­much­it­would cost­ to­ operate­ over­ 40­ years­ and­ how­ well­ it would­meet­various­war-fighting­needs.­The­initial contract­ would­ be­ for­ 179­ aircraft­ for­ $35 billion.Northrop­Grumman/EADS­team­claimed the­ requirement­ was­ advantaging­ Boeing­ and threatened­to­withdraw­from­the­competition­on­1 December­2009. The­fiscal­2011­Defense­Department­budget relegated­ $864­ million­ in­ research­ and development­ money.­ A­ contract­ award­ was expected­in­summer­2010.­On­24­February­2010, the­US­Air­Force­released­the­revised­request­for proposal­for­KC-X.­The­RFP­called­for­the­KC-X tanker­to­first­fly­in­2012­and­aircraft­deliveries­to begin­in­2013. On­ 8­ March­ 2010,­ Northrop­ Grumman followed­ through­ with­ their­ earlier­ threat­ and decided­to­not­submit­a­bid­for­the­KC-X­tanker, stating­ that­ they­ believed­ the­ new­ evaluation methodology­ favoured­ Boeing's­ smaller­ tanker. EADS,­however­announced­on­20­April­2010­that it­was­re-entering­the­competition­on­a­stand-alone basis­ and­ intended­ to­ bid­ the­ KC-30­ with­ final assembly­ to­ take­ place­ in­ Mobile,­ Alabama­ as planned­under­its­prior­teaming­arrangement­with Northrop­Grumman.­On­18­June­2010­the­USAF announced­that­the­decision­would­be­delayed­until November­2010. On­ 1­ July­ 2010,­ a­ surprise­ third­ bidder, consisting­of­the­team­of­US­Aerospace­and­the Ukrainian­ manufacturer­Antonov­ announced­its intention­to­bid­in­the­competition.­The­two­firms

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announced­ that­ they­ would­ be­ interested­ in supplying­up­to­three­types­of­aircraft­to­the­United States­ Air­ Force.­ The­ types­ reportedly­ being offered­were­the­four-engined­An-124­and­a­twinengined­variant­of­the­aircraft,­the­An-122.­The third­aircraft­to­be­offered­was­known­as­the­An112,­a­version­of­the­Antonov­An-70,­except­with two­jet­engines.­This­tanker­was­proposed­in­the team's­bid. By­9­July­2010­bids­from­Boeing,­EADS­and US­Aerospace/Antonov­were­submitted­to­the­Air Force.­ However,­ the­Air­ Force­ rejected­ the­ US Aerospace­bid­for­allegedly­arriving­five­minutes after­the­deadline,­which­US­Aerospace­disputed. US­Aerospace­filed­separate­protests­with­the­US Government­Accountability­Office­on­2­August and­ 1­ September.­ The­ US­Air­ Force­ proceeded with­source­selection­while­GAO­investigated.­The GAO­ dismissed­ US­ Aerospace’s­ protest­ on­ 6 October. In­November­2010,­the­USAF­mistakenly­sent technical­reviews­of­the­other­side's­bids­to­each of­the­two­remaining­teams.­At­this­time­contract selection­was­postponed­from­late­December­2010 until­early­2011. Boeing­and­EADS­submitted­their­final­bids­on 10­February­2011.­On­24­February­2011­Boeing's KC-767­ proposal­ was­ selected­ as­ the­ winning offer.­ The­ tanker­ would­ be­ designated­ the­ KC46A.­ EADS­ North­ America­ chairman­ Ralph Crosby­declined­to­protest­the­award,­saying­that Boeing's­bid­was­‘...very, very, very aggressive’ and­carried­a­high­risk­of­losing­money­for­the company.­Dr­Loren­B­Thompson­of­the­Lexington Institute­ agreed­ that­ Boeing's­ bid­ was­ very aggressive­ due­ to­ the­ Air­ Force's­ fixed-price contract­strategy.

Further delays? At­ the­ end­ of­ March­ 2017­ the­ US­ Government Accountability­Office­(GAO)­stated­that­the­KC-135 replacement­ programme­ was­ ­ at­ risk­ of­ further schedule­delays.­ In­their­latest­report,­it­stated­that­the­KC-46A manufacturer,­ Boeing,­ had­ struggled­ to­ meet­ key milestones­throughout­the­duration­of­the­programme and­was­at­least­one­year­behind­by­most­measures. The­ company­ faced­ an­ uphill­ battle­ to­ keep­ the programme­on­time,­even­as­it­continued­to­meet­cost and­performance­goals,­the­GAO­said.­ The­most­important­deadline­on­the­horizon­is­the October­ 2018­ target­ date­ for­ ‘required­ assets available,’­ which­ contractually­ binds­ Boeing­ to deliver­the­first­18­tankers­and­nine­aerial­refueling

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pods.­ The­ company­ has­ already­ slipped­ too­ far behind­to­meet­its­initial­August­2017­benchmark.­ Because­of­delays,­Boeing­will­have­to­compress its­original­delivery­timeline­for­those­18­aircraft­from 14­months­to­6­months.­ ‘This delivery period assumes Boeing will deliver three aircraft per month, a greater pace than planned during full rate production,’ the­report­stated.­Twelve of­ those­ aircraft­ are­ already­ over­ seventy­ percent complete,­GAO­added,­but­the­company­was­far­from being­in­the­clear. Two­major­challenges­stood­in­the­way.­First, Boeing­ may­ not­ be­ able­ to­ conduct­ an electromagnetic­effects­test­scheduled­for­May­2017. The­test,­which­is­held­at­a­specialized­facility,­will evaluate­ whether­ the­ KC-46­ creates­ any electromagnetic­interference.­However,­because­the Federal­Aviation­Administration­has­yet­to­approve the­ aircraft’s­ aerial­ refueling­ pod­ design,­ the­Air Force­will­have­to­decide­whether­to­test­the­aircraft and­pods­separately­or­risk­pushing­the­test­to­a­later date.­ GAO­also­has­questions­about­whether­Boeing can­finish­developmental­flight­tests­as­quick­as­it plans,­noting­that­the­company ‘...is projecting that it can complete test points … at a rate higher than it has been able to demonstrate consistently.’ Boeing­must­finish­an­average­1,713­test­points per­month­to­enable­the­first­aircraft­deliveries­in September­2017,­but­it­has­exceeded­that­number only­once,­when­it­completed­2,240­test­points­in October­2016,­the­report­said.­When­looking­at­data from­March­2016­to­January­2017,­the­agency­found Boeing’s­average­completion­rate­was­about­800­test points­per­month.­ And­so­the­story­rumbles­on. Beyond Block 45 - Will the USAF be flying 100year old tankers? By­March­2017­rumours­started­to­appear­that­the US­Air­Force­was­strapped­for­cash­to­buy­more than­179­of­Boeing’s­KC-46­tanker­to­fully­replace the­legacy­KC-135­fleet,­and­that­the­Air­Force was­looking­instead­to­refit­its­sixty-year-old­KC135­Stratotanker­with­state-of-the-art­survivability upgrades­so­it­can­fly­for­another­forty­years. The­Air­Force­was­set­to­buy­one­hundred­and seventy-nine­­next-generation­KC-46s­as­the­first step­in­an­ambitious­effort­to­recapitalize­its­tanker fleet.­ But­ even­ after­ Boeing’s­ Pegasus­ is­ fully fielded­ in­ fiscal­ year­ 2028,­ the­ remaining­ three hundred­­KC-135s­would­be­the­backbone­of­the force­until­the­future­KC-Y­or­KC-Z­comes­online in­the­2030-40­timeframe.­In­fact,­the­joint­force

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will­ rely­ so­ heavily­ on­ the­ Stratotanker­ in­ the coming­ decades­ that­ the­ aircraft­ could­ be­ one hundred­years­old­before­it­is­sent­to­the­boneyard, according­to­Gen.­Carlton­Everhart,­chief­of­Air Mobility­Command­(AMC). Questions­were­being­asked­as­to­why­the­­Air Force­studying­how­to­make­KC-135­survivable out­to­age­100.­­Analysts­warned­that­the­Air­Force should­not­be­too­tied­to­old­platforms,­but­why spend­time­and­resources­upgrading­a­1950s-era weapon­ system­ instead­ of­ simply­ buying­ more fifth-generation­ KC-46s?­ It­ all­ comes­ down­ to budget­limits,­Everhart­explained­during­a­2­March 2017­ media­ roundtable­ at­ the­ Air­ Force Association’s­air­warfare­conference. ‘It’s all about the money, it’s all about the resources, it’s all about the continuing resolution (CR)’ Everhart­ rold­ the­ media,­ referring­ to­ the stop-gap­spending­measure­Congress­used­to­fund the­government­through­April­pending­agreement on­a­full­appropriations­bill.­Operating­under­a­CR for­at­least­part­of­the­fiscal­year­has­become­the new­normal­for­the­Pentagon,­even­though­a­CR limits­ funding­ levels­ for­ existing­ and­ new-start programmes­ and­ wreaks­ havoc­ on­ long-term budget­plans. ‘It’s all about what can we afford to do in the timeframe we have.’ Everhart­said. ‘Retiring KC-135s would not automatically mean more cash for KC-46s because the Defense Department could not easily transfer money between its operations and maintenance (O&M) and procurement accounts,’ said­ Richard Aboulafia,­an­analyst­with­the­Teal­Group. ‘The fundamental conundrum of Defense Department procurement is [that] procurement and O&M accounts don’t talk to each other,’ He­went­on­to explain­that­General­Everhart­was­‘...just being realistic.’ Modernising­ the­ KC-135­ instead­ of­ buying more­KC-46s­would­also­allow­the­Air­Force­to add­capacity­in­the­near­term,­noted­Todd­Harrison of­ the­ Center­ for­ Strategic­ and­ International Studies. ‘If the Air Force needs more tankers right now, adding KC-46s will not help because the additional aircraft will not be available until near

the end of the current production schedule in the 2020s’ he­says. In­the­meantime,­the­Air­Force­wanted­to­make sure­ the­ KC-135­ workhorse­ could­ survive­ on­ a dynamic­ future­ battlefield.­ ‘The service is currently remodeling the flight deck with new liquid-crystal displays, as well as a radar altimeter, autopilot, digital flight director and other computer module updates as part of a $910 million Block 45 upgrade program. But AMC is also beginning to look into what is needed for the next block upgrade’, Everhart­said. Everhart­ wants­ to­ add­ Link­ 16­ and­ beyondline-of-sight­communications­so­that­KC-135s­can exchange­imagery­and­other­data­in­near-real­time with­other­aircraft­in­the­fleet­-­a­huge­step­up­from current­capabilities.­He­also­wants­to­incorporate a­ layered­ defense­ approach,­ adding­ electronic countermeasures­to­protect­against­jamming,­selfdefense­ systems­ and­ maybe­ even­ signature management. ‘We are going to be flying the KC-135 for quite a while, and it is going to have to participate in that networked, multi-domain command-andcontrol environment where the enemy is going to come after our tankers’ said­ Brig­ Gen­ Jon Thomas,­ AMC­ director­ of­ strategic­ plans, requirements­and­programmes. In­addition,­the­Air­Force­is­equipping­the­KC135­with­the­FAA-mandated­automatic­dependent surveillance-broadcast­(ADS-B),­which­uses­GPS technology­ to­ determine­ an­ aircraft’s­ location, airspeed­and­other­data. ‘KC-135 is a great platform, [but]­it needs to be modernized...’ said­Everhart.­‘...We will use that capable airplane to get us to bridge across [to­a future­KC-Z], along with the KC-46, and then as KC-46 brings on new electronics, brings on new things that it has, can that spin off and go back down to KC-135 to keep it just as viable” Harrison­warned­however­that­the­Air­Force should­be­careful­not­to­box­itself­into­a­corner, because­ upgrading­ the­ KC-135­ may­ ultimately come­at­the­expense­of­long-term­capability. As­ he­ said;­ ‘How much longer does the Air Force really want to be flying a 707 platform?’

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Chapter­Six

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‘Big Ol’ Jet Airliner’…

From­the­song­‘Jet Airliner’ composed­by­Paul­Pena­in­1973­and­popularized­by­the Steve­Miller­Band­in­1977.

Having­successfully­attracted­orders­for­the­C/KC135A­ variant­ from­ USAF,­ Boeing­ diverted­ their attention­to­winning­orders­from­the­airlines­for­the 707.­The­big­‘problem’­however­was­the­size­of­the Dash-80’s­cabin­which­was­just­not­large­enough­for the­airlines.­Boeing’s­charm­offensive­to­convince them­that­the­same­144­inch­width­fuselage­as­the KC-135­was­more­than­sufficient­for­four,­five­or­six across­seating­fell­on­deaf­ears­and­Boeing­eventually capitulated­and­increased­it­by­four­inches­over­the KC-135,­at­the­same­time­extending­the­length­by­ten feet. There­ then­ began­ a­ series­ of­ protracted discussions­with­the­airlines­and­slowly­the­orders started­to­trickle­in.­Given­the­speed­that­the­orders were­coming­in,­the­decision­to­secure­military­orders before­seeking­airline­contracts­seems­to­have­been the­correct­one.­Hopes­to­convert­quickly­the­military selection­of­the­Boeing­tanker­into­orders­from­the leading­airlines­were­frustrated­by­the­caution­which carriers­showed­toward­jetliners­following­the­tragic and­untimely­demise­of­the­De­Havilland­Comet­1. Less­than­six­months­after­entering­service­with

British­ Overseas­ Airways­ Corporation,­ the­ first Comet­ 1­ had­ been­ damaged­ beyond­ economical repair­in­a­take-off­accident­in­Rome,­Italy.­Over­the next­seventeen­months,­five­more­Comet­ls­were­lost, the­last­two­disintegrating­in­flight­and­prompting­the grounding­of­the­pioneering­British­jetliner. Alarmed,­airlines­adopted­a­wait­and­see­attitude pending­ results­ from­ a­ thorough­ accident investigation­by­the­Royal­Aircraft­Establishment­at Farnborough. However,­ Boeing­ did­ appear­ to­ have­ an unbeatable­lead,­for­by­February­1955­it­could­boast Air­Force­contracts­for­no­fewer­than­286­KC-135As. The­ Douglas­Aircraft­ Company­ meanwhile­ were unwilling­to­concede­its­20-year­lead­as­the­world’s foremost­manufacturer­of­medium­and­long­range airliners,­and­so­decided­to­challenge­Boeing. On 7­ June­ 1955,­ before­ Boeing­ was­ able­ to­ secure­ a single­order­for­its­jetliner,­Douglas­confirmed­that­it would­ proceed­ with­ the­ development­ of­ a­ jet transport­with­performance­surpassing­that­of­the­first Boeing­ 707­ civil­ derivative­ of­ the­ 367-80 demonstrator.

The comparative fuselage widths of the Dash 80, KC-135/717 and the 707.

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The Douglas DC-8 - this example being EC-ARB for the Spanish national airline Iberia. (author’s collection)

The­Douglas­challenge­was­made­even­more dangerous­for­Boeing­by­the­fact­that­the­Southern California­manufacturer­had­an­intimate­in-depth knowledge­ of­ what­ airlines­ needed­ as­ it­ had successfully­ developed­ its­ pre-war-designed, unpressurised­DC-4­into­the­pressurised­DC-6­and DC-7­series­with­ever-increasing­speed,­range,­and payload­ that­ made­ them­ very­ commercially successful.­ Douglas­designed­its­DC-8­jet­airliner­to­outperform­the­initial­707­variant­being­marketed­by Boeing.­Douglas­adopted­a­wider­fuselage­crosssection­in­order­to­increase­seat­width­in­first­class and,­more­importantly,­to­offer­better­than­spartan six-abreast­ seating­ in­ economy­ class­ versus­ the five­abreast­seating­offered­by­Boeing.­Douglas was­quick­to­realise­that­airlines­competing­over the­‘Blue­Ribbon’­North­Atlantic­route­would­want to­ offer­ nonstop­ jet­ service,­ as­ a­ multi-stop­ jet service­ would­ only­ be­ marginally­ faster­ than

nonstop­piston-­engine­DC-7C­service. Convair,­the­dominant­American­manufacturer­of short-­to­medium-range­airliners,­was­also­intent­on challenging­Boeing’s­lead­by­developing­jetliners optimized­for­US­domestic­and­shorter­international routes.­The­company­felt­that­a­cruising­speed­higher than­offered­by­either­the­707­or­DC-8­would­be­the key­to­success.­Accordingly,­in­January­1956,­the­San Diego­manufacturer­announced­the­development­of its­Model­22­Skylark,­a­jet­airliner­slightly­smaller but­faster­than­the­Boeing­707. With­ the­ initial­ configurations­ of­ its­ 707 challenged­ at­ the­ lower­ end­ of­ the­ market­ by­ the smaller­and­faster­Convair­880­and­its­turbofan— powered­derivative,­the­Convair­990,­and­at­the­upper end­of­the­market­by­the­larger,­heavier,­and­roomier Douglas­DC-8­variants,­Boeing­was­forced­to­depart from­its­original­plans­to­offer­the­707­only­in­long and­short­body­versions­powered­by­JT3C­turbojets. To­meet­the­challenge­from­Douglas,­­Boeing­was

The Convair 880 in the colours of Japan Air Lines. Initially the design was called the Skylark, but the name was later changed to the Golden Arrow, then Convair 600 and then finally the 880. (author’s collection)

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The fuselage of the 707/720 was made up of four sections. QEA502 was the nose section - from forward pressure bulkhead to aft of the passenger entrance door - for QANTAS Empire Airways (hence QEA) which became a -138, registered VH-EBB. (DGR Picture Library)

forced­ to­ offer­ larger­ and­ heavier­ JT4A­ turbojetpowered,­ Rolls­ Royce­ Conway­ and­ JT3D turbofan-powered­707­models;­at­the­same­time,­it addressed­the­Convair­challenge­with­smaller­and lighter­720­variants.­In­addition,­in­something­of­a series­of­unsuccessful­attempts­to­regain­the­initiative, Boeing­studied­still­larger­and­heavier­variants,­but none­were­built. Production­of­the­first­707s­proceeded­at­Renton while­ Boeing­ was­ attempting­ to­ satisfy­ airline requests,­but­new­orders­were­fairly­slow­coming­in, The­first­production­707,­N708PA­c/n­17586, was­rolled­out­of­the­Renton­plant­on­28­October 1957­ and­ took­ to­ the­ air­ for­ the­ first­ time­ on­ 20 December;­the­other­aircraft­used­in­the­certification programme­were­N707PA­and­N709PA­-­all­from­the Pan­ American­ order.­ Performance­ guarantees­ as promised­in­contracts­were­met­and­the­FAA­issued

PAA002 was the nose and forward fuselage barrel of the second 707 for Pan American Airways. As N707PA ‘Clipper Maria’ the machine was rolled out in February 1958 and delivered that December. Its first revenue services however were for National Airlines, who leased it for New York - Miami work early in 1959. (DGR Picture Library)

a­provisional­certificate­on­15­August­1958­to­allow crew­training,­route­proving­and­familiarisation­of airport­ personnel­ with­ the­ new­ generation­ of­ air transports.­Pan­Am­­ then­took­delivery­of­N709PA, temporarily­named­‘Clipper America’, and­started crew­ training­ and­ route­ proving,­ the­ first­ visit­ to London­being­on­8­September­1958. The­route­proving­and­crew­training­continued but­BOAC,­with­the­redesigned­Comet­4,­were­not prepared­to­let­Pan­American­start­the­jet­age­across the­North­Atlantic­without­a­challenge­and,­in­fact positioned­a­Comet­4­at­New­York's­ldlewild­Airport to­start­services­as­soon­as­New­York­Port­Authority noise­approval­was­granted. The­price­on­delivery­of­the­first­707-100s­was said­to­be­about­$6­million,­although­the­declared value­for­insurance­purposes­of­Pan­Am's­first­aircraft was­$4.5­million­and­BOAC’s­-436s­cost­about­$5.1

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The 707/720 line operated alongside the 717/135 production line for a number of years at Renton; final assembly of KC-135s can be seen top left. (DGR Picture Library)

million.­ The­ actual­ price­ paid­ depended­ on­ the number­ordered,­the­amount­of­training­and­support purchased­from­Boeing­and­other­factors. The­Approved­Type­Certificate­(ATC)­for­the 707­was­issued­by­the­FAA­on­18­September­1958 following­ noise­ measurements­ conducted­ at­ Le Bourget,­Paris­-­the­JT3C­had­multi-pipe­nozzles to­make­the­aircraft­quieter­but­the­engine­noise problem­was­not­resolved­to­an­acceptable­level until­ high­ by-pass­ engines­ were­ introduced. Boeing,­ in­ association­ with­ the­ engine manufacturers,­spent­a­lot­of­resources­on­trying to­cure­-­or­at­least­improve­the­problem. The­first­707-121­to­actually­be­supplied­to­Pan American­was­N710PA.­It­was­delivered­on­on­29 September­ 1958­ and­ was­ officially­ named­ ‘Jet Clipper America’ on­16­October­by­the­wife­of­the President,­Mrs­Mamie­Eisenhower.­ The­historic­Clipper names­with­Pan­Am­dated from­the­days­of­the­Sikorsky­flying­boats­of­the 1930s.­Most­of­the­707s­reused­historic­Clipper (or Jet Clipper)­names­such­as­Bald Eagle, Constitution and­Friendship. Special­occasions­were­also­marked:

At­least­one­707­was­renamed­for­a­new­destination; Clipper Beograd,­and­for­the­Beatles’­US­tour­in February­1964­one­aircraft­was­temporarily­redubbed Clipper Beatles. Since­the­707-121s­were­unable­to­fly­the­Atlantic non-stop,­ fuel­ stops­ were­ planned­ at­ Gander­ in Newfoundland­or­Shannon­in­Eire­with­proposed flight­ times­ of­ eight­ hours­ forty-five­ minutes westbound­ and­ six­ hours­ thirty­ five­ minutes eastbound­ -­ the­ speed­ increase­ was­ due­ to­ the prevailing­jetstream.­ The­first­707­revenue­earning­service­across­the North­Atlantic­was­made­by­N711PA­operating­as PA114­ on­ 26­ October­ 1958­ between­ New­ Yorkldlewild­(now­John­F­Kennedy­Airport)­and­Paris-Le Bourget­continuing­to­Rome;­however­BOAC­had already­ started­ non-stop­ Comet­ services­ in­ both directions­on­4­October­1958­between­New­Yorkldlewild­and­London-Heathrow.­ Despite­the­prestige­of­operating­on­the­North Atlantic,­Pan­American­leased­time­on­some­of­its 707s­to­National­Airlines­for­their­Miami-New­York services­from­10­December­1958­to­15­May­1959

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during­the­winter­peak­traffic­on­this­route.­In­return Pan­ American­ leased­ Douglas­ DC-8­ time­ from National­in­the­summer­of­1959­and­this­exchange­of 707s­ was­ repeated­ from­ 1­ November­ 1959­ to­ 24 April­1960.­An­attempt­to­exchange­stock­as­well­as aircraft­was­not­permitted­by­FAA. A­year­after­opening­trans-Atlantic­services,­Pan Am­inaugurated­the­first­round-the-world­jet­service with­its­707-321s,­flown­on­10­October­by­N717PA Clipper Fleetwing.­The­route­started­in­San­Franciso, heading­to­Manila­via­Hawaii,­then­Manila­-­Karachi -­Rome­-­and­then­over­the­North­Pole­via­Anchorage back­to­San­Francisco.­The­flight­took­fifty­five­hours and­sixteen­stops­over­three­days,­but­this­was­more of­a­publicity­flight­than­a­route-­proving­exercise. Until­the­arrival­of­the­707,­Douglas’s­DC-7C was­the­pride­of­the­Pan­Am­fleet­,­but­the­jet­soon showed­its­superiority­in­every­respect.­The­707 could­fly­nearly­twice­as­fast­with­nearly­twice­the passenger­load,­and­at­a­lower­cost­per­seat-mile. Soon­ Pan­Am­ was­ achieving­ 100­ per­ cent­ load factors­on­the­transatlantic­routes­and­was­paying off­ or­ amortising­ the­ cost­ of­ one­ 707­ with­ the profits­of­each­month’s­operations.

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The­707-321­Intercontinental­version,­delivered from­ July­ 1959,­ extended­ Pan­ Am’s­ non-stop destinations­ from­ New­ York­ as­ far­ as­ Frankfurt, Rome­and­Rio­de­Janeiro.­By­buying­large­numbers of­ -321C­ convertible­ cargo­ versions­ when­ they became­available­from­1963,­Pan­Am­stole­a­march on­ its­ competitors­ with­ its­ ‘cargo­ Clippers’­ and captured­a­large­part­of­the­civil­long-haul­freight market.­During­the­Vietnam­War,­the­airline­received lucrative­contracts­to­shift­military­equipment­to­the war­zone­as­US­involvement­increased.­This­was something­of­a­double-edged­sword,­for­the­military tasks­impeded­the­growth­of­Pan­Am’s­civil­freight business­until­this­was­reorganised­in­1966. Introduction­ of­ the­ 707­ led­ to­ problems­ at airports,­not­only­due­to­a­50%­increase­in­passengers carried­ over­ the­ DC-7Cs­ and­ Lockheed Constellations­they­replaced,­but­also­because­of­their weight,­runway­length­required­and­noise.­ The­early­non-turbofan­707s­required­extra-long runways­over­the­aircraft­they­replaced­and­many cities­were­reluctant­to­extend­their­municipal­airport runways,­causing­delays­in­the­introduction­of­new services.­This­runway­length­was­not­only­for­takeoff

The final assembly production line for the 707 at Renton. (author’s collection)

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Mamie Eisenhower christens Pan Am 707 N710PA ‘Jet Clipper America’ at Washinton’s National Airport on 16 October 1958, watched by Juan Trippe. Four aircraft carried this name: N707PA (January to December 1958), N709PA (AugustNovember 1958), N710PA (1958-1970) and N711PA (October- November 1958). It seems Boeing was uncertain over which aircraft would be ready on time for the naming ceremony and the transatlantic flight to follow directly afterwards, and so the manufacturer was hedging its bets. (Pan Am)

but­also­for­landing;­indeed­at­one­stage­deceleration parachutes­as­used­by­the­military­were­considered but­the­introduction­of­the­thrust-reverser­overcame this­problem.­ Another­problem­was­the­weight­of­the­aircraft, which­ were­ nearly­ twice­ as­ heavy­ as­ their predecessors­ so­ taxiways­ and­ parking­ areas­ also needed­ to­ be­ strengthened,­ while­ their­ increased length­led­to­problems­in­parking­at­terminal­gates. Up­to­this­time­aircraft­usually­parked­side-on­to­the terminals­but­to­fit­the­same­number­of­jets­in­the equivalent­space­it­became­necessary­to­use­nose-in parking,­ which­ was­ less­ convenient­ in­ terms­ of loading­and­unloading­for­only­the­forward­doors could­ be­ used­ for­ passengers,­ slowing­ down­ the entire­ process.­ This­ soon­ became­ the­ recognised parking­position­-­also­needed­then­was­a­tug­vehicle

Two views supposedly taken on the first Pan American service across the Atlantic to Paris on 26 October 1958.

Above Stewardess Hope Ryden offers a newspaper to a passenger. Left: A Pan American stewardess pours coffee for a passenger. The PAA logoed trolley and the artwork on the bulkhead somehow does not quite feel ‘right’! There is some thought that these were shot in the Teague cabin mock-up in New York (both Pan Am)

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Above: N712PA at Terminal 3 Idlewild - otherwise known as Pan American Worldport. Below: a pair of Pan Am Stewardesses pose with a board promoting the new jet services. (both author’s collection)

to­push­the­aircraft­back. The­success­of­the­first­generation­jets­and­the introduction­of­tourist­class­led­to­more­people­flying which­led­to­terminal­saturation­at­many­airports.­ Aircraft­ noise­ also­ became­ an­ issue,­ the introduction­ of­ the­ early­ 707s­ and­ other­ first generation­ jet­ airliners­ matching­ an­ increase­ in complaints­from­the­public­living­near­airports.­The silencing­mechanism­of­the­early­JT3Cs­and­JT4As was­rather­crude,­with­a­set­of­sound­suppresser tubes­mounted­behind­the­main­turbine­assembly. When­reverse­thrust­was­selected­clam­doors­closed and­ the­ exhaust­ gases­ were­ forced­ out­ forward through­ cascade­ vanes.­ When­ the­ later­ JT3D turbofans­were­introduced­the­noise­was­reduced­on landing­but­the­noise­of­approaching­jets­was­also­a problem.­With­flaps­and­undercarriage­down­and­a nose­high­attitude,­relatively­high­power­settings were­required,­resulting­in­a­high­pitched­whine. Eventually­regulations­were­introduced­by­lCAO (International­Civil­Aviation­Organisation)­limiting the­maximum­permitted­noise­levels.­Aircraft­that failed­to­meet­these­limits­from­1985­onwards­were then­banned­from­certain­airports,­but­since­then­the regulations­have­been­progressively­tightened. Boeing­ received­ few­ orders­ in­ 1958,­ but­ the USAF­ordered­three­VC-137s,­the­military­version of­the­707-120s,­for­VIP­use,­South­African­Airlines ordered­ three­ 707-320s­ on­ 21­ February­ 1958, Continental­ordered­one­more­707-120­and­American ordered­ twenty-five­ 720s,­ five­ of­ these­ being converted­from­the­original­707-120­order.

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Pan American was the first 707 customer, taking something of a gamble with the 707 - and the DC-8 for that matter - as much for Juan Trippe’s desire not to be second in anything as for any other reason. One reason airlines were initially reluctant to embrace jets was their high purchase cost. In 1953 it was thought a four-engine jetliner might cost $4 million, compared to the $1.5 million price of a new DC-7. The final cost of a 707-100 was well over $5 million. (author’s collection)

Getting orders from TWA Ever­since­Boeing­announced­the­development­of­the 367-80­various­Boeing­officials­had­tried­to­establish liaison­ with­ Howard­ Hughes­ and­ Trans­ World Airlines­ and­ periodically­ kept­ Ralph­ Damon,­ the President­of­TWA,­and­Robert­W­Rummel,­who­took the­role­of­liason­with­Howard­Hughes­as­majority stockholder,­informed­concerning­Boeing’s­plans­to offer­and­produce­jets­for­the­airlines. Hughes,­ living­ up­ to­ his­ reputation­ of­ being incredibly­secretive­and­of­procastinating­for­as­long as­possible,­refused­to­make­a­decision­regarding purchasing­707s,­so­in­October­1954­Ken­Gordon­of Boeing­called­Rummel,­advising­him­that­Boeing was­having­serious­contractual­discussions­with­Pan American­ and­ an­ unnamed­ airline.­ Gordon­ said Boeing­expected­to­have­contractual­specifications completed­by­15­November­and­to­shortly­work­out option­arrangements­guaranteeing­relative­delivery positions­between­airlines.­ Legend­ has­ it­ that­ Gordon­ told­ Rummel­ that Hughes­ had­ already­ contacted­ Wellwood­ Beall, Boeing’s­ executive­ vice­ president,­ several­ weeks earlier,­ but­ since­ then­ Hughes­ had­ not­ returned Wellwood’s­calls.­Gordon­reiterated­Boeing’s­desire to­work­with­TWA­and­suggested­early­specification conferences.­He­invited­TWA’s­senior­management to­visit­Seattle­and­inspect­the­367-80­prototype. Rummel­ then­ discovered­ that­ Hughes­ had expressed­interest­to­Wellwood­Beall­in­procuring­the

first­ fifty­ Boeing­ jets,­ and­ Wellwood­ refused, explaining­that­such­exclusivity­was­self­defeating and­ contrary­ to­ Boeing­ policy­ because­ excluded airlines­would­likely­turn­to­other­manufacturers.­This was­ a­ hard-learned­ lesson­ from­ the­ days­ of­ the Boeing­247!­ Boeing’s­ President­ Bill­Allen­ wrote­ to­ Ralph Damon,­advising­that­the­707­delivery­schedule­for any­customer­would­be­based­on­the­order­in­which commitments­ were­ made­ and­ would­ take­ into account­ the­ quantity­ purchased­ by­ each.­ He­ also invited­TWA­to­undertake­specification­and­contract negotiations.­ Allen­ sent­ a­ copy­ to­ Hughes­ and identical­letters­to­other­major­American­airlines­as well­as­some­of­the­larger­foreign­airlines.­Shortly thereafter,­ PAA,­ AAL,­ and­ UAL­ commenced negotiations­in­response­to­the­invitation. Rummel­ urged­ Hughes­ that­ exploratory negotiations­be­started­with­Boeing­without­delay, but­Hughes­appeared­more­interested­in­continuing talks­with­Convair­for­their­Skylark­design.­Hughes is­ supposed­ to­ have­ told­ Rummel­ that­ the­ time ‘wasn’t­ right’­ to­ deal­ with­ Boeing,­ that­ he­ would ‘handle­that,’­and­that­he­would­continue­to­work with­Convair­‘...to design the best damned airplane for TWA that can be designed.’ Finally,­ in­ late­ December­ 1955­ Hughes authorised­negotiations­to­begin­with­Boeing­for­a ‘stop-gap’­fleet­of­eight­‘domestic’­707s­-­the­JT-3 powered­ versions.­ Hughes’s­ belated­ authorisation

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triggered­an­intense­negotiation­in­Seattle­between Harry­ West­ and­ Robert­ Rummel­ for­ Hughes­ and Wellwood­Beall­and­J­B­‘Bruce’­Connelly,­director of­ contract­ administration,­ cumulating­ in­ a­ letter agreement­for­the­eight­aircraft­and­executed­on­6 January­1956. These,­ and­ all­ subsequent­ 707s­ were­ actually ordered­not­by­TWA,­but­by­Toolco,­the­abbreviated, more­familiar­name­for­the­Hughes­Tool­Company, which­had­been­established­in­1908. It­ is­ worth­ considering­ a­ snapshot­ of­ Howard Hughes’­ myriad­ of­ companies­ and­ aeronautical activities.­ It­ had­ been­ established­ as­ the­ SharpHughes­Tool­Company­when­Howard­R­Hughes­Sr patented­a­drilling­bit­for­oil­rigs.­He­partnered­with Walter­Benona­Sharp­to­manufacture­and­market­the bit.­Following­her­husband's­death­in­1912,­Sharp's widow­Estelle­sold­her­50%­share­in­the­company­to Howard­ Hughes­ Sr­ in­ 1914.­ The­ company­ was

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renamed­Hughes­Tool­Company­on­3­February­1915. When­ Hughes­ Sr­ died­ in­ 1924,­ 75%­ of­ the company­was­left­to­Howard­Hughes­Jr,­who­at­the time­was­a­student­at­William­Marsh­Rice­Institute­. According­ to­ Howard­ Sr's­ will,­ his­ son­ was­ to initially­receive­a­25%­share,­his­wife­50%,­and­the remaining­25%­was­to­be­divided­between­various family­members.­Since­Howard­Sr’s­wife­had­died some­years­earlier­and­the­will­had­not­been­updated to­reflect­that,­Howard­Jr­automatically­inherited­his mother's­shares.­Resentful­of­his­relatives’­attempts to­run­the­business,­Howard­Hughes­Jr­­had­himself declared­a­legal­adult,­being­the­age­of­majority­at­the time,­and­bought­out­his­relatives’­minority­share­in the­business. Under­ Howard­ Jr's­ ownership,­ Hughes­ Tool ventured­into­the­motion­picture­business­via­Hughes Productions­during­the­1920s,­and­into­the­airline business­in­1939­with­the­acquisition­of­a­controlling

The jet age arrived at San Francisco International Airport in March 1959 when TWA introduced Boeing 707-131 jetliners with nonstop service to New York Idlewild Airport (which was renamed JFK Airport in 1963). United then constructed a large facility at San Francisco for its new Douglas DC-8 jets, which were also flying nonstop service to New York. In July 1959 the first jetway bridge was installed at SFO, which was one of the first in the United States. (author’s collection)

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interest­in­Transcontinental­and­Western­Air­(later renamed­Trans­World­Airlines). In­ 1932,­ Hughes­ formed­ Hughes­ Aircraft Company­as­a­division­of­the­Hughes­Tool­Company. Hughes­Aircraft­thrived­on­wartime­contracts­during World­War­Two,­and­by­the­early­1950s­was­one­of America's­largest­defence­contractors­and­aerospace companies­with­revenues­far­outpacing­the­original oil­tools­business.­In­1953,­Hughes­Aircraft­became a­separate­company­and­was­donated­to­the­Howard Hughes­Medical­Institute­as­its­endowment.­Hughes Aircraft's­ helicopter­ manufacturing­ business­ was retained­by­Hughes­Tool­Co.­as­its­Aircraft­Division until­1972. For­a­period­of­time­in­the­1940s­to­late-1950s, Hughes­Tool­owned­the­RKO­companies,­including RKO­Pictures,­RKO­Studios,­RKO­Theatres,­and­the RKO­Radio­Network.­For­a­brief­period­in­the­earlyThe flightline at Renton in March 1961. Visible are 707s for American, a 720 for Western, and aircraft for Braniff and Aer Lingus. The ‘final assembly’ of many 707s was carried outside at Renton, as the black and white picture shows - a number still need to have their vertical fins fitted. Flight testing could take three to ten hours of flying by Boeing, which was followed by an acceptance flight by the FAA and then it was handed over to the airline for its own acceptance tests. (both author’s collection)

1960s,­ Hughes­ Tool­ held­ a­ minority­ stake­ in Northeast­Airlines.­Hughes­Tool's­majority­stake­in TWA­was­sold­off­in­1966.­Two­years­later,­in­1968, Hughes­ Tool­ Company­ purchased­ the­ North­ Las Vegas­Air­Terminal. In­the­late-1960s,­Hughes­Tool­ventured­into­the hotel­and­casino­business­with­the­acquisition­of­the Sands,­ Castaways,­ Landmark,­ Frontier,­ Silver Slipper,­and­Desert­Inn,­all­in­Las­Vegas.­Hughes Tool­ also­ purchased­ KLAS-TV,­ Las­ Vegas’­ CBS affiliate.­In­the­early­1970s,­Hughes­Tool­ventured back­into­the­airline­industry­with­the­takeover­of­the largest­ regional­ air­ carrier­ in­ the­ western­ United States:­Air­West,­renamed­Hughes­Airwest­following the­purchase.­Hughes­Tool­also­briefly­owned­Los Angeles­ Airways,­ a­ small­ airline­ operating­ a commuter­service­with­a­fleet­of­helicopters. But­back­to­the­707­order.­Hughes­reconsidered

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N791TW was TWA’s first 720B ‘Super]et', although originally built for Northwest Orient, which chose to delay delivery of the order. Before it wore TWA colours, N791TW spent some time as a company demonstrator, somewhat strangely wearing ‘Boeing 707’ titles. TWA only operated four 720Bs and leased them back to Northwest after a year. (]ohn Stroud Collection)

his­stopgap­position­and­during­the­first­week­of January­agreed­to­negotiate­for­a­sizable­fleet­of international­707s.­Boeing­tendered­an­offer­to­sell between­twenty-two­and­thirty­international­707s at­a­base­price­of­$5,150,000­each,­subject­to­cost escalation­ and­ adjustment­ for­ changes­ in­ the detailed­specification. By­now­the­majority­of­Boeing’s­early­production had­been­contractually­committed­to­PAA­and­AAL, Braniff­ and­ Continental­ having­ agreed­ to­ later delivery­positions.­Boeing­offered­TWA­some­of­the early­delivery­positions­it­had­reserved­to­attract­new customers.­ However,­ PAA­ and­AAL­ had­ already obtained­the­earliest­delivery­positions,­which,­of course,­ was­ exactly­ what­ the­ Boeing­ delivery allocation­system­was­designed­to­do:­reward­early customers­ with­ the­ best­ available­ positions­ while retaining­some­ability­to­attract­additional­business. Immediately­a­series­of­arguments­broke­out. Hughes­ claimed­ preemptive­ understandings­ on delivery­ positions,­ which­ Boeing­ refused­ to acknowledge.­ Hughes­ also­ wanted­ the­ Boeing negotiations­conducted­in­secret,­and­they­were,­at least­in­the­beginning.­ When­ the­ detail­ specification­ development period­was­reached,­secrecy­became­impossible due­ to­ TWA­ technical­ experts,­ in­ concert­ with representatives­from­other­airlines,­­participating in­detail­design­standardisation­activities.­Due­to Pan­American­and­American­Airlines­specification negotiations­ having­ preceded­ TWAs,­ Boeing’s standard­specification­was­essentially­what­AAL had­ negotiated,­ revised­ slightly­ to­ take­ into account­Pan­American’s­unique­requirements.­ TWA­also­had­unique­requirements:­flight­deck

instrumentation­and­arrangements,­air-conditioning system­design­and­performance,­the­design­of­certain key­aspects­of­the­hydraulic­and­electrical­systems, selection­of­accessories­standard­to­TWA,­autopilot selection,­and­others.­Had­Hughes­been­an­earlier customer,­Boeing­could­have­complied­with­many more­ TWA­ requirements.­ The­ conferences­ were useful­ in­ many­ areas,­ and,­ while­ complete standardisation­was­not­expected­or­achieved,­they were­helpful­to­all­concerned­because­of­the­savings realised.­As­TWA­was­able­to­convince­other­airlines to­adopt­some­of­own­its­requirements,­Boeing­could comply­with­more­of­their­specification­objectives than­had­the­conferences­not­been­held. The­ definitive­ contract­ for­ the­ eight­ Model 707-131­Boeings­was­executed­on­2­March­1956, by­Ayers­for­Toolco­and­Connelly­for­Boeing.­This was­ not­ a­ sufficient­ number­ to­ preserve­TWA’s markets­ against­ the­ forthcoming­ onslaught­ by American­and­United.­A­contract­for­the­purchase of­ eighteen­ international­ Model­ 707-331s­ was executed­19­March­1956,­by­C­H­Price­for­Toolco and­Connelly­for­Boeing.­Despite­pressure­from­his own­ team­ of­ advisors­ and­ those­ from­ TWA management,­ Hughes­ took­ painfully­ long­ to increase­his­order­in­three­stages,­­each­involving extensive­ efforts­ to­ obtain­ earlier­ delivery positions. Thus,­on­10­January­1957,­when­the­fifteenth domestic­707­was­ordered,­Toolco­had­on­order­a total­ of­ thrity-three­ Boeing­ jets.­ Then­ the­ bomb dropped:­Howard­Hughes­sent­out­a­short­simple message­to­his­staff­to­be­passed­on­to­TWAs­top management:­‘TWA has no rights whatsoever to the Toolco jets’.

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Life,­wanted­a­long­term­financing­plan­for­the­jet order­ as­ it­ was­ becoming­ nervous­ about­ Hughes’ borrowing­to­meet­basic­costs­like­payroll.­ To­ease­the­creditors,­Hughes­had­Toolco­accept the­obligations­for­the­jet­order­and­in­turn­­lease­the aircraft­to­TWA.­Aircraft­orders­were­swapped­with Pan­American,­something­that­pained­Hughes­to­have to­approach­his­rival­Juan­Trippe­to­help­TWA­out, and­the­Convair­order­was­cut­to­twenty­aircraft.­Juan Trippe­ and­ Raymond­ Holliday,­ executive­ vicepresident­of­Toolco,­executed­an­agreement­on­25 June­ 1959,­ assigning­ six­ of­ Toolco’s­ eighteen international­ 707s­ to­ Pan­ American,­ subject­ to Boeing­ agreeing,­ which­ they­ quickly­ did.­ It­ still wasn't­enough­and­some­of­Hughes’­banks­cut­off­his credit­in­March­1960.­With­the­other­creditors,­a­short term­financing­plan­was­arranged­to­allow­TWA­to keep­operating­provided­Toolco­assumed­all­financial liabilities­for­the­airline­as­long­as­there­was­a­change in­management­at­TWA.­To­further­put­the­brakes­on Hughes,­his­shares­in­TWA­were­put­into­a­voting trust­ which­ essentially­ shut­ out­ Hughes­ from­ the airline.­While­a­financing­plan­agreeable­to­all­the parties­ was­ eventually­ settled­ upon­ at­ the­ end­ of 1960,­Hughes­still­found­himself­shut­out­of­TWA

TWAs logo on the tails of their 707s became almost a symbol of the times... ...and also the inspiration of an icon of New York, the Finnish architect and industrial designer Eero Saarinen designed Trans World Airlines terminal.

Like­everything­concerning­Howard­Hughes,­the whole­ saga­ was­ riddled­ with­ secrecy­ and­ misinformation.­ Accounts­ give­ various­ reasons­ why Hughes­did­what­he­did,­but­the­overall­concensus­of opinion­was­that­it­was­all­to­do­with­Hughes­being cash-strapped. Hughes­pushed­TWA's­finances­to­the­limit­to­get into­jets­and­while­the­arrival­of­the­Jet­Age­to­TWA marked­the­beginning­of­its­zenith,­it­also­laid­the groundwork­for­Howard­Hughes’­eventual­exit­from TWA­despite­the­near-limitless­capital­that­he­could access­from­his­own­parent­company,­the­Hughes Tool­Company.­In­February­1956­he­ordered­the­707120s,­then­followed­in­June­1956­with­an­order­for thirty­ Convair­ 880s,­ and­ then­ more­ 707s­ in­ May 1957.­ The­ value­ of­ these­ three­ orders­ was­ $300 million.­TWA­raised­additional­funds­with­a­one-toone­stock­offering­underwritten­by­Toolco­that­also gave­ Hughes­ 77%­ control­ of­ the­ airline.­ But­ the money­raised­from­the­stock­offer­wasn't­enough­and it­ seemed­ that­ TWA­ couldn't­ meet­ its­ payroll obligations­ for­ the­ first­ quarter­ of­ 1958.­ Hughes borrowed­ $12­ million­ from­ the­ banks,­ but­ at­ this point,­one­of­TWA's­original­1945­backers,­Equitable

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Above: Arrivals and departures board with information desk, TWA Flight Center, c. 1962.

Left” ‘Miss Mary Tyler Moore, please pick up the white courtesy telephone’. Actress and dancer Mary Tyler Moore in the TWA Flight Center the same year. Note the TWA seating Chart behind her with details of Boeing Super Jet Flight 1. ( both TWA)

and­for­six­years­lawsuit­and­countersuit­after­another were­filed­as­he­tried­to­regain­control­of­TWA.­He finally­gave­up­in­1966­when­in­May­of­that­year Toolco­sold­off­its­entire­share­of­TWA­stock­and­he was­out­of­the­airline­business­for­a­while. Back­ in­ 1959,­ Hughes­ held­ tight­ reins­ on­ the delivery­of­the­jets.­It­had­been­a­regular­practice­to obtain­authorisation­from­the­TWA­board­for­plant representatives­to­formally­accept­aircraft­deliveries on­completion­of­satisfactory­acceptance­flight­tests and­signal­that­final­payments­were­ready­for­transfer. In­this­case,­Howard­telegraphically­granted­power of­ attorney­ to­ Edwin­ Zak,­ Maintenance­ Head­ for TWA’s­International­Division,­to­accept­one­Boeing at­a­time,­and­then­only­when­Hughes­considered appropriate.­He­no­doubt­considered­this­degree­of

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control­necessary­because­of­difficulty­in­mustering the­necessary­funds. Shortly­ before­ the­ flight­ test­ phase,­ Hughes insisted­that­no­one­be­allowed­on­the­Toolco­Boeings except­ the­ absolute­ minimum­ number­ of­ Boeing employees­required­to­accomplish­essential­work­and those­known­to­be­closely­associated­with­Hughes.­ It­proved­difficult­for­Boeing­to­make­the­first Toolco­707­ready­for­delivery.­Repeated­flight­tests and­ some­ time-consuming­ modifications­ were required­ before­ proper­ system­ functioning­ was demonstrated.­ Everyone,­ including­ Hughes,­ was keen­to­see­that­the­aircraft­was­delivered­on­time­so that­ TWA­ jet­ services­ could­ be­ operated­ on­ the publicised­date. The­start­of­service­contingency­time­was­all but­used­up­by­the­time­the­airliner­was­ready.­The aircraft­ had­ remained­ Toolco’s,­ but­ last-minute arrangements­were­made­to­lease­it­to­TWA­on­a day-to-day­basis,­arrangements­that­applied­to­all subsequent­domestic­and­the­first­four­international 707s. After­delivery,­Robert­Rummel­flew­in­this­first 707­with­TWA­Captain­Gail­Storck­to­San­Francisco, where­it­was­turned­over­to­Flight­Operations­for

The TWA logo on the tail of their 707s beame used for everything from travel agents to clothing manufacturers. It was around this time that the ‘If it’s not Boeing tell them you’re not going’ started to appear. (author’s collection)

FAA­ route­ proving­ flights.­ The­ inaugural­ flight occurred­on­schedule­on­20­March­1959,­with­only minutes­to­spare. Remarkably,­that­aircraft­flew­daily­round­trips between­ San­ Francisco­ and­ New­ York,­ and­ it performed­flawlessly.­It­was­operated­an­incredible twenty-one­straight­days­without­a­single­flight­delay. And­ it­ operated­ with­ full­ passenger­ loads­ plus oversales­passengers,­who­occupied­the­lounge­seats. As­ Robert­ Rummel­ was­ to­ say­ afterwards:­ ‘This incredible operating record is a tribute to effective jet planning and the fine TWA operations team that made it work.’

A gradual expansion. 1959­ saw­ 707­ services­ start­ to­ spead­ around­ the world;­ American­ Airlines­ started­ New­ York-Los Angeles­services­on­25­January­1959,­then­gradually introduced­707s­on­all­their­long-haul­routes­while Trans­World­Airlines­put­their­only­707-120­delivered on­the­New­York-San­Francisco­route­on­20­March 1959­followed­by­New­York-Los­Angeles­in­April after­delivery­of­a­second­aircraft.­QANTAS­started jet­services­across­the­Pacific­on­29­July­1959,­then became­the­third­operator­of­jets­across­the­North

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A line-up of 1956-ordered 707-131s for TWA are seen at Seattle in 1959. The aircraft in the foreground is fitted with noise reducing nozzles to cut down the sound generated by the JT-3C turbojets. It consisted of two rings of eight exhaust pipes, and was first tested on the Dash-80 (right). (both John Stride Collection)

Atlantic­on­5­September­1959. Pan­American­put­the­707-320­into­service­on 26­August­1959,­initially­from­San­Francisco­to London,­followed­by­the­New­York-London­route on­ 10­ October­ 1959,­ negating­ the­ need­ for refuelling.­Braniff­started­its­‘El­Dorado’­service from­Dallas-Love­Field­to­New­York­using­707220s­on­20­December­1959­with­services­to­South America­introduced­on­1­April­1960. Orders­ continued­ to­ be­ slow,­ Aer­ Lingus ordered­a­trio­of­720s­on­4­March­1959­initially­to replace­their­L-1049Hs­on­the­Dublin-ShannonNew­ York­ service­ with­ Boston­ added­ later although­these­were­later­superseded­by­707s.­The most­significant­order­of­the­year,­however,­was from­ American­ in­ November­ for­ one­ 707-120 powered­by­Pratt­&­Whitney­JT-3D­turbofans­of

17,000­pounds­thrust. On­ 10­ October­ 1959­ Pan­ American inaugurated­ the­ first­ all-jet­ around­ the­ world service­ when­ it­ started­ the­ San­ FranciscoHonolulu-Manila-Karachi-Rome-San­ Francisco service­with­707-321­N719PA.­TWA­introduced 707-320s­on­the­North­Atlantic­on­23­November with­ services­ between­ New­ York,­ London­ and Frankfurt,­ where­ their­ Lockheed­ Constellations had­been­uncompetitive­alongside­Pan­American's 707s­and­BOAC's­Comets.

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Early problems. Pan­Am's­great­rival,­American­Airlines,­was­the­first customer­ to­ put­ the­ 707­ into­ scheduled­ domestic services.­ The­ first­ commercial­ coast-to-coast­ jet service­was­flown­by­N7502­Flagship Oklahoma from­ Los­Angeles­ to­ Idlewild,­ New­ York,­ on­ 25 January­1959,­returning­the­same­day.­The­limited range­of­the­707-120­often­led­to­weather­diversions and­occasionally­to­embarrassment.­In­October­1959 a­New­York­to­Los­Angeles­flight­diverted­to­Phoenix due­ to­ bad­ weather­ at­ the­ destination­ and­ was impounded­by­local­authorities,­as­Phoenix­had­no insurance­cover­for­jets.­It­took­five­days­to­arrange the­necessary­documents­so­that­the­airliner­could continue­to­Los­Angeles. After­ two­ months­ of­ having­ four­ of­ the­ new airliners­ in­ service,­ American­ discovered­ several indirect­problems­with­the­new­jets.­These­included the­ difficulty­ of­ setting­ up­ a­ schedule­ based­ on predicted­winds­at­the­higher­altitudes,­which­the airline's­ IBM­ punchcard­ computer­ was­ initially unable­to­deal­with,­and­the­US­military­occasionally blocked­off­10,000­feet­of­airspace­at­a­time­when­the jet­ routeings­ and­ altitudes­ available­ were­ already restricted.­ At­ that­ time­ there­ were­ only­ three transcontinental­jet­routes­between­New­York­and Los­Angeles.­Because­of­these­and­other­factors,­up to­66%­of­flights­were­late­by­ten­minutes­or­more and­a­further­ten­per­cent­were­early. Air­traffic­control­procedures­also­needed­some

adjustment­for­jet­airliner­operations.­The­regular reporting­points­were­the­same­as­for­slower­aircraft, so­that­the­707­crew­could­barely­make­one­location report­before­passing­the­next­checkpoint.­American introduced­a­third­pilot­or­second­officer­to­handle navigation­and­communications­duties.­He­would also­ take­ over­ the­ left­ or­ right­ seats­ or­ flight engineer’s­station­if­that­pilot­vacated­it.­This­fourcrew­ arrangement­ was­ also­ designed­ to­ ensure­ a constant­ visual­ scan­ in­ the­ increasingly­ crowded airways.­American­was­the­only­US­airline­to­adopt this­crew­arrangement­and­it­was­fairly­short-lived. Over­in­Europe­there­were­similar­problems.­In Italy,­the­arrival­of­the­707s­and­DC-8s­seemed­to catch­the­authorities­by­surprise,­even­though­they had­experience­of­Comet­operations­in­1952-4.­In 1958­the­Italian­Undersecretary­for­Civil­Aviation refused­to­allow­scheduled­jet­services­as­Rome's Ciampino­ Airport­ was­ overcrowded,­ the­ new Fiumicino­Airport­was­not­yet­finished,­and­Milan’s Malpensa­ Airport­ needed­ enlarging.­ Air­ traffic control­was­also­considered­inadequate­and­overall the­707­was­thought­to­risk­‘...an­undue­strain­on safety­regulations’.­The­situation­did­not­completely resolve­itself­until­Fiumicino­was­opened­in­1960. British Certification problems. Pilots­had­problems­adapting­to­the­slower­increase in­lift­as­power­was­applied­during­descents­resulting in­a­number­of­abnormal­situations.­The­popular­press

A stunning picture of a ‘bare metal’ 707 with just ‘BOEING 707 Intercontinental’ on the fuseleage roof and tail in fact it is N714PA prior to delivery to Pan American Airways (author’s collection)

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In March 1960, the Cunard Steamship Company bought a 60% shareholding in Harold Bamberg's British Eagle Airways for £30 million, resulting in a change of name to Cunard Eagle Airways. The support from this new shareholder enabled Cunard Eagle to become the first British independent airline to operate pure jet airliners, as a result of a £6 million order for two new Boeing 707-420 passenger aircraft. The order had been placed (including an option on a third aircraft) in expectation of being granted traffic rights for transatlantic scheduled services. Cunard's acquisition of a controlling stake in Eagle resulted in Bamberg's appointment as their new aviation director, hoping that his knowledge of the industry would help them to capture a significant share of the one million people that crossed the Atlantic by air in 1960. This was the first time more passengers chose to make their transatlantic crossing by air than sea. In April 1960 the Government approved a range of new Colonial Coach fares for travel by British residents only on cabotage routes linking the UK with its remaining colonies. This was the right to transport goods or passengers between two places in the same country by a transport operator from another country. Despite opposition from IATA, British airlines - including British IATA members - were free to introduce them from 1 October 1960 as UK authorities controlled fares at both ends. Due to BOAC opposition, the aircraft were put on the Bermudan register to allow charters from London to Bermuda Via New York, but Cunard withdrew from partnership with Eagle Airlines in June 1962 and formed BOAC-Cunard instead. G-ARWD/VR-BBW served under the BOAC-Cunard, BOAC, BEA Airtours and British Airtours names until 1981. (DGR Photo Library)

were­quick­to­provide­coverage­of­these­incidents, including­the­loss­of­control­during­simulated­engine failure­of­both­engines­on­one­side­of­the­aircraft causing­the­aircraft­to­dutch­roll.­This­often­resulted in­incidents­where­engine­pods­were­scraped­along the­runway­on­landing­-­something­that­could­only happen­with­seven­or­eight­degrees­of­roll!­Rumour has­it­that­many­of­BOAC’s­most­distinguished­old pilots­ -­ many­ who­ has­ served­ during­ the­ war­ discovered­that­the­lively,­fast­and­lethal­enthusiasm of­the­707­for­Dutch­rolling­made­it­only­to­easy­to ‘scrape­a­pod’­and­that­after­such­an­‘incident’­they soon­finished­up­in­management! Dutch­roll­was­a­problem­inherent­in­swept-wing jets­ and­ was­ kept­ in­ check­ by­ the­ yaw­ damper function­of­the­autopilot.­The­yaw­damper­could­not be­used­at­take-off­or­on­the­landing­approach.­Unlike piston­transports,­the­707­had­to­be­‘flown’­positively onto­the­runway­rather­than­aimed­at­the­threshold and­‘floated’­on.­Pilots­who­tried­to­land­the­707­like a­piston­risked­undershooting­the­runway. As­a­number­of­incidents­and­accidents­during

crew­ training­ demonstrated.­ there­ were­ certain disconcerting­characteristics.­that­neither­Boeing­nor the­British­Air­Registration­Board­were­happy­about. Pilots­ found­ the­ rudder­ system­ on­ the­ 707 somewhat­different­to­what­they­had­previously­been used­to.­The­original­rudder­system­as­fitted­on­the 707-120s­had­aerodynamic­control­only,­but­later variants­have­had­power-boost­assistance­for­bigger angles­of­rudder­movement.­For­the­first­ten­degrees deflection,­the­powered­trim­tab­moved­the­rudder aerodynamically. Between­ten­and­fifteen­degrees the­ power­ booster­ began­ to­ take­ over­ and­ above fifteen­degrees­it­was­fully­effective.­However,­this meant­that­there­was­no­trim­relief­at­higher­angles and­for­structural­safety­reasons,­the­boost­‘gave­way’ at­air­loads­greater­than­180­foot­pounds­of­force.­To use­this­effectively­required­training­and­practice­as a­heavy­application­of­rudder­gave­a­noticeable­‘lag’ as­ the­ booster­ became­ effective­ and­ then­ a­ rapid deflection­to­the­booster’s­limit.­The­tendency­was­to add­ aileron­ and­ spoiler­ inputs,­ leading­ to­ an overcorrection­and­Dutch­roll.­A­new­booster­that

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Right: The ventral so-called ‘ARB fin’ on BOAC 707436 G-APFB. When the marginal stability characteristics of the 707 in some modes was realised, Tex Johnston, backed up by the aerodynamicists, recommended a taller fin, a boosted rudder and the ventral fin seen here. Bill Allen and Boeing's board accepted his findings, as did the British Legend has it that when BOAC asked Johnston ‘Who pays for it?’ he replied with one word: ‘Boeing’. This may have been an answer that reassured the customers and ensured the success of the 707, but it delayed profitability even further.

worked­throughout­the­full­range­of­deflection­was designed­ to­ meet­ UK­Airworthiness­ Registration Board­(ARB)­certification­requirements­and­was­later fitted­to­all­707s,­but­it­was­still­not­enough. The­situation­was­understood­by­pilots­and­proper corrective­ action­ was­ a­ matter­ of­ training­ and practice.­But,­apart­altogether­from­any­criticism­of general­handling,­the­characteristics­of­the­system were­ such­ that,­ with­ the­ higher­ take-offpower available­from­the­Conway­and­later­J75­marks,­the unmodified­707­could­only­be­certificated­to­ARB standards­by­raising­the­minimum­control­speeds­and thus­ unsatisfactorily­ restricting­ its­ take-off­ and landing­performance. There­was­a­known­requirement­for­increasing the­keel­area,­indeed­this­was­one­demand­from­the British­ARB;­a­modification­that­became­known­as the­‘ARB­fin’­which­not­only­increased­stability­but also­acted­as­a­tail­bumper­to­prevent­over-rotation on­take-off.­The­ventral­fins­were­of­at­least­three different­shapes,­with­straight­or­curved­leading­edges and­different­areas. These­changes­also­involved­a­rationalisation­of the­entire­rudder-control­system.­The­rudder­was­fully powered­through­its­whole­range­of­movement.­The power­ supply­ and­ appropriate­ systems­ were duplicated­for­obvious­safety­reasons­-­and,­more important,­ in­ order­ to­ provide­ maximum­ rudder deflection,­without­delay,­in­emergency­conditions. Pressure­was­supplied­at­3,000­pounds­per­square inch­for­low-speed­flight­and­1,000­pounds­per­square inch­ for­ high-speed­ flight,­ thus­ providing­ two different­ power­ ‘ratios’­ with­ the­ changeover controlled­ by­ a­ Q-operated­ switch.­The­ trimming system­­operated­through­the­Q-pot­mechanism,­over the­whole­range­of­rudder­movement. ‘Q’­feel­is­related­to­the­aerodynamics­and­precise flight­conditions­that­apply­at­the­time­of­the­control demand.­As­the­aircraft­speed­increases­so­does­the aerodynamic­ load­ in­ a­ mathematical­ relationship proportional­ to­ the­ air­ density­ and­ the­ square­ of velocity.­The­air­density­is­relatively­unimportant;­the

squared­ velocity­ term­ has­ a­ much­ greater­ effect, particularly­at­high­speed.­Therefore­it­is­necessary to­take­account­of­this­aerodynamic­equation;­that­is the­purpose­of­‘Q’­feel.­A­‘Q’­feel­unit­receives­air data­information­from­the­aircraft­pitot-static­system. In­fact­the­signal­applied­is­the­difference­between pitot­and­static­pressure,­and­this­signal­is­used­to modulate­the­control­mechanism­within­the­‘Q’­feel unit­ and­ operate­ a­ hydraulic­ load­ jack­ which­ is connected­into­the­flight­control­run. In­this­way­the­pilot­was­given­feel­which­was directly­ related­ to­ the­ aircraft­ speed­ and­ which greatly­increased­with­increasing­airspeed.­It­was usual­to­use­‘Q’­feel­in­the­tailplane­or­rudder­control runs;­where­this­method­of­feel­was­used­depended upon­ the­ aircraft­ aerodynamics­ and­ the­ desired handling­or­safety­features.­The­disadvantage­of­‘Q’ feel­was­that­it­was­more­complex­and­only­became of­real­use­at­high­speed. There­ was­ no­ duplication­ in­ the­ yaw­ damper system,­which­remained­inoperative­during­the­takeoff/climb­and­approach/landing­stages­of­flight. Most­of­BOACs­-436s­were­delivered­direct­to London­with­empty­cabins,­but­two­were­fitted­with seats­and­galleys­shipped­out­from­the­UK­and­picked up­passengers­from­Montreal­on­the­way. Overall,­problems­with­the­aircraft­itself­included damage­to­skin,­flaps­and­cargo­doors­by­snow­and slush­thrown­up­by­higher­taxi­speeds­and­trouble with­the­complex­electrical­wiring.­The­phenomenon of­ ‘sonic­ fatigue’­ caused­ by­ engine­ noise­ created

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problems­ with­ certain­ areas­ of­ the­ airframe,­ in particular­the­tailcone.­This­was­cured­by­replacing some­magnesium­components­with­aluminium­ones and­by­lining­the­tailcone­with­fibreglass. Spare­parts­availability­was­an­early­problem, made­worse­by­minor­changes­on­the­Boeing­line­that came­ about­ as­ part­ of­ a­ pre-delivery­ design improvement­programme­which­saw­changes­made between­the­specification­given­to­the­airlines­and delivery­ itself,­ including­ everything­ from­ new doormats­to­leading-edge­flaps.­American­found­that if­a­part­was­to­be­changed­on­the­production­line, subcontractors­ would­ often­ stop­ making­ it immediately,­ leaving­ Seattle's­ stocks­ as­ the­ only source.­ American­Airlines­Flight­514­was­a­training­flight from­ Idlewild­ International­ Airport­ to­ Calverton Executive­Airpark.­On­the­afternoon­of­15­August 1959,­the­Boeing­707­crashed­near­Calverton­airport, killing­all­five­crew­members­aboard.­This­was­the first­accident­to­involve­a­Boeing­707,­which­had only­gone­into­service­the­previous­year. The­aircraft,­a­707-123­with­registration­N7514A, named ‘Flagship Connecticut’ had­accumulated­736 total­flight­hours.­At­that­time­The­Calverton­airfield was­used­frequently­by­American­Airlines­for­training purposes­for­crew­members­on­707s,­and­was­known then­as­the­Grumman­Aircraft­Corp.­field. During the 1960s American Airlines advertised under the slogan ‘Come­Fly­With­Me’­that heavily featured their stewardesses dress in that ‘swingin sixties’ look. Their 707s were all named ‘Astro-jets’. Below: American Airlines N7526A. (both American Airlines)

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The­707­departed­Idlewild­at­1:40pm­local­time, and­accomplished­high­altitude­air­work­after­takeoff to­permit­sufficient­fuel­burnoff­for­airport­transition training­which­was­planned­at­Calverton,­and­arrived in­the­area­around­3:11pm.­Flight­514­accomplished several­ manoeuvres,­ including­ full-stop­ landings, crosswind­ landings­ and­ takeoffs,­ a­ high­ off-set approach,­simulated­engine­out­landings,­and­a­noflap­aborted­approach­to­landing.­The­aircraft­did­not retract­ its­ landing­ gear­ following­ the­ last­ aborted approach­to­landing­on­Runway­23,­but­continued­in the­traffic­pattern­at­an­estimated­altitude­between 1,000­and­1,100­feet.­The­crew­reported­on­left­base

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American Airlines returned a number of their ‘Astrojets’ to Boeing for conversion to turbofan power, as the same time doing wing and tail modifications. The JT-3C was convertible to a JT-3D turbofan by adding a front fan and fourth stage turbine. This allowed the engine to handle two and a half times the air mass at takeoff, giving 50% more thrust, much better fuel consumption and reduced noise. (American Airlines)

leg­for­Runway­23,­was­given­clearance­to­land, and­ was­ informed­ that­ the­ wind­ was­ from­ 230 degrees­at­10­to­15­knots.­As­it­approached­the extended­centreline­of­the­runway,­around­4:42pm, it­made­a­left­bank,­steepening­to­approximately 45­ degrees.­ The­ aircraft­ was­ then­ observed­ to recover­immediately­to­level­flight­and­to­begin­a bank­ to­ the­ right­ which­ became­ progressively steeper.­The­right­bank­continued­until­the­aircraft was­inverted,­at­which­time­the­nose­dropped­and a­ yaw­ to­ the­ left­ was­ observed.­ The­ 707­ then continued­ to­ roll­ to­ the­ right­ in­ a­ nose­ down configuration­ before­ the­ wings­ leveled. Investigation­ revealed­ the­ aircraft­ struck­ the ground­ in­ this­ attitude,­ in­ a­ nearly­ stalled condition,­yawed­to­the­left­approximately­twelve degrees,­with­considerable­and­nearly­symmetrical power.­The­aircraft­crashed­in­a­potato­field,­a­fire erupted­on­impact,­and­all­five­aboard­were­killed. The­ crash­ occurred­ only­ a­ few­ miles­ from­ the Brookhaven­National­Laboratories,­a­site­of­­secret nuclear­work. The­fire­continued­to­burn­for­over­an­hour­after the­crash,­hampering­emergency­crews­in­their­efforts to­remove­the­bodies­of­the­crew.­The­Air­Force­sent

several­ pieces­ of­ fire­ equipment­ to­ the­ scene. Eventually,­a­large­crowd­gathered­at­the­crash­site as­word­spread­over­radio­and­television­newscasts, and­people­drove­from­resorts­and­towns­in­the­area to­see­the­wreckage.­ The­probable­cause­suggested­was­that­‘...the crew failed to recognize and correct the development of excessive yaw which caused an unintentional rolling manoeuvre at an altitude too low to permit complete recovery.’ After­ the accident,­ the­ Federal­ Aviation­ Agency­ (FAA) discontinued­ the­ requirement­ that­ Boeing­ 707 aircraft­ make­ actual­ landings­ with­ simulated failure­ of­ 50­ percent­ of­ the­ power­ units concentrated­ on­ one­ side­ of­ the­ aircraft­ during training­ flights,­ type­ ratings,­ and­ proficiency checks.­These­manoeuvres­could­now­be­simulated at­an­appropriate­higher­altitude.­On­5­February 1960,­ Boeing­ issued­ a­ service­ bulletin­ for­ an improved­rudder­modification­which­added­boost power­ to­ the­ wider­ ranges­ of­ directional movement,­and­gave­increased­control­capability at­low­airspeeds­and­minimum­gross­weight.­This modification­also­replaced­the­original­rudder­with an­improved­version.

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Braniff Airways was to become famous for its more extreme fashion ideas worn by its stewardesses. Left is Emilio Pucci's Bubble Helmet designed supposedly in the days prior to the air-bridge to protect the coiffure from wind and rain on the walk from the terminal to the aircraft. A Braniff International stewardess models the plexiglass headgear at John F, Kennedy Airport, New York in 1965. Braniff 720 N7077. (both author’s collection)

Then Braniff­International­Airways­lost­its­first Boeing­707-227­El Dorado Super Jet in­a­predelivery crash­at­Oso,­some­thirty­miles­north­northeast­of Everett,­Washington,­near­Seattle.­The­aircraft­came to­rest­on­the­banks­of­the­Stillaguamish­River. Ship­N7071­was­the­first­of­five­Boeing­707's ordered­by­Braniff­on­1­December­1955.­Dubbed­the El­Dorado­Super­Jet,­the­big­Boeing­was­the­only­one of­its­kind­with­the­more­powerful­JT4A­turbojet engines­ commonly­ found­ on­ the­ 707-320­ series Intercontinental­ long­ range­ jet.­ The­ big­ Braniff engines­did­not­require­water­injection­on­takeoff. The­Series­-227­featured­the­standard­Boeing­707120­ fuselage­ which,­ combined­ with­ the­ powerful engines,­created­a­long­haul­lower­density­airliner­that was­perfectly­suited­for­the­carriers­US­Mainland­to South­America­routes. This­mix­of­power­and­lower­capacity­allowed Braniff­to­operate­out­of­the­higher­elevation­fields of­South­America­where­the­jet­was­to­be­a­planned mainstay.­The­smaller­capacity­also­allowed­for­an increased­ profit­ spread,­ giving­ the­ fast­ 707­ a

financial­advantage­over­other­jet­aircraft.­It­was also­the­fastest­707,­allowing­it­to­be­operated­at top­speeds­of­636­miles­per­hour.­Initial­seating capacity­ was­ slated­ at­ 106­ passengers­ but­ was increased­to­112­seats­with­thirty-eight­First­Class and­seventy-four­Coach­configuration. N7071­was­rolled­out­on­30­April­1959­and­first flew­on­11­June.­Over­the­next­four­months­numerous training­ and­ test­ flights­ were­ conducted­ in­ the Washington­skies.­ The­flight­proceeded­as­normal­after­departure from­Renton.­On­board­were­eight­persons­including a­FAA­Inspector,­a­Boeing­Flight­Engineer,­a­Boeing Instructor­Pilot,­and­another­Boeing­Pilot,­and­two additional­Braniff­personnel­that­included­a­Flight Engineer­and­Technical­Training­Instructor.­There were­two­Braniff­pilots­up­front­including­Captain M.­Frank­Staley­and­Captain­John­A.­Berke­as­well as­the­Boeing­Flight­Instructor­and­Flight­Engineer. The­ Boeing­ Instructor­ executed­ a­ number­ of manoeuvres­ and­ then­ had­ the­ Braniff­ Captain demonstrate­the­same.­The­Boeing­Instructor­then

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began­a­series­of­Dutch­Rolls­and­the­Braniff­Captain executed­recoveries­from­each.­ Boeing­had­instituted­a­maximum­Dutch­Roll bank­ angle­ of­ 25­ degrees­ during­ any­ training manoeuvre­ on­ 707s.­ The­ Boeing­ instructor­ far exceeded­this­minimum­with­witnesses­stating­that the­bank­exceeded­45­degrees­and­upwards­of­60 degrees.­The­Braniff­pilot­tried­to­recover­out­of­a nose­right­angle­and­applied­right­aileron­while­the right­wing­was­still­moving­in­a­downward­motion and­the­aircraft­immediately­went­into­a­90­degree bank­and­yawed­right­at­the­same­time. The­ Boeing­ Instructor­ took­ control­ and immediately­ applied­ full­ left­ aileron­ and­ the aircraft­began­a­violent­roll­to­the­left­at­which time­the­Number­1,­2,­and­4­engines­were­ripped from­ their­ pylons.­ The­ Instructor­ began­ an emergency­ landing­ ­ on­ the­ banks­ of­ the Stillaguamish­ River­ where­ N7071­ ultimately crashed.­Braniff­Captain's­Staley­and­Berke­along with­ the­ Boeing­ Instructor­ and­ Boeing­ Flight Engineer­were­killed­on­impact.­The­other­four personnel­ on­ board­ had­ shrewdly­ moved­ to­ the rear­of­the­aircraft­prior­to­impact­and­survived­the accident.­­N7071­was­a­complete­loss­and­the­cost was­absorbed­by­Boeing. The­Civil­Aeronautics­Board,­who­conducted airline­ accident­ investigations­ at­ that­ time, concluded­ that­ the­ aircraft­ engine­ pylons­ and nacelles­ had­ been­ overstressed­ and­ failed­ as­ a result­ of­ the­ improper­ inputs­ by­ the­ Braniff Captain­trainee.­The­Boeing­Instructor­was­faulted for­ exceeding­ the­ Boeing­ mandated­ 25­ degree maximum­bank­angle­during­Dutch­Roll­training manoeuvres­ and­ it­ was­ pointed­ out­ that­ the Instructor­had­even­been­warned­just­prior­to­the accident­ by­ the­ Boeing­ Flight­ Engineer­ of­ the maximum­bank­angle­during­the­training­mission. The­Boeing­Instructor­was­also­cited­for­allowing a­pilot­on­his­first­training­flight­in­the­Boeing­707 to­try­to­recover­from­such­extreme­gyrations. Braniff­would­be­allowed­to­use­a­Boeing­707124­ordered­by­Continental­Airlines­for­its­training missions­until­Braniff's­second­-227­could­be­made ready­for­delivery.­The­Series­-124­was­not­painted and­ was­ registered­ as­ N74612­ and­ dubbed­ the Silver Ghost because­ of­ its­ lack­ of­ paint.­ The delivery­of­the­Silver Ghost to­Continental­Airlines was­delayed­while­Braniff­was­using­the­aircraft. Three­months­after­Pan­American­had­started jet­service,­business­was­booming­and­the­airline had­already­increased­the­accommodation­in­its 707-121s­beyond­the­original­111­seat,­two-class layout.­However,­the­airline­still­faced­problems

as­it­had­not­yet­resolved­its­dispute­with­members of­the­Air­Line­Pilots­Association­(ALPA).­Thus, when­ on­ 3­ February­ 1959,­ 707-121­ N712PA (Clipper Washington) took­off­as­Pan­Am­Flight 115,­on­the­second­leg­of­the­daily­Paris-LondonNew­ York­ flight,­ its­ two­ pilots­ were­ from management.­ Captain­ W­ Waldo­ Lynch,­ who­ had­ logged 11,185­ hours­ including­ 350­ hours­ in­ 707s,­ was assistant­vice­president­of­communications­for­the airline.­The­copilot­was­Captain­Samuel­T­Peters, then­chief­pilot­­of­Pan­Am’s­Pacific­Division,­who had­logged­14,952­hours­including­269­hours­in 707s.­ These­ two­ veterans­ were­ assisted­ in­ the cockpit­ by­ John­ Laird,­ navigator,­ and­ George Sinski,­flight­engineer.­In­the­two-class­cabin­two pursers­ and­ four­ stewardesses­ attended­ to­ the needs­and­comforts­of­119­passengers,­including the­noted­actor/dancer/choreographer­Gene­Kelly.­ Bound­ for­ New­ York,­ with­ an­ intermediate fueling­stop­in­Gander,­flight­PA­115­had­taken­off from­London­Heathrow­at­18:45­GMT.­Two­hours later,­the­aircraft­was­cruising­at­31,000­feet­when Captain­ Lynch­ requested­ and­ obtained authorisation­ from­ Oceanic­ Control­ to­ climb­ to 35,000­feet­before­entering­a­frontal­system­with thunderstorms.­ As­ fate­ would­ have­ it,­ those additional­4,000­feet­probably­saved­the­lives­of passengers­ and­ crew,­ changing­ the­ course­ of history­for­the­707­and­Boeing. After­the­aircraft­reached­flight­level­35­while cruising­at­Mach­0.82,­Captain­Lynch­left­the­cockpit to­talk­with­Norman­T.­Blake,­the­Vice­president­of Pan­Am’s­Atlantic­Division,­who­was­on­board­as­a passenger/observer.­Three­hours­and­20­minutes­after takeoff,­the­aircraft­was­at­52.5­degrees­N­and­40.5 degrees­W,­some­500­miles­east­of­Gander.­Still­in the­ cabin,­ Captain­ Lynch­ noticed­ a­ trim­ change, accompanied­ with­ buffeting,­ followed­ by­ a­ rapid build­ up­ of­ acceleration­ forces.­ In­ the­ cockpit, Captain­ Peters,­ who­ was­ checking­ notes­ on­ his clipboard­after­turning­left­20­degrees­to­get­on­the new­ course­ requested­ by­ the­ navigator,­ also­ felt buffeting­and­positive­acceleration­forces­building­up rapidly.­Buffeting­increased,­the­lights­on­the­copilot panel­went­out,­and­Clipper Washington went­into­a nose-down­spiral­to­the­right.­PA­115­was­in­serious trouble.­ While­Captain­Peters­struggled­to­regain­control by­applying­left­aileron­and­rudder­to­stop­the­roll, Captain­Lynch­had­a­difficult­time­negotiating­his way­back­to­the­cockpit­due­to­the­G­forces.­Once back­in­the­cockpit,­the­first­thing­he­did­before­even trying­to­get­back­into­his­seat­was­to­pull­all­the

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The Societé Anonyme Belge d'Exploitation de la Navigation Aérienne, better known internationally by the acronym Sabena or SABENA, was the national airline of Belgium from 1923 to 2001. Here is one of their 707-239s, OO-SJA.

Left: a period luggage label promoting ‘Fly Boeing Jet Intercontinental’ (author’s collection)

throttles­back­to­idle.­When­Captain­Lynch­finally­got into­the­left­seat­he­saw­the­altimeter­unwinding­fast as­the­aircraft­was­passing­through­17,000­feet­after already­losing­18,000­feet­of­altitude.­He­could­not see­the­Mach­meter,­which­was­hidden­by­the­control wheel.­The­artificial­horizon­was­useless­as­it­had toppled­and­the­turn-and-bank­indicator­was­full­to the­right­with­its­ball­left­of­centre.­The­horizontal stabilizer­was­in­the­full­nosedown­position­and­the electric­trim­button­refused­to­work. Taking­over­the­control,­Captain­Lynch­was assisted­ by­ the­ navigator,­ who­ kept­ calling­ the altitudes,­and­the­flight­engineer,­who­deactivated the­ stabiliser­ system­ and­ rolled­ up­ the­ two

stabiliser­ wheels­ to­ the­ ‘up’­ position.­ First succeeding­ in­ getting­ the­ wings­ level,­ Lynch pulled­ back­ on­ the­ yoke­ as­ the­ aircraft­ passed through­8,000­feet,­still­going­down.­Finally,­at 6,000­ feet­ there­ were­ a­ few­ seconds­ of­ violent buffeting,­ but­ descent­ stopped­ and­ Clipper Washington pulled­up­into­a­fairly­steep­climb.­At 9,000­feet­the­crew­realised­they­had­things­back under­control­and­the­rate­of­climb­was­reduced. Flying­the­aircraft­manually,­Captain­Lynch­and his­crew­levelled­out­at­31,000­feet­and­cruised­to Gander­at­Mach­0.79.­The­landing­at­Gander­was uneventful. Although­knocked­around,­passengers­and­crew members­suffered­no­serious­injuries.­The­aircraft, however,­had­suffered­what­the­Civil­Aeronautics Board­described­as­‘extensive­structural­damage.’ The­list­of­damage­was­impressive:­wrinkles­in­the lower­skin­of­both­horizontal­stabiliser­with­buckles in­the­centre­section­web­and­upper­surface­doubler; damage­to­both­wing­panels,­including­shear­wrinkles in­the­rear­spar­webs;­damage­to­outboard­ailerons and­ their­ control­ rods;­ damage­ to­ the­ wing-tofuselage­fairings,­with­a­three­foot­section­of­the­right fairing­having­separated­in­flight;­small­amount­of permanent­set­to­both.­wing­panels;­buckling­to­all four­engine­nacelle­strut-to-wing­fairings;­and­partial failure­of­the­shear­bolts­in­No.­2­and­No.­3­nacelles and­elongated­fitting­holes­of­all­front­spar-to-wing bushings. The­ CAB­ concluded­ its­ investigation­ by

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ascertaining­that­probable­causes­were: ‘…inattention of the copilot in the absence of the captain; the selfdisengagement of the autopilot; autopilot disengagement light left i.n the ‘dim’ position and therefore not easily seen; and Mach trim switch not turned on’. Although­ not­ cited­ as­ a­ contributory­ factor, pilot­fatigue­most­likely­played­a­significant­role. Management­ pilots­ had­ excessively­ long­ duty hours­and­insufficient­rest­time­as­Pan­American struggled­ to­ maintain­ a­ full­ schedule­ while­ its ALPA­pilots­refused­to­fly­707s­pending­resolution of­their­pay­dispute. One­cannot­help­but­wonder­what­would­have happened­ if­ Captain­ Lynch­ and­ his­ crew­ had­ not succeeded­in­regaining­control.­The­loss­of­Clipper Washington­in­the­Atlantic­would­likely­have­become an­American­counterpart­to­the­Comet­disaster­off Elba­in­January­1954.­At­best,­the­707­would­have had­to­be­withdrawn­from­use­pending­result­of­an accident­ investigation,­ a­ process­ that­ would­ have been­made­lengthy­by­the­difficulty­of­recovering wreckage­from­mid-North­Atlantic­waters.­ After­ the­ events­ of­ 3­ February,­ Clipper Washington was­ferried­from­Gander­to­Seattle­for thorough­inspection­by­Boeing;­Once­repairs­had been­made,­the­aircraft­was­returned­to­service.­ Then,­in­Europe,­Sabena­Flight­548,­operated­by 707­OO-SJB,­crashed­en­route­from­New­York­City to­Brussels,­Belgium,­on­15­February­1961,­killing seventy-three­people,­including­the­entire­US­figure skating­team,­which­was­on­its­way­to­the­World Figure­ Skating­ Championships­ in­ Prague, Czechoslovakia. The­ flight­ originated­ at­ Idlewild­ International Airport­ and­ crashed­ on­ approach­ to­ Brussels's Zaventem­ Airport.­ The­ Boeing­ had­ to­ abort­ its landing­at­Brussels­because­of­an­aircraft­blocking one­of­the­runways,­and­tried­to­climb­and­circle towards­another­one. Under­clear­skies­at­about­10:00­a.m.­Brussels time,­the­jet­was­on­a­long­approach­to­runway­20 when,­near­the­runway­threshold­and­at­a­height­of 900­feet,­power­was­increased­and­the­landing­gear retracted.­The­airliner­attempted­to­circle­and­land­on another­runway,­but­never­made­it­back­to­the­airport. The­airliner­made­three­360­degrees­turns­to­the­left, during­ which­ the­ bank­ angle­ increased­ more­ and more­until­the­aircraft­had­climbed­to­1,500­feet­and was­in­a­near­vertical­bank.­The­707­then­levelled wings,­abruptly­pitched­up,­lost­speed­and­started­to spiral­ rapidly­ nose­ down­ towards­ the­ ground.­ It crashed­and­caught­fire­in­a­marshy­area­adjacent­to a­farm­field­near­the­village­of­Berg,­less­than­two

miles­from­the­airport,­at­10:04­a.m.­Brussels­Time. The­ wreckage­ burst­ into­ flames,­ though­ it­ is believed­that­all­seventy-two­on­board­were­killed instantly.­Theo­de­Laet,­a­farmer­who­was­working in­his­fields,­was­killed­by­a­piece­of­aluminum­debris from­ the­ aircraft,­ and­ another­ farmer's­ leg­ was severed­by­flying­debris.­ The­cause­of­the­crash­was­never­established,­but is­believed­to­have­been­a­failure­of­the­stabiliseradjusting­mechanism.

Further incidents and accidents 1962­and­1963­were­not­good­years­for­Boeing,­with several­aircraft­coming­to­grief.­The­first­one­was American­Airlines­707-123B­N7506A­which­crashed shortly­ after­ take-off­ from­ ldlewild,­ New­ York, killing­all­the­occupants. American­ Airlines­ Flight­ 1­ was­ a­ domestic, scheduled­ passenger­ flight­ to­ Los­ Angeles International­Airport.­On­1­March­1962,­the­aircraft -­having­taken­off­two­minutes­earlier­-­rolled­over and­crashed­into­a­swamp,­killing­all­eighty-seven passengers­and­eight­crew­members­aboard.­ The­flight­crew­consisted­of­Captain­James­Heist, First­ Officer­ Michael­ Barna,­ Jr,­ Second­ Officer Robert­Pecor,­and­Flight­Engineer­Robert­Cain.­Also aboard­were­four­stewardesses:­Shirley­Grabow,­Lois Kelly,­Betty­Moore,­and­Rosalind­Stewart. The­ aircraft­ received­ instructions­ to­ taxi­ to Runway­ 31L­ at­ 9:54­ AM­ EST,­ and­ clearance­ to

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proceed­to­Los­Angeles­non-stop­under­instrument flight­rules­(IFR)­at­10:02­AM­EST.­Flight­1­became airborne­ at­ 10:07­AM­ EST.­ Following­American Airlines­ procedures­ and­ Departure­ Control instructions,­ the­ aircraft­ initiated­ a­ left­ turn­ to­ a heading­of­290.­In­the­course­of­the­turn,­at­1,600­feet, the­Boeing­banked­too­far,­flipped­past­90­degrees, and­began­an­upside-down,­nose-first­descent­in­a nearly­vertical­dive.

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Flight­1­crashed­into­Pumpkin­Patch­Channel, Jamaica­Bay,­at­10:08:49,­while­angled­at­78­degrees and­ on­ a­ magnetic­ heading­ of­ 300­ degrees. Passengers­aboard­a­Mohawk­Airlines­plane­bound for­Albany­that­took­off­immediately­after­Flight­1 watched­the­aircraft­plunge­into­the­bay.­The­airliner exploded­upon­impact,­a­geyser­of­brackish­water­and black­smoke­erupted­from­the­site,­and­the­scattered debris­and­fuel­caught­fire.­Long­Island­residents described­ hearing­ explosions­ which­ shook­ the foundations­of­nearby­houses,­though­no­one­on­the ground­is­known­to­have­witnessed­the­aircraft­hitting the­swamp.­However,­a­few­men­at­Naval­Air­Station New­York­/­Floyd­Bennett­Field­saw­the­massive geyser­of­water­rising­above­the­hangars,­and­one guard­-­at­his­post­on­a­bridge­that­the­aircraft­flew over­-­saw­it­roll­over. A­number­of­notable­people­were­aboard­Flight 1­when­it­went­down­in­Jamaica­Bay.­They­included: Admiral­Richard­Lansing­Conolly,­USN­(retired),

In many respects Continental Airlines followed the theme of flying that was an adventure and a luxury.

Operating under the advertising slogan of ‘The Proud Bird with the Golden Tail’ their stewardesses followed the First Lady Jackie Kennedy chic.

Below: Continental Airlines ‘Golden Jet’ 707 N70773. (both author’s collection)

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president­ of­ Long­ Island­ University­ and­ Deputy Chief­of­Naval­Operations;­Johnny­Dieckman,­world champion­fly-casting­fisherman;­George­T.­Felbeck, vice­ president­ of­ Union­ Carbide­ and­ operations manager­of­Oak­Ridge,­Tennessee.­W.­Alton­Jones, multi-millionaire­former­president­and­chairman­of Cities­ Service­ Company.­ Jones­ was­ found­ to­ be carrying­$55,690­in­cash,­including­a­single­$10,000 bill.­Arnold­Kirkeby,­millionaire­realtor­and­former head­of­the­Kirkeby­chain­of­luxury­hotels;­Louise Lindner­Eastman,­whose­daughter­Linda­Eastman would­later­marry­Beatle­Paul­McCartney;­Irving Rubine,­TV­writer;­Emelyn­Whiton,­1952­Olympic sailing­gold­medalist­and­Peter­F.­Masse,­president of­C­H­Sprague­&­Son,­an­integrated­coal­company of­New­York­and­Boston.­In­addition,­in­the­aircraft’s hold­ were­ fifteen­ abstract­ paintings­ by­ the­ artist Arshile­Gorky­that­were­en­route­to­Los­Angeles­for an­exhibition­-­these­were­also­destroyed. The­ aircraft­ impacted­ into­ a­ remote­ area­ of marshland­­used­as­a­wildlife­sanctuary.­Over­three

hundred­policemen­and­fire­fighters,­including­125 detectives­attending­a­narcotics­seminar­at­the­Police Academy,­as­well­as­Coast­Guard­helicopters,­were mobilized­to­the­site­within­half­an­hour­of­the­crash for­ rescue­ operations,­ only­ to­ find­ there­ were­ no survivors.­The­fire­was­under­control­by­10:50­AM EST,­by­which­point­only­wreckage­remained.­Low tides­ aided­ search­ personnel­ in­ their­ attempts­ to recover­bodies­from­the­downed­aircraft,­but­only­a few­bodies­remained­intact. The­ Civil­ Aeronautics­ Board­ received notification­of­the­accident­at­10:10­AM­EST­and­sent representatives­to­Jamaica­Bay­to­start­investigations. The­flight­recorder­was­found­on­9­March­and­sent to­Washington­for­analysis.­ Investigators­were­unable­to­recover­sufficient body­tissue­to­determine­whether­the­crew­had­been physically­ incapacitated­ at­ the­ time­ of­ the­ crash. Toxicology­ reports­ conclusively­ ruled­ out­ toxic gases,­alcohol,­and­drugs­as­possible­cause­for­the crash.­Milton­Helpern,­the­Chief­Medical­Examiner,

Above: 707 F-BHSB of Air France.

Left: Fifteen crew about to board an Air France Intercontinental 707 flight. The stewardesses uniforms were designed by Marc Bohan at Christian Dior for Air France in 1962, replacing a design by Georgette de Trezes. (both via Air France)

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Above: Viação Aérea RIo-Grandense’s (VARIG) 707 PP-VJA.

Right: like many airlines using the 707, VARIG pushed the glamour and ‘executive exclusiveness of their jet service’. (author’s collection)

decided­ that­ having­ relatives­ attempt­ visual identification­of­the­crash­victims­was­inhumane­and ordered­dental­and­fingerprint­comparisons.­In­early July,­the­CAB­announced­their­investigators­believed that­a­cotter­pin­and­a­bolt­missing­from­the­rudder mechanism­ might­ have­ caused­ Flight­ 1's­ crash. Though­considered­to­be­a­‘...mechanic's­oversight’, the­ CAB­ nevertheless­ wired­ all­ 707­ operators­ to inform­them­of­the­potential­danger­of­the­assembly. In­ January­ 1963,­ the­ CAB­ released­ a­ Civil Aeronautics­Board­Aircraft­Accident­Report­stating that­the­‘...most­likely­abnormality’­to­have­caused the­crash­was­a­short­circuit­caused­by­wires­in­the automatic­piloting­system­which­had­been­damaged in­the­manufacturing­process. CAB­ inspectors­ had­ inspected­ units­ at­ a Teterboro,­New­Jersey,­Bendix­Corporation­plant­and discovered­ workers­ using­ tweezers­ to­ bind­ up bundles­ of­ wires,­ thereby­ damaging­ them.­ The Bendix­Corporation­issued­denials,­stating­that­the units­ underwent­ sixty-one­ inspections­ during manufacturing,­ in­ addition­ to­ inspections­ during installation­and­maintenance­work,­and­insisted­that had­the­insulation­on­the­wires­been­breached­at­some

point,­it­would­have­surely­been­detected­and­the­unit replaced. On­22­May­1962­Continental­Airlines­707-124 N70775­operating­their­Flight­11­exploded­in­midair­while­cruising­at­37,000­feet­in­the­vicinity­of Centerville,­ Iowa,­ while­ en­ route­ from­ O'Hare Airport,­Chicago,­Illinois,­to­Kansas­City,­Missouri. The­aircraft­crashed­in­a­clover­field­near­Unionville, in­Putnam­County,­Missouri,­killing­all­45­crew­and passengers­on­board.­Remarkably,­the­airliner­had been­hijacked­to­Cuba­the­previous­year­as­Flight­54. The­investigation­determined­the­cause­of­the­crash was­a­suicide­bombing­committed­as­insurance­fraud.­ Passenger­Thomas­G.­Doty­arrived­at­the­gate­at Chicago­O’Hare­after­the­Continental­airliner’s­doors had­been­closed.­Although­airline­policy­is­that­once the­doors­are­closed­they­are­not­to­be­reopened,­the

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Above: N721US was a 720B of Northwest.

Left: Advertising agencies were quick to latch on to both the power of the jet and the mini-skirt in the 1960. It became common practice to put a stewardess in the air intake of a 707, as here with this Northwest girl. (both NWA)

doors­were­reopened­and­Doty­was­allowed­to­board. Flight­11­departed­at­8:35­p.m.­The­flight­was routine­until­just­before­the­Mississippi­River,­when it­deviated­from­its­filed­flight­plan­to­the­north­to avoid­ a­ line­ of­ thunderstorms.­ In­ the­ vicinity­ of Centerville,­ Iowa,­ the­ radar­ image­ of­ the­ aircraft disappeared­from­the­scope­of­the­Waverly,­Iowa, Flight­Following­Service.­At­approximately­9:17­p.m. an­ explosion­ occurred­ in­ the­ right­ rear­ lavatory, resulting­in­separation­of­the­tail­section­from­the fuselage.­ The­ flight­ crew­ initiated­ the­ required emergency­ descent­ procedures­ and­ donned­ their smoke­masks­due­to­the­dense­fog­which­formed­in the­cabin­immediately­after­the­decompression.­At separation­of­the­tail,­the­remaining­aircraft­structure pitched­nose­down­violently,­causing­the­engines­to tear­off,­after­which­it­fell­in­uncontrolled­gyrations. The­fuselage­of­the­Boeing­707,­minus­the­aft­38­feet, and­with­part­of­the­left­and­most­of­the­right­wing intact,­struck­the­ground,­headed­westerly­down­a­10degree­slope­of­an­alfalfa­field.

Witnesses­in­and­around­both­Cincinnati,­Iowa and­Unionville­reported­hearing­loud­and­unusual noises­at­around­9:20­p.m.,­and­some­saw­a­big­flash or­ball­of­fire­in­the­sky.­A­B-47­Stratojet­bomber flying­ out­ of­ Forbes­ Air­ Force­ Base­ in­ Topeka, Kansas,­was­flying­at­the­altitude­of­26,500­feet­in the­ vicinity­ of­ Kirksville,­ Missouri.­ The­ aircraft commander­saw­a­bright­flash­in­the­sky­forward­of and­above­his­aircraft's­position.­After­referring­to­his navigation­ logs­ he­ estimated­ the­ flash­ to­ have occurred­at­9:22­p.m.­near­the­location­where­the­last radar­target­of­Flight­11­had­been­seen.­Most­of­the fuselage­was­found­near­Unionville,­but­the­engines and­parts­of­the­tail­section­and­left­wing­were­found up­to­six­miles­away­from­the­main­wreckage. Of­the­forty-five­on­board,­forty-four­were­dead when­rescuers­reached­the­crash­site.­One­passenger, 27-year-old­Takehiko­Nakano­of­Evanston,­Illinois, was­alive­when­rescuers­found­him­in­the­wreckage, but­he­died­of­internal­injuries­at­Saint­Joseph­Mercy Hospital­in­Centerville,­Iowa,­an­hour­and­a­half­after being­rescued. FBI­agents­discovered­that­Doty,­a­married­man with­a­five-year-old­daughter,­had­purchased­a­life insurance­ policy­ from­ Mutual­ of­ Omaha­ for $150,000,­the­maximum­available;­his­death­would also­bring­in­another­$150,000­in­additional­insurance (some­purchased­at­the­airport)­and­death­benefits. Doty­had­recently­been­arrested­for­armed­robbery

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and­was­to­soon­face­a­preliminary­hearing­in­the matter.­ Investigators­ determined­ that­ Doty­ had purchased­six­sticks­of­dynamite­for­29­cents­each, shortly­before­the­crash,­and­were­able­to­deduce­that a­bomb­had­been­placed­in­the­used­towel­bin­of­the right­rear­lavatory.­Doty­went­into­the­lavatory­with his­briefcase­and­blew­himself­up,­killing­himself­and everyone­on­board.­His­motive­was­so­that­his­wife and­ daughter­ would­ be­ able­ to­ collect­ on­ the $300,000­of­life­insurance.­His­widow­attempted­to do­so,­but­when­Doty's­death­was­ruled­a­suicide,­the policy­was­voided­and­the­widow­was­only­able­to get­a­three­dollar­refund. This­ was­ followed­ Air­ France­ Flight­ 007,­ a charter­flight­operated­by­F-BHSM,­carrying­the­elite of­Atlanta,­Georgia's­arts­community,­crashed­on­3 June­1962­while­attempting­to­depart­Paris's­Orly Airport.­The­707­carried­122­passengers­and­10­crew and­only­two­survived.­The­crash­was­at­the­time­the worst­single-aircraft­disaster,­the­first­single­civilian jet­airliner­disaster­with­more­than­100­deaths. According­to­witnesses,­during­the­takeoff­roll­on runway­8,­the­nose­of­Flight­007­lifted­off­the­runway, but­the­main­landing­gear­remained­on­the­ground. Even­though­the­aircraft­had­already­exceeded­the maximum­speed­at­which­the­takeoff­could­be­safely aborted­ within­ the­ remaining­ runway­ length,­ the flight­ crew­ had­ no­ other­ choice­ and­ attempted­ to abort­the­take­off. Stewardess recruitment, as advertised by Pan American.

N709PA in Boeing house colours before it was delivered to Pan American, only to crash on 8 December 1963 at Philadelpha, PA. (author’s collection)

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With­less­than­3,000­feet­of­runway­remaining, the­pilots­used­wheel­brakes­and­reverse­thrust­to attempt­to­stop­the­707.­They­braked­so­hard­they destroyed­the­main­landing­gear­tyres­and­wheels,­but the­aircraft­ran­off­the­end­of­the­runway.­The­left undercarriage­failed­and­a­fire­broke­out.­Three­flight attendants­ initially­ survived­ the­ disaster.­ Two attendants­seated­in­the­back­of­the­cabin­survived, but­the­third­died­in­the­hospital. Later­investigation­found­that­a­motor­driving­the elevator­trim­had­failed,­leaving­pilot­Captain­Roland Hoche­and­First­Officer­Jacques­Pitoiset­unable­to

The frenetic glamour of the swinging sixties is probably best captured by The Beatles arrival in New York in 1964. Seen here with their manager Brian Epstein on the left are John Lennon, Paul McCartney, Ringo Starr and George Harrison in front of Pan Am’s 707 N704PA. The smell of the kerosene and the roar of the jets created a glamour and ambience that surrounded air travel - and nowhere was it more noticable than with the stews - and Pan American Airways certainly played that card to perfection! This is one of their ‘graduation ceremonies’. (both author’s collection)

complete­rotation­and­liftoff. The­reasons­for­the­charter­flight­was­that­the Atlanta­Art­Association­had­sponsored­a­month-long tour­of­the­art­treasures­of­Europe­and­106­of­the passengers­were­art­patrons­heading­home­to­Atlanta. The­tour­group­included­many­of­Atlanta's­cultural and­civic­leaders.­Atlanta­mayor­Ivan­Allen­Jr.­went to­ Orly­ to­ inspect­ the­ crash­ site­ where­ so­ many Atlantans­perished. During­their­visit­to­Paris,­the­Atlanta­arts­patrons had­seen­Whistler's­Mother­at­the­Louvre.­­In­late 1962,­the­Louvre,­as­a­gesture­of­good­will­to­the

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people­of­Atlanta,­sent­Whistler's­Mother­to­Atlanta to­be­exhibited­at­the­Atlanta­Art­Association­museum on­Peachtree­Street. The­ crash­ occurred­ during­ the­ civil­ rights movement­in­the­United­States.­Civil­rights­leader Martin­Luther­King,­Jr.­and­entertainer­and­activist Harry­Belafonte­announced­cancellation­of­a­sit-in­in downtown­Atlanta­-­planned­as­a­protest­of­the­city's racial­segregation­-­as­a­conciliatory­gesture­to­the grieving­ city.­ However,­ Nation­ of­ Islam­ leader Malcolm­X,­speaking­in­Los­Angeles,­expressed­joy over­the­deaths­of­the­all-white­group­from­Atlanta, saying­‘...I would like to announce a very beautiful thing that has happened...I got a wire from God today...well, all right, somebody came and told me that he really had answered our prayers over in France. He dropped an airplane out of the sky with over 120 white people on it because the Muslims believe in an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth. But thanks to God, or Jehovah, or Allah, we will continue to pray, and we hope that every day another plane falls out of the sky.’ These­ remarks­ led­ Los­ Angeles­ Mayor­ Sam Yorty­to­denounce­him­as­a­‘fiend’­and­Dr.­King­to voice­disagreement­with­his­statement.­Malcolm­X later­remarked­that­‘...The Messenger should have done more.’ This­ incident­ was­ the­ first­ in­ which

Air India introduced the 707 on Bombay New York service on 14 May 1960, as shown here by VT-DJI. They marked the occasion with a First flight cover depicting the Maharaja of Air India giving a hookah to fellow Maharaja. The route and date of inaugural flight is printed in the top strip . (via Air India)

Malcolm­X­gained­widespread­national­attention.­He later­ explained­ what­ he­ meant:­ ‘When that plane crashed in France with a 130 white people on it and we learned that 120 of them were from the state of Georgia, the state where my own grandfather was a slave in, well to me it couldn't have been anything but an act of God, a blessing from God’. Nineteen­days­later­Air­France­707-328­F-BHST crashed­into­a­mountain­on­descent­into­Guadeloupe killing­112.­Operating­as­Air­France­Flight­117,­this was­a­multi-leg­international­scheduled­flight­from Paris-Orly­ Airport­ via­ Lisbon,­ the­ Azores, Guadeloupe­and­Peru­to­Santiago,­Chile­on­22­June. The­aircraft­was­just­four­months­old. The­flight­had­been­uneventful­until­approaching Pointe-à-Pitre.­ The­ airport­ is­ surrounded­ by mountains­and­required­a­steep­descent.­The­weather was­ poor­ –­ violent­ thunderstorms­ and­ low­ cloud ceiling.­The­VOR­navigational­beacon­was­out­of service.­The­crew­reported­themselves­over­the­nondirectional­beacon­(NDB)­at­5,000­feet­and­turned east­to­begin­the­final­approach.­Due­to­incorrect automatic­direction­finder­(ADF)­readings­caused­by the­ thunderstorm,­ the­ aircraft­ strayed­ fifteen kilometres­west­from­the­procedural­let-down­track.

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The­plane­crashed­in­a­forest­on­a­hill­called­Dos D'Ane­(­The­Donkey's­Back),­at­about­1,400­feet­and exploded.­There­were­no­survivors.­Among­the­dead was­French­Guianan­politician­and­war­hero­Justin Catayée­and­poet­and­black-consciousness­activist Paul­Niger. The­investigation­could­not­determine­the­exact reason­for­the­accident,­but­suspected­the­insufficient meteorological­information­given­to­the­crew,­failure of­the­ground­equipment,­and­the­atmospheric­effects on­ the­ADF­ indicator.­After­ the­ crash­Air­ France pilots­ criticized­ under-developed­ airports­ with facilities­that­were­ill-equipped­to­handle­jet­aircraft, such­as­Guadeloupe's­airport.­ Towards­the­end­of­1962,­VARIG­lost­707-441 PP-VJB.­ Flight­ RG810­ departed­ Rio­ de­ JaneiroGaleão­at­03:53­hours­UTC­on­a­scheduled­flight­to Los­Angeles­ with­ en­ route­ stops­ at­ Lima,­ Peru­ , Bogotá,­ Colombia,­ Panama­ City,­ Panama­ and Mexico­City,­Mexico. At­08:09­the­flight­reported­to­Air­Traffic­Control, Lima,­at­36,000­feet,­estimating­Pisco­at­08:13­and Lima-Callao­ Airport­ at­ 08:36­ and­ requested permission­to­descend.­Lima­ATC­advised­of­a­DC6,­which­had­departed­Lima­at­07:35­and­was­also estimating­Pisco­at­08:13,­when­it­would­be­cruising at­13,500­feet.­After­passing­Pisco­at­08:13,­the­crew started­their­descent.­At­08:19­hours­RG-810­reached 26,000­feet.­Authorisation­was­granted­to­continue descending­for­a­straight-in­approach­to­runway­33. At­08:24­it­reported­to­Approach­Control­ten­minutes One airport that became synonimous with the 707 and Pan Am was Idlewild, also known at New York International. The terminal this Pan Am 707 is in front of was built in 1958 for the arrival of the jets. (DGR Photo Library)

from­the­station,­at­15,000­feet,­still­in­descent.­By 08:30­ hours­ it­ had­ reached­ 12,000­ feet­ over­ Las Palmas.­As­it­was­too­high­for­a­straight-in­approach to­runway­33,­Approach­Control­suggested­that­it make­a­360-degree­turn­over­Las­Palmas­and­report again­overhead­Las­Palmas.­The­aircraft­continued descending.­It­turned­slightly­right­of­its­330­degree heading,­passing­east­of­Lima­Airport,­then­made­a left­ turn­ and­ passed­ over­ Lima-Callao­Airport.­ It continued­turning­until­it­was­headed­south,­passing west­of­Las­Palmas­in­order­to­initiate­the­outbound procedure­from­the­ILS­back­course,­and­then­made a­180­degree­turn­to­intercept­the­ILS­back­course­of 327­degrees.­However,­it­kept­to­the­normal­intercept course­for­almost­three­minutes­before­starting­its turn­to­the­north.­Its­heading­was­333­degrees­when it­hit­La­Cruz­Peak,­about­eight­miles­east­of­the approach­track­of­the­Morro­Solar­ILS­back­course. The­ probable­ cause­ was­ recorded­ as:­ ‘...A deviation, for reasons unknown, from the track prescribed for the instrument approach along the ILS back course of Lima-Callao Airport’. Not­ surprisingly,­ these­ accidents­ gave­ the insurance­companies­concern­but­the­major­airlines soon­realised­the­premiums­being­requested­were excessive­for­the­risks­involved­and­began­to­carry the­hull­risk­themselves. 1962­may­have­been­a­bad­year­for­accidents, but­the­jet­passenger­fatality­per­100,000­miles­and per­1,000,000­passenger­miles­continued­to­drop below­ the­ piston­ engined­ era­ -­ the­ increased

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D-ABOB, a 707-430 of the German airline Lufthansa. Lufthansa operated a huge maintenance facility for both the 707 and 720. (both Lufthansa)

number­of­fatalities­per­incident­tended­to­distort the­figures.­1963­was­marginally­better­for­Boeing with­ only­ two­ losses,­ the­ first­ one­ involving Northwest­ 720-051B­ N724US,­ which­ crashed shortly­after­take-off­from­Miami. Northwest­Flight­705­was­a­scheduled­passenger flight­operated­on­12­February­1963­which­broke­up in­midair­and­crashed­into­the­Everglades­shortly after­take-off­from­Miami­International­Airport­in­a severe­thunderstorm.­The­aircraft­was­destined­to Portland,­Oregon,­via­Chicago,­Spokane­and­Seattle. Prior­ to­ leaving­ Miami,­ the­ flight­ crew questioned­ the­ ground­ controller­ at­ the­ airport about­ the­ departure­ routes­ being­ used,­ and­ he replied­that­most­flights­were­departing­‘...either through a southwest climb or a southeast climb and then back over the top of it.’ After­the­jet­lifted­off­from­runway­27L,­flown by­Captain­Roy­Almquist,­it­made­a­left­turn­based on­radar­vectors­from­Miami­Departure­Control,­to avoid­areas­of­anticipated­turbulence­associated­with thunderstorm­activity.­Another­flight­had­followed the­same­guidance­shortly­before­the­jet­took­off. While­maintaining­5,000­feet­and­a­heading­of 300­degrees,­Flight­705­contacted­controllers­and requested­ clearance­ to­ climb­ to­ a­ higher­ altitude. After­a­discussion­between­the­flight­and­the­radar departure­ controller­ about­ the­ storm­ activity,­ and while­clearance­to­climb­was­being­coordinated­with

the­Miami­Air­Route­Traffic­Control­Center,­the­flight advised ‘Ah-h we're in the clear now. We can see it out ahead ... looks pretty bad.’ At­13:43,­Flight­705­was­cleared­to­climb­to­flight level­250.­They­responded, ‘...OK ahhh, we'll make a left turn about thirty degrees here and climb...’ The controller­asked­if­270­degrees­was­their­selected climbout­heading,­and­they­replied­that­this­would take­them­‘... out in the open again...’ Controllers accordingly­ granted­ the­ jet­ clearance.­ Following some­discussion­about­the­severity­of­the­turbulence, which­was­described­as­moderate­to­heavy,­the­flight advised, ‘OK, you better run the rest of them off the other way then.’ At­13:45,­control­of­Flight­705­was­transferred­to Miami­Air­Route­Traffic­Control­Center.­There­were communication­difficulties,­although­after­the­jet­was

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provided­with­a­different­frequency,­the­flight­crew established­ contact­ with­ Miami­ARTCC.­ Several minutes­after­contact,­the­airliner’s­altitude­began increasing­with­a­rate­of­climb­gradually­increasing to­approximately­9,000­feet­per­minute.­Following this­rapid­ascent­the­rate­of­climb­decreased­through zero­when­the­altitude­peaked­momentarily­at­just above­19,000­feet.­During­this­time­the­jet's­airspeed decreased­from­270­to­215­knots­and­as­the­peak altitude­was­approached,­the­vertical­accelerations changed­rapidly­from­+1G­to­about­-2G. In­ the­ next­ seven­ seconds,­ as­ the­ negative acceleration­continued­to­increase­at­a­slower­rate, with­several­fluctuations,­to­a­mean­value­of­about­2.8G,­the­jet­began­diving­towards­the­ground­with increasing­rapidity.­As­the­descent­continued­with rapidly­ increasing­ airspeed,­ the­ acceleration­ trace went­from­the­high­negative­peak­to­1.5G,­where­it reversed­again. Below­10,000­feet­the­forward­fuselage­broke­up due­to­the­forces­of­the­dive.­The­main­failures­in­both wings­and­horizontal­stabilizers­were­in­a­downward BOAC produced a myriad of promotional material for the 707 for both public and travel industry alike. G-APFE, which when operating as Speedbird 911 crashed onto the slopes of Mount Fuji in Japan on 5 March 1966. (author’s collection)

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On taking delivery of their first 707, BOAC made much of the event, sending out a lavish brochure to travel agents. ‘Jet Powered by Rolls-Royce. The BOAC Rolls-Royce 707, biggest and fastest of the world’s jetliners, is something special. It is powered by RollsRoyce Conway jet engines. Four of these great by-pass turbo-jets drive the 707 through the sky. And what a performance they give! They sweep you along at ten miles a minute, anything from five to eight miles up and that’s high above any tricks the Atlantic weather may play! At take-off, they develop a total thrust of 70,000 pounds. With these superb engines and a fuel capacity of over 19,000 Imperial gallons, BOAC’s RollsRoyce 707 has a range, with full payload, of more than 4,500 miles - over a thousand miles farther than London-New York! Thrust reversers, one installed in the tail pipe of each engine, provide something like 50 per cent thrust in the reverse direction - massive extra braking power from the Rolls-Royce engines when landing! Each engine also has a sound suppressor, so there’s no jet roar to disturb you as you speed on your way. Flying in the Rolls-Royce 707 is supremely quiet and vibrationless!

Right: Handing over at Seattle. In front of the first BOAC 707 are, from left to right, Bill Carlyon and Tom Spalding (Boeing); Ivor Lusty (BOAC resident representative); Serge Gorney (Boeing); Charles Abell (BOAC chief engineer); J L Uncles (707 project engineer); Capt. H. J ‘Dexter’ Field (BOAC chief technical pilot); and Tom Gillan (BOAC inspector). (all DGR Photo Library)

direction,­and­virtually­symmetrical.­The­forward fuselage­ broke­ upward­ and­ the­ vertical­ stabilizer failed­to­the­left.­All­four­engines­generally­separated before­the­debris­of­the­aircraft­fell­in­unpopulated area­of­the­Everglades­National­Park,­thirty-seven miles­west-southwest­of­Miami­International­Airport. The­report­on­the­crash­determined­the­cause­was

the­unfavourable­interaction­of­severe­vertical­air drafts­and­large­longitudinal­control­displacements, resulting­ in­ a­ longitudinal­ upset­ from­ which­ a successful­recovery­was­not­made. The­ second­ accident­ in­ 1963­ occurred­ on­ 8 December­when­Pan­American's­707-121B­N709PA crashed­ on­ fire­ at­ Elkton,­ MD­ while­ awaiting

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permission­to­land­at­Philadelphia,­PA.­At­4:10­p.m. Eastern­Standard­Time­(EST),­the­airliner,­named Clipper Tradewind, serving­the­flight­crashed­while en­route­from­Baltimore­to­Philadelphia,­after­being hit­by­lightning,­killing­all­eighty-one­on­board.­ The­flight­crew,­Captain­George­F­Knuth,­aged 45,­ First­ Officer­ John­ R­ Dale,­ aged­ 48,­ Second Officer­Paul­L­Orringer,­aged­42­and­Flight­Engineer John­R­Kantlehner,­operating­as­Pan­Am­Flight­214 had­departed­Isla­Verde­International­Airport­in­San Juan,­Puerto­Rico,­landed­as­scheduled­at­Baltimore's Friendship­ Airport.­ where­ sixty-nine­ passengers disembarked. At­8:24­p.m.,­Flight­214­departed­for­Philadelphia with­ seventy-three­ passengers­ and­ eight­ crew members­on­board.­Because­of­high­winds­in­the area,­the­crew­chose­to­wait­in­a­holding­pattern­with five­ other­ airliners,­ rather­ than­ attempt­ to­ land­ in Philadelphia. The­flight­reported­over­the­New­Castle­Delaware VOR­at­2042­and­was­instructed­to­hold­at­5000­feet, west­of­the­VOR.­At­2058­a­‘MayDay’­transmission was­heard­from­the­flight.­Shortly­thereafter,­the­pilot of­another­aircraft­radioed­that­‘Clipper­214­is­going down­in­flames’.­ Analysis­ of­ the­ debris­ showed­ evidence­ of­ a lightning­strike­to­the­left­wing,­specifically­at­the­No. 1­reserve­fuel­tank,­and­evidence­of­a­strike­near connection­points­for­the­HF­antenna.­Samples­of fuels­ were­ taken­ from­ San­ Juan,­ Puerto­ Rico, Idlewild,­New­York,­and­Baltimore,­Maryland.­The mixture­of­Types­‘A’­and­‘B’­fuels­was­studied,­and not­ found­ to­ be­ a­ significant­ contributing­ factor. Testing­of­the­aircraft's­fuel­tanks­and­supporting structures­showed­evidence­of­‘magnetic­anomilies’ which­would­be­consistent­with­the­lightning­strike theory.­Of­the­140­ground­witnesses­interviewed,­99 reported­sighting­an­aircraft­or­flaming­object­in­the sky.­Seventy-two­said­they­saw­lightning,­and­seven stated­that­they­saw­lightning­strike­the­aircraft.­Three other­persons­reported­seeing­a­ball­of­fire­appear­at the­fork-end­of­the­lightning­stroke.­

Numbering system and more orders. Since­both­of­the­offspring­of­the­Dash­80­would­be jet­transports,­the­established­Boeing­model­number system­called­for­a­number­in­the­700s­to­identify­the two­ new­ aircraft.­ Boeing’s­ marketing­ department decided­that­‘Model­700’­did­not­have­a­good­ring­to it­for­the­company's­first­commercial­jet.­So­they decided­to­skip­ahead­to­Model­707­because­that reiteration­ seemed­ a­ bit­ catchier.­ Following­ that pattern,­the­other­offspring­of­the­Dash­80,­the­Air Force­tanker,­was­given­the­model­number­717­as

well­as­the­Air­Force­designation­of­C/KC-135. After­ 717­ was­ assigned­ to­ the­ KC-135,­ the marketing­ department­ made­ the­ decision­ that­ all remaining­model­numbers­that­began­and­or­ended in­7­would­be­reserved­exclusively­for­commercial jets.­ Just­ to­ complicate­ things­ however,­ after­ the Boeing-McDonnell­ Douglas­ merger­ in­ the­ late 1990s,­the­model­number­717­was­reused­to­identify the­ MD-95­ as­ part­ of­ the­ Boeing­ commercial­ jet family. Other­than­the­717,­the­only­other­anomaly­to­the Boeing­commercial­jet­numbering­system­was­the Boeing­model­720.­The­720­was­a­short-range,­highperformance­ version­ of­ the­ 707­ and­ was­ first marketed­to­the­airlines­as­the­model­707-020.­United Airlines­was­very­interested­in­the­707-020­but­had previously­decided­to­go­with­Douglas­and­the­DC8.­To­help­United­avoid­any­negative­public­relations for­going­back­to­the­707,­Boeing­changed­the­name of­the­707-020­to­the­720.­ This,­however,­was­only­the­prefix­part­of­the equation.­ Boeing­ introduced­ a­ further­ numbering system­ to­ enable­ any­ airline­ ordering­ original equipment­ to­ be­ identified­ by­ the­ sub-type designation.­ Since­ Pan­ American­ were­ the­ first customer­for­the­707-120­(as­Boeing­called­the­base model),­their­aircraft­were­designated­707-121­and subsequent­orders­for­later­versions­were­707-321,­321B­and­-­321C­(other­Boeing­types­ordered­by­Pan American­were­727-121,­-221­and­747-121­etc.­thus keeping­the­sub-type­consistent).­ The­numbers­between­21­and­99­were­used­first, including­some­allocated­to­airlines­who­did­not­order 707s,­or­some­airlines­who­never­ordered­Boeing aircraft,­ then­ the­ numbers­ 01­ to­ 19­ were­ used followed­by­an­alphanumeric­system­starting­A0­to A9­then­B0­to­B9­etc.­This­has­been­followed­by­a numero-alpha­system­starting­1A­to­9A­then­1B­to 9B­etc. Just­to­complicate­things­even­further,­Boeing may­have­considered­the­base­model­as­the­-120,­220­etc.­but­the­FAA,­who­issued­the­initial­type certificates,­list­the­base­models­as­-100,­-200­etc! On­23­January­1960­SABENA­operated­their­first 707­ service­ between­ Brussels­ and­ New­ York, followed­ a­ few­ days­ later­ by­ Air­ France­ who inaugurated­707­services­on­the­North­Atlantic­on­2 February,­followed­by­the­central­Atlantic­routes­on 20­June­and­those­to­South­America­on­16­August.­ The­German­airline­Lufthansa­began­707-430 services­between­Hamburg,­Frankfurt­and­New­York on­ 17­ March,­ so­ placing­ the­ first­ Rolls-Royce powered­707s­in­service,­followed­shortly­by­Air India,­who­started­Bombay-London­services­on­19

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EL AL selected Rolls-Royce engines for its first three 707s. This particular aircraft (4X-ATA) served for 23 years, carrying over two million passengers more than 58 million km (36 million mi), equivalent to circling the world 1,450 times. On 7 May 1961 EL AL took delivery of its first 707 (registered 4X-ATA) in a ceremony at Boeing Field, complete with blessing by rabbis and 250 attendees. Captains Sam Feldman and Zvi Tohar commanded the delivery flight to Israel. EL AL launched an extensive advertising campaign to promote its new pure-jet 707 service. This late 1960 image appeared in advertisements and also as a postcard issued by its New York office. (both EL AL)

April­with­an­extension­to­New­York­commencing on­14­May­1960.­ No­sooner­had­Pan­American­received­its­first 321B­than­it­sparked­the­next­development,­which was­the­707-320C­when­they­announced­an­order for­ two­ aircraft­ in­ April­ 1962.­ The­ -320C­ was basically­a­-320B­with­a­large­forward­cargo­door, strengthened­floor­and­undercarriage,­while­the payload­was­increased­to­90,000­pounds­-­with passengers­the­payload­of­the­-320B­was­space limited­to­about­50,000­pounds.­This­meant­the­320C­could­carry­a­full­payload­coast­to­coast­in the­US­or­thirty-five­tons­across­the­Atlantic­as­the cargo­could­be­loaded­floor­to­ceiling­and­wall­to wall­ (a­ cargo­ retaining­ barrier­ net,­ capable­ of withstanding­ 9G­ protected­ the­ cockpit).­ The original­-320Cs­were­built­as­convertible­aircraft, the­length­of­time­to­convert­from­passenger­to cargo­depending­on­the­airline­and­the­amount­of passenger­equipment­they­left­in­the­aircraft­when in­ the­ cargo­ mode.­ Later,­ in­ October­ 1962, American­ ordered­ four­ non-convertible­ -320Cs with­the­windows­blanked­out.­The­-320C­wing also­had­three­(rather­than­two)­leading­edge­flaps which­made­the­ventral­underfin­optional­-­when these­modifications­were­fitted­to­the­-320Bs­they were­described­as­‘advanced’­or­-320BAs. Since­the­increased­capacity­outstripped­traffic

growth,­Boeing­only­received­twenty-five­orders­in 1962,­but­one­important­order­was­placed­by­World Airways,­who­ordered­two­707-320Cs,­the­first­time a­charter­operator­had­ordered­new­jets.­Previously, the­charter­operators­were­the­customers­when­the trunk­operators­sold­their­front­line­equipment. British­Overseas­Airway­Corporation­-­BOAC­had­expected­to­be­the­first­airline­to­put­the­-420­into service­but­were­delayed­in­introducing­the­type­due to­ UK­ Airworthiness­ Registration­ Board modifications.­ They­ started­ London­ -­ New­ York services­ on­ 6­ June­ 1960­ when­ their­ 707-436s replaced­Comet­4s,­followed­by­services­to­Montreal

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and­Toronto­on­18­August­1960.­ Such­was­the­growing­popularity­of­these­early jetliners­-­and­the­growing­success­of­the­airlines publicity­machines­-­it­was­not­long­before­a­new phenomenon­started­to­appear;­that­of­overbooking. In­the­days­before­highly­technological­computer reservations­systems­that­are­able­to­reserve­seats months­ in­ advance­ with­ a­ very­ high­ degree­ of accuracy,­and­could­also­predict­passenger­and­freight requirements­ to­ the­ same­ scale­ of­ accuracy­ and timescale,­‘res­systems’­were­either­manual­or­cardindex­ based.­ This­ could­ lead­ to­ accidental­ or deliberate­over-booking­to­ensure­full­loads­to­take into­account­passenger­no-shows. One­such­event­recorded­by­history­relates­to­­one Pan­American­707­-­it­is­also­from­the­days­that­predate­‘political­correctness’. Having­ originated­ in­ Buenos­Aires­ and­ made several­intermediate­stops­on­its­‘milk­run’­back­to the­United­States,­the­aircraft­arrived­nearly­full­at Panama’s­ Aeropuerto­ International­ de­ Tocumen. Most­passengers­were­continuing­on­to­Miami­and New­York,­but­a­few­deplaned,­while­many­more expected.­to­board­for­the­next­legs­to­the­States. Surprise,­surprise,­the­flight­was­overbooked!­The Pan­Am­ staff­ at­ Tocumen­ were­ well­ used­ to­ this situation­at­their­station,­and­so­went­through­the usual­ routine­ of­ offering­ free­ booking,­ hotel accommodation,­ and­ meals­ to­ those­ passengers prepared­ to­ await­ later­ flights.­ There­ were­ no volunteers.­ It­ was­ time­ for­ the­ next­ step­ in­ the prescribed­ overbooking­ procedure:­ offering monetary­compensation­in­addition­to­later­booking, room,­ and­ board.­ There­ were­ still­ no­ takers.­ The Tocumen­ staff­ were­ at­ a­ loss­ when­ the­ Pan­ Am captain­entered­into­the­fray. Unperturbed­ by­ the­ overbooking,­ he­ ordered boarding­to­commence­while,­with­the­help­of­his copilot­ and­ flight­ engineer,­ he­ went­ through­ the standard­ cockpit­ checklist.­ Midway­ through­ the boarding,­ the­ captain­ announced­ that­ there­ was­ a minor­technical­problem­and­that­passengers­were­to return­to­the­departure­lounge­while­an­engineering solution­ was­ devised.­ Of­ course,­ complimentary refreshments­were­made­available­to­help­passengers take­the­delay­in­their­stride. Having­noticed­that­among­the­passengers­there a­group­of­young­men­on­home­leave­after­working in­Veneezuelan­oil­fields,­the­captain­surreptitiously passed­on­instructions­to­his­senior­stew.­In­the­early years­ of­ jetliner­ operations­ the­ politically­ correct ‘flight­attendants’­had­yet­to­replace­‘stews’­when referring­to­stewardesses­and­stewards.­The­captain wanted­the­younger­and­more­attractive­stews­were

to­devote­particular­attention­to­the­young­oilmen and­to­make­sure­that­these­unsuspecting­‘machos’ would­have­unimpeded­access­to­the­free­bar. In­ the­ next­ hour,­ the­ ‘technical­ problem’­ was fixed­ and­ boarding­ was­ resumed.­ This­ time­ the devious­captain­let­his­copilot­and­flight­engineer handle­the­checklist­procedure­so­that­he­could­stand at­the­gate­next­to­the­boarding­agents.­When­the unsuspecting­ young­ men,­ feeling­ good­ because alcohol­made­them­believe­that­they­had­‘scored’ with­the­attractive­stewardesses,­arrived­at­the­gate, the­captain­was­ready­for­them.­Dutifully­invoking the­almighty­FARs­(Federal­Aviation­Regulations), he­ ordered­ the­ inebriated­ young­ men­ be­ denied boarding.­Miraculously,­there­were­now­enough­seats for­all­the­other­passengers­and­the­flight­departed without­further­delay.­Archetypal­the­story­may­be, but­problems­were­easier­to­solve­in­the­days­before political­correctness­was­invented! The 707 in popular culture It­ is­ impossible­ to­ write­ about­ the­ Boeing­ 707 without­touching­on­the­glory­and­glamour­of­a time­when,­as­one­wag­put­it­‘sex­was­safe­and flying­was­dangerous’!­Although­there­are­many aspects­of­707­­coverage­in­the­mainstream­media -­ usually­ with­ this­ or­ that­ celebrity­ being photographed­boarding,­deplaning­or­sitting­in­a terminal­somewhere­about­to­board­a­707,­there are­ four­ aspects­ -­ one­ very­ real­ and­ tragic,­ two blockbuster­best-sellers­-­one­of­which­was­made

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into­a­major­feature­film­-­and­one­current­stage act­that­covers­all­aspects­of­social­media­that­has allowed­the­airliner­to­enter­popular­culture. The­first­was­the­very­real­and­very­tragic­events of­22­November­1963­in­Dallas,­Texas.­After­landing at­Love­Field­Dallas,­President­John­F­Kennedy­and First­Lady­Jackie­Kennedy­stood­in­front­of­a­shiny 707­ for­ a­ series­ of­ live­ broadcasts­ that­ went nationwide­of­the­Kennedys­greeting­well-wishers. The­aircraft­-­full­details­of­which­is­found­elsewhere -­ was­ the­ first­ of­ two­ Boeing­ VC-137C­ aircraft specifically­configured­and­maintained­for­use­by­the President­of­the­United­States.­It­was­given­the­US Air­ Force­ serial­ number­ 62-6000.­ ­ and­ given­ the unique­call-sign­­‘SAM­Two-Six-Thousand’,­­‘SAM’ standing­for­Special­Air­Mission’ The­aircraft­was­built­at­Boeing's­Renton­plant at­a­cost­of­$8­million.­Raymond­Loewy,­working with­First­Lady­Jacqueline­Kennedy,­designed­the The most famous photo ever taken aboard a presidential aircraft was taken aboard VC-137C 62-6000. Hours after the assassination of John F. Kennedy on 22 November 1963, Lyndon Johnson, with Jackie Kennedy by his side, is sworn in just before take off for Washington.

Below: VC-137C 62-6000 arrives at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright Field, Dayton Ohio in May 1988.

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blue­ and­ white­ colour­ scheme­ featuring­ the presidential­ seal­ that­ is­ still­ used­ today­ on Presidential­aircraft. Later­ that­ day­ in­ Dallas,­ after­ Kennedy's assassination­made­Vice­President­Lyndon­Johnson the­new­president,­images­were­flashed­around­the world­ of­ the­ VC-137C­ carrying­ the­ Johnsons, Jacqueline­Kennedy,­and­John­Kennedy's­body­back to­ Washington.­ To­ accommodate­ the­ casket,­ four seats­and­part­of­a­bulkhead­was­removed­from­the passenger­compartment;­Johnson­took­the­Oath­of Office­aboard­SAM­26000­before­takeoff. Airport was­a­bestselling­novel­by­Arthur­Hailey about­ a­ large­ metropolitan­ airport­ and­ the personalities­of­the­people­who­use,­rely­and­suffer from­its­operation.­It­was­adapted­to­make­a­major motion­picture­and­inspired­three­sequel­movies.­It originated­the­1970s­disaster­film­genre. The­story­takes­place­at­Lincoln­International,­a

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A photograph that is something of a puzzle - it was probably taken in a studio mockup of the cabin of the 707 used in the movie ‘Airport’. It is suspected that some absent cast members were represented by ‘cardboard cutouts’ in those pre-Photoshop days! 1: Vern Demerest (Dean Martin) Captain, Trans Global Airlines. 2: Gwen Meighen (Jacqueline Bisset) Senior Flight Attendant and love interest of Captain Demerest 3: Tanya Livingston (Jean Seberg) Trans Global Airlines PRO and love interest of Mel Bakersfeld. 4: Mel Bakersfeld (Burt Lancaster) General Manager, Lincoln International Airport. 5: Harry Standish (Lloyd Nolan) Chief Customs Agent 6: Inez Guerrero (Maureen Stapleton) wife of bomber. 7: Ada Quonsett (Helen Hayes) stowaway passenger. 8: D O Guerrero (Van Heflin) suicide bomber. 9: Cindy Bakersfeld (Dana Wynter) wife of Airport Manager. 10: Anson Harris (Barry Nelson) Captain, Trans Global Airlines being checked by Capt Demerest. 11: Sarah Demerest (Barbara Hale) wife of Captain Demerest and sister of Mel Bakersfeld. 12: Joe Patroni (George Kennedy) trouble-shooter engineer on loan from TWA. 13: George Seaton, Director and Screenwriter. 14: Ross Hunter, Producer. (Photograph: unknown)

fictional­ Chicago­ airport­ based­ very­ loosely­ on O'Hare­International­Airport.­Chicago­is­paralyzed by­ a­ snowstorm­ affecting­ Lincoln­ International Airport.­A­Trans­Global­Airlines­(TGA)­Boeing­707 flight­crew­misjudge­their­turn­from­Runway­29­onto the­taxiway,­becoming­stuck­in­the­snow­and­closing the­ runway.­ Airport­ manager­ Mel­ Bakersfeld­ is forced­to­work­overtime,­causing­tension­with­his wife,­ Cindy.­ A­ divorce­ seems­ imminent­ as­ he nurtures­a­closer­relationship­with­a­co-worker,­TGA customer­relations­agent­Tanya­Livingston. Vernon­Demarest­is­a­TGA­captain­scheduled­to be­the­checkride­captain­for­TGA­to­evaluate­Captain Anson­Harris­during­TGA's­Flight­2­to­Rome.­Flight 2,­TGA's­flagship­service­named­The Golden Argosy,

is­ being­ operated­ by­ a­ Boeing­ 707.­ Although Demarest­is­married­to­Bakersfeld's­sister,­Sarah,­he is­secretly­having­an­affair­with­Gwen­Meighen,­chief stewardess­on­the­flight,­who­informs­him­before takeoff­that­she­is­pregnant­with­his­child. Bakersfeld­borrows­TWA­mechanic­Joe­Patroni to­ assist­ with­ TGA's­ disabled­ plane.­ Meanwhile Bakersfeld­and­Livingston­also­deal­with­Mrs.­Ada Quonsett,­an­elderly­lady­from­San­Diego­who­is­a habitual­stowaway. Demolition­expert­D­O­Guerrero,­down­on­his luck­and­with­a­history­of­mental­illness,­buys­life insurance­with­the­intent­of­committing­suicide­by blowing­up­The Golden Argosy. He­plans­to­set­off­a bomb­in­an­attaché­case­while­over­the­Atlantic­so

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that­his­wife,­Inez,­will­collect­the­insurance­money of­ $225,000.­ His­ erratic­ behavior­ at­ the­ airport, including­using­his­last­cash­to­buy­the­insurance policy­and­mistaking­a­Customs­officer­for­an­airline ramp­ agent,­ attracts­ airport­ officials’­ attention. Meanwhile­Guerrero's­wife­finds­a­Special­Delivery envelope­ from­ a­ travel­ agency­ and,­ realizing­ her husband­might­be­doing­something­desperate,­goes to­the­airport­to­try­to­dissuade­him.­She­informs airport­ officials­ that­ he­ had­ been­ fired­ from­ a construction­job­for­‘misplacing’­explosives­and­that the­family's­financial­situation­was­desperate. Mrs.­ Quonsett­ manages­ to­ evade­ the­ TGA employee­assigned­the­task­of­putting­her­on­a­flight back­to­San­Diego,­talks­her­way­past­the­gate­agent (passenger­ security­ screening­ did­ not­ yet­ exist), boards­Flight­2,­and­happens­to­sit­next­to­Guerrero. When­the­Golden­Argosy­crew­is­made­aware­of Guerrero's­presence­and­possible­intentions,­they­turn the­plane­back­toward­Chicago­without­informing­the passengers.­Once­Quonsett­is­discovered,­her­help­is enlisted­by­the­crew­to­get­to­Guerrero's­briefcase, but­ the­ ploy­ fails­ when­ a­ would-be­ helpful­ male passenger­unwittingly­returns­the­case­to­Guerrero. Captain­Demarest­goes­back­into­the­passenger cabin­and­tries­to­persuade­Guerrero­not­to­trigger­the bomb,­informing­him­that­his­insurance­policy­will be­ useless.­ Guerrero­ briefly­ considers­ giving Demarest­the­bomb,­but­just­then­another­passenger exits­the­lavatory­at­the­rear­of­the­aircraft,­and­the same­would-be­helpful­passenger­yells­out­that­he should­jump­Guerrero,­who­has­a­bomb.­Guerrero runs­into­the­lavatory,­locks­it,­and­sets­off­the­device. Guerrero­dies­instantly­and­is­sucked­out­through­the hole­blown­in­the­fuselage­by­the­explosion.­Gwen, just­outside­the­door,­is­injured­in­the­explosion­and subsequent­explosive­decompression,­but­the­pilots retain­control­of­the­aircraft. With­all­airports­east­of­Chicago­unusable­due­to bad­weather,­they­return­to­Lincoln­International­for an­emergency­landing.­Due­to­the­bomb­damage, Captain­ Demarest­ demands­ the­ airport's­ longest runway,­which­is­still­closed­due­to­the­stuck­airliner. Eventually­Bakersfeld­orders­the­aircraft­to­be­pushed off­ the­ runway­ by­ snowplows,­ despite­ the­ costly damage­they­would­do­to­it.­Patroni,­who­is­‘taxiqualified’­on­707s,­has­been­trying­to­move­the­stuck aircraft­in­time­for­Demarest's­damaged­aircraft­to land.­ By­ exceeding­ the­ 707's­ engine­ operating parameters,­ Patroni­ frees­ the­ stuck­ jet­ without damage,­allowing­the­runway­to­be­reopened­just­in time­for­the­crippled­Golden Argosy to­land. The­movie­used­just­one­707:­a­model­707-349, N324F,­leased­from­Flying­Tiger­Line.­It­sported­an

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El­Al­cheatline­over­its­bare­metal­finish,­with­the fictional­Trans­Global­Airlines­(TGA)­titles­and­tail. Typical­of­Hollywood,­there­are­some­memorable quotes,­two­of­which­come­from­Joe­Patroni­and relate­to­the­707.­On­being­informed­by­the­junior engineer­in­the­right­hand­seat­that­the­manual­said­it was­impossible­for­Patroni­to­have­driven­the­707­out of­the­snow­Patroni­replies­‘That's one nice thing about the 707. It can do everything but read’. And, tapping­the­belly­of­the­safely­landed­707­with­the box­ of­ cigars­ he­ had­ won­ in­ a­ bet­ with­ Mel Bakersfeld­‘Nice goin’ sweetheart’. With­the­advent­of­‘the­swingin­sixties’­there­was something­of­a­sea-change­in­how­those­working­in the­passenger­cabin­of­the­airliners­were­portrayed.­ In­ 1930,­ the­ first­ stewardesses­ in­America,­ or anywhere­else,­were­hired­by­Boeing­Air­Transport, a­ forerunner­ of­ United­ Airlines.­ At­ that­ time, passengers­ had­ to­ worry­ not­ only­ about­ frequent crashes­ but­ also­ about­ sudden­ drops­ of­ altitude, which,­in­unpressurized­aircraft,­could­rupture­one’s eardrums.­ That­ stewardesses­ were­ required­ to­ be registered­ nurses­ and­ were­ initially­ outfitted­ with white,­hospital-style­uniforms­was­intended­to­be comforting,­to­reassure­nervous­fliers­that­they­would not­spiral­into­a­cornfield­on­the­way­to­Grandma’s or­the­anvil­salesmen’s­convention;­though­it­is­quite possible­ to­ imagine­ the­ medical­ motif­ having­ the opposite­effect.­ In­terms­of­her­more­concrete­functions,­an­air hostess’s­duties­in­the­early­30s­might­have­included such­pre-flight­chores­as­loading­baggage,­dusting, making­sure­all­the­seats­were­screwed­down­tightly, and­assisting­to­fuel­the­airliner.­En­route,­she­might have­ had­ to­ restrain­ passengers­ from­ throwing garbage­and­cigarette­butts­out­of­open­windows.­ By­ the­ 1950s,­ after­ the­ introduction­ of­ faster, safer,­and­pressurised­aircraft,­flying­had­evolved­into a­much­less­erratic­proposition;­passenger­complaints now­had­more­to­do­with­lost­luggage­than­with­being killed.­At­some­point­during­the­decade,­the­number of­air­passengers­in­America­first­exceeded­those­who traveled­by­train;­in­1957,­a­similar­tipping­point came­for­transatlantic­crossings­by­air­versus­sea.­In those­ days,­ commercial­ aviation­ was­ highly regulated.­ Among­ other­ things,­ the­ government dictated­where­and­when­the­airlines­could­fly­and how­much­they­could­charge;­on­transatlantic­flights even­the­amount­of­legroom­and­the­number­and­type of­ courses­ that­ could­ constitute­ a­ meal­ were prescribed­by­international­agreement.­ Not­ only­ did­ jets­ offer­ a­ faster,­ quieter,­ and smoother­ride; ‘You’ll be able to stand a half-dollar on edge… You’ll be able to hear the ticking of a

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watch. The flower you bought when you left will be fresh when you arrive,” gushed­a­series­of­adverts­for the­707,­jets­were­sexy­in­the­same­early-60s­way­that the­Kennedy­administration­and­James­Bond­movies were,­all­kept­aloft­by­an­atmosphere­of­sleekness, power,­ and­ Cold­ War­ technology.­ For­ those­ who could­afford­it,­jet­travel­made­the­world­accessible in­a­way­we­now­take­for­granted­-­and­have­maybe even­begun­to­fear­a­bit­-­but­was­intoxicating­at­the time.­This­was­when­the­jet­set­was­born,­when­the fanciful­premise­of­Frank­Sinatra’s­‘Come­Fly­with Me’­ of­ casually­ floating­ down­ to­ Peru­ or­ sipping exotic­booze­in­far­Bombay­on­a­whim,­became­a reality­ -­ at­ least­ for­ movie­ stars­ and­ international playboys­of­the­jet­set. Coffee, Tea or Me? and­its­three­sequels­is­a­series of­books­that­record­the­alleged­memoirs­of­a­pair­of American­ stewardesses­ called­ Trudy­ Baker­ and Rachel­Jones.­The­books­depicts­the­anecdotal­lives of­two­lusty­young­stewardesses,­and­was­originally presented­as­factual. The­ books­ were­ widely­ pontificated­ over­ by intellectuals­and­the­media,­trying­to­work­out­which airline­ they­ girls­ worked­ for:­ ‘Written in the first person voice of Trudy Baker, the books describe a kind of glamorous lifestyle from the stewardess’ point of view, working for two years for an unnamed American carrier out of a New York crewbase. They were written to emphasize the sexy parts of the job, although difficult experiences are also recounted, and reflects the shifts in society and culture then underway. It also contains content that could in later decades be deemed sexist, and dated descriptions of homosexuality’. The books contain period references to television shows such as Batman and lists of celebrities the author’s claim to have carried on their flights, as well as an incidental description of the airline introducing Boeing 727 into service. Other equipment mentioned includes the Boeing 707 and the smaller BAC 111. People's names are fictitious, excepting the famous, and there is no way to gauge the accuracy of any of the accounts. The two most likely candidates for which airline the stewardesses supposedly worked for are American Airlines and Braniff International Airways, the only carriers who purchased BAC-111s to supplement fleets of Boeing 707s and 727s in the mid1960s time frame of the novels. The­ airlines­ themselves­ fed­ into­ the­ fantasy, These­were­the­times­when­flight­attendants­were ‘sexy­stews,­and­when­the­‘sex­sells­seats’­mantra drove­some­carriers­to­adorn­‘trolley­dollies’­in­hot pants­and­go-go­boots.

‘We were envious of the Braniff uniforms’, admitted­one­former­Pan­Am­stewardess,­who­along with­ her­ sisters­ was­ still­ stuck­ in­ wool­ suits­ that looked­like­something­Tippi­Hedren­might­have­worn or­Jackie­Kennedy.­The­owners­of­Braniff’s­rivals were­certainly­envious­of­its­stock­price,­and­soon every­ carrier’s­ stewardesses­ had­ to­ have­ modish uniforms.­Hems­went­up,­colors­got­bolder,­fabrics became­ more­ oil-based.­ United’s­ new­ outfit­ was punctuated­by­a­bright­orange­hat­that­looked­like­a cross­between­a­jockey’s­cap­and­a­mailbox.­National promoted­‘uniforms­that­purr’,­with­hats­and­jackets made­of­simulated­tiger­fur­-­supposedly­designed with­the­input­of­the­stews­themselves.­The­nadir, arguably,­was­the­paper­uniforms­TWA­introduced­in 1968­ to­ promote­ certain­ of­ its­ destinations.­ They came­ in­ four­ styles:­ a­ Roman­ toga,­ a­ faux-lamé miniskirt­ that­ was­ meant­ to­ represent­ Paris, ‘penthouse­pajamas’­from­Manhattan,­and­an­English ‘serving­wench’­outfit.­The­ads­promised ‘...the end of routine travel with hostesses to match.’ This­proved to­be­remarkably­true,­since­there­was­nothing­routine about­ watching­ a­ stewardess­ whip­ out­ a­ roll­ of masking­tape­to­repair­her­uniform,­or,­worse,­catch on­fire.­(The­uniforms’­manufacturer­had­quickly­run through­ its­ supply­ of­ nonflammable­ paper).­ The promotion­lasted­just­seven­or­eight­months. Possibly­this­peaked­in­1971­with­the­F.­William Free­advertising­campaign­for­US­carrier­National Airlines.­ It­ was­ Free­ who­ came­ up­ with­ a

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controversial­1971­advertising­slogan­‘I'm Cheryl – Fly Me’, something­which­caused­women's­rights groups­to­protest­outside­his­office­in­New­York­City carrying­ signs­ reading­ ‘I'm Bill - Fire Me’. The campaign's­ notoriety­ paid­ off­ hansomely­ for National,­and­they­saw­an­increase­in­revenue­per passenger­mile.­The­next­year­he­created­another­ad, ‘I'm Eileen - Fly Me’, this­time­featuring­an­eightyear-old­girl­who­aspires­to­be­a­flight­attendant.­He also­ reprised­ the­ original­ ad,­ saying:­ ‘Millions of people flew me last year’. In­fact­the­four­Coffee, Tea or Me? titles­were totally­fictitious­and­were­written­by­Donald­Bain while­he­worked­as­a­New­York­City-based­American Airlines­public­relations­person.­The­books­became spectacular­best-sellers,­created­the­template­for­the image­ of­ the­ racy,­ jet-setting­ airline­ stewardess aboard­707s­as­globe-trotting­party­girl­in­endless pursuit­of­rich­men­and­good­times. Then­there­is­Pam­Ann;­and­yes,­you­did­read­that right!­ Pam­ Ann­ is­ the­ air­ hostess­ alter-ego­ of Australian­ comedienne­ Caroline­ Reid.­ The­ name Pam­Ann­being­a­play­on­words­of­that­great­707 operator,­ Pan­ Am.­ In­ her­ shows­ -­ which­ are absolutely­brilliant,­but­decidedly­‘adult’­in­content­she­refers­to­the­so-called­memories­of­the­‘Golden Age­of­Aviation’,­which­for­her,­is­the­period­between the­late­1950s­and­early­1970s­when­the­707­entered widespread­use,­often­contrasting­it­with­mass­air travel­of­today,­biting­observations­of­the­visual­and social­changes­like­the­lack­of­knives­and­glass­on the­board.

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Pam­Ann­is­definitely­from­the­days­of­the­First Class­trolley-dollies­and­has­a­huge­fan-base­amongst flight-crews­ with­ the­ slogan­ No hablo clase económia! Her­performances­focus­on­the­nuances of­air­travel,­identifying,­parodying­and­satirising­the individual­ quirks­ of­ some­ of­ the­ world’s­ biggest international­airlines­and­their­media­stereotypes.­Her style­ leans­ towards­ camp­ humour,­ in­ the­ vein­ of Dame­ Edna­ Everage,­ Kathy­ Griffin­ and­ Chelsea Handler.­ Overall,­ she­ also­ plays­ with­ the­ stereotypical views­of­airlines,­like­Virgin­Airlines­with­modelnymphomaniacs,­Alitalia­with­‘...they think they are all driving a Ferrari’. Also­generally­she­has­at­least peeked­inside­into­the­current­aviation­industry,­like commenting­accidents­or­airline­retakes. Around the world - from top to bottom! In­1964­Captains­Fred­Lester­Austin,­Jr.,­and­Harrison Finch,­ two­ retired­ Trans­ World­ Airlines­ pilots, attended­one­of­several­Explorer's­Club­meetings­at the­invitation­of­John­DuBois.­The­world­famous Explorers­Club­had­been­founded­in­New­York­City in­1904­to­promote­the­scientific­exploration­of­land, sea,­air,­and­space.­Noted­explorer­Lowell­Thomas, who­was­at­that­time­the­President­of­the­Explorer's Club,­had­voiced­an­opinion­that­all­­the­memorable flights­in­the­lower­atmosphere­had­been­done. Finch­and­Austin,­however,­noted­that­no­one­had flown­around­the­world­over­both­Poles.­The­two experienced­pilots­knew­that­prior­to­advancements in­aviation­through­the­mid­1960s­that­an­around­the

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Above: N332F Pole Cat , the first ‘Combi’ 707 of Flying Tiger Line.

Left: A newspaper cutting after the flight, showing Flight Commander Harrison Finch second from the left; Fred Austin, is second from the right, Lowell Thomas Jr is far right. In the centre of the picture is the main sponsor of the flight, Colonel Willard F Rockwell. (both Simon Peters’ Collection)

world­ flight­ over­ the­ poles­ would­ have­ been impossible­because­aircraft­did­not­have­that­kind­of range­or­the­navigational­systems­needed­for­such­an unprecedented­flight. The­pair­began­to­investigate­­­such­a­flight­would entail.­ They­ were­ determined­ to­ be­ the­ first­ to accomplish­it.­According­to­Austin,­they­worked­on the­details­of­such­a­flight­for­about­a­year­while­in search­ of­ financing­ and­ attempting­ to­ secure­ a suitable­machine. Most­ of­ the­ airlines­ were­ very­ hesitant­ about leasing­ them­ an­ aircraft,­ but­ finally­ in­ early November­the­Flying­Tiger­line­agreed­to­lease­pilots Finch­ and­ Austin­ a­ 707.­ The­ introduction­ of­ jet transports­ revolutionised­ cargo­ operations,­ for­ no longer­was­it­acceptable­to­process­cargo­by­hand­due to­the­speed­between­points,­and­new­methods­were introduced.­Initially­pre-loaded­pallets­were­used­but were­­superseded­by­containers­designed­to­fit­the internal­fuselage­contours.­ The­ Flying­ Tiger­ Line,­ also­ known­ as­ Flying Tigers,­was­the­first­scheduled­cargo­airline­in­the United­States­and­a­major­military­charter­operator during­the­Cold­War­era­for­both­cargo­and­personnel.

Late­ in­ 1965­ the­ US­ involvement­ in­ South Vietnam­increased­significantly,­with­the­result­that commercial­airliners­from­Flying­Tigers­and­other operators­ were­ chartered­ by­ Military­ Airlift Command­(MAC)­to­supplement­its­C-135As­and­Bs until­it­received­its­C-141­Starlifters. Harrison­Finch­knew­John­DuBois,­a­member of­ the­ Explorer's­ Club­ who­ had­ done­ aerial mapping­of­South­America­in­the­1940.­The­two pilots­came­back­to­Finch’s­home­town­of­DuBois, Pennsylvania­to­meet­with­DuBois­to­discuss­the proposed­flight­and­to­invite­him­to­join­in­for­all the­help­he­had­given­them. DuBois­suggested­to­Austin­and­Finch­that­they talk­ with­ Colonel­ Willard­ F.­ Rockwell,­ business magnate­ and­ the­ Chairman­ and­ founder­ of­ the Rockwell­Manufacturing­Company.­ Within­two­days­of­securing­an­aircraft­Colonel Rockwell­ agreed­ to­ provided­ $250,000­ towards financing­the­historic­flight­that­would­be­the­first­to circumnavigate­the­Earth­over­the­two­poles.­With Rockwell­ as­ the­ principal­ sponsor,­ the­ flight­ was officially­named­‘The­Rockwell­Polar­Flight.’ On­14­November­1965­the­flight­took­off­from Honolulu­on­a­26,230-mile,­57­hour,­27­minute­flight around­the­world­-­from­Pole­to­Pole.­The­pair­leased a­brand­new­Boeing­707-349C,­registered­N322F, from­Flying­Tiger­Line.­The­airliner­had­only­been delivered­ to­ them­ on­ 27­ September­ 1965.­ Nicknamed­Pole Cat (some­sources­quote­the­name­as

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‘Polecat').­ It­ was­ crewed­ by­ five­ pilots,­ all­ rated captains.­In­addition­to­Austin­and­Finch,­there­were Captain­Jack­Martin,­Chief­Pilot­of­Flying­Tigers Line,­ Captain­ Robert­ N­ Buck,­TWA,­ and­ Boeing Senior­ Engineering­ Test­ Pilot­ James­ R­ Gannett. Three­ navigators­ and­ three­ flight­ engineers completed­the­flight­crew.­John­Larsen,­TWA’s­chief navigator,­did­most­of­the­planning­and­the­other­two navigators­and­all­three­flight­engineers­were­Flying Tiger­Line­employees. The­aircraft­was­fitted­with­a­complex­auxiliary fuel­tank­system­that­boosted­its­range­to­over­7,400 miles.­ Made­ from­ a­ rubber­ and­ nylon­ mix,­ each collapsible­bladder­carried­2,000­gallons­of­jet­fuel with­internal­anti-surge­mechanisms­installed­in­the aircraft's­main­cabin­aft­of­the­flight­deck­and­before the­passenger­compartment.­In­addition­the­aircraft carried­over­5,000­pounds­of­scientific­equipment­for space,­weather,­navigational­and­radio­research. The­airliner­was­equipped­with­an­experimental Litton­Systems­Inertial­Navigation­System­(INS)­and the­ very­ latest­ Single­ Side­ Band­ (SSB) communications­equipment­from­Collins­Radio. The­ flight­ departed­ Honolulu­ and­ flew­ to­ the North­Pole­where,­at­31,000­feet­over­the­Pole­Finch and­Austin­were­inducted­into­the­Explorers­Club. The­707­then­headed­south­to­London­Heathrow, where­they­stopped­for­fuel.­Unexpected­runway restrictions­limited­the­707’s­takeoff­weight,­so they­ had­ to­ make­ an­ extra­ fuel­ stop­ at­ Lisbon, Portugal­before­flying­to­Buenos­Aires,­Argentina. After­another­fuel­stop­there,­they­continued­south, circled­ the­ South­ Pole­ four­ times,­ then­ headed north­to­Christchurch,­New­Zealand.­From­there, they­continued­on­to­Honolulu­where­they­arrived on­17­November. Total­elapsed­time­for­the­flight­was­62­hours, 27­minutes,­35­seconds­with­just­under­five­hours on­the­ground. N322F­was­sold­to­Caledonian­Airways­in­1968 and­ registered­ G-AWTK.­ In­ 1970,­ Caledonian merged­ with­ British­ United­ and­ became­ British Caledonian.­ The­ aircraft­ was­ then­ registered­ GBDCN,­and­named­County of Renfrew. 1965­ through­ 1967­ were­ good­ years­ for Boeing­ with­ orders­ flowing­ in,­ although­ the airlines­started­to­feel­the­pinch­and­had­problems financing­the­massive­sums­of­money­involved­in ordering­new­aircraft.­So­started­the­now­common practice­of­aircraft­leasing,­in­most­cases,­for­ten years­or­so­from­a­financing­institution­or­some other­tax­advantage­system. High­ costs­ and­ service­ demand­ increased­ the utilisation­of­the­707,­which­led­to­some­structural

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problems.­The­airframe­was­originally­sold­with­a 30,000­hour­fatigue­life­but­some­problems­arose before­this­limit­was­reached.­The­first­was­in­the­tail assembly­ mounting­ when­ hairline­ cracks­ were detected­in­April­1966,­which­were­cured­by­fitting a­new­mounting­or­reaming­out­the­original­bolts. Then­in­May­it­was­found­the­720s­needed­heavier wing­skins­on­small­sections­due­to­taxiing­loads.­It became­common­practice­for­aircraft­to­have­their operational­ life­ extended­ well­ beyond­ the­ 30,000 hour­ limit;­ a­ process­ that­ required­ major­ work including­replacing­fasteners­and­reskinning­parts­of the­wings­and­fuselage.­Some­aircraft­have­exceeded 90,000­hours­in­service. In­ one­ week­ in­ November­ 1966­ Boeing­ took orders­for­fifty-one­aircraft,­including­seventeen­707320Cs­for­American­as­part­of­a­thirty-eight­aircraft order­and­ten­707-320Bs­for­QANTAS.­1967­looked to­be­a­repeat­of­1966­with­the­airlines­prospering world-wide.­The­US­and­European­charter­airlines started­making­serious­inroads­across­the­Atlantic­and the­major­routes­looked­ready­for­the­Boeing­747. Significantly,­ Pan­ Am­ started­ to­ suffer­ from reduced­earnings­and­this­was­soon­followed­by­other airlines­-­even­so­Pan­Am­ordered­twenty-six­707s­in 1967­ as­ part­ of­ the­ total­ of­ seventy-five­ orders received­ that­ year.­ New­ services­ continued­ to­ be operated;­Aerolineas­Argentinas­were­able­to­start Buenos­Aires­-­New­York­non-stop­services­on­2 February­1967­while­Pan­Am­commenced­New­York -­Moscow­services­on­15­July­1968,­followed­by­a 15.5­hrs­New­York-Tokyo­service­on­1­September 1969.­ Continental­ started­ Los­ Angeles-Hawaii services­in­September­1969,­followed­by­American on­1­August­1970,­while­Iran­Air­started­707­services early­in­1970. One thousand up! In­June­1967,­Boeing­delivered­their­1000th­civil­jet when­ American­ accepted­ delivery­ of­ 707-123B N7584A,­ eight­ years­ and­ and­ nine­ months­ after delivery­of­the­first­707-121­to­Pan­American.­1968 resulted­in­orders­for­thirty­aircraft­but­traffic­growth was­much­less­than­expected,­it­improved­slightly­in 1969­ but­ not­ enough­ to­ give­ confidence­ to­ the industry.­ Orders­ for­ about­ twenty­ aircraft­ were received­in­1969­followed­by­about­ten­in­each­of 1970­and­1971­which­were­two­of­the­worst­years­in the­industry's­history­up­to­that­time­and­indeed­in 1970­several­airlines­recorded­lower­traffic­figures than­in­1969.­ The­introduction­of­the­747­in­January­1970 with­Pan­Am­was­basically­the­death­knell­of­the commercially­ configured­ 707­ although­ some

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airlines­ continued­ to­ place­ repeat­ orders­ or,­ in some­ cases,­ like­ CAAC,­ a­ new­ order­ for­ ten aircraft,­ but­ the­ production­ rate­ dropped­ to­ one aircraft­a­month­in­early­1971­and­the­writing­was on­the­wall­for­the­707.­ Boeing­had­been­assigned­to­build­the­US­SST competitor­to­the­Anglo-French­Concorde­but­this was­cancelled­in­1971­when­US­Congress­withdrew its­funding­and­the­workforce­in­the­Seattle­area­fell from­a­peak­of­101,000­in­January­1968­to­37,700­in late­1971;­indeed­in­1972­Boeing­delivered­a­total­of only­ninety-seven­jet­airliners­that­included­just­four 707s,­compared­with­a­total­of­376­just­four­years earlier­when­111­707s­alone­were­delivered.­ Boeing­ offered­ the­ basic­ commercially configured­707-320B­as­the­airframe­for­the­Airborne Warning­and­Control­System­requirement­drawn­up by­the­USAF­in­1963­to­replace­the­EC-121s­serving in­the­airborne­early­warning­role­and­after­evaluation were­awarded­the­AWACS­contract­on­10­July­1970. This­gave­the­production­line­a­new­lease­of­life­with several­military­versions­developed­over

subsequent­years­(E-3A,­E-6A­etc.). After­the­introduction­of­the­747­Boeing­offered ‘wide­ body’­ interiors­ to­ 707­ operators,­ which included­new­seats,­bigger­and­safer­overhead­lockers and­other­improvements,­and­some­airlines­took­the opportunity­to­reduce­the­number­of­seats­to­give passengers­more­room,­but­they­soon­reverted­to­the higher­density­seating­once­traffic­loads­increased.­ Boeing­decided­to­look­at­re-engining­the­707, either­as­new-build­airframes­or­as­retrofits,­and­built a­ prototype­ 707-720­ powered­ by­ the­ General Electric/SNECMA­ CFM.56­ turbofan­ of­ 20,000 pounds­thrust­-­later­increased­to­23,000­pounds.­This aircraft­ first­ flew­ on­ 27­ November­ 1979­ and­ was involved­in­a­test­and­development­programme,­but the­idea­was­abandoned­since­the­availability­of­new (or­retrofitted)­707s­with­the­CFM.56­would­seriously reduce­ the­ market­ for­ the­ new­ Boeing­ 757,­ the prototype­ of­ which­ was­ rolled­ out­ on­ 13­ January 1982.­The­information­gathered­on­the­CFM.56/707 combination­ was­ not­ wasted­ since­ Saudi­ Arabia ordered­this­engine­for­its­E-3A­and KE-3A­tankers­followed­by­the­RAF and­French­AF­for­their­Sentry's­and USN­ for­ their­ E-6A­ TACAMO aircraft­and­the­re-engined­KC-135R. Eventually,­on­1­September­1991, Boeing­announced­the­closing­of­the 707­ production­ line­ -­ at­ this­ time Japan­were­considering­ordering­E3As­but­Boeing­decided­any­future AWACS­aircraft­would­be­based­on the­Model­767.­The­last­aircraft­from the­707­line,­a­Sentry­AEW.1­for­the RAF,­number­1012,­was­delivered­to the­ UK­ on­ 21­August­ 1991,­ over thirty-three­years­after­the­first­707, while­ the­ last­ ‘707’­ delivery­ by Boeing­ was­ E-3C­ 73-1674­ to USAF­on­28­April­1994. QANTAS­were­the­first­airline­to dispose­ of­ 707s­ when,­ in 1967/1968,­ it­ sold­ its­ 707-120B short-body­ jets­ as­ they­ were replaced­ by­ new­ 707-320Bs. Eastern­then­traded­its­720s­into Boeing­as­part­exchange­for­new 727s­in­1969.­As­time­went­on­this trade-in­became­quite­common­as the­airlines­found­it­difficult­to­sell whole­ fleets.­ In­ fact­ the­ 720, which­got­Boeing­onto­the­short to­medium­haul­routes­were­the first­ aircraft­ to­ be­ phased­ out­ -

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VH-EBA, the first -138 model for QANTAS, on the ramp at Renton before delivery, in the company of unidentifiable TWA and American Airlines machines.

Initially the airline used the somewhat conservative ‘classic’ uniforms for their stewardesses, but as a new decade dawned, things progressed into the ‘swingin sixties’. (author’s collection/QANTAS)

replaced­by­the­very­successful­727­which­overtook the­707­as­the­most­popular­jet­aircraft­and­retained this­position­until­superseded­itself­by­the­737!­Some of­ these­ 720s­ found­ their­ way­ into­ the­ European inclusive­ tour­ market,­ while­ Pan­ American­ were successful­in­selling­most­of­their­707-320s­to­UK independent­airlines­and­TWA­sold­their­707-120s­to lsraeli­Aircraft­Industries­for­overhaul,­refurbishment and­possible­resale. Many­airlines,­not­being­able­to­find­a­buyer­for its­ aircraft,­ kept­ them­ in­ service­ until­ USAF announced­in­1982­that­it­proposed­to­re-engine­128

KC-135As­ with­ JT3D­ engines­ removed­ from­ ex airliner­707s­and­both­American­and­TWA­disposed of­entire­fleets­to­Boeing­Military­Airplane­Corp.­for spares.­Some­of­these­were­also­converted­to­military use­and­parts­were­­used­in­KC-135R­updates,­while some­ex­airline­airframes­were­purchased­by­Omega Air/USAF­ as­ the­ basis­ of­ the­ E-8C­ J-Stars programme. Some­of­the­stored­ex-civilian­airframes­were involved­in­tests­to­determine­the­survivability­of aircraft­after­an­on-board­explosion­in­a­programme of­work­run­by­the­Federal­Aviation­Administration and­ Department­ of­ Defense.­ This­ programme­ of work­commenced­after­the­loss­of­747-121­N739PA as­ Pan­ Am­ 103,­ when­ it­ crashed­ at­ Lockerbie, Scotland­on­21­December­1988­killing­all­258­on board­as­well­as­at­least­11­on­the­ground­following terrorist­ action.­ The­ work­ has­ also­ involved­ the

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QANTAS was the only operator of the short-bodied 707. This aircraft is seen taking off with a spare engine slung in a pod on a pylon between the No.2 engine and the fuselage. The QANTAS cabin staff uniform swung from the severe in the 1950s to the miniskirt in the 1960s. (both author’s collection)

USAF­and­USN­and­four­ex-­USAF­KC-135As­were involved­in­further­trials­at­Patuxent­River­NAS;­new freight­containers­have­been­developed­to­reduce­the risk­of­airframe­loss­based­on­an­explosion­similar­to the­ one­ over­ Lockerbie.­ These­ new­ containers contain­ some­ of­ the­ blast­ and­ cause­ slight deformation­ of­ the­ aircraft­ skin,­ rather­ than­ skin rupture­ and­ consequent­ frame­ damage,­ and­ were available­ to­ airlines­ from­ late­ 1994.­ The­ new container­ is­ still­ within­ the­ ICAO­ weight­ limits although­towards­the­upper­end­presenting­a­weight (as­well­as­cost)­penalty­to­airlines­that­used­it. Versions and variant in detail 707-120 Dated­16­November­I951,­layout­drawings­for­the first­design­to­bear­a­Model­707­designation­show­an aircraft­with­35­degrees­of­wing­sweep­and­four­J57 engines­ in­ twin-podded­ nacelles,­ one­ under­ each wing.­ Intended­ to­ accommodate­ 72­ first­ class passengers,­this­707-1­had­a­fuselage­width­of­only 122­inches,­slightly­less­than­featured­by­the­most successful­ contemporary­ propliners.­ This shortcoming­ was­ corrected­ with­ the­ 707-2­ layout which­provided­for­a­fuselage­width­of­132­inches. Although­ still­ less­ than­ the­ 139.3­ inch­ maximum fuselage­width­of­the­Lockheed­Constellation­and Super­Constellation­propliner­series,­the­132­inch width­was­that­of­the­upper­deck­of­the­Boeing­377 Stratocruiser,­a­propliner­offering­first­class­a­fourabreast­seating­arrangement­praised­by­passengers. Accordingly,­this­width­was­retained­for­the­367-80

and­its­intended­707-7­production­jetliner­version until­ the­ Air­ Force­ concluded­ that­ it­ would­ not provide­clearance­for­efficient­loading­and­carriage of­standard­military­pallets­on­the­upper­deck. In­the­meanwhile,­mockups­of­airliner­cabins­had shown­that­a­144­inch­fuselage­width­would­not­only provide­for­increased­comfort­in­four-abreast­first class­seating­but­would­also­work­for­five-abreast tourist­ class­ and­ six-abreast­ economy­ class accommodations.­Therefore,­Boeing­increased­the width­ of­ its­ proposed­ Model­ 717­ tanker­ and­ 707 jetliners­ to­ 144­ inches­ before­ negotiations­ with airlines­ began­ in­ earnest.­ That­ width­ was­ found acceptable­to­the­first­commercial­customer,­since

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Pan­American­was­initially­interested­in­the­707­only as­a­temporary­aircraft­that­would­enable­it­to­match the­anticipated­introduction­of­transatlantic­jet­service by­BOAC­with­De­Havilland­Comet­4s­while­waiting to­build­up­its­jetliner­fleet­with­the­larger,­heavier, and­more­powerful­Douglas­DC-8. Unfortunately­ for­ Boeing,­ because­ domestic trunk­carriers­did­not­face­the­competitive­threat­of Comet­4­operators,­they­did­not­plan­on­ordering­two types­ of­ medium-­ to­ long­ range­ jetliners­ as­ Pan American­had­just­done.­Seeing­merits­in­Douglas’ arguments­that­the­147-inch­fuselage­width­of­its proposed­ DC-8­ would­ provide­ for­ improved­ six abreast­economy­seating,­United­Airlines­selected­the Douglas­jetliner­over­the­707­when­in­October­1955 it­became­the­second­carrier­to­order­US­jetliners.­ In­spite­of­the­gamble­it­had­taken­with­the­private venture­367-80­jet­transport­demonstrator,­Boeing was­ threatened­ with­ seeing­ its­ efforts frustrated­ by­ Douglas’­ superior understanding­of­airline­requirements.­The time­had­come­for­a­painful­reassessment by­the­management­of­the­Seattle­firm. The­ perennial­ competition­ between American­Airlines,­United­Airlines,­and Trans­ World­ Airlines­ on­ US Back in the day of the 707, South Africa was under the control of apartheid, as was the national carrier South African Airways. (both DGR Picture Library)

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transcontinental­ routes­ provided­ Boeing­ with­ an opportunity­of­regaining­the­initiative.­To­be­the­first to­offer­jet­service­across­the­United­States,­American favored­the­707­over­the­DC-8­but­wanted­jetliners offering­the­best­possible­seating­in­all­classes­of service.­ Putting­ pressure­ on­ Boeing,­ American Airlines­got­the­Seattle­manufacturer­to­increase­the fuselage­width­of­its­707­to­148­inches,­1­inch­better than­the­DC-8­and­15­inches­more­than­the­Comet­4. The­wider­fuselage­was­quickly­adopted­as­the new­ Boeing­ standard,­ with­ specifications­ for­ the aircraft­previously­ordered­by­Pan­American­being changed­accordingly.­ The­ initial­ order­ for­ JT3C­ powered­ 707s­ was announced­ on­ 13­ October­ 1955­ when­ news­ of­ a twenty­aircraft­order­placed­by­Pan­American­was released.­This­contract­was­for­aircraft­with­144­inch fuselage­ width­ but­ was­ later­ amended­ to­ cover

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aircraft­with­148­inch­fuselage­width.­Moreover,­Pan American­subsequently­elected­in­December­1955­to take­ only­ six­ aircraft­ as­ JT3C­ powered­ 707-121s while­the­balance­of­the­original­twenty­aircraft­order was­switched­to­JT4A—powered­707-321s.­ Proposals­tailored­to­specific­airline­requirements were­ initially­ given­ sequential­ model­ numbers starting­with­707-121,­as­first­given­to­the­JT3Cpowered­aircraft­ordered­by­Pan­American­with­144 inch­ width­ fuselage­ but­ delivered­ with­ 148­ ­ inch width­ fuselage.­ The­ 707-122­ designation­ at­ first identified­ the­ version­ proposed­ unsuccessfully­ to United­Airlines­ with­ JT3C­ engines­ and­ 144­ inch width­ fuselage.­ The­ 707-222­ and­ 707-322 designations­then­briefly­identified­aircraft­proposed to­Scandinavian­Airlines­System­respectively­with JT3C­and­JT4A­engines.­ In­addition­to­JT3C-powered­aircraft­with­the standard­138­foot­10­inch­long­body,­Boeing­offered a­short­body­version,­with­ten­feet­being­removed­aft of­the­wings­to­reduce­fuselage­length­to­128­feet­10 inches.­ This­ machine­ was­ tailored­ for­ overwater service.­Powered­by­four­JT3C-6­engines­and­fitted with­ centre-section­ fuel­ tanks­ to­ increase­ fuel capacity­from­the­basic­13,486­US­gallons­to­17,286 gallons.,­this­‘short­body’­variant­first­appeared­in­a 120B­layout­drawing­dated­7­September­1956. The­only­airline­to­make­use­of­the­greater­range of­ this­ version­ was­ QANTAS,­ as­ the­ Australian carrier­had­to­contend­with­what­then­were­unusually long­overwater­sectors,­such­the­2,080-nautical­mile still-air­distance­San­Francisco­-­Honolulu­leg,­the 2,269-nautical­mile­Honolulu­-­Pago­Pago­sector,­and the­2,375-nautical­mile­Pago­Pago­-­Sydney­hop. Also,­QANTAS­had­to­navigate­these­sectors­without In later years Braniff operated their four 707-220s in vivid colours of orange, yellow, blue and gold below is N7099. Right: the interior of one of the Braniff 707s not long after delivery. (author’s collection)

the­luxury­of­any­suitable­diversionary­jet­airfields. The­seven­707-138s­built­for­the­Australian­carrier became­the­first­707s­certificated­to­carry­a­spare engine­in­a­pod­mounted­under­the­left­wing­inboard of­the­number­2­engine.­Early­production­long-and short-body­ 707-120s­ were­ delivered­ with­ the­ socalled­ ‘short’­ vertical-tail­ surfaces­ and­ manually operated­ rudder.­ However,­ as­ the­ result­ of modifications­ developed­ to­ obtain­ British certification­ of­ the­ 707-420­ series,­ the­ fin­ was extended­ upward,­ the­ rudder­ was­ provided­ with hydraulic­boost,­and,­in­most­instances,­a­ventral­fin was­added­to­improve­handling­in­asymmetric­engine conditions.­These­modifications­were­incorporated during­ production­ in­ late­ 1959,­ and­ most­ early production­aircraft­were­retrofitted.­The­ventral­fin, which­was­not­always­fitted­or­retrofitted,­also­helped to­prevent­the­rear­fuselage­from­hitting­the­runway during­ excessive­ rotation­ on­ take-off.­ Another modification­had­been­retrofitted­to­the­first­707-121s before­they­were­delivered­to­Pan­American­and­was incorporated­early­on­during­production.­This­was two­ segments­ of­ Kruger-type­ leading-edge­ flaps inboard­ of­ the­ number­ 1­ and­ 4­ engines,­ which delayed­wing­stall­at­slow­speeds­when­deployed­at the­ same­ time­ as­ the­ double-slotted­ trailing-edge flaps. Structural­ differences­ between­ models­ were

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N-93134 was a 707-138B and was operated by the Boeing Company for a while as their Turbo-Fan demonstrator. It later went to QANTAS as VH-EBH ‘City of Darwin’. Left: ‘Think of her as your mother’ - contemporary American Airlines advertising.

limited­to­the­size­and­capacity­of­the­centre­fuel tank­and­to­localised­structural­strengthening­for models­ certificated­ for­ operations­ at­ higher weights.­In­addition,­models­differed­in­cockpit arrangements,­ avionics,­ and­ cabin­ layout­ and furnishing­was­specified­by­each­customer.­Thirty nine­of­these­aircraft,­including­the­three­USAF VIP­aircraft,­were­subsequently­re-engined­with turbofans­as­707-120Bs.

707-320 Boeing­still­had­to­meet­the­challenge­of­the­more powerful,­heavier,­and­longer-ranged­JT4A-powered version­of­the­Douglas­jetliner.­Accordingly,­keen­on having­ Pan­American­ move­ away­ from­ its­ initial preference­for­the­Douglas­jet­transport,­the­Seattle manufacturer­ quickly­ proposed­ a­ JT4A-powered

version­of­their­own­product­with­wings­of­increased span­and­area. To­ achieve­ the­ desired­ nonstop­ transatlantic capability­ without­ a­ payload­ penalty,­ not­ just between­European­capitals­relatively­close­to­the eastern­ shores­ of­ the­ Atlantic­ (such­ as­ London, Madrid,­or­Paris)­and­US­or­Canadian­cities­near­the western­shores­(such­as­Boston,­Montreal,­or­New York)­ but­ also­ from­ major­ metropolises­ further inland­ (such­ as­ Chicago,­ Frankfurt,­ Rome,­ and Zurich),­required­increases­in­fuel­load­and­take-off weight.­ The­ distances­ between­ inland­ cities­ is substantially­further­than­distances­between­coastal cities;­ for­ example,­ London­ -­ New­ York, uncorrected­for­winds,­is­only­3,005­nautical­miles whereas­Rome­-­Chicago­is­4,176­nautical­miles. Heavier­ take-off­ weights­ meant­ that­ to­ avoid downgrading­airfield­performance­excessively,­both power­ and­ wing­ area­ had­ to­ be­ increased­ while additional­high-lift­devices­had­to­be­provided. The­switch­to­Pratt­&­Whitney­JT4A­turbojets with­dry­takeoff­thrust­17-­to­35—percent­greater than­the­wet­thrust­(i.e.,­using­the­cumbersome­and noisy­ water­ injection­ system)­ of­ JT3C­ variants went­ a­ long­ way­ to­ keep­ take-off­ field­ length requirements­within­reason.­Nevertheless,­Boeing still­needed­to­redesign­the­wings­to­increase­area and­provide­space­for­additional­fuel.­This­was accomplished­ by­ reducing­ trailing­ edge­ sweep between­the­wing­fillet­and­the­inboard­engines

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and­by­extending­the­outboard­panels­to­increase span­from­130­feet­10­inches­to­142­feet­5­inches and­ area­ from­ 2,433­ to­ 2,892­ square­ feet.­ The larger­ wings,­ however,­ retained­ the­ thirty-five degree­of­sweep­at­the­quarter­chord­and­two-spar structure­of­the­original­367-80­wings.­A­collateral benefit­from­enlarging­the­wings­was­a­reduction in­cabin­noise­as­the­engines­were­moved­further outboard,­the­centerline­of­the­inboard­JT4As­of the­-320­being­33­feet­from­the­fuselage­centreline, whereas­that­distance­was­only­27­feet­2­inches­in the­case­of­the­inboard­JT3C­of­the­-120. To­increase­lift,­the­larger­wings­were­fitted­with split­ fillet­ flaps­ on­ the­ trailing-edge­ between­ the fuselage­and­the­inboard­sections­of­double-slotted flaps­and­two­additional­sections­of­Kruger-type­flaps on­ the­ leading-edge.­ This­ revised­ configuration enabled­approach­speed­to­be­reduced­from­145­knots for­the­707-120­to­140­knots­for­the­-320­in­spite­of the­greater­weight­of­the­latter.­Notwithstanding­the use­ of­ more­ powerful­ engines­ and­ larger­ wings, however,­the­heavier­707-320­-­with­a maximum­ gross­ take-off­ weight between­18­and­28%­greater­than­the 707-120­depending­on­configuration­still­ended­up­having­Federal­Aviation Regulations­ runway­ length requirements­some­12%­greater­than­a fully­loaded­707-120. The­ 707-320­ retained­ the­ newly adopted­ 148-inch­ fuselage­ diameter, but­cabin­length,­from­the­cockpit­door to­ the­ rear­ pressure­ bulkhead,­ was increased­6­feet­8­inches­to­111­feet­6 inches.­Standard­seating­was­increased from­96­to­104­first-class­passengers with­40-inch­seat­pitch­and­from­165 to­180­economy-class­passengers­with 34-inch­seat­pitch.­With­special­seats and­inflatable­escape­slides,­the­707320­ was­ certificated­ to­ carry­ a maximum­of­189­passengers­in­highdensity­ configuration.­ Other structural­ changes­ included­ a strengthened­undercarriage,­stronger skin­panels,­and­larger­horizontal­tail surfaces,­ with­ the­ span­ increased from­ 39­ feet­ 8­ inches­ to­ 45­ feet inches. Briefly­ marketed­ under­ the ‘Intercontinental’­name,­the­707-320 was­first­ordered­by­Pan­American on­ 24­ December­ 1955­ when­ the original­707­customer­amended­its

contract­ for­ twenty­ aircraft­ to­ cover­ six­ JT3Cpowered­707-121s­and­14­JT4A­powered­707-321s.­ The­first­of­the­larger­and­heavier­models­flew on1­January­1959,­and­the­707-321­was­placed­in service­ by­ Pan­ American­ on­ 26­ August­ 1959. Although­rapidly­supplanted­by­its­turbofan-powered derivatives­(the­707-420,­707-320B,­and­707-320C), the­JT4A-powered­intercontinental­version­of­the­707 sold­better­than­the­original­JT3C-powered­variant.­ Initial­deliveries­were­with­short­fin­and­manually operated­rudder,­but­most­-320­series­aircraft­were delivered­with­the­larger­surfaces­and­hydraulically boosted­ rudder.­ Aircraft­ delivered­ in­ the­ early configuration­ were­ retrofitted.­According­ to­ their need,­airlines­specified­different­models­of­the­JT4A turbojet­with­a­takeoff­thrust­of­15,800­pounds­for­the JT4A-3­and­-5,­16,800­pounds­for­the­-9,­and­17,500 pounds­for­the­-11­and­-12­models. 707-220 To­ match­ the­ capabilities­ of­ the­ JT4A-powered Douglas­DC-8­Series­20­and­to­meet­the

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need of­ airlines­ operating­ from­ high­ elevation­ hightemperature­ airports,­ Boeing­ initially­ planned­ the 707-220­as­a­derivative­of­the­JT3C-powered­shortbody­version­of­the­707-120­with­144-inch­fuselage width.­It­progressively­evolved­with­an­increase­in fuselage­ width­ to­ 148­ inches,­ lengthening­ of­ the fuselage­ to­ the­ standard­ 707-120­ long­ body dimension,­addition­of­340­US­gallon­wing­tip­fuel tanks,­ installation­ of­ overwater­ equipment,­ and substitution­ of­ JT4A-3­ engines­ for­ the­ initially intended­JT3C-6s.This­version­was­only­ordered­by Braniff­Airways­with­JT4A-3s­and­standard­longbody­ fuselage­ but­ without­ tip­ tanks­ or­ overwater equipment.­ Only­five­707-227s­were­built,­the­first­flying on­11­May­1959,­and­certification­was­obtained­six months­later­in­spite­of­the­crash­of­the­first­aircraft during­an­acceptance­flight­as­we­have­seen­earlier on­ 19­ October­ 1959.­The­ remaining­ four­ -227s were­operated­by­Braniff­on­its­Latin­American network­ until­ the­ first­ quarter­ of­ 1971.­ After service­ with­ other­ operators,­ the­ last­ of­ the­ exBraniff­aircraft­was­stored­in­December­1983­and broken­up­in­May­1984.

707-420 The­ moment­ Boeing­ revealed­ the existance­ of­ plans­ to­ develop­ their airliner­design­all­the­major­engine manufacturers­ contacted­ them, notably­ Rolls-Royce,­ who­ made­ it known­that­its­Aero­Engine­Division had­ a­ novel­ ‘bypass’­ turbojet,­ also known­ as­ a­ turbofan,­ under development.­ Fitted­ with­ a­ ducted fan­ ahead­ of­ its­ axial-flow compressor,­ the­ Conway­ turbofan was­ anticipated­ to­ have­ greater thrust­and­lower­fuel­consumption than­the­JT3C­retained­for­the­first 707s.­Accordingly,­as­early­as­the autumn­ of­ 1954,­ Boeing­ studied variants­ of­ its­ projected­ 707-8, powered­by­Rolls-Royce­Conway R.Co.5­ bypass­ engines­ and­ with takeoff­ weight­ ranging­ between 205,000­and­235,000­pounds.­The 707-420­intercontinental­version, which­ began­ with­ a­ preliminary layout­dated­30­December­1955 for­a­296,000-pound­airliner­with R.Co.10s,­evolved­in­parallel­with the­competing­Conway-powered DC-8­Series­40. Identical­to­the­707-320­in­virtually­all­respects, but­powered­by­Conway­turbofans­instead­of­JT4A turbojets,­the­707-420­was­expected­to­be­particularly attractive­to­airlines­in­the­British­Commonwealth, as­these­carriers­would­not­have­to­pay­custom­duties on­British-manufactured­engines.­ The­first­contract­for­Conway-powered­aircraft was­not­placed­by­a­Commonwealth­airline­but­by Lufthansa,­which­ordered­an­initial­batch­of­four­707430s­ in­ April­ 1956.­ Although­ the­ first Conway-powered­had­been­ordered­by­the­German carrier,­the­first­to­fly­was­one­of­the­fifteen­707-436s ordered­by­British­Overseas­Airways­Corporation­in October­1956.­ This­flew­on­20­May­1959­with­a­temporary­US registration.­Although­the­-420­was­certificated­in­the United­ States­ on­ 12­ February­ 1960­ under­ an addendum­to­the­ATC­4A26­for­the­-320,­service entry­was­delayed­until­May­1960­by­the­need­to redesign­tail­surfaces­to­meet­British­certification requirements.­With­the­enlarged­surfaces,­the­707420­ was­ granted­ a­ British­ certificate­ by­ the­ Air Transport­Licensing­Board­on­27­April­1960. Even­­the­re-designed­tail­did­not­prevent­the­loss of­BOAC­Flight­911­using­707­G-APFE­operating

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under­ the­ callsign­ of­ Speedbird­ 911.­ This­ was­ a round-the-world­flight­that­crashed­as­a­result­of­an encounter­ with­ severe­ clear-air­ turbulence­ near Mount­Fuji­in­Japan­on­5­March­1966.­The­Boeing 707-436­on­this­flight­was­commanded­by­Captain Bernard­Dobson,­45,­from­Dorset,­an­experienced 707­pilot­who­had­been­flying­these­aircraft­since November­1960. The­aircraft­disintegrated­and­crashed­near­Mount Fuji­shortly­after­departure­from­Haneda­Airport,­at the­start­of­the­Tokyo-Hong­Kong­segment.­All­113 passengers­and­11­crew­members­were­killed­in­the disaster,­ including­ a­ group­ of­ 75­ Americans associated­ with­ Thermo­ King­ of­ Minneapolis, Minnesota,­on­a­14-day­company­sponsored­tour­of Japan­and­Southeast­Asia.­ The­aircraft­arrived­in­Haneda­at­12:40­on­the­day of­the­accident­from­Fukuoka­Airport­where­it­had diverted­the­previous­day­due­to­conditions­on­the ground­ in­ Tokyo.­ The­ weather­ there­ had­ since improved­behind­a­cold­front­with­a­steep­pressure gradient­ bringing­ cool­ dry­ air­ from­ the­ Asian mainland­ on­ a­ strong­ west-northwest­ flow,­ with crystal­clear­sky­conditions.­During­their­time­on­the ground,­the­crew­received­a­weather­briefing­from­a company­ representative,­ and­ filed­ an­ instrument flight­ rules­ flight­ plan­ calling­ for­ a­ southbound departure­from­Haneda­via­the­island­of­Izu­Oshima, then­on­airway­JG6­to­Hong­Kong­at­31,000­feet. At­13:42­the­crew­contacted­air­traffic­control requesting­permission­to­start­engines,­and­amending their­ clearance­ request­ to­ a­ visual­ meteorological conditions­ climb­ westbound­ via­ the­ Fuji-RebelKushimoto­waypoints,­which­would­take­them­nearer to­Mount­Fuji,­possibly­to­give­the­passengers­a­better view­of­the­landmark.­The­aircraft­began­taxiing­at 13:50­and­took­off­into­the­northwest­wind­at­13:58. After­takeoff,­the­aircraft­made­a­continuous­climbing right­ turn­ over­ Tokyo­ Bay,­ and­ rolled­ out­ on­ a southwest­heading,­passing­north­of­Odawara.­It­then turned­right­again­toward­the­mountain,­flying­over Gotemba­on­a­heading­of­approximately­298°,­at­an indicated­airspeed­of­320­to­370­knots,­and­an­altitude of­approximately­16,000­feet,­well­above­the­12,388 foot­ mountain­ peak.­ The­ aircraft­ then­ encounted strong­winds,­causing­it­to­break­up­in­flight,­and crash­into­a­forest­near­the­mountain. The­ aircraft­ left­ a­ debris­ field­ ten­ miles­ long. Analysis­of­the­location­of­wreckage­allowed­the accident­investigators­to­determine­that­the­vertical stabiliser­attachment­to­the­fuselage­failed­first.­It­left paint­marks­indicating­that­it­broke­off­the­port­side horizontal­ stabiliser­ as­ it­ departed­ to­ the­ left­ and down.­A­short­time­later,­the­ventral­fin­and­all­four

engine­pylons­failed­due­to­a­leftward­over-stress, shortly­followed­by­the­remainder­of­the­empennage. The­aircraft­then­entered­a­flat­spin,­with­the­forward fuselage­ section­ and­ the­ outer­ starboard­ wing breaking­off­shortly­before­impact­with­the­ground.­ Several­booked­passengers­had­cancelled­their tickets­ at­ the­ last­ moment­ to­ see­ a­ ninja demonstration.­These­passengers,­Albert­R­‘Cubby’ Broccoli,­Harry­Saltzman,­Ken­Adam,­Lewis­Gilbert, and­Freddie­Young,­were­in­Japan­scouting­locations for­the­fifth­James­Bond­film,­You Only Live Twice. Although­some­stress­cracking­was­found­in­the vertical­stabiliser­bolt­holes,­it­was­determined­by subsequent­testing­that­it­did­not­contribute­to­this accident.­Still,­it­was­potentially­a­significant­safetyof-flight­issue.­Subsequent­inspections­on­Boeing 707­and­720­aircraft­as­a­result­of­this­discovery­did reveal­this­was­a­common­problem,­and­corrective maintenance­actions­on­the­fleet­eventually­followed. One­ day­ after­ the­ crash,­ speculation­ was­ that fierce­winds­above­Mount­Fuji­were­responsible.­The New York Times reported:­"Despite these reports of a fire and explosion, aviation experts said that adverse wind conditions around the volcanic cone about 37 miles south of Tokyo may have caused the crash. The vicinity of the 12,388 foot peak is notorious for tricky air currents. Technicians in New York said that a condition could exist where turbulent air could have caused the aircraft to undergo a drastic manoeuvre that might lead to a crash. Such violent forces, they said, might have caused an engine to disintegrate, possibly setting fire to the wing or fuselage." The­ probable­ cause­ determination­ was:­ "The aircraft suddenly encountered abnormally severe turbulence over Gotemba City which imposed a gust load considerably in excess of the design limit." With­ the­ Rolls-Royce­ bypass­ turbojet­ rapidly overtaken­by­the­Pratt­&­Whitney­JT3D­turbofan, only­ thirty-seven­ Conway-powered­ aircraft­ were built. 720 Whereas­ the­ fuselage­ of­ the­ 707-120­ had­ to­ be enlarged­ and­ the­ -220,­ -320,­ and­ -420­ variants developed­ in­ response­ to­ Douglas’­ aggressive marketing­moves,­the­Boeing­720­came­about­as­a hastened­ response­ to­ Convair’s­ January­ 1956 announcement­ of­ its­ Model­ 22­ Skylark,­ later redesignated­the­Convair­880.­Smaller­than­the­JT3C powered­707-120­and­Douglas­DC-8­Series­10,­the Convair­airliner­promised­to­be­faster­than­its­heavier competitors.­While­Douglas­did­not­succeed­with­its proposed­DC-9,­at­that­time­a­smaller­four-engined

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derivative­ of­ the­ DC-8,­ Boeing­ responded energetically­to­the­challenge­from­Convair. With­United­Airlines­-­a­carrier­which­had­just selected­Series­10­and­20­DC-8s­in­preference­to­707120s­ but­ was­ known­ also­ to­ need­ smaller, shorter—ranged­jetliners­-­as­its­initial­target,­Boeing started­work­in­earnest­on­the­707-020­in­February 1956.­ By­ the­ first­ week­ in­ March,­ the­ Seattle manufacturer­had­preliminary­layouts­for­no­fewer than­twelve­different­configurations. The­ baseline­ 707-020-1­ retained­ the­ newly adopted­148­inch­width­fuselage­and­130­foot­10inch­span­wings­of­the­707-120­but­had­its­fuselage shortened­from­138­feet­10­inches­to­115­feet­6­inches and­was­to­be­powered­by­four­Rolls-Royce­RA-29 Avon­turbojets.­The­-2­had­a­one­foot­shorter­fuselage and­ was­ designed­ around­ four­ Pratt­ &­ Whitney JT8A-1­ turbojets.­ The­ -3,­ -4,­ and­ -9­ retained­ the shorter­-2­fuselage­but­were­respectively­matched­to four­ Pratt­ &­ Whitney­ JT3C-6,­ General­ Electric C]J80s,­and­Rolls-Royce­RA-29­turbojets.­The­-11 and­-12­were­proposed­Avon-powered­developments with­the­-2­fuselage­but­a­reduced­gross­weight­and wings­with­different­aspect­and­taper­ratio. Proposed­with­four­JT3C-4­turbojets,­the­-10­had broader­wings­of­reduced­span­-­120­feet­-­and­area of­ 2,322­ square­ feet.­ The­ more­ unusual­ variants, however,­were­the­twin-engined­707-020-5,­-6,­and -7­with­wings­of­even­more­reduced­span­and­area­101­feet­8­inches­and­2,100­square­feet.­The­designs were­respectively­proposed­with­two­RA-29,­JT3C4,­and­JT4A-1­turbojets. In­spite­of­frantic­design­activities,­it­appeared­for nearly­ twenty­ months­ that­ Boeing­ would­ be unsuccessful­ in­ its­ endeavor­ to­ block­ inroads­ by Convair­into­the­jetliner­market.­Initial­contracts­for the­Convair­jetliner­were­announced­in­June­1956 with­TWA,­already­a­707-120­and­-320­customer,­and Delta,­a­DC-8­customer,­respectively­ordering­thirty and­ten­880s.­By­October­1957,­TWA­had­ordered

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four­ additional­ 880s,­ while­ the­ Brazilian­ carrier REAL­had­become­the­first­customer­for­a­turbofanpowered­derivative­of­the­Convair­jetliner­(this­model eventually­was­designated­the­990).­Boeing­had­yet to­receive­an­order­for­its­707­derivative. This­short-­to­medium-range,­reduced­capacity derivative­of­the­707­was­first­called­the­Model­717, but­that­proved­confusing­since­military­C/KC-135 variants­already­used­the­717­designation.­Forty­years later,­that­confusion­was­further­compounded­when, following­the­merger­with­McDonnell­Douglas,­the Model­717­designation­was­again­used­to­identify­the twinjet­ MD-95.­ Finally,­ to­ satisfy­ the­ launch customer’s­wish­to­have­the­new­aircraft­identified by­a­later­numerical­designation,­it­became­the­Model 720. With­ inputs­ from­ the­ airlines,­ the­ 720­ jelled progressively­into­a­more­direct­derivative­of­the­707120.­As­first­sold­to­United­Airlines­in­November 1957,­when­UAL­ordered­an­initial­batch­of­eleven aircraft,­the­JT3C-powered­720­had­a­standard­148inch­wide­707­fuselage­with­internal­cabin­length reduced­to­96­feet,­6­inches­from­the­104-foot,­10inch­length­of­the­-120­cabin.­The­shorter­cabin­of the­720­provided­accommodation­for­88­first-class passengers,­ a­ maximum­ of­ 141­ economy-class passengers,­or­115­passengers­in­a­30/70­mixed-class arrangement.­ The­ basic­ wing­ layout­ of­ the­ 707-120­ was retained­but­the­wing­leading-edge­inboard­of­the inner­ engines­ was­ extended­ forward­ to­ form­ a ‘glove,’­thus­increasing­the­wing­chord­and­reducing the­thickness/chord­ratio­for­flights­at­higher­speeds. The­never-exceed­Mach­increased­from­0.895­for­the 707-120­ to­ 0.906­ for­ the­ 720-020,­ while­ fuel consumption­was­reduced. Direct­ weight­ reductions­ resulting­ from­ the shorter­fuselage­and­smaller­number­of­seats,­galleys, and­lavatories­also­made­possible­the­use­of­a­lighter undercarriage­and­the­deletion­of­one­of­the­three

The first 720 - intended for use with United Airlines, hence the registration N7201U, in Boeing Company demonstrator colours. (DGR Picture Library)

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turbocompressors­for­the­cabin­conditioning­system. Thus,­operating­weight­empty­was­reduced­nearly eight­percent­from­118,000­pounds­for­the­707-120 to­110,800­pounds­for­the­720. Power­for­the­lighter­Model­720­was­provided by­either­four­Pratt­8C­Whitney­JT3C-7s­without water­ injection­ or­ four­ JT3C-12s­ with­ water injection,­ take-off­ thrust­ rating­ being­ 12,000 pounds­for­the­former­and­13,000­pounds­for­the latter.­Airfield­performance­was­improved­due­to the­lower­power­and­wing­loadings­but­also­by­the addition­of­additional­Kruger­leading-edge­flaps outboard­of­the­engines. Next­to­contract­for­720s­was­American­Airlines, with­its­order­for­twenty-five­720-023s­later­changed to­include­a­mix­of­turbojet-­and­turbofan-powered aircraft,­bringing­the­Boeing’s­order­book­to­a­total of­187­jetliners­by­the­time­Pan­American­started 707-121­operations­in­October­1958.­That­order­book showed­a­39%­share­of­the­four-engine­jet­airliner business.­Four­competitors,­Douglas­and­Convair­in the­United­States­plus­Vickers­and­De­Havilland­in the­United­Kingdom,­respectively­reported­orders­for 138­DC-8s­in­four­variants,­87­Model­880s­and­990s, 35­VC10s,­and­33­Comet­4s.­Although­it­led­the­pack, Boeing­was­nevertheless­in­a­less­than­satisfactory position­as­the­production­break-even­point­for­its early­jetliners­had­been­pushed­further­into­the­future by­ additional­ costs­ incurred­ in­ developing­ four additional­models­to­fight­off­the­competition. The­720­prototype,­intended­for­United­Airlines, first­flew­from­Renton­on­23­November­1959.­Being different­from­both­the­707-100­and­707-300­already FAA-certificated,­ the­ 720­ was­ covered­ by­ a­ new Approved­Type­Certificate,­4A28,­issued­on­30­June 1960.­Boeing­sold­only­sixty-four­720s. The­first­720­services­were­operated­by­United on­5­July­1960­between­Los­Angeles,­Denver­and Chicago­while­American­introduced­the­type­on­31 July­between­Cleveland,­St­Louis­and­Los­Angeles. The­first­scheduled­South­African­Airways­707-320 service­was­between­Johannesburg­and­London­on­2 October­although­the­first,­route-proving,­flight­was on­14­September­. In­February­1961­Pan­American,­in­one­of­their many­repeat­orders,­ordered­five­707-320Bs­which were­powered­by­JT3D-3­engines­of­18,000­pounds thrust­ with­ an­ improved­ wing­ featuring­ full­ span leading­edge­flaps,­improved­trailing­edge­flaps­and Evolution of a wing. The changes in the shape and size of the 707 wing from -120 model compared to the -320 series. The 720 wing was basically that of the -120, with a ‘glove’ fitted inboard of the engines to allow an increase in Mach number.

redesigned­wing­tips­which­increased­lift­and­reduced drag.­These­improvements­increased­the­range­of­the -320B­by­about­15%­over­the­earlier­-320s. Boeing­ were­ planning­ even­ more­ extensive development­with­the­-520B­offered­to­the­airlines for­ 1963/1964­ service­ introduction.­ This­ had increased­ power­ engines,­ a­ twelve­ foot­ fuselage stretch­and­modified­wing,­suggesting­that­it­could

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Olympic Airways operated a number of both 707s and 720s, SX-DBL, ‘Evros River’ was one of six 720s obtained from Northwest for their European services.

operate­ a­ round-the-world­ service­ with­ only­ two stops,­but­it­never­progressed­past­the­design­stage. El­Al­started­707­services­between­Tel­Aviv­and New­York­on­5­January­1961,­initially­with­a­707441­leased­from­VARIG­until­its­first­two­-458s­were delivered­ in­ March­ and­ May­ 1961­ respectively. American­introduced­the­720B­and­707-120B­into service­simultaneously­on­12­March­1961­and­they started­returning­JT3C­powered­aircraft­to­Boeing immediately­ for­ conversion­ to­ JT3D­ power.­ In November­ 1961­ one­ of­ Continenta|'s­ 707-124s, N70773,­clocked­up­10,000­hours,­the­first­707­to achieve­this­milestone­at­an­average­utilisation­of 10.8­ hours­ per­ day­ -­ a­ usage­ rate­ that­ was­ much higher­than­piston­engined­aircraft­due­to­the­reduced maintenance­requirements. The­first­707-320B­flew­on­1­February­1962­and was­delivered­to­Pan­American­on­12­April­with­a provisional­certificate,­the­full­ATC­being­issued­on 13­ May.­ This­ was­ almost­ a­ year­ behind­ the corresponding­Douglas­model,­the­DC-8­Series­50, but­the­707-320B­soon­entered­service­on­long-haul routes­ like­ the­ 4,750­ nautical­ mile­ London-Los Angeles­service­and­the­4,600­nautical­mile­New York-Buenos­Aires­route.­Indeed­during­tests­one aircraft­ flew­ 5,080­ nautical­ miles­ from­ Seattle­ to overhead­New­York­and­return­to­Seattle­in­10­hours 15­minutes­with­almost­50,000­pounds­of­payload. Things­improved­during­1963­for­Boeing­with about­forty­aircraft­ordered,­and­the­company­were also­busy­building­the­initial­727s.­The­all-cargo­707320C­ entered­ service­ on­ 17­ June­ 1963­ with­ Pan American­and­led­to­complaints­from­the­all-cargo operators.­The­major­US­airlines­were­well­up­the­list of­ purchasers­ with­ both­ Pan­American­ and­Trans World­placing­several­orders­as­their­excess­capacity was­taken­up­due­to­lower­fares.

Air­France­replaced­their­earlier­models­with­328Bs­ on­ the­ longer­ non-stop­ services­ such­ as Madrid­-­Rio­de­Janeiro­on­15­April­1963,­while­the CAB­ began­ to­ certificate­ the­ supplemental­ -­ or charter­-­airlines­for­Atlantic­flights.­1964­again­saw an­ improvement­ in­ orders­ with­ approximately seventy­707s­or­720s­ordered,­again­Pan­American were­in­the­lead­with­nineteen­-320B­and­-320Cs. QANTAS­started­non-stop­trans-Pacific­flights on­7­March­1965­following­delivery­of­their­first­707320B­ while­ three­ weeks­ later­ a­ Pan­ American 707-320B­en­route­from­San­Francisco­to­Honolulu suffered­an­explosion­in­the­outer­starboard­engine shortly­after­take-off­but­landed­safely.­ The­later­built­-320BAs­were­certified­to­­higher gross­ weights­ and­ were­ fitted­ with­ the­ -320C undercarriages,­these­were­known­unofficially­as­320BA-H. 1965­saw­a­huge­milestone­appear­-­the­end­of jet­surcharges,­designed­to­protect­operators­without jet­aircraft.­Although­some­piston-engined­aircraft remained­in­service,­the­major­routes­like­the­North Atlantic­were­now­all­jet.­Atlantic­fares­were­coming down,­due­in­part­to­the­charter/supplemental­airlines and­simple­competition­and­without­doubt­the­fare paying­passenger­was­the­winner.­ 1965­saw­an­increase­in­orders­with­one­hundred and­twenty­nine­707s­and­five­720s­ordered­including fifteen­707-321Bs­and­Cs­for­Pan­American­and­a huge­order­of­fifty-four­aircraft­for­American.­When finalised,­American­ ordered­ twenty-seven­ -120Bs and­five-320Cs­as­well­as­twenty-two­727-200s­and the­production­rate­was­increased­to­ten­per­month. 1965­ also­ saw­ the­ introduction­ of­ the­ JT3D-3B engine,­which­had­modifications­to­the­hot­section eliminating­the­need­for­water­injection.­Trials­were conducted­ with­ a­ 720B,­ later­ sold­ to­ Pakistan

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NASA’s N833NA made a number of remotely controlled approaches the final one being an overflight of the ‘crash site’ at Edwards before the deliberate crash landing.

On board the 720 were a number of adult and child crash test dummies. (both NASA)

International­ Airlines,­ into­ all­ weather­ landing systems.­As­a­result,­on­5­March­1965,­the­707/720 series­was­certified­for­landings­down­to­Category­2 limits­(1200­foot­horizontal­and­100­foot­vertical visual­limits).­Another­huge­area­of­debate­was­inflight­entertainment­but­this­was­eventually­accepted by­ the­ airlines­ for­ long-haul­ flights­ and­ quickly became­the­norm. One­interesting­‘loss’­was­deliberately­crashed­at Edwards­Air­Force­Base,­California,­on­1­December 1984­while­radio-controlled­to­a­belly­landing­short of­the­runway­and­into­obstacles.­ The­Controlled­Impact­Demonstration­(CID,­or colloquially,­the­Crash­In­the­Desert)­tests­involved the­efforts­of­NASA­Ames­Research­Center,­Langley Research­Center,­Dryden­Flight­Research­Center,­the FAA,­and­General­Electric,­and­required­more­than four­ years­ of­ preliminary­ work.­ The­ aircraft­ was remotely­controlled­for­the­tests,­and­numerous­test runs­were­undertaken­prior­to­the­actual­impact.­ The­objectives­of­the­CID­programme­were­to demonstrate­a­reduction­of­post-crash­fire­through­the use­ of­ antimisting­ fuel,­ acquire­ transport­ crash structural­data,­and­to­demonstrate­the­effectiveness

of­ existing­ improved­ seat-restraint­ and­ cabin structural­systems. The­Boeing­720­-­tail­number­N833NA­-­was purchased­ new­ by­ the­ FAA­ in­ 1960­ as­ a­ training aircraft.­After­more­than­20,000­hours­and­54,000 takeoff­and­landing­cycles,­it­had­come­to­the­end­of its­useful­life.­The­aircraft­was­turned­over­to­NASAAmes/Dryden­Flight­Research­Center­for­the­CID program­in­1981. The­ additive,­ ICI's­ FM-9,­ a­ high­ molecularweight­long­chain­polymer,­when­blended­with­Jet-A fuel,­forms­antimisting­kerosene­(AMK).­AMK­had demonstrated­the­capability­to­inhibit­ignition­and flame­propagation­of­the­released­fuel­in­simulated impact­tests.­AMK­cannot­be­introduced­directly­into a­gas­turbine­engine­due­to­several­possible­problems

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Slapdown; Fitz Fulton found himself with an aircraft that was starting to dutch roll. Data acquisition systems had been activated, and the aircraft was committed to impact. The aircraft contacted the ground, left wing low, at full throttle, the aircraft nose pointing to the left of the center-line.

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It had been planned that the aircraft would land wings-level, with the throttles set to idle, and exactly on the center-line during the CID, thus allowing the fuselage to remain intact as the wings were sliced open by eight posts cemented into the runway. This never happened. The Boeing 720 landed askew. One of the Rhinos sliced through number 3 engine. The same Rhino then sliced through the fuselage, causing a cabin fire when burning fuel was able to enter the fuselage.

The cutting of number 3 engine and the full throttle situation was significant as this was outside the test envelope. Number 3 engine continued to operate, degrading the fuel and igniting it after impact, providing a significant heat source. The fire took over an hour to extinguish. The CID impact was spectacular with a large fireball created by number 3 engine on the right side, enveloping and burning the 720. FAA investigators estimated that 23– 25% of the aircraft's full complement of 113 people could have survived the crash. Investigators labeled their estimate of the ability to escape through dense smoke as ‘highly speculative’. As a result of analysis of the crash, the FAA instituted new flammability standards for seat cushions which required the use of fire-blocking layers, resulting in seats which performed better than those in the test. (all NASA)

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such­as­clogging­of­filters.­It­had­to­be­restored­to almost­Jet-A­before­being­introduced­into­the­engine for­burning.­This­restoration­was­called­degradation and­was­accomplished­on­the­720­using­a­device called­a­degrader.­Each­of­the­four­Pratt­&­Whitney JT3C-7­engines­had­a­degrader­built­and­installed­by GE­to­break­down­and­return­the­AMK­to­near­Jet-A quality. In­addition­to­the­AMK­research,­NASA­Langley was­ involved­ in­ a­ structural­ load­ measurement experiment,­which­included­using­instrumented­crash dummies­in­the­seats­of­the­passenger­compartment. Before­the­final­flight­in­1984,­more­than­four­years of­effort­was­expended­in­attempting­to­set­up­final impact­conditions­which­would­be­considered­to­be survivable­by­the­FAA. Over­a­series­of­forteen­flights,­General­Electric installed­ and­ tested­ four­ degraders­ (one­ on­ each engine);­the­FAA­refined­AMK,­blending,­testing, and­fueling­a­full­size­aircraft.­During­the­flights­the aircraft­made­approximately­sixty­nine­approaches, to­about­150­feet­above­the­prepared­crash­site,­under remote­control.­These­flights­were­used­to­introduce AMK­one­step­at­a­time­into­some­of­the­fuel­tanks and­engines­while­monitoring­the­performance­of­the engines.­During­those­same­flights,­NASA's­Dryden Flight­Research­Center­also­developed­the­remote piloting­techniques­necessary­for­the­Boeing­720­to fly­as­a­drone­aircraft.­An­initial­attempt­at­the­fullscale­test­was­cancelled­in­late­1983­due­to­problems with­the­uplink­connection­to­the­720;­if­the­uplink failed­the­ground­based­pilot­would­no­longer­have control­of­the­aircraft. On­the­morning­of­the­test,­the­aircraft­took­off from­Edwards­Air­Force­Base,­California,­made­a left-hand­ departure­ and­ climbed­ to­ an­ altitude­ of 2,300­ feet.­ The­ aircraft­ was­ remotely­ flown­ by NASA­research­pilot­Fitzhugh­‘Fitz’­Fulton­from­the Dryden­Remotely­Controlled­Vehicle­Facility.­All fuel­tanks­were­filled­with­a­total­of­76,000­pounds of­AMK­and­all­engines­ran­from­start-up­to­impact -­a­flight­time­was­nine­minutes­-­on­the­modified­JetA.­ It­ then­ began­ a­ descent-to-landing­ along­ the roughly­3.8-degree­glideslope­to­a­specially­prepared runway­on­the­east­side­of­Rogers­Dry­Lake,­with­the landing­gear­remaining­retracted. Passing­ the­ decision­ height­ of­ 150­ feet­ above ground­level,­the­aircraft­turned­slightly­to­the­right of­the­desired­path.­The­aircraft­entered­the­wellknown­ 707/720­ situation;­ a­ Dutch­ Roll.­ Slightly above­that­decision­point­at­which­the­pilot­was­to execute­a­go-around,­there­appeared­to­be­enough altitude­to­manoeuvre­back­to­the­centre-line­of­the runway.­The­aircraft­was­below­the­glideslope­and

below­the­desired­airspeed.­Data­acquisition­systems had­been­activated,­and­the­aircraft­was­committed to­impact. The­aircraft­contacted­the­ground,­left­wing­low, at­full­throttle,­with­the­aircraft­nose­pointing­to­the left­of­the­centre-line.­It­had­been­planned­that­the aircraft­would­land­wings-level,­with­the­throttles­set to­idle,­and­exactly­on­the­centre-line­during­the­CID, thus­allowing­the­fuselage­to­remain­intact­as­the wings­were­sliced­open­by­eight­posts­called­‘Rhinos’ due­to­the­shape­of­the­horns­welded­onto­the­posts and­cemented­into­the­runway.­However,­the­720 landed­askew,­resulting­in­one­of­the­Rhinos­slicing through­the­number­3­engine,­behind­the­burner­can, leaving­the­engine­on­the­wing­pylon.­The­same­rhino then­sliced­through­the­fuselage,­causing­a­cabin­fire when­burning­fuel­was­able­to­enter. The­cutting­of­the­number­3­engine­and­the­full throttle­situation­was­significant­as­this­was­outside the­test­envelope.­The­engine­continued­to­operate­for approximately­one­third­of­a­rotation,­degrading­the fuel­ and­ igniting­ it­ after­ impact,­ providing­ a significant­heat­source.­The­fire­and­smoke­took­over an­ hour­ to­ extinguish.­ The­ CID­ impact­ was spectacular­ with­ a­ large­ fireball­ created­ by­ the number­3­engine­on­the­right­side,­enveloping­and burning­the­720.­From­the­standpoint­of­AMK­the test­was­a­major­set-back.­For­NASA­Langley,­the data­ collected­ on­ crash-worthiness­ was­ deemed successful­and­just­as­important. The­ actual­ impact­ demonstrated­ that­ the­ antimisting­additive­tested­was­not­sufficient­to­prevent a­ post-crash­ fire­ in­ all­ circumstances,­ though­ the reduced­intensity­of­the­initial­fire­was­attributed­to the­effect­of­AMK. FAA­investigators­estimated­that­23–25%­of­the aircraft's­full­complement­of­113­people­could­have survived­the­crash.­Time­from­slide-out­to­complete smoke­obscuration­for­the­forward­cabin­was­five seconds;­for­the­aft­cabin,­it­was­20­seconds.­Total time­to­evacuate­was­15­and­33­seconds­respectively, accounting­for­the­time­necessary­to­reach­and­open the­doors­and­operate­the­slide.­Investigators­labelled their­estimate­of­the­ability­to­escape­through­dense smoke­as­being­highly­speculative. As­ a­ result­ of­ analysis­ of­ the­ crash,­ the­ FAA instituted­ new­ flammability­ standards­ for­ seat cushions­ which­ required­ the­ use­ of­ fire-blocking layers,­resulting­in­seats­which­performed­better­than those­ in­ the­ test.­ It­ also­ implemented­ a­ standard requiring­floor­proximity­lighting­to­be­mechanically fastened,­due­to­the­apparent­detachment­of­two­types of­ adhesive-fastened­ emergency­ lights­ during­ the impact.­Federal­aviation­regulations­for­flight­data

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Lufthansa operated both the 707 and 720. Closest to the camera is D-ABOG, an intercontinental 707-430. In the distance is 720-030B D-ABOH. Lufthansa operated a huge maintenance facility for both the 707 and 720 that included full powerplant inspections. (both Lufthansa)

recorder­ sampling­ rates­ for­ pitch,­ roll­ and acceleration­were­also­found­to­be­insufficient. NASA­concluded­that­the­impact­piloting­task was­of­an­unusually­high­workload,­which­might have­been­reduced­through­the­use­of­a­heads-up display,­the­automation­of­more­tasks,­and­a­higherresolution­monitor.­It­also­recommended­the­use­of­a microwave­ landing­ system­ to­ improve­ tracking accuracy­ over­ the­ standard­ instrument­ landing system.­In­practice,­the­Global­Positioning­Systembased­ Wide­Area­Augmentation­ System­ came­ to fulfil­this­role.

720B Although­preceded­into­the­air­and­in­service­by­the JT3D-powered­707-120B,­the­720B­is­described­first as­it­was­the­need­for­a­turbofan-powered­version­of

the­720­to­match­the­Convair­990­which­brought­Pratt &­ Whitney­ to­ develop­ the­ TT3D­ turbofan­ and Boeing­ to­ offer­ this­ turbofan­ not­ only­ for­ a­ 720 version­but­also­for­707-120­and­-320­derivatives. Having­ ordered­ 707-123s­ in­ November­ 1955 when­ it­ became­ the­ second­ customer­ for­ Boeing jetliners,­American­Airlines­amended­its­order­in­July 1958,­canceling­five­JT3C-­powered­707-123s­but ordering­twenty-five­like-engined­720-023s. Notwithstanding­ its­ 720­ orders,­ American Airlines­remained­interested­in­the­slightly­smaller 990­which­Convair­was­aggressively­marketing­with General­ Electric­ CJ-805-21­ engines­ with­ a­ fan mounted­behind­the­turbine.­Fearing­that­American Airlines­would­reduce­or­cancel­altogether­its­720 order­if­Convair­succeeded­in­promoting­its­990­for luxury­high-speed­service­to­complement­standard but­slower­707-120­service,­Boeing­felt­that­it­needed to­have­a­turbofan-powered­airliner.­To­achieve­this goal,­ the­ Seattle­ manufacturer­ turned­ to­ Pratt­ & Whitney­which,­in­mid-February­1958,­had­initiated the­self-financed­definition­phase­for­a­JT3D­turbofan­derivative­of­the­JT3C­turbojet­with­a­two-stage fan­ and­ single-stage­ stator­ mounted­ ahead­ of­ the axial-flow­compressor. With­its­engineering­staff­reacting­enthusiastically to­the­greater­power,­lower­fuel­consumption,­and

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reduced­ noise­ promised­ by­ turbofan­ engines, American­Airlines­ordered­twenty-five­Convair­990s in­October­1958.­It­also­forcefully­pushed­Boeing into­ accelerating­ its­ development­ of­ turbofanpowered­versions­of­its­707­and­720­and­offering these­derivatives­at­bargain­basement­prices.­After haggling­with­Boeing­for­nearly­a­year,­American finally­renegotiated­its­contracts­to­have­its­707-123s and­ 720-023s­ either­ re-engined­ with­ JT3Ds­ or delivered­with­these­turbofans.­Availability­of­JT3Dpowered­Boeing­jetliners­effectively­ended­Convair’s hopes­ to­ remain­ an­ effective­ participant­ in­ the transport­aircraft­business.­ Only­thirty-seven­Convair­990s­were­built­while Boeing­went­on­to­build­644­JT3D-powered­707120s,­-320Bs,­and­-320Cs­for­airlines,­to­re-engine forty-nine­707-120s­and­720s,­and­to­deliver­126 JT3D-powered­ derivatives­ to­ government­ and military­customers.­For­Boeing,­the­development­of EL AL launched an extensive advertising campaign to promote its new 707 service that later promoted its 720 flights. This late 1960 image appeared in advertisements and also as a postcard issued by its New York office. The airline also started to promote the country as a tourist destination to grab a share of the emerging affinity tour market.

Boeing 720 4X-ABB, was operating as EL AL Flight LY432 on 18 February 1969, a scheduled service from Amsterdam to Tel Aviv, with a stop at Zürich, Switzerland. The aircraft was taxiing for takeoff at Zürich when it was attacked by a squad of four armed Palestinian terrorists, members of the Lebanese-based Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine. Several of the crew members were injured during the attack and the airliner was severely damaged. The co-pilot, Yoram Peres, died of his wounds a month later. An undercover Israeli skymarshal, Mordechai Rahamim, opened fire at the attackers, killing one. (both EL AL)

the­720B­to­meet­American­Airlines’­demands­had proven­an­expensive­undertaking,­but­it­ended­up firming­up­its­position­as­the­world’s­foremost­jetliner manufacturer.­ The­ first­ JT3D-powered­ 720-023B­ flew­ on­ 6 October­1960,­three­and­a­half­months­after­the­first JT3D-powered­ 707-123B.­ The­ Approved­ Type Certificate­for­the­720,­ATC­4A28,­was­amended­on March­3,­1961­to­cover­the­720B,­and­Boeing­went on­to­build­89­JT3D-powered­720Bs­for­ten­airlines. The­720B­went­into­service­on­12­March­1961,­and the­ last­ 720B­ was­ delivered­ to­ Western­ on­ 20 September­1967. In­ March­ and­ April­ 1962­ EL­ AL­ accepted delivery­ of­ two­ Boeing­ 720Bs.­ This­ acquisition directly­related­to­the­Arab­boycott.­After­the­1956 Sinai­War,­ in­ order­ to­ reach­ Johannesburg,­ South Africa,­ without­ flying­ over­ or­ too­ close­ to­Arabcontrolled­ airspace,­ EL­ AL­ had­ to­ charter

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piston-engine­aircraft­from­other­airlines­that­took­a circuitous­route­via­North­and­Central­Africa.­The 720Bs­had­the­necessary­performance­to­allow­EL AL­to­resume­flying­to­South­Africa­with­its­own aircraft­ -­ via­ an­ exaggerated­ route­ stopping­ at Teheran,­Iran­-­and­they­were­chosen­for­that­reason. With­ powerful­ Pratt­ &­ Whitney­ engines­ and­ an improved­wing­over­that­of­the­707,­the­720B­could take­off­from­‘hot­and­high’­Teheran­with­sufficient fuel­and­payload­for­the­desired­flights. As­soon­as­possible,­on­14­June,­the­720Bs­took over ­service­from­Tel­Aviv­east­to­Teheran,­then­flew southwest­across­the­Persian­Gulf­to­Central­Africa, adding­2,400­miles­to­the­trip­to­Johannesburg.­A direct­route­south­via­the­narrow­Gulf­of­Eilat,­over the­Red­Sea­straits­and­then­to­South­Africa­was­not feasible­because­of­Egyptian­hostility.­This­sixteen hour­ endurance­ test­ was­ one­ of­ the­ world’s­ most circuitous­air­routes,­with­some­twenty-five­heading changes­to­prevent­overflying­hostile­areas.­Radio aids­were­sparse. ­High­elevation­and­temperatures, plus­a­heavy­fuel­uplift,­limited­aircraft­performance and­thus­the­payload.­Double­crews­had­to­staff­the aircraft.­To­achieve­the­break-even­point,­the­route had­to­show­an­85%­load­factor. Starting­ with­ the­ 1962­ summer­ schedule,­ the 720B­also­replaced­the­Britannia­on­the­Tel­Aviv­to Europe­routes. ­This­move­secured­a­large­slice­of­the international­travel­market,­and­the­percentage­of non-Jewish­passengers­edged­closer­to­40%.­EL­AL gained­acceptance­not­just­as­an­ethnic­and­immigrant carrier,­ but­ also­ as­ a­ successful­ and­ established international­mover­of­passengers­and­cargo. In­1965,­to­increase­efficiency­and­performance of­its­720Bs,­EL­AL­replaced­the­original­JT3D-1 turbofans­with­more­powerful­JT3D-3Bs.­This­also enabled­standardisation­with­two­Pratt­&­Whitneypowered­ 707-320B­ aircraft,­ ordered­ for­ delivery staring­in­late­1965. During­ the­ early­ and­ mid-1960s­ EL­ AL developed­the­practice­of­maximizing­the­utilisation

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of­each­of­its­aircraft.­In­doing­so,­EL­AL­had­to­work with­ a­ very­ small­ fleet­ of­ only­ seven­ aircraft­ to service­a­far-ranging­network­from­New­York­in­the west­ to­ Teheran­ in­ the­ east,­ and­ south­ to Johannesburg;­and­it­had­to­overcome­limits­on­-­and eventually­the­elimination­of­-­passenger­operations on­the­Jewish­Sabbath­and­certain­Jewish­holidays. EL­ AL­ achieved­ one­ of­ the­ highest­ aircraft utilization­rates­in­the­industry.­To­illustrate,­on­a typical­schedule­for­a­single­720B­during­summer 1964,­the­aircraft­would­operate­between­07:00­on Monday­and­16:30­Wednesday,­Tel­Aviv­time,­four roundtrips:­ to­ Zürich,­ Rome,­ Teheran­ and,­ via­ a European­gateway,­to­New­York.­During­this­fifteyseven­and­a­half­hour­period­the­aircraft­accumulated about­forty­hours­flying­time.­It­was­then­rolled­into the­hangar­for­an­overnight­maintenance­check­to­be ready­for­an­early­flight­the­following­morning. Boeing­707s­normally­spent­about­thirty­hours away­from­Tel­Aviv­on­the­New­York­run­via­Europe (except­ for­ the­ occasional­ nonstop­ flight).­ They typically­would­leave­in­the­early­morning­and­return the­next­day­in­the­late­afternoon­for­an­overnight maintenance­ check­ before­ departing­ again­ on­ a similar­schedule­the­following­day. EL­AL’s­aircraft­utilisation­was­such­that­it­had­a reserve­ aircraft­ factor­ of­ almost­ zero­ or,­ as­ one employee­put­it, ‘one-half an airplane for three days a week, and none for the remaining four’. During­the Jewish­ Passover­ holiday­ in­ 1964,­ 707/720B utilization­built­up­to­an­astonishing­average­of­fifteen hours­per­day.­Nevertheless,­EL­AL­still­managed­to maintain­an­enviable­on-time­record­and­high­safety standards. 707-120B While­the­720B­was­under­development,­the­merits of­ incorporating­ the­ ‘glove’­ wing­ leading-edge extension­and­turbofan­engines­into­the­larger­707— 120B­became­increasingly­obvious­to­Boeing­and American­Airlines.­Other­Boeing­customers­were­not

CS-TBT of Transportes Aereos Portugueses - TAP - named 'Humberto Delgado' in the original livery. (author’s collection)

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200 CS-TBC of Air Portugal. (author’s collection)

long­to­fully­appreciate­the­potential­offered­by­these upgrades,­ especially­ in­ terms­ of­ improved­ field performance­and­reduced­fuel­consumption.­It­was not­surprising­therefore­that­orders­for­the­resulting 707-120B­version­quickly­mounted. The­ first­ of­ these­ aircraft,­ a­ 707-123B­ for American­Airlines,­flew­on­22­June­1960,­and­ATC 4A21­was­amended­on­1­March­1961­to­cover­the 120B­ in­ its­ long­ body­ version­ required­ by­ most airlines.­An­additional­amendment­was­approved­on 24­ July­ 1961­ to­ cover­ the­ short­ body­ 707-138B version­ for­ QANTAS.­ Aircraft­ covered­ by­ these amendments­ included­ seventy-eight­ new-build aircraft­(thirty-one­-123Bs­for­American,­forty-one­131Bs­for­TWA,­and­six­-138Bs­for­QANTAS)­as well­as­thirty-nine­-120s­modified­and­re-engined­for Pan­American­(five­-121s­as­-121Bs­and­one­-139­as a­-139B),­American­(twenty-three­-123s­as­-123Bs), QANTAS­(seven­-138s­as­-138Bs),­and­the­USAF (three­-153/VC-137As­as­-153Bs/VC-137Bs).­

707-320B The­grerater­thrust­and­reduced­fuel­consumption­of the­JT3D­were­possibly­of­greater­value­to­heavy, long-range­airliners.­However,­having­pioneered­the use­of­JT3D­with­its­707-120B­and­720B,­Boeing was­outpaced­by­Douglas­when­it­came­to­using­these turbofans­ to­ power­ long-range­ aircraft.­ Philipine Airlines­ became­ the­ first­ customer­ for­ JT3D— powered­DC—8­Series­50­when­it­ordered­two­in May­1959.­Douglas­flew­the­first­Series­50­on­20 December­1960­and­obtained­certification­for­this Series­30-derivative­on1­May­1961.­The­first­JT3Dpowered­Boeing­707-320Bs­were­ordered­by­Pan­Am only­in­February­1961,­and­this­variant­first­flew­on 31­ January­ 1962.­The­Approved­Type­ Certificate 4A26­was­amended­by­the­FAA­on­31­May­1962­to cover­the­Model­320B,­and­Pan­Am­started­using­it next­day. Apart­from­being­powered­by­JT3Ds­turbofans instead­ of­ JT4A­ turbojets,­ Model­ 320Bs­ differed

from­Model­320s­in­having­wings­of­increased­span and­area­as­the­result­of­the­addition­of­extended outboard­panels­with­curved­wing­tips,­leading-edge extended­forward­between­the­fuselage­and­inboard engines,­ and­ revised­ trailing-edge­ flaps.­ Late production­ aircraft,­ referred­ to­ as­Advanced­ 707320Bs,­added­two­segments­of­Kruger­leading-edge f1aps,­ further­ modifications­ to­ the­ trailing-edge f1aps,­and­revised­fan­cowlings­with­larger­blow-in doors­to­increase­engine­airflow­on­take-off.­With­all these­ modifications,­ maximum­ certificated­ gross take-off­weight­was­increased­to­335,000­pounds­. Four­aircraft­built­for­Northwest­Orient­Airlines with­the­707-351B­(SCD)­model­designation­were the­first­707s­since­the­367-80­to­be­fitted­with­side cargo­doors­(hence­the­SCD­designation).­Located forward­of­the­wing­on­the­port­side­of­the­fuselage for­loading­and­unloading­cargo­on­the­main­deck, the­upward-hinging­door­measured­91x134­inches. Although­ the­ 707-351B­ (SCD)s­ were­ ordered­ as convertible­ aircraft­ and­ could­ carry­ freight, passengers,­ or­ mixed­ passenger/cargo­ loads,­ they lacked­ the­ reinforced­ flooring­ of­ the­ more­ fully modified­707-320Cs.­The­first­707-351B­(SCD)­flew on­15­May­1963,­nearly­three­months­after­the­first 707-351C­for­Pan­American. Including­ the­ four­ hybrid­ -351B­ (SCD)s­ for Northwest,­Boeing­built­a­total­of­170­Model­320Bs for­airlines­customers­with­aircraft­for­late­customers being­identified­by­alpha-numeric­designations­after the­ manufacturer­ ran­ out­ of­ two-digit­ customer numbers.­Aircraft­built­for­airlines­included­three 707-312Bs­for­Malaysian­Singapore,­sixty­-321Bs for­Pan­American,­ten­-323Bs­for­American,­eight­328Bs­for­Air­France,­twelve­-330Bs­for­Lufthansa, two­-336Bs­for­BOAC,­three­-337Bs­for­Air­India, two­-344Bs­for­South­African­Airways,­six­-351Bs and­four­-351B­(SCD)s­for­Northwest,­three­-358Bs for­El­Al,­two­-359Bs­for­Avianca,­seven­-382Bs­for TAP,­ two­ -384Bs­ for­ Olympic,­ four­ -387Bs­ for Aerolineas­Argentinas,­and­four­-5J6Bs­for­CAAC.

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In­addition,­Boeing­built­four­aircraft­for­non-­airline customers­(two­707-353Bs­as­presidential­VC-137Cs for­ the­ USAF,­ one­ -3F3B­ for­ the­ government­ of Argentina,­ and­ one­ -3L6B­ for­ the­ Malaysian government). The­last­passenger-only­707­to­be­delivered­to­an airline­ was­ S/N­ 20457,­ a­ 707-336B­ which­ was handed­over­to­BOAC­on­17­April­1971.­A­number of­ passenger-configured­ 707-320Bs­ were­ later converted­as­freighters,­while­others­were­fitted­with a­new­requirement;­hushkits.­­­ In­the­early­seventies,­the­entry­into­service­of wide­bodied­aircraft­powered­by­substantially­quieter high-bypass-ratio­turbofans­rendered­operations­by noisy­ first­ generation­ jetliners­ even­ more conspicuous.­ Accordingly,­ Boeing­ undertook­ to develop­ revised­ JT3D­ nacelles­ for­ its­ still-inproduction­ 707.­ These­ nacelles­ were­ tested­ on­ a 707-331B­ (S/N­ 20059,­ N8730)­ leased­ back­ from TWA­ between­ January­ and­ July­ 1973.­ However, Boeing­did­not­proceed­with­this­scheme,­as­airlines showed­little­interest­in­noise­reduction­until­the­early eighties. After­production­of­civil­707s­ended­in­1978,­the imposition­of­new­noise­emission­rules­by­the­FAA under­FAR­36­Stage­2­and­the­International­Civil Aviation­Organization­Annex­16­chapter­2­suddenly threatened­restriction­or­grounding­of­ageing­but­still sprightly­ 707s,­ as­ well­ as­ other­ first-generation jetliners).­ To­ allow­ these­ aircraft­ to­ remain­ in operation­with­less­wealthy­airlines­that­could­not afford­new­generation­jetliners,­several­companies undertook­ to­ develop­ engine­ hushkits­ for­ JT3D powered­707s Most­successful­of­these­hushkit­conversions­was that­developed­by­Comtran­International,­Inc.­in­San Antonio,­Texas.­Using­Rohr­Industries’­DynaRohr liners­and­featuring­extended­intake­and­fan­exhaust ducts,­ Comtran­ Q-707­ nacelles­ reduced­ the­ 100 EPNdB­take-off­footprint­for­a­fully­loaded­707­from 6.4­to­3.2­miles.­

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To­reduce­noise­emission­still­further­and­bring 707s­in­compliance­with­Stage­3­noise­requirements, Quiet­ Skies,­ Inc.­ and­ Burbank­ Aeronautical Corporation­II­were­jointly­marketing­their­Stage­III hushkit­in­the­late­nineties.­A­707-3J6B­(S/N­20717, N717QS)­ fitted­ with­ these­ hushkit­ nacelles­ was demonstrated­at­the­SBAC­Air­Show­in­Farnborough in­September­1998.

707-320C Combining­ the­ basic­ airframe­ and­ powerplant installation­of­the­707-320B,­with­all­upgrades­being similarly­introduced­during­the­course­of­production, with­the­main­deck­cargo­door­of­the­707—351B (SCD)­and­a­reinforced­cargo­floor­with­tie-­downs, the­ 707-320C­ was­ built­ both­ as­ a­ convertible passenger/cargo­aircraft­and­as­a­pure­freighter.­The first­707-321Cs­were­ordered­by­Pan­American­in April­1962,­three­months­after­rival­DC-8-50CFs­had been­ordered­by­Air­Canada. The­passenger/cargo­convertible­707­first­flew­on 19­February­1963­and­the­707-320C­was­certificated under­ an­ amendment­ to­ATC­ 4A26­ on­ 30­April. Following­the­launching­of­the­wide-body­747,­most airlines­ordered­convertible­707-320Cs­in­preference to­ all-passenger­ -320Bs.­ Production­ of­ the convertible­ aircraft­ thus­ greatly­ surpassed­ that­ of earlier­passenger­variants.­In­the­end,­Boeing­built 305­Model­320Cs­for­commercial­customers. Another­707-320C­and­a­-385C­were­initially retained­ by­ Boeing­ as­ development­ aircraft.­ In addition,­ Boeing­ built­ 29­ Model­ 320Cs­ for government­and­military­customers. Most­airlines­ordered­their­-320Cs­in­convertible passenger/cargo­ configuration,­ but­ a­ number­ of customers­ ordered­ their­ aircraft­ in­ all-cargo configuration­with­all­passenger­amenities,­such­as galleys,­ lavatories,­ main­ cabin­ windows,­ and emergency­oxygen­equipment­deleted.­This­enabled the­operating­weight­empty­of­all-cargo­configured aircraft­ to­ be­ 12,800­ pounds,­ less­ than­ that­ of­ a

OD-AFX of Trans Mediterranean Airways - TMA. This 707-327C crashed at Beirut on 23 May 1979 during a training flight. (author’s collection)

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202 N106BV in partial Buffalo Airways colours. The airline was founded in Waco, Texas in 1982, and operated mainly as a cargo operation until it ceased trading in 1998. (author’s collection)

convertible­aircraft­fitted­out­for­passenger­operation and­19,600­pounds­less­than­that­of­a­convertible aircraft­fitted­out­for­cargo­operation.­Payload­weight for­ all-cargo­ -320Cs­ was­ increased­ in­ the corresponding­proportion. Converted­from­the­CFM56­test­707-700­aircraft, the­last­707-320C­was­delivered­to­the­Moroccan Government­on­10­March­1982,­23­years­and­seven months­after­Pan­American­had­taken­delivery­of­the first­707-121. Not­counting­the­ex-airlines­aircraft­operated­by the­ USAF­ and­ the­ USN­ with­ C-18­ and­ 13-8 designations,­Boeing­included­196­passenger/­cargo convertible­and­all-freight­-320Cs­in­its­list­of­active aircraft­ as­ of­ 30­ June­ 1998.­ Many­ of­ them­ were operated­by­air­forces­and­government­agencies.

707-700 Powered­ by­ four­ 20,000-pounds­ class­ CFM International­CFM56­high-bypass-ratio­turbofans,­the 707-700­was­an­engine­development­aircraft­using­a 707-320C­airframe.­It­first­flew­on­November­27, 1979­ and­ was­ then­ presented­ as­ the­ potential prototype­for­either­re-­engining­existing­707—320B and­-320C­airframes­or­for­a­new­production­version. However,­ without­ a­ costly­ fuselage­ stretch,­ wing

redesign,­ and­ strengthened­ and­ lengthened undercarriage,­the­use­of­CFM56s­proved­unjustified for­new­production­aircraft.­Moreover,­re-engining standard­ airframes­ was­ of­ little­ interest­ to­ major carriers,­which­by­then­were­standardizing­on­later generation­aircraft,­and­was­too­expensive­for­the smaller­ airlines­ building­ up­ their­ fleet­ with­ 707320B/320Cs­ phased­ out­ by­ their­ wealthier competitors.­Accordingly,­plans­to­re-­engine­existing aircraft­or­to­build­new­CFM56-engined­707s­were dropped­ rapidly.­ Nevertheless,­ experience­ gained with­ the­ experimental­ CFM56-engined­ 707-700 proved­valuable­for­Boeing­as­this­high-bypass-ratio engine­was­adopted­as­the­standard­powerplant­for the­737-300­and­later­variants­of­the­Boeing­twinjet and­for­re-engined­KC-135s.

Proposed 707 Models Then­more­familiar­with­the­US­military­contractual practices,­which­often­saw­manufacturers’­initiatives in­proposing­new­models­rewarded­with­‘cost-plusfee’­production­contracts,­Boeing­also­came­up­with a­bewildering­number­of­proposed­707­derivatives. As­most­of­these­proposals­entailed­major­redesign, it­ was­ fortunate­ for­ the­ financial­ health­ of­ the company­that­none­found­customers­as,­having­to­be

9V-BBB of Singapore Airlines. (author’s collection)

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commercially­priced­as­opposed­to­sold­on­‘costplus-­fee’­as­were­military­derivatives,­their­success would­have­created­a­serious­fiscal­drain. Often­ ignored­ by­ historians,­ some­ of­ these proposals­ provide­ interesting­ hindsight­ on­ the development­of­the­first­generation­of­jetliners­and are­thus­worthy­of­being­briefly­described.­They­are listed­in­chronological­order­to­show­trends­evolving between­the­mid-fifties­and­the­early­seventies. Proposed­ shortly­ after­ the­ Conway-powered intercontinental­ 707-420­ matured,­ the­ 707-520 designation­first­appeared­in­a­preliminary­layout dated­9­March­1956.­It­then­called­for­a­707-120 development­with­248,000-pounds­­gross­weight­and Rolls-Royce­ Conway­ R.Co.10­ engines.­ This proposal­died­an­early­death­as­US­carriers­were­not interested­in­a­‘domestic’­aircraft­powered­by­British engines,­while­airlines­in­the­Commonwealth­found the­Conway-powered­707-420­more­attractive­for intercontinental­operations.­Equally­unsuccessful,­a later­707-520B­layout­was­prepared­for­a­707-320B derivative­with­a­12-foot­longer­fuselage­and­four 21,000­pounds­Pratt­&­Whitney­JT3D-5A­turbofans. In­ the­ spring­ of­ 1956,­ Boeing­ studied­ two configurations­ to­ be­ powered­ by­ four­ proposed Bristol­511­engines.­Neither­the­248,000-pound­707-

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620­based­on­the­707-120­with­a­ten-foot­fuselage extension­nor­the­296,000-pound­707-720­derived from­the­707-320­got­the­nod­from­airlines­as­the­511 remained­a­‘paper’­engine. Illustrated­by­a­preliminary­layout­dated­8­April 1957,­ the­ 707-320-101­ was­ a­ proposed­ 707-320 development­ with­ an­ enlarged­ lower­ lobe­ for additional­passenger­seating­forward­of­the­wing­and cargo­aft­of­the­main­gear­well.­Reflecting­the­elitist attitude­still­held­by­Boeing­engineers­that­jet­airliners would­be­used­for­premium­service­while­‘steerage’ passengers­would­be­flown­in­obsolete­propliners, this­ double-deck­ aircraft­ was­ laid-out­ to accommodate­up­to­199­first-class­passengers,­with 159­in­the­five-abreast­upper­deck­and­40­in­the­fourabreast­lower­deck.­An­alternate­cabin­configuration provided­ for­ 200­ coach-class­ passengers­ in­ sixabreast­ seating­ on­ the­ upper­ deck­ and­ 50­ coach passengers­in­five-abreast­seating­on­the­lower­deck. With­all­first-class­accommodation­in­just-introduced, top-of-the-line­Lockheed­1649A­Starliners­providing for­only­62­seats­in­a­four-abreast­arrangement­while all-economy­Douglas­DC-6Bs­sat­102­passengers five­abreast,­airlines­reacted­negatively­to­the­overly capacious­double-deck­Boeing­jetliner­proposal. At­the­beginning­of­1960,­with­the­707-120­and

BOEING 707-320-101

© G.M.Simons

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204

VT-DMN of Air India was a 707-437 named Kanxhwnjunga (K-2) after the world’s second highest mountain. Sadly it crashed on Mont Blanc, Europe’s highest peak, on 24 January 1966, sixteen years after the loss of another Air India aircraft - Lockheed Constellation VT-CQP crashed at almost exactly the same location. Also visible in the picture of a wet Renton ramp this day in March 1961 are 707s of Air France, Braniff, Western American Airlines and Aer Lingus. (John Stride Collection)

707-320­well­established­in­revenue­service­and­the Conway-powered­707-420­and­lighter­720­about­to enter­ service,­ Boeing­ set­ its­ sights­ on­ developing larger­707­derivatives­so­as­to­achieve­lower­seatmile­costs.­Thus,­the­707-520-X­was­to­be­a­double deck­aircraft­with­low-mounted­wings­and­a­fuselage length­of­191­feet­7­inches,­while­the­707-520-2X was­to­be­similarly­configured­but­with­a­shorter fuselage.­Proposed­at­the­same­time,­the­707-520-X3 was­to­be­a­double­deck­aircraft­with­high-mounted wings­spanning­142­feet­5­inches,­the­same­as­the 707-320­and­-420,­but­with­fuselage­length­of­144 feet­2­inches.­In­the­real­world,­airlines­judged­these proposals­to­offer­excessive­capacity­while­the­lack of­suitable­engines­rendered­further­development­of the­707­only­of­academic­value. In­late­1964­Douglas­announced­plans­to­develop stretched­ versions­ of­ the­ DC-8­ with­ all-economy seating­ for­ up­ to­ 259­ passengers,­ and­ once­ again Boeing­was­caught­wrong-footed. Previously­Boeing­had­derived­much­ill-placed pride­from­the­fact­that­its­707­had­a­shorter­and lighter­landing­gear­than­the­rival­DC-8­and­that­its first­ jet­ airliner­ had­ a­ convenient­ level­ fuselage attitude­while­on­the­ground­whereas­the­DC-8­had an­unsightly­tail-high­attitude.­Later­Boeing­realised that­Douglas,­long­a­proponent­of­stretching­basic designs­ to­ increase­ seating,­ had­ wisely­ chosen­ a

longer­gear­and­tail-up­attitude­to­endow­its­DC-8 with­much­growth­potential.­Unable­to­match­the DC-8-61/63­capacity­without­an­expensive­redesign of­the­main­landing­gear­and­inner­wing­section­of its­707,­Boeing­conceded­this­segment­of­the­market to­ Douglas­ while­ concentrating­ its­ activities­ on developing­the­2707,­a­supersonic­transport­aircraft­the­aborted­American­SST­-­and­the­large­capacity 747­(then­primarily­seen­as­a­military­freighter­but also­ capable­ of­ being­ a­ ‘Passenger­ Insurance’­ jet airliner­ in­ the­ event­ that­ the­ supersonic­ transport failed­to­materialise,­which,­of­course,­it­did. This­is­emblematic­of­the­‘Boeing­Knows­Best’ attitude­demonstrated­by­many­in­the­company,­but hard­financial­success­did­come­easily­for­the­Seattle manufacturer.­Often­attributed­to­a­supposed­Boeing philosophy­to­offer­many­different­variants­of­the basic­design­to­meet­different­airline­requirements, the­profusion­of­707­and­720­models­was­actually­the result­ of­ competitive­ pressures.­ Without­ a­ doubt Boeing­financial­officers­and­its­bankers­would­have preferred­to­see­the­company­limit­itself­to­offering models­that­retained­the­wings­and­fuselage­crosssection­ of­ the­ Model­ 717/KC-135­ but­ providing different­seating­capacities­through­changing­fuselage lengths.­ This­ proved­ to­ be­ impossible­ when­ the original­ design­ itself­ was­ wrong­ and­ the­ airlines overwhelmingly­favoured­the­wider­fuselage­cross-

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205 Abel AG Airways was a short-lived Belgian carrier of the late 1970s, with 707-351C OO-ABA seen here. Part of the Abelag Aviation Group, the company operated flights to Mediterranean destinations. (author’s collection)

section­of­the­proposed­DC-8.­The­resulting­wider fuselage­developed­for­the­707­was­then­retained­as the­company­standard­until­the­wide-body­747­was developed.­ For­ the­ 707/720­ series,­ this­ constant section­fuselage­was­offered­in­four­lengths­which became­an­inexpensive­way­to­offer­accommodation to­meet­customer­requirements,­ranging­from­88­firstclass­passengers­in­the­short­fuselage­707-138­to­219 passengers­ in­ the­ 707-320C­ in­ a­ high-density configuration.­Even­the­addition­of­a­reinforced­main deck­flooring­and­a­main­deck­cargo­door­to­obtain the­707-320C­was­a­relatively­inexpensive­exercise.. However,­whereas­changes­in­fuselage­length, cabin­ configuration,­ and­ provision­ for­ carrying freight­on­the­main­deck­all­proved­relatively­easy and­ required­ limited­ additional­ investments,­ the engineering,­ manufacturing,­ and­ certification­ for wings­ of­ varying­ span,­ area,­ and­ plan­ proved expensive­for­Boeing.­Its­main­competitor,­Douglas, had­planned­its­DC-8­with­growth­in­mind­and­was thus­able­to­keep­to­a­minimum­changes­to­the­wings while­its­jetliner­grew­from­the­265,000-pound­Series 10­to­the­355,000-pound­Series­63AF.­Conversely, not­counting­changes­in­high-lift­devices,­Boeing ended­up­having­to­offer­five­wing­configurations­for its­first­generation­of­jetliners­which­grew­from­the 190,000-pound­367-80­to­the­334,000-pound­707-

320C.­ Bluntly­ put,­ Boeing­ had­ lacked­ a­ sufficient understanding­of­airline­operations­when­it­undertook to­develop­a­jet­airliner,­so­it­was­constantly­forced to­play­catch-up­with­what­was­essentially­an­inferior design­ to­ moves­ by­ the­ more­ savvy­ Douglas­ and Convair,­which­were­thoroughly­familiar­with­the needs­and­preferences­of­the­airlines.­ To­its­credit,­the­Boeing­management­was­willing to­make­up­for­errors­resulting­from­this­deficient understanding­ of­ the­ airline­ business.­ While­ this willingness­drastically­affected­the­financial­bottom line­for­several­years,­it­enabled­Boeing­to­acquire the­experience­on­which­to­build­its­future­supremacy as­a­jetliner­manufacturer.­Significantly,­Boeing­did so­by­never­repeating­the­costly­errors­of­having­to design­ too­ many­ different­ versions­ of­ its­ aircraft. Notably,­1,832­of­its­next­jetliner,­the­727­trijet,­were built­ with­ only­ two­ different­ cabin­ lengths­ and common­wings.­The­367-80/­707/­720­lessons­had been­well­learnt. By­the­early­seventies,­just­as­the­large-capacity 747­entered­service­and­funding­for­the­supersonic 2707-300­was­terminated­by­Congress,­US­airlines experienced­their­worst­downturn­since­the­1930s. As­ airlines­ sought­ to­ recover­ by­ providing­ more direct­ point-to-point­ services­ and­ increasing frequencies,­Boeing­again­realised­that­an­aircraft smaller­than­the­747­and­more­similarly­sized­to­the

N7231T. On 8 February 1989, while operating as Independent Air Flight 1851, an American charter flight from Bergamo, Italy to Punta Cana, Dominican Republic, struck Pico Alto while on approach to Santa Maria Airport in the Azores for a scheduled stopover. The aircraft was destroyed, with the loss of all 144 on board. (author’s collection)

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206

UK ‘Second Force’ carrier British Caledonian operated a number of 707s, G-AWWD is seen here landing at London Stansted on 4 May 1973. (author)

stretched­DC-8­might­be­needed.­However,­it­was­too late­to­develop­such­a­derivative­and­no­further­707 developments­were­undertaken.­

Swing-Tail Proposals A­little­known­planned­development­of­the­freighter 707­derivatives­were­a­pair­of­designs­fitted­with swing­ tails.­ In­ 1958,­ when­ the­ United­ States­Air Force­became­painfully­aware­that­its­Military­Air Transport­Service­(MATS)­was­without­jet­transports, Boeing­actively­promoted­707­derivatives­suitable not­only­to­military­operations­but­also­well­tailored to­commercial­air­freight­operations. The­367-80­had­been­designed­with­side­cargo doors,­but­Boeing­was­initially­unable­to­attract­any USAF­ Military­ Air­ Transport­ Service­ (MATS) interest­in­a­transport­version­of­the­KC-135.­To­spark Air­Force­interest­in­a­KC-135/707­military­transport derivative­while­offering­to­airlines­a­707­version better­suited­to­air­cargo­operations,­Boeing­studied a­number­of­Model­707­and­Model­717­derivatives fitted­with­the­tail­either­swinging­sideways­or­tilting upward­to­provide­unfettered­access­to­the­main­deck. In­ a­ memorandum­ dated­ 25­ June­ 1958,­ Boeing

redesignated­the­707­commercial­cargo­derivatives as­Model­735s,­while­military­cargo­derivatives­of either­the­Model­707­or­Model­717­became­Model 738s.­ Representative­ sideways-swinging­ tail­ and upward-tilting­tail­versions­are­illustrated.­ Then,­ early­ in­ 1960,­ President­ Dwight­ D. Eisenhower­approved­a­Pentagon­decision­to­transfer a­proportion­of­MATS­traffic­to­the­civil­operators. The­decision­meant­there­would­likely­be­a­doublingup­ of­ the­ military­ transport­ business­ that­ was currently­being­passed­on­to­civil­US­carriers.­The overall­recommendation­submitted­by­the­Secretary of­Defence­was­that­MATS­should­withdraw­from routine­transport­operations­and­a­programme­to­this effect­was­to­be­completed­by­1­May­1960. Amongst­the­courses­of­action­in­the­programme was­ one­ to­ the­ effect­ that­ suitable­ arrangements should­be­made­for­Government­participation­in­the cost­of­developing­long-range­turbine-powered­allcargo­aircraft.­This­meant­that­Douglas,­Boeing­and Convair­were­able­to­go­ahead­with­the­production of­freight­versions­of­their­turbojet­transports. This­in­turn­tied­in­with­a­programme­proposed by­Senator­Almer­Stillwell­‘Mike’­Monroney­who N29798 of InterAm. (author’s collection)

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207

BOEING 735/738

was­suggesting­that­a­series­of­ten-year­loans­to­be guaranteed­by­the­Civil­Aeronautics­Board­for­the purchase­by­operators­of­approved­all-cargo­aircraft following­the­transfer­of­much­of­MATS­­work­to­the civil­carriers.­The­plans­never­really­came­to­fruition from­military­or­civil­customers,­and­Models­735­and 738­remained­stillborn.

© G.M.Simons

For­many­less­­mainstream­American­carriers, such­ as­Airlift­ International,­ Flying­Tiger,­ Pacific Northern,­ Western­ and­ World­ Airways,­ the convertible­707-320C­became­available­at­the­right time,­ as­ the­ US­ military­ involvement­ in­Vietnam resulted­in­defence­contracts­to­carry­personnel­and non-combat­ cargo­ between­ the­ United­ States­ and

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208 MEA - Middle Eastern Airways - flew a number of 707s, with OD-AFL being shown. The aircraft was based at Paris-Orly following the Isreali occupation of the Lebanon in 1982, and was destroyed by shelling in Beirut on 21 August 1985. (author’s collection)

bases­ in­ Southeast­ Asia.­ However,­ experience showed­that­when­carrying­cargo,­707-320Cs­often ‘cubed­out’­as­average­freight­density­was­relatively low.­It­was­not­surprising­therefore­that­a­number­of carriers­followed­the­lead­of­Saturn­Airways­who, after­ obtaining­ three­ 707-379Cs,­ switched­ to stretched­DC-8-61Fs­which­had­a­larger­main­deck.

‘One careful owner...’ Established­707­and­720­customers­began­trading delivery­positions­fairly­early­in­the­game­in­order­to build­up­their­jet­airliner­fleet­according­to­traffic demand.­That­process­began­when­TWA,­which­had been­frustrated­by­Howard­Hughes­during­the­initial buying­ phase,­ was­ forced­ to­ release­ six­ 707-331 delivery­positions,­and­these­aircraft­were­delivered new­to­Pan­American­in­1959-1960.­TWA­then­had to­make­up­for­its­inadequate­fleet­by­leasing­two Northwest­Orient­Airlines­720-051Bs­in­1961-1962 before­ taking­ over­ two­ World­ Airways­ delivery positions­for­707-373Cs­in­1963. The­number­of­transactionsof­this­nature­between established­Boeing­operators­was,­at­first,­relatively limited.­However,­when­the­larger,­healthier­carriers increased­capacity­by­placing­wide-bodied­aircraft into­service,­707s­and­720s­became­available­in­fastincreasing­numbers.­At­first,­most­were­taken­up­by

established­operators­which­used­these­pre-owned aircraft­to­build­up­their­fleets­at­minimum­costs. Later­on,­these­first-generation­machines­were­more and­more­frequently­acquired­by­new­entrants. For­the­720,­the­era­of­‘only­one­careful­owner since­new’­got­into­stride­in­the­early­seventies­with these­JT3C-powered­aircraft­being­rapidly­disposed of­by­major­carriers.­The­first­airline­to­relinquish­its entire­ fleet­ of­ early­ Boeing­ jetliners­ was­ Eastern, which­ traded­ its­ fifteen­ Model­ 720-025s­ back­ to Boeing­between­September­1969­and­June­1970­to acquire­ more­ economical­ 727-225s.­ United­ and Braniff­International­were­next,­respectively­storing or­selling­most­of­their­twenty-nine­Model­720-022s and­ five­ -027s­ in­ 1973.­That­ same­ year,­Western Airlines­disposed­of­the­two­720-625­and­single­720048­ it­ had­ obtained­ in­ its­ merger­ with­ Pacific Northern­Airlines.­Abroad,­ the­ only­ original­ 720 customer,­ Aer­ Lingus,­ had­ been­ even­ quicker­ to dispose­of­its­three­720-048s,­selling­one­to­Pacific Northern­and­one­to­British­West­Indian­Airways­in 1966,­ and­ one­ to­ Trans­ Polar­ in­ 1970.­American Airlines,­ which­ had­ re-engined­ its­ 720-023s­ with JT3D­ turbofans,­ kept­ most­ of­ its­ 720-023Bs somewhat­longer,­disposing­of­the­last­in­1976. Of­the­remaining­fifteen­JT3C-powered­aircraft, three­707-124s­were­sold­by­Continental­Airlines­to

Tradewinds was a small UK cargo airline that used a number of 707-320Cs, with G-WIND seen here. (author’s collection)

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209 Boeing 720 N421MA in the colourful livery of Aerolineas de Guatemala Aviateca. (author’s collection)

TWA­in­December­1967.­In­turn,­TWA­disposed­of these­aircraft­and­of­its­last­twelve­-131s­at­the­end of­ 1971.­ The­ more­ capable­ JT4A-­ and­ Conwaypowered­intercontinental­models­lasted­longer­with their­original­owners.­British­Airways­progressively transferred­ most­ of­ its­ 707-436s­ to­ its­ charter organization,­British­Airtours,­but­retained­ownership of­four­Conway-powered­aircraft­until­1981. JT3D-powered­707-320Bs­and­-320Cs­remained in­ production­ longer­ than­ all­ other­ 707­ and­ 720 variants.­ 477­ of­ these­ aircraft­ were­ delivered­ to airlines­between­April­1962­and­January­1978,­with peak­deliveries­occurring­in­1968­when­118­were accepted­by­carriers.­With­so­many­being­built­for­so long,­ and­ with­ their­ JT3D­ turbofans­ proving extremely­ reliable,­ it­ is­ not­ surprising­ that­ 707320B/Cs­ remained­ in­ service­ with­ most­ major airlines­ until­ the­ early­ eighties.­ Many­ pre-owned JT3D-powered­707s­then­quickly­found­customers among­ smaller­ carriers,­ particularly­ for­ freight operations. Early­on,­most­707s­and­720s­changing­hands went­to­established­Boeing­operators,­such­as­Pan American,­ which­ expanded­ its­ fleet­ with­ two­ exWestern­707-1395,­three­ex-American­720-023Bs, and­six­ex-Lufthansa­720-030Bs.­Later­transactions, however,­increasingly­saw­pre-owned­aircraft­being acquired­by­new­jet­operators. Pre-owned­707s­and­720s­were­acquired­not­just by­scheduled­carriers­and­charter­airlines­but­also­by a­variety­of­other­customers.­ An Instant Airline... Wet-leasing­is­a­concept­that­is­resorted­to­whenever an­airline­has­a­sudden­but­temporary­need­for­extra capacity,­for­whatever­reason.­If­a­complete­airliner, ready­to­go­with­full­tanks­and­a­crew­on­board,­can be­hired­by­the­day,­week­or­month,­this­makes­more sense­than­buying­an­extra­aircraft,­training­crews­and

then,­later,­trying­to­find­a­buyer­when­the­aircraft­is no­longer­needed. So­it­was­in­the­early­1970s,­when­such­aircraft as­ the­ 747,­ DC-10­ and­ L-1011­ were­ ­ making­ an impact­on­the­world­scene,­in­almost­every­case­by displacing­707s­and­DC-8s.­Thus,­plenty­of­the­latter, which­in­the­1950s­had­thrust­the­world’s­airlines­into the­jet­age,­were­coming­on­to­the­market,­still­with plenty­of­flight-time­remaining­on­their­airframes­and at­every­depressed­prices.­This­brought­them­within reach­of­carriers­such­as­the­UKs­British­Midland Airways­(BMA),­especially­after­the­airline’s­capital had­ been­ increased­ to­ just­ over­ £5­ million­ in September­1972. Also,­pilots­and­engineers­qualified­on­the­707 were­equally­plentiful,­and­short-term­contracts­could be­negotiated.­BMA­The­era­of­the­instant­airline really­began­with­the­signing­of­a­contract­with­Sudan Airways­in­November­1972.­That­airline’s­chairman, Mohammed­ Abdel­ Bagi,­ had­ been­ in­ Nigeria­ in during­ 1968-69­ and­ saw­ how­ satisfied­ Nigeria Airways­had­been­with­BMA’s­wet-lease­of­a­Vickers Viscount.­His­board­agreed­with­the­view­that,­in order­ to­ ease­ the­ transition­ from­ the­ Comet­ 4­ to bigger­ and­ more­ competitive­ equipment,­ it­ made sense­to­hand­the­whole­job­to­a­reliable­operator­such as­ BMA.­ The­ initial­ contract­ covered­ full-time operation­of­both­BMA’s­707s­until­the­end­of­1973, together­with­all­necessary­management­and­training. The­two­aircraft­were­to­operate­all­the­airline’s ‘Blue­Nile’­international­services,­until­they­could­be handled­entirely­by­the­airline­itself.­In­the­event­most of­the­Sudan­staff­were­trained­at­Khartoum,­but­the flight­crews­and­six­of­the­stewardesses­­­did­come­to East­Midlands.­The­pilots­all­had­British­licences,­and thus­carried­out­much­of­their­conversion­flying­on BMA­services. It­ speaks­ much­ for­ the­ company’s­ political awareness­and­­diplomacy­that­the­first­two­707s

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It was not uncommon for the BMA Engineering team to have just 36 hours to repaint one of their 707s for lease.

British Midland modernised the interiors of a number of their 707’s with sculpted ceilings and overhead luggage bins. They also fitted 211 seats! (both BMA)

wove­ a­ path­ through­ what­ could­ have­ been­ a minefield­ during­ the­ 1970s­ without­ causing­ any conflict.­ One­diversion­for­BMA­was­the­charter­of­a­707 on­4­April­1975­by­the­Daily Mail newspaper­on behalf­ of­ Project­ Vietnam­ Orphans­ and­ The Ockenden­ Venture­ to­ rescue­ I50­ orphan­ children from­Saigon­in­the­final­collapse­of­South­Vietnam. David­English,­the­newspaper’s­editor,­joined­a­group of­doctors­and­nurses­aboard­G-AYVE.­Everything went­well­until­the­arrival­at­Saigon;­then­officialdom reared­its­head­to­a­point­where­­the­lives­of­many­of the­children­were­put­at­risk.­Mr­Hunt­of­the­British

Embassy­argued­non-stop­for­six­hours,­while­the children­were­packed­in­buses­at­temperatures­well beyond­38°C.­Even­after­the­707­had­been­loaded­and started­its­engines,­a­fresh­lot­of­officials­arrived­and reiterated­that­the­children­did­not­have­permission to­leave.­After­further­long­delays,­and­much­signing of­ forms,­ takeoff­ clearance­ was­ granted­ -­ but­ Mr English­ was­ told­ that­ he­ had­ to­ stay­ in­ Saigon. Fortunately­he­was­able­­to­get­back­on­board.­Once airborne,­ with­ air­ conditioning­ working,­ the desperately­exhausted­and­dehydrated­children­began to­recover.­According­to­Dr­Grifiin,­from­Chislehurst, ‘At least six of the children would have died in the next 60 hours if they had been left in Saigon... The cabin crew performed in a manner that can only be described as magnificent’ When­the­707­landed­at Heathrow­the­nursing­teams­and­the­four­stewards had­been­working­without­a­break­for­29­hours.­This was­ the­ only­ British­ aircraft­ to­ rescue­ Vietnam orphans,­and­the­last­aircraft­of­any­nation­to­do­so. The­airline­learned­fast,­and­­decided­to­have­its 707s­ upgraded­ in­ capability.­ The­ interiors­ were gutted,­two­extra­emergency­exits­were­inserted­aft of­the­wing,­with­‘slimline’­escape­slides,­and­the

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Another British charter service operator was British Midland Airways who had a fleet of 707s of assorted variants, but most were not flown by them, being leased out to other airlines around the world. Here though, in full BMA colours is -321C G-BMAZ. (author’s collection)

whole­interior­trim­was­replaced,­incluing­the­fitment of­overhead­‘bins’.­New­galleys­were­added,­and finally­211­seats­of­new­design,­reputedly­the­largest number­of­seats­ever­certificated­for­the­707­were installed. So­success­were­BMA­in­building­up­its­‘instant airline’­reputation­that­in­1975­the­number­of­707s jumped­from­two­to­six,­and­by­1978­four­more­had been­added,­though­the­number­in­use­at­any­one­time seldom­exceeded­six.­This­was­largely­because­of­the effects­of­the­1973'­fuel­crisis.­Suddenly­the­price­of fuel­sprang­into­the­forefront­of­operating­costs,­and the­early­707s­powered­by­JT4A­turbojets­showed­up very­badly. Though­they­might­cost­£5­million­instead­of­£­I million,­the­later­aircraft­with­JT3D­turbofans­were considerably­more­efficient,­quite­apart­from­having a­better­performance,­and­the­last­four­comprised­a 707-373C­(leased­from­World­Airways­and­retaining its­ US­ registration­ N370WA),­ two­ -338Cs­ from QANTAS­ and­ a­ -324C­ built­ for­ Continental­ but actually­ acquired­ from­ BCal.­ Between­ 1974­ and 1982­the­Boeings­of­BMA,­with­BMA­crews,­flew in­the­colours­and­on­the­services­of­such­airlines­as Air­Algerie,­Air­Inter­(France),­Bangladesh­Biman,

DETA­(Mozambique),­East­African,­Gulf­Air,­Iraqi, Kenya,­Kuwait,­Libyan­Arab,­Malaysian,­Nigeria, Pakistan­International,­Sudan,­Syrian­Arab,­Tunis­Air and­Zambia.­The­Maintenece­Department­of­BMS often­had­just­thrity-six­hours­in­which­to­repaint­the 707­in­the­complete­livery­of­a­new­operator! The­ ups­ and­ downs­ of­ the­ Various­ contracts resulted­in­equally­dramatic­changes­in­the­number of­aircraft­employed.­During­one­week­the­number of­active­707s­jumped­from­one­to­six.­Often­the airliners­were­inactive­for­weeks­at­a­time,­costing little­but­the­parking­fees­racked­up­at­East­Midlands. Then,­when­a­wet-lease­came­in­it­was­controlled chaos­while­things­were­organised.­The­nucleus­of company­ crews­ was­ augumented­ by­ short-term contract­707­pilots­and­flight­engineers­as­required. Many­ were­ early­ retirees­ from­ British­ Airways, especially­in­1976-79,­while­in­1978­six­QANTAS first­officers­arrived­on­a­similar­release.­All­had­the opportunity­ to­ broaden­ their­ experience­ in­ a­ way seldom­ possible­ on­ regular­ line­ flying­ with­ one operator. For­ example,­ one­ route­ flown­ for­ DETA­ was Maputo­(Mozambique)­to­Cuba,­and­others­went­to East­Berlin­and­even­to­the­central­parts­of­the­Soviet

British Midland’s 707-320C G-BFLD. (author’s collection)

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Union.­Three­weeks­were­spent­flying­salmon­from King­Salmon­Airport,­Alaska,­to­Abbotsford,­near Vancouver.­Desert­ibex­were­flown­to­Saudi­Arabia­where­they­had­been­extinct­-­under­a­US-­inspired project­for­reintroduction­and­conservation,­while­a Gulf­Air­cargo­contract­saw­Rolls-Royce­cars­being airlifted­to­Britain­for­routine­servicing!­ Then­a­BMA­Boeing­was­hijacked.­In­the­small hours­of­9­July­1977­G-AZWA,­flying­in­Kuwait Airways­colours,­was­hijacked­by­Palestinians­while en­ route­ to­ Kuwait­ from­ Beirut.­ At­ Kuwait­ the passengers­were­exchanged­for­different­hostages, and­a­relief­crew­was­allowed­on­board.­The­hijackers demanded­a­flight­to­Aden,­but­Aden,­Bahrein

and­Doha­all­refused­permission,­and­eventually­a landing­was­made­at­Damascus.­Fully­fuelled,­the 707­ taxied­ out­ with­ orders­ to­ fly­ to­ Tripoli.­ The runway­was­blocked­with­trucks,­but­as­Captain­Ron Hardy­was­supposed­to­have­said ‘...with a gun at your head you simply obey’. The­terrorist­on­the­flight deck­ spoke­ no­ English,­ but­ as­ Hardy­ began­ his takeoff­he­began­screaming­in­Arabic­and­waving­his automatic­weapon.­Hardy­abandoned­takeoff­at­60 knots,­and­returned­to­the­apron.­The­hijackers­then fell­ out­ among­ themselves,­ and­ their­ leader,­ who appeared­ highly­ unstable,­ was­ disarmed.­ BMA management­listened-in­to­the­whole­hijack­on­HF single-sideband­radio­at­the­operations­room­at­East Midlands­Airport. BMA’s­instant-airline­operations­began­to­wound down­from­1980,­and­to­cease­in­1982.­From­1980 onwards­ the­ diminishing­ 707­ fleet­ was­ employed mainly­on­conventional­charters.­It­finally­ceased operating­in­October­1984,­most­of­that­year­having been­spent­on­holiday­travel­to­the­Mediterranean resorts­and­transatlantic­charters. The­bottom­rung­of­the­airline­industry­were­the Air­Travel­clubs.­They­sprang­up­and­blew­away­like dandelions.­Probably­the­largest­and­most­successful was­the­Denver,­Colorado-based­Denver­Ports­of­Call operated­flights­for­the­Ports­of­Call­Travel­Club­from 1967­to­1992.­In­its­heyday,­Ports­of­Call­was­the largest­travel­club­in­the­United­States,­with­at­one time­over­66,000­members. The­travel­club­had­a­private­terminal­separate from­ the­ main­ public­ terminal­ at­ Stapleton International,­and­operated­their­own­domestic­and international­trips­using­specially­outfitted­private aircraft.­ They­ began­ by­ using­ large­ four-engined piston­and­turboprop­aircraft,­with­pilots­who­were initially­ commercial­ airline­ employees­ who­ flew

UK charter operator Britannia Airways flew a number of 707s and 720s on inclusive tour and affinity charters during the 1970s. G-AYSI is seen here at the airlines Luton base. (Capt Mike Russell/Britannia Airways)

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Denver Ports-of-Call flew worldwidw with their immaculate 707s. Here N703PC is seen at London Stansted. (author)

Ports­of­Call­aircraft­in­their­off­time,­and­later­were full-time­ employees.­ The­ flight­ attendants­ stayed with­each­travel­club­group­on­a­trip­for­up­to­a­month as­group­tour­guides. As­Ports­of­Call­grew,­more­modern­jet­aircraft such­as­the­Convair­990,­Boeing­707­and­Boeing­727 were­acquired­on­the­second­hand­market.­By­1986, Ports­ of­ Call­ operated­ eleven­ Boeing­ 707-300 airliners,­a­B707-100,­and­a­single­B727-100.­The club­was­widely­visible­from­the­Ports­of­Call­Travel Club­stickers­displayed­on­many­automobiles­around Denver­ and­ throughout­ Colorado­ and­ the surrounding­states.­One­trip­in­the­mid­eighties­was ‘Around­the­World’­and­circumnavigated­the­globe with­multiple­stops.­Another­of­the­more­interesting trips­flown­by­the­club­was­the­annual­‘Mystery­Trip’, in­which­members­signed­up­to­be­taken­on­a­trip­to an­unknown­destination.­This­annual­event­was­so popular­that­the­club­would­fill­multiple­B707s­with

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nearly­800­people­per­trip. Because­ of­ federally­ mandated­ aircraft­ noise restrictions,­the­company­went­public­to­raise­funding to­pay­for­the­required­hush­kits­on­the­aircraft.­In­an effort­ to­ increase­ aircraft­ use,­ the­ aircraft­ began operating­as­a­separate­charter­company­after­being rebranded­as­Skyworld­Airlines­under­FAR­part­121, enabling­ them­ to­ operate­ non-travel­ club­ charter services­as­well.­In­the­wake­of­public­ownership,­and after­ several­ leadership­ changes,­ the­ company essentially­ suffered­ a­ hostile­ take­ over.­ The­ new controlling­interests­liquidated­the­aircraft­assets­and shut­down­the­airline­portion,­remaining­open­as­a travel­club­without­aircraft.­ The­travel­club­subsequently­was­forced­to­book member­ trips­ in­ blocks­ of­ seats­ on­ commercial airlines.­Part­of­the­mystique­of­the­travel­club­genre of­airlines­was­the­enjoyment­of­special­treatment. Instead­of­club­members­boarding­private­aircraft

The first Ambassadair 720, N8711E. The Ambassadair travel club was started by George Mickelsons after the shut down of Voyager 1000. Ambassadair operated until the launch of American Trans Air , which then took over Ambassadair Club flights. (author’s collection)

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Lloyd International was a UK-based charter operator. They acquired their first 707 in 1970, but ceased operations in 1972. Here their 707-324C G-AZJM is seen at London Stansted. (author)

from­a­terminal,­groups­were­now­shuttled­over­to Stapleton­terminal­to­board­whatever­commercial flights­ were­ available­ to­ the­ trip­ destinations, although­ they­ were­ accompanied­ by­ a­ POC­ tour guide.­With­the­loss­of­their­own­aircraft­and­the ability­to­fly­directly­to­any­desired­destination,­they were­reduced­to­offering­only­the­multiple­connecting flights­available­commercially.­As­a­direct­result,­club membership­renewals­quickly­plummeted­and­the travel­club­eventually­shut­down­completely­in­1994. Other­707s­and­720s­were­operated­in­the­USA by­ sports­ organisations­ such­ as­ the­ Los­ Angeles Dodgers­major­league­baseball­team,­or­worldwide by­government­and­air­forces­and­to­corporations, either­as­staff­transports­or­as­testbeds­for­engines­and aircraft­systems. One­ such­ test­ aircraft­ was­ 720-023B (construction­ number­ 18024)­ the­ 177th­ Model 707-type­airplane­made­by­Boeing.­It­was­rolled out­on­28­October­1960,­registered­as­N7538A, flew­ on­ 14­ January­ 1961­ and­ was­ delivered­ to American­ Airlines­ on­ 3­ February.­ This­ airline operated­N7538A­until­August­1971,­when­it­was G-APFG was a former BOAC and later BEA Airtours 707-436 On retirement it served as a trainer with Aviation Traders Engineering Limited at Stansted for many years before the fuselage was taken to Cardington near Bedford where it was used for water mist suppression tests to assist in developing a survivable cabin environment in the event of a fire.

put­in­storage­in­Tulsa,­Oklahoma. Middle­East­Airlines­(MEA),­the­largest­airline in­ Lebanon,­ bought­ the­ airliner­ on­ 25­ September 1971­ and­ re-registered­ it­ as­ OD-AFQ.­ It­ was delivered­ to­ its­ new­ owner­ three­ days­ later.­ Like many,­ if­ not­ most­ MEA­ airplanes,­ OD-AFQ­ was forced­to­stay­away­from­its­main­base­in­Beirut­when Israel­invaded­Lebanon,­in­June­1982,­and­occupied a­good­part­of­the­country­until­1985.­Based­at­Orly, Paris,­the­airplane­occasionally­flew­passengers­for Air­France­and­Air­Inter,­another­French­airline. Pratt­ &­ Whitney­ Canada­ (PWC)­ bought­ the Model­720B­in­December­1985­and­re-registered­it as­C-FETB­(FETB­as­in­Flying­Experimental­Test Bed)­on­10­January­1986.­A­series­of­modification were­made­after­this­date. C-FETB­ did­ its­ flight­ acceptance­ flight­ on­ 9 October­1986,­a­PWC­crew­flew­the­airplane­across the­Atlantic­on­the­12th.­Known­internally­as­FTB1 (Flying­ test­ bed­ 1),­ C-FETB­ was­ thoroughly modified­for­its­new­role­between­October­1986­and January­1988.­It­was­equipped­to­test­a­variety­of engines,­a­large­turbofan­could­take­the­place­of­the

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The following engine types were tested on CFETB: International Aero Engines (IAE) V2500 turbofan; PWC JT15D turbofan; PWC PW300 turbofan; PWC PW500 turbofan; PWC PW600 turbofan; PWC PT6 turboprop; PWC PW100 turboprop.

Eager to preserve this historically significant test bed, Pratt & Whitney Canada (PWC) and the Canada Aviation and Space Museum (CASM) came to an agreement that saw the 720 go on indefinite loan to the National Air Force Museum of Canada, in Trenton, Ontario.)

inside­inner­engine­underneath­the­starboard­wing.­A small­turbofan­could­be­mounted­on­the­starboard side­of­the­forward­fuselage.­A­turboprop­could­be mounted­in­the­nose.

Terrorism and conflict. Apart­from­aircraft­lost­through­accidents,­domestic and­international­terrorism­for­political­ends­saw­the destruction­of­a­number­of­707s­and­720s.­On­13 September­ 1970,­ three­ airliners­ that­ had­ been hijacked­by­the­Popular­Front­for­the­Liberation­of Palestine­­-­known­as­the­PFLP­-­were­blown­up­by terrorists­ in­ front­ of­ the­ the­ world’s­ media.­ The incident­ started­ some­ days­ earlier­ when­ four­ jet airliners­ bound­ for­ New­ York­ City­ and­ one­ for London­were­hijacked.­Three­aircraft­were­forced­to land­at­Dawson's­Field,­a­remote­desert­airstrip­near Zarka,­Jordan,­formerly­a­British­Royal­Air­Force base,­that­then­become­the­PFLP's­‘Revolutionary Airport’. El­Al­Flight­219­was­a­707,­registered­­4X-ATB that­originated­in­Tel­Aviv,­Israel,­and­was­en­route to­New­York­City.­On­board­were­138­passengers­and 10­ crew­ members.­ The­ aircraft­ stopped­ in

Amsterdam,­Netherlands,­and­was­hijacked­shortly after­it­took­off­from­there­by­Patrick­Argüello,­a Nicaraguan­ American,­ and­ Leila­ Khaled,­ a Palestinian. Plans­were­to­get­four­hijackers­on­board,­but­two were­stopped­from­boarding­in­Amsterdam­by­Israeli security.­ These­ two­ conspirators,­ traveling­ under Senegalese­ passports­ with­ consecutive­ numbers, were­prevented­from­flying­on­El­Al­on­6­September. They­purchased­first-class­tickets­on­Pan­Am­Flight 93­and­hijacked­that­flight­instead. Posing­as­a­married­couple,­Argüello­and­Khaled boarded­ the­ plane­ using­ Honduran­ passports— having­ passed­ through­ a­ security­ check­ of­ their luggage—and­ were­ seated­ in­ the­ second­ row­ of tourist­class.­Once­the­plane­was­approaching­the British­coast,­they­drew­their­guns­and­grenades­and approached­the­cockpit,­demanding­entrance.­ After­being­informed­by­intercom­that­a­hijacking was­in­progress,­Captain­Uri­Bar­Lev­decided­not­to accede­to­their­demands.­Instead­he­put­the­aircraft into­a­steep­nosedive­which­threw­the­two­hijackers off-balance.­ Argüello­ reportedly­ threw­ his­ sole grenade­ down­ the­ airliner­ aisle,­ but­ it­ failed­ to

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216 N1R ‘Kay-O II’ was a Boeing 720 used by the Los Angeles Dodgers baseball team. The jet was usually kept at Las Vegas’ McCarran Airport. (author’s collection)

explode,­and­he­was­hit­over­the­head­with­a­bottle of­whiskey­by­a­passenger­after­he­drew­his­pistol. Argüello­shot­steward­Shlomo­Vider­and­according to­the­passengers­and­Israeli­security­personnel,­was then­shot­by­a­sky­marshal.­His­accomplice­Khaled was­subdued­by­security­and­passengers,­while­the aircraft­ made­ an­ emergency­ landing­ at­ London Heathrow­Airport;­she­then­claimed­that­Argüello was­shot­four­times­in­the­back­after­he­and­Khaled failed­ to­ hijack­ the­ airplane.­ Vider­ underwent emergency­surgery­and­recovered­from­his­wounds; Argüello­died­in­the­ambulance­taking­both­him­and Khaled­ to­ Hillingdon­ Hospital.­ Khaled­ was­ then arrested­by­British­police. TWA­Flight­741,­another­Boeing­707,­tail­number N8715T­was­a­round-the-world­flight­carrying­144 passengers­and­a­crew­of­eleven.­The­flight­on­this day­ was­ flying­ from­ Tel­ Aviv,­ Israel­ to­ Athens, Frankfurt­am­Main­and­then­to­New­York­City,­and was­hijacked­on­the­Frankfurt-New­York­leg.­ It­landed­at­Dawson's­Field­in­Jordan­at­6:45­p.m. local­time.­Hijackers­gained­control­of­the­cockpit and­ a­ female­ stated,­ "This­ is­ your­ new­ captain speaking.­ This­ flight­ has­ been­ taken­ over­ by­ the Popular­Front­for­the­Liberation­of­Palestine.­We­will take­you­to­a­friendly­country­with­friendly­people." Three­ other­ airliners­ were­ also­ hijackered. Swissair­Flight­100,­a­Douglas­DC-8-53,­registered HB-IDD,­and­named Nidwalden was­carrying­143 passengers­ and­ twelve­ crew­ from­ Zürich-Kloten Airport,­Switzerland,­to­New­York­JFK.­The­plane was­ hijacked­ minutes­ after­ the­ TWA­ flight­ and diverted­to­Jordan.­It­also­landed­at­Dawson's­Field, increasing­the­hostage­number­to­306­hostages. Pan­ American­ Flight­ 93,­ a­ Boeing­ 747,­ tail number­ N752PA­ named­ Clipper Fortune was carrying­136­passengers­and­seventeen­crew.­The

flight­was­from­Brussels,­Belgium,­to­New­York, with­a­stop­in­Amsterdam.­The­two­hijackers­bumped from­the­El­Al­flight­boarded­and­hijacked­this­flight as­a­target­of­opportunity. The­747­first­landed­in­Beirut,­where­it­refueled and­picked­up­several­associates­of­the­hijackers, along­with­enough­explosives­to­destroy­the­entire aircraft.­ It­ then­ landed­ in­ Cairo­ after­ uncertainty whether­the­Dawson's­Field­airport­could­handle­the size­of­the­747.­Flight­director­John­Ferruggio­led­the plane's­evacuation,­and­is­credited­with­saving­the plane's­passengers­and­crew.­The­airliner­was­blown up­at­Cairo­seconds­after­it­had­been­evacuated.­­The hijackers­were­arrested­by­Egyptian­police. Finally,­on­9­September­a­fifth­airliner,­BOAC Flight­775­from­Bombay­to­London­via­Bahrain­and Beirut­-­operated­by­Vickers­VC10­­G-ASGN,­was hijacked­after­departing­Bahrain­and­forcibly­landed at­ Dawson's­ Field.­This­ was­ the­ work­ of­ a­ PFLP sympathizer­ who­ wanted­ to­ influence­ the­ British government­to­free­Leila­Khaled. On­ 7­ September­ the­ hijackers­ held­ a­ press conference­for­members­of­the­media­who­had­made their­ way­ to­ what­ was­ being­ called­ "Revolution Airport."­About­ 125­ hostages­ were­ transferred­ to Amman,­ while­ the­American,­ Israeli,­ Swiss,­ and West­German­citizens­were­held­on­the­planes. As­groups­of­the­remaining­passengers­and­crew were­assembled­on­the­sand­in­front­of­the­media, members­ of­ the­ PFLP,­ among­ them­ Bassam­Abu Sharif,­made­statements­to­the­press.­Sharif­claimed that­ the­ goal­ of­ the­ hijackings­ was­ ‘...to gain the release of all of our political prisoners jailed in Israel in exchange for the hostages.’ In­the­United­States,­President­Richard­Nixon­met with­his­advisers­on­8­September­and­ordered­United States­Secretary­of­Defense­Melvin­Laird­to­bomb

Opposite page: A line up of German Cargo 707-320C-Hs at a very wet Frankfurt. Closest to the camera is D-ABUA with its cargo door open, with D-ABUO and D-ABUE behind. (Lufthansa GMbH)

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BEA Airtours’ G-APFD was originally delivered to BOAC in 1959 -it passed to Airtours in 1973. (author’s collection)

the­PFLP­positions­in­Jordan.­Laird­refused­on­the pretext­that­the­weather­was­unfavorable,­and­the­idea was­dropped.­The­82nd­Airborne­Division­was­put on­alert,­the­Sixth­Fleet­was­put­to­sea,­and­military aircraft­ were­ sent­ to­ Turkey­ in­ preparation­ for­ a possible­military­strike. In­contrast,­British­Prime­Minister­Edward­Heath decided­to­negotiate­with­the­hijackers,­ultimately agreeing­to­release­Khaled­and­others­in­exchange­for hostages.­This­was­bitterly­opposed­by­the­USA. On­ 9­ September­ the­ United­ Nations­ Security Council­demanded­the­release­of­the­passengers,­in Resolution­286.­The­following­day,­fighting­between the­PFLP­and­Jordanian­forces­erupted­in­Amman­at the­Intercontinental­Hotel,­where­the­125­women­and children­ were­ being­ kept­ by­ the­ PFLP,­ and­ the Kingdom­appeared­to­be­on­the­brink­of­full-scale civil­ war.­ The­ destruction­ of­ the­ aircraft­ on­ 12 September­ highlighted­ the­ impotence­ of­ the Jordanian­ government­ in­ Palestinian-controlled areas,­and­the­Palestinians­declared­the­city­of­Irbid to­be­‘liberated­territory’,­in­a­direct­challenge­to Hussein's­rule. On­ 13­ September­ the­ BBC­ World­ Service broadcast­ a­ government­ announcement­ in­Arabic saying­that­the­UK­would­release­Khaled­in­exchange for­the­hostages. Complicating­the­international­crisis­was­the­fact that­Syria­and­Iraq,­which­had­links­with­the­USSR, had­ already­ threatened­ to­ intervene­ on­ behalf­ of Palestinian­ groups­ in­ any­ confrontation­ with­ the

Kingdom­of­Jordan.­According­to­British­documents declassified­under­the­thirty­year­rule,­an­anxious King­Hussein­asked­the­United­States­and­UK­to­pass a­ request­ to­ Israel­ to­ bomb­ Syrian­ troops­ if­ they entered­Jordan­in­support­of­the­Palestinians.­When a­ Syrian­ tank­ crossed­ the­ border,­ Israeli­ aircraft overflew­the­area­in­warning. King­Hussein­declared­martial­law­on­16­September and­initiated­the­military­actions­later­known­as­the Black­September­conflict. About­two­weeks­after­the­start­of­the­crisis,­the remaining­hostages­were­recovered­from­locations around­Amman­and­exchanged­for­Leila­Khaled­and several­ other­ PFLP­ prisoners.­ The­ hostages­ were flown­to­Cyprus­and­then­to­Rome's­Leonardo­da Vinci­ Airport,­ where­ on­ 28­ September­ they­ met President­Nixon,­who­was­conducting­a­State­visit­to Italy­and­the­Vatican. During­ the­ crisis,­ on­ 11­ September­ President Nixon­initiated­a­programme­to­address­the­problem of­air­piracy,­including­the­immediate­launch­of­a group­of­100­federal­agents­to­begin­serving­as­armed sky­marshals­on­US­flights.­­Nixon's­statement­further indicated­ the­ US­ departments­ of­ Defense­ and Transportation­ would­ determine­ whether­ X-ray devices­then­available­to­the­military­could­be­moved into­civilian­service. The­ PFLP­ officially­ disavowed­ the­ tactic­ of airline­hijackings­several­years­later,­although­several of­its­members­and­subgroups­continued­to­hijack aircraft­and­commit­other­violent­operations.

720 4X-BMA of MAOF, an Israeli charter airline formed in early 80's. MAOF used a pair of ex-Monarch Airline 720's around around Europe. (author’s collection)

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The­ passengers­ and­ crew­ were­ spared­ at Dawson's­Field,­which­was­not­the­case­three­years later­at­Rome’s­Leonardo­da­Vinci­Airport.­ On­17­December­1973,­Pan­Am­Flight­110­was scheduled­ to­ fly­ from­ Leonardo­ da­ Vinci International­Airport­in­Rome­to­Beirut­International Airport­in­Lebanon­and­then­on­to­Tehran,­Iran.­At the­controls­of­the­Boeing­707-321B,­tail­number N407PA,­and­named­Clipper­Celestial­were­Captain Andrew­Erbeck,First­Officer­Robert­Davison,­and Flight­engineer­Kenneth­Pfrang. At­approximately­­13:10­local­time,­just­as­Flight 110­was­preparing­to­taxi,­a­number­of­Palestinian people­made­their­way­through­the­terminal­building, armed­with­automatic­firearms­and­grenades.­The terrorists­ removed­ submachine­ guns­ from­ hand luggage­ bags­ and­ began­ firing­ throughout­ the terminal,­shattering­windows­and­killing­two.­Crew on­­the­flight­deck­of­the­aircraft­were­able­to­observe travelers­ and­ airport­ employees­ in­ the­ building running­for­cover.­Captain­Erbeck­announced­over the­airliner's­public­address­system­that­there­was some­commotion­in­the­terminal­and­ordered­all­on board­to­get­down­on­the­floor. Several­ of­ the­ gunmen­ ran­ across­ the­ tarmac toward­the­Pan­American­jet,­throwing­at­least­two phosphorus­incendiary­hand­grenades­through­the open­ front­ and­ rear­ doors­ of­ the­ aircraft.­ The explosions­ knocked­ crew­ and­ passengers­ to­ the ground,­and­the­cabin­filled­with­thick,­acrid­smoke from­the­resulting­fires.­Flight­attendants­were­able to­open­the­emergency­exit­over­the­wing­on­one­side of­the­aircraft;­the­other­was­obstructed­by­gunmen. The­crew­attempted­to­evacuate­as­many­passengers as­possible­through­the­available­exit,­but­twenty-nine passengers­ and­ Purser­ Diana­ Perez­ died­ on­ the aircraft,­including­all­eleven­passengers­in­the­first class­section.­Four­Moroccan­officials­heading­to­Iran for­a­visit,­and­Bonnie­Erbeck,­wife­of­the­captain,

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were­among­the­dead.­Captain­Erbeck­survived­the attack.­Also­killed­were­fourteen­Aramco­employees and­employee­family­members.­­The­aircraft­was destroyed. Other­gunmen­later­hijacked­a­Lufthansa­737and fled­to­Kuwait­via­Athens,­Greece­and­Damascus­in The­Lebanon. In­ many­ ways­ the­ Lebanon­ was­ pivotal­ to deliberate­ 707­ and­ 720­ destruction.­ ­ Middle­ East Airlines­(MEA)­of­Lebanon­operated­thirty-­two­707 and­ 720­ ‘Cedarjets'­ from­ 1968­ and­ lost­ at­ least fourteen­of­them.­Only­one­loss­was­an­accident,­the rest­being­the­result­of­civil­war­and­regional­strife. The­first­was­destroyed­in­1968­within­six­weeks­of delivery­by­Israeli­commandos­who­landed­by­Super Frélon­helicopter­at­Beirut­Airport­and­blew­it­up­in a­ retaliatory­ raid­ for­ a­ terrorist­ attack­ on­ Israeli passengers­at­Athens.­During­the­Israeli­invasion­of 1982,­Beirut­Airport­was­shelled­heavily,­and­no­less than­six­707s­and­720s­were­lost­on­22­June­of­that year­alone.­With­a­much-reduced­fleet,­no­airport­and not­ much­ of­ a­ country­ left,­ the­ battered­ but determined­MEA­continued­in­business­by­operating from­France­and­by­leasing­many­aircraft­out. Another­incident­happened­on­20­April­1978,­an involved­a­Korean­Air­Lines­707.­The­aircraft­­was HL-7429,­ a­ former­ Pan­ Am­ 707-321B,­ recently purchased­ from­ATASCO­ and­ operating­ as­ KAL Flight­902­from­Paris­to­Seoul­via­Anchorage­with ninety-seven­passengers­and­thirteen­crew­members. Soviet­air­defense­fighters­shot­down­KAL­902­near Murmansk­ in­ the­ Soviet­ Union,­ after­ the­ airliner violated­ Soviet­ airspace­ and­ failed­ to­ respond­ to Soviet­ground­control­and­interceptors. KAL­902­had­departed­from­Paris,­France­on­a course­to­Seoul,­South­Korea.­The­aircraft’s­only scheduled­ stop­ was­ in­ Anchorage,­ Alaska,­ USA where­it­would­refuel­and­proceed­to­Seoul,­avoiding Soviet­airspace.­As­the­airliner­passed­over­Alert,­the

There seems to be few photographs of American Travel Air. Operating in 1983, this 720 was an ex Aer Lingus aircraft that flew for Ambassadair and American Trans Air prior to American Travel Air. In 1986 it was flying for Airfast. (author’s collection)

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Middle East Airlines (MEA) of Lebanon lost a number of 707s and 720s during that country’s prolonged civil war. OD-AFP, closest to the camera was destroyed by Israeli shelling at Beirut, one of four MEA 720s lost that day. Sister airliner OD-AFE, the second in line in this picture was damaged that month but served with MEA until 1997. OD-AFQ later became an engine testbed with Pratt & Whitney of Canada. (author’s collection)

northernmost­ permanently­ inhabited­ place­ in­ the world,­508­miles­from­the­North­Pole­on­Ellesmere Island­ -­ flight­ captain­ Kim­ Chang­ Kyu­ suddenly changed­ his­ course­ and­ headed­ southeast­ toward Murmansk. The­ aircraft­ was­ not­ fitted­ with­ an­ inertial navigation­ system,­ and­ GPS­ navigation­ was­ not available­at­the­time.­Due­to­an­error­in­calculating magnetic­ declination,­ the­ airliner­ flew­ in­ an enormous,­right-turning­arc.­­The­location­of­the­turn corresponded­quite­closely­with­the­location­of­the North­ Magnetic­ Pole,­ which­ is­ likely­ to­ have contributed­to,­if­not­directly­caused,­the­error. It­flew­southeast­over­the­Svalbard­archipelago and­the­Barents­Sea,­past­northern­Scandinavia­and into­Soviet­airspace. Soviet­ air­ defence­ radar­ spotted­ the­ aircraft approximately­­250­miles­away­from­Soviet­territorial waters.­­At­first,­the­Soviets­assumed­it­was­a­naval aircraft­that­was­returning­from­a­mission,­and­had forgotten­to­change­its­IFF­transponder­code.­When the­Korean­aircraft­passed­over­the­Kola­Peninsula­at 21:19­(Moscow­time),­Soviet­air­defence­dispatched Captain­Alexander­Bosov­to­intercept.­ Bosov,­ who­ was­ flying­ a­ Sukhoi­ Su-15, incorrectly­identified­the­airliner­as­a­United­States Air­Force­reconnaissance­RC-135.­When­reporting

back­to­Tsarkov,­Bosov­said­he­could­see­a­maple­leaf on­ the­ airliner's­ tail,­ implying­ that­ it­ belonged­ to NATO.­After­a­few­moments­­he­corrected­himself, stating­that­he­could­see­Chinese­characters­and­the maple­leaf­was­actually­a­red­stork­with­wings­spread. According­to­Kim's­account­of­the­attack,­the interceptor­approached­his­aircraft­from­the­right­side rather­than­the­left­as­required­by­International­Civil Aviation­Organization­regulations.­Kim­decreased­his speed­and­turned­on­the­navigation­lights,­indicating that­he­was­ready­to­follow­the­Soviet­fighter­for landing. Soviet­reports,­however,­state­that­the­intruder repeatedly­ ignored­ commands­ to­ follow­ the interceptor,­ and­ KAL­ 902­ began­ drifting­ toward Finland.­However,­tapes­released­by­Rovaniemi­Area Control­ Centre­ show­ that­ Kim­ transmitted­ a­ call signal­three­times­immediately­prior­to­being­shot down­ and­ attempted­ to­ communicate­ with­ the intercepting­pilot. Vladimir­Tsarkov,­commander­of­the­21st­Soviet Air­Defence­Corps,­ordered­Bosov­to­take­down­the airliner,­as­it­had­failed­to­respond­to­repeated­orders to­land,­and­was­approaching­the­Soviet­border­with Finland.­ Bosov­ tried­ to­ convince­ his­ superiors­ that­ the airliner­was­not­a­military­threat,­but­after­receiving

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orders­to­shoot­it­down,­he fired­ a­ pair­ of­ R-60 missiles.­The­first­missile flew­ past­ the­ target.­ The second­ one­ hit­ the­ left wing,­ knocking­ off approximately­four­meters of­ its­ length.­ The­ missile also­ punctured­ the fuselage,­ causing­ rapid decompression­ and jamming­ one­ of­ the airliner's­four­engines. After­ being­ hit,­ the airliner­quickly­descended from­an­altitude­of­30,000 ft.­ It­ fell­ into­ a­ cloud, disappearing­ from­ Soviet air­defence­radars.­Soviets mistook­ the­ part­ of­ the wing­ that­ had­ fallen­ off Flight­ 902­ for­ a­ winged missile­ and­ dispatched another­ Su-15­ interceptor to­ fire­ at­ it.­ ­ Anatoly Kerefov,­ another­ Soviet pilot,­ replaced­ Bosov because­ his­ aircraft­ was running­low­on­fuel. For­ the­ next­ 40 minutes,­ Flight­ 902­ flew across­ the­ whole­ Kola Peninsula­at­a­low­altitude, searching­ for­ a­ place­ to land.­ After­ several unsuccessful­ attempts­ at landing,­ Kim­ brought­ the airliner­down­on­the­ice­of the­frozen­Korpiyarvi­lake in­Karelian­ASSR,­located approximately­ 87­ miles from­the­Finnish­border. Finnish­ sources­ state that­Soviet­air­defense­did not­ have­ any­ information on­ the­ airliner's whereabouts­ after­ it disappeared­from­the­radar. However,­ Tsarkov­ stated that­Kerefov­located­Flight 902­ and­ led­ it­ to­ the Afrikanda­air­base.­Tsarkov went­on­to­say­that­Kim­fell behind­and­landed­on­the

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Three views of 707 HL-7429 operating as Flight KAL 902 after it was downed by Soviet fighters on 20 April 1978, the airliner eventually making a forced landing onto the frozen lake at Korpiyarvi. The pilot managed to get it to stop just before it hit a stand of trees. Damage to the wing and fuselage is evident. (all author’s collection)

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HL-7406 was built for Korean Airlines in 1971. In 1978 it returned the passengers from KAL902, brought down by Russian fighters near Murmansk, from Helsinki back to Seoul. On 29 November 1987 this 707 was brought down by a bomb left aboard by two North Korean agents and crashed off the Western coast of Burma, killing all 115 aboard. The agents, a 24-year-old woman and a 70-year-old man were arrested in Bahrain, but the man committed suicide soon afterwards. The woman was convicted but later pardoned by the South Korean government. (author’s collection)

lake.­Kerefov­said­he­practically­forced­the­aircraft to­land­on­the­ice­of­Korpiyarvi.­ Soviet­helicopters­rescued­the­107­survivors­and transported­them­to­the­city­of­Kem­in­Karelia.­The passengers­were­quartered­in­the­garrison's­Officers' Lodge.­­After­two­days­at­the­Murmansk­Airport,­the passengers­ were­ released­ to­ the­ US­ Consulate­ in Leningrad.­The­crew­was­held­for­investigation­and released­after­making­a­formal­apology.­The­Korean pilots­acknowledged­that­they­deliberately­failed­to obey­ the­ commands­ of­ Soviet­ interceptors.­ They petitioned­the­Presidium­of­the­Supreme­Soviet­of­the USSR­for­pardon.­ Eventually,­the­passengers­were­deported­from the­Soviet­Union­back­to­Seoul.­The­Soviet­Union invoiced­South­Korea­$US100,000­for­caretaking expenses. TASS,­ the­ official­ news­ agency­ of­ the­ Soviet Union,­released­a­statement­to­the­public­on­30­April 1978.­The­Soviet­Union­refused­to­cooperate­with international­ experts­ while­ they­ investigated­ the incident­and­did­not­provide­any­data­mined­from­the aircraft's­ flight­ data­ recorder.­ ­ The­ airliner­ was dismantled­ and­ all­ equipment­ transferred­ by helicopter­onto­a­barge­in­Kandalaksha­Gulf.­The deputy­ chief­ commanding­ officer­ of­ Soviet­ air defense,­Yevgeniy­Savitsky,­personally­inspected­the pilot's­cockpit.­ The­ incident­ was­ a­ major­ embarrassment­ to Soviet­air­defence­because­Flight­902­had­already entered­Soviet­territory­before­it­was­intercepted.­This led­ to­ a­ shift­ in­ command­ and­ contributed­ to­ the shooting­ down­ of­ another­ Korean­Airlines­ flight, KAL­007,­in­1983,­which­killed­all­aboard.

Drugs and arms - anything to anywhere. The­‘fall­from­grace’­as­it­were­in­the­twilight­years of­the­707/720­saw­the­type­descend­from­the­glory and­glamour­days­of­the­high­life­with­the­jet-set­in the­late­1950s­to­to­murky­world­of­arms­dealers­and drug-cartels.­A­whole­industry­of­less-than-legitimate customers­ thrived,­ with­ aircraft­ being­ repeatedly leased­ and­ sub-leased­ without­ the­ manufacturer having­a­say­in­such­transactions.­Some­were­shady drug-cartels,­others­arms­dealers.­Some­operated­707 by­‘front­airlines’­on­behalf­of­organisations­such­as the­Central­Intelligence­Agency. Not­surprisingly,­some­of­these­aircraft­ended­up being­confiscated­as­the­result­of­their­use­in­drugsmuggling­or­illicit­arms-smuggling­activities.­Others soldiered­on,­getting­more­and­more­decrepit.­ As­for­the­pilots­operating­these­geriatric­jets? They­are­anonymous,­professional,­highly­paid­and as­mercenary­as­any­of­the­combatants­in­the­scores of­wars­from­which­they­make­their­living.­And­when they­fly­their­cargoes­of­weapons­or­troops­into­yet another­bush­conflict,­their­primary­aim,­after­getting out­alive,­is­to­keep­their­actions­secret. In­a­rare­breach­of­his­profession's­code­of­silence, one­of­the­most­experienced­‘freelance­cargo­pilots’ has­spoken­out­about­his­career. Brian­‘Sport’­Martin­flew­with­the­UK­charter airline­Dan-Air­for­a­while.­In­2000­he­broke­the­code of­silence­to­explain­a­little­about­his­activities. He­describes­how­he­has­made­his­living­flying armaments,­ including­ key­ components­ in­ nuclear weapons­programmes,­all­over­the­world.­Not­only has­ he­ been­ able­ to­ work­ unhindered­ by­Western governments,­ on­ several­ occasions­ -­ he­ claims­ -

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British­ and­ American­ officials­ hired­ him­ for clandestine­work.­He­talked­about­his­work­in­the early­nineteen­eighties­flying­Chinese­‘heavy­water’ -­used­in­the­construction­of­nuclear­reactors­and weapons­-­to­India,­Argentina­and­Libya.­ I­spoke­with­him­at­length­at­a­Dan-Air­reunion in­2000,­and­he­was­telling­me­about­his­recent­times flying­general­supplies,­and ‘...whatever the military would turn up with’ to­Ugandan-backed­rebels­in­the east­of­Congo­from­Entebbe­airport. He­ said­ he­ had­ flown­ 707s­ registered­ in Swaziland­for­two­Congolese­carriers,­Planet­Air­and New­Goma­Air,­from­Entebbe­in­Uganda,­and­Kigali in­Rwanda.­ 'We mostly carried brand new Kalashnikovs plus their ammunition. They were in quite beautiful condition. It was a standard operation for us. You don't really know there is a war on. You're not involved - you're just charter pilots.’ Many­ were recruited­by­companies­based­on­England's­south coast­ and­ in­ London.­ Others­ were­ hired­ by­ local agencies.­One,­Planetair,­which­employed­Martin­for the­trips­into­Congo,­had­been­mentioned­in­a­report into­ the­ reasons­ for­ the­ ongoing­ wars­ in­ Africa published­by­the­US­State­Department. Sport­also­told­me­that­he­had­flown­samples­of new­Soviet­weaponry,­clandestinely­obtained­behind the­Iron­Curtain,­to­testing­grounds­on­the­east­coast of­America­from­East­German­airfields.­ Although­the­pilots­were­unlikely­to­fall­foul­of British­law,­they­were­aware­of­the­risks­they­were taking.­Martin­had­been­jailed­in­Venezuela­and­spent three­days­in­a­cell­packed­with­violent­and­starved prisoners­in­Nigeria.­He­escaped­only­after­paying­a $10,000­bribe. On­ other­ occasions­ he­ has­ narrowly­ avoided being­shot­down.­While­flying­government­soldiers into­the­Sudan,­rebels­attempted­to­down­his­707­with Soviet-made­surface-to-air­missiles.­By­approaching airstrips­at­speed­Martin­had­avoided­being­hit­by

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anything­other­than­heavy-machine­gun­fire. Flying­into­the­central­African­state­of­Burundi­in the­middle­of­a­war­also­proved­tricky.­On­his­final approach­into­Bujumbura­airport,­Martin­was­unable to­raise­anybody­in­the­control­tower.­When­he­finally did­so­he­was­told­to­abort­the­landing.­While­arguing with­the­controllers­he­heard­a­loud­bang.­The­tower had­been­hit­by­a­rocket­and­destroyed.­ Further­research­into­the­activities­of­the­arms smugglers­-­or­drug­dealers­for­that­matter­-­is­fraught with­contradictions,­difficulties­and­danger.­Prior­to my­meeting­with­Sport­Martin,­I­had­met­and­talked with­people­like­William­‘Bill’­Armstrong,­founder of­Autair­International­and­the­owner­of,­in­his­own words­‘...more airlines than I care to remember’.­Bill knew­and­worked­with­such­people­as­Texan­Hank Warton­and­South­African­Jack­Malloch.­As­I­grew more­and­more­‘trusted’­by­these­people,­plus­getting to­know­some­of­the­‘characters’­that­hung­around the­ fringes­ of­ the­ embrionic­ aviation­ museum­ at Duxford­ in­ the­ early­ 1970s­ -­ and­ who­ still­ must remain­nameless­-­I­started­to­get­an­insight­into­the wheeling­and­dealings­that­went­on­between­between contract­pilots,­multi-layered­company­ownership, fake­aircraft­registrations,­government­contracts,­front companies­and­political­machinations. After­ talking­ with­ Sport­ Martin­ I­ did­ further research­and­uncovered­a­story­that­was­typical­-­if there­is­such­a­thing­-­of­these­sorts­of­flying.­ In­August­1997­a­newspaper­report­indicated­that Occidental­ Airlines,­ a­ company­ based­ at­ Ostend Airport­ was­ under­ investigation­ by­ the­ public prosecutor­ of­ Bruges.­ Until­ 1998­ Occidendal Aviation­Services­NV,­as­the­company­was­officially registered­at­the­Ostend­Commercial­Trade­Register, had­ its­ own­ large­ warehouse­ next­ to­ the­ airport control­tower.­Apparently­it­was­allegedly­owned­a former­ Belgian­ airline­ pilot,­ Ronald­ Rossignol, together­with­Brian­Martin. A­search­through­assorted­trade­and­telephone

EL-AKJ in full Occidental Cargo colours. (author’s collection)

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directories­ realed­ the­ following:­ OCCIDENTAL AIRLINES, S.A.: P.O. Box 32, Ostend Airport, B8400, Belgium; Phone 32 59 514340; Fax 32 59 510103; Code OCT; Year Founded 1995. Registered in Belgium and based in Nigeria, Occidental set up in 1995 to undertake international and regional allcargo services. Flights commence with one each leased Boeing 707- 321C and B-707-328C. Flights continue in 1996-2000. during which years a B-707347C is also acquired. Aircraft­ spotters­ are­ regarded­ by­ some­ in derogatory­ terms,­ but­ not­ me.­ They­ have­ an invaluable­information­network­that­can­provide­all sorts­of­details:­Occidental Airlines Fleet: 707-321C EL-AKJ c/n 19375; 707-3230 9G-ADS c/n 19587; 707-347C EL-AKU c/n 19964. The airline took delivery of a -320C in May 1995 to operate charters from Ghana to other points in Africa and to Europe. It is not confirmed whether the Liberian registered 347C is an addition or replacement from late 1995. Both were noted with no titles by late December 1995, the owned example being transferred to Analinda and operated for SABENA in early 1996. The -321C was leased from July 1996 to May 1998. Ronald­Rossignol­was­the­son­of­a­senior­political appointee­in­the­office­of­P.­Van­den­Boeynants,­at the­time­when­the­latter­was­serving­as­Belgium's Minister­of­Defence.­Ronald­Rossignol­had,­prior­to 1980,­close­connections­with­Brussels­extreme­right wing­circles.­Since­1980­it­was­alleged­that­he­had been­involved­in­business­with­the­Congo's­erstwhile President­ Mobutu.­ According­ to­ the­ Belgian newspaper­Le Soir, his­name­appeared­on­Interpol lists­ and­ he­ was­ arrested­ in­ 1984­ in­ France­ and accused­of­fraudulent­bankruptcy,­to­the­extent­of some­800­million­Belgian­francs. Despite­the­dubious­past­of­Ronald­Rossignol being­placed­once­more­under­judicial­scrutiny,­a senior­civil­servant­of­the­Flemish­authorities,­Paul

Waterlot,­responsible­for­Ostend­Airport's­promotion and­information,­defended­Rossignol­publicly­in­the press­ and­ reaffirmed­ in­ the­ name­ of­ the­ airport's management­board,­full­confidence­in­the­aims­of, and­the­services­provided­by,­Occidental­Airlines. The­subject­of­the­judicial­investigation­was­a cargo­of­nearly­forty­tonnes­of­military­equipment, to­be­sent­to­governmental­or­rebel­forces­in­Angola. An­Avistar­Airlines­Boeing­707­freighter,­Cyprusregistered­as­5B-DAZ,­was­chartered­for­the­trip­by Occidental­ Airlines.­ Pending­ a­ Belgian­ Customs investigation­the­consignment,­consisting­of­Dutch Army­ surplus­ items,­ had­ been­ impounded­ in Occidental's­warehouse­for­nine­months.­The­cargo manifest­ showed­ an­ innocuous­ cargo­ of­ used clothing,­vehicle­parts­and­vehicles,­but­the­cargo consisted­of­twenty­tonnes­of­uniforms,­an­armoured car,­multi-band­radios­and­other­equipment­needed by­a­fighting­force.­After­being­impounded­for­nine months,­the­consignment­was­granted­permission­to be­exported­to­England­and­was­merely­sent­across the­ Channel­ by­ truck­ without­ arousing­ further interest. On­12­May­1998­the­Avistar­aircraft­took­off­from the­civil­airport­side­of­RAF­Manston­in­Kent,­bound for­Africa.­The­flight­plan­showed­that­the­aircraft was­bound­for­Kano­in­Nigeria­to­refuel­and­then­to its­reported­final­destination­of­Mmabatho­in­South Africa.­ After­ taking­ off­ from­ Kano,­ the­ aircraft temporarily­ disappeared.­ It­ never­ landed­ on Mmabatho's­runway,­actually­too­short­for­a­fullyladen­Boeing­707,­but­it­was­observed­around­04.00 hours­on­13­May­on­the­ground­at­Cabinda,­Angola and­reappeared­some­hours­later­at­Lomé­in­Togo, empty.­ According­to­the­UK­newspaper­The Observer of 14­March­1999,­the­same­aircraft­5B-DAZ,­which­in 1997­made­some­twenty-eight­flights­from­Ostend flew,­in­December­1998,­a­cargo­of­weapons­and

Looking rather tatty, and completely unmarked apart from the registration 9G-ADS, this -323C of Occidental has all the passenger windows plugged up. (author’s collection)

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Not terrorist related, but a dramatic image nevertheless: the aircraft is China Airlines 707-309C B-1826, which caught fire and burnt out after it undershot the runway at Manilla International Airport on 27 February 1980. Of the 135 occupanrts on board, only two passengers received fatal injuries. (author’s collection)

ammunition­from­Hermes,­the­former­Slovak­stateowned­ arms’­ manufacturer­ in­ Bratislava,­ to­ the Sudan,­in­breach­of­an­European­Union­embargo. The­money­paid­by­Hermes­for­the­flight­was­split between­the­pilot,­the­crew­and­Ronald­Rossignol, who­acted­as­broker.­While­on­its­way­for­another delivery­ to­ the­ Sudan­ and­ again­ chartered­ by Rossignol,­the­aircraft­left­Bratislava­on­7­February 1999,­failed­to­achieve­sufficient­speed­and­ploughed into­the­mud­at­the­end­of­the­runway.­Because­of­its long­list­of­ongoing­malfunctions,­it­was­decided­not to­repair­the­aircraft. Ronald­ Rossignol­ succeeded­ in­ his­ efforts­ to remain­ outside­ the­ grip­ of­ Belgian­ justice,­ which probably­had­insufficient­legal­grounds­to­take­him into­custody.­The­incapacity­of­local­justice­illustrates clearly­ the­ need­ for­ comprehensive­ international legislation­ and­ law­ enforcement,­ as­ well­ as underlining­the­ease­with­which­arms’­brokers­are

able­to­take­advantage­of­gaps­within­and­between national­legal­systems.­

Into the twilight Notwithstanding­the­availability­of­hushkits­bringing JT3D-powered­7075­into­compliance­with­Stage­2 and­Stage­3­noise­regulations,­the­number­of­civilian operators­ of­ early­ Boeing­ jetliners­ was­ fast dwindling.­ Although­by­the­turn­of­the­millennium­the­707 had­ all­ but­ completely­ left­ passenger­ service, numerous­ freight­ operators­ around­ the­ world continued­to­operate­the­type­in­ones­and­twos.­Often subject­ to­ poorer­ operating­ and­ maintenance standards­than­they­enjoyed­in­their­heydays­as­part of­ a­ large­ passenger­ fleet,­ and­ periodically,­ the numbers­of­707s­in­service­was­reduced­by­a­mishap to­one­in­some­far-flung­corner­of­the­world.­One such­ event­ which­ occurred­ without­ loss­ of­ life,

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Two views of 707 ST-APY in Lake Victoria. (author’s collection)

occurred­ near­ Mwanza,­ Tanzania,­ on­ 3­ February 2000­and­was­not­without­its­elements­of­comedy. One-time­ Northwest­ Orient’s­ N372US,­ 707351C­had­served­with­BWIA­and­seven­other­lesser operators­before­joining­Trans-Arabian­Air­Transport (TAAT)­in­1985.­Registered­ST-APY­in­April,­1998, and­long­since­converted­to­freight­configuration,­the airliner­was­en­route­on­a­night­flight­from­Khartoum, Sudan­to­Mwanza­on­the­Tanzanian­shore­of­Lake Victoria­to­pick­up­a­38­tonne­load­of­fish­fillets­from Vick­Fish­Processors­for­delivery­in­Europe.­ When­it­went­dark­en­route­to­Mwanza,­the­radio altimeter­integral­light­was­found­to­be­unserviceable. The­crew­were­not­able­to­fix­the­problem­and­the continued­ using­ the­ FMS.­ The­ crew­ contacted Mwanza­tower­at­16:58­and­were­being­advised­that there­was­no­power­at­the­airport­and­that­efforts­were being­ made­ to­ use­ a­ standby­ generator.­ Further information­passed­on­the­crew­reportedly­included VOR,­DME­and­NDB­all­unserviceable,­weather: wind­calm,­8­km­visibility,­temperature­25deg­C­and QNH­1015.­The­airport’s­elevation­is­listed­as­being 3763­feet­/1147­metres.­After­holding­for­ten­minutes, the­airport­generator­came­on­and­the­runway­lights went­on.

The­first­officer,­who­was­pilot­flying,­started­a visual­runway­12­approach.­When­well­established on­finals­with­full­landing­configuration,­the­captain told­the­first­officer­that­he­was­too­low,­and­a­few seconds­later­he­told­the­first­officer­he­was­too­high. Both­the­captain­and­the­flight­engineer­then­told­the first­officer­to­go­around.­The­first­officer­overshot and­ climbed­ to­ 5500­ feet­ on­ the­ downwind­ leg. Turning­on­the­left­base­the­captain­remarked­that­the turn­was­too­tight:­".. I will do a 360-degree turn to the right and position you finals". The­captain­thus took­over­control­and­started­a­right­turn­at­4400­feet. Just­before­completing­the­turn,­the­first­officer­said: "do not go down anymore, the altimeter is reading 4100 feet". Almost­aligned­with­the­runway,­the­first officer­took­over­control­again.­At­that­same­moment the­aircraft­bounced­two­or­three­times­yawing­to­the left­and­came­down­to­a­halt­in­the­middle­of­the­lake, losing­all­four­engines­in­the­process,­­floating­about 3­miles­­offshore.­The­external­lights­guided­a­fishing boat­ to­ the­ scene­ and­ the­ five­ crew­ were­ rescued uninjured.­The­next­day­the­airliner­was­towed­to­the lakeshore,­where­it­remained­as­a­visual­beacon­for some­ years­ to­ come,­ and­ ironically,­ a­ home­ for relatives­of­the­fish­it­arrived­to­pick­up.

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Chapter­Seven

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‘Ladies and Gentlemen, from the Flight Deck...’ Of­the­many­airlines­using­previously­owned­707s, Bryant, saw the opportunity of putting together a Dan-Air­ Services,­ part­ of­ the­ Davies­ &­ Newman sufficient number of these groups who could time Group­ is­ a­ good­ example,­ and­ Australian-born their journeys so that an aircraft could carry a full Operations­ Director­ Captain­ Arthur­ Larkman load to a destination and return with another full load. When sufficient flights were programmed for describes­their­introduction­to­service­and­use. ‘It was Alan Snudden, the then Managing this ‘back to back’ system, a much lower charter price Director of Dan-Air, who started our entry in the long could be offered and this attracted yet more groups. haul charter market using 707s carrying affinity By diligent marketing it was expected that sufficient groups. He had had many discussions with various flights could be organised to support the operation people who had made the original proposal to of a long haul aircraft. C.I.Smith, who had been appointed Projects engage in these charters. When Alan became Manager by Frank Horridge, was tasked with convinced that this could be a sensible way for the Company to begin its expansion into the long haul recommending suitable aircraft for our requirements. market, he persuaded the Board to approve the plan. Pan-American were disposing of their Boeing 707When this decision was taken the first step was 321s at a comparatively low cost at that time, and to set up a company entitled ‘Dan-Air ‘Charlie Item’ proposed that the Company should InterContinental’ to deal with the commercial aspects buy them. The decision was made to purchase these of the operation. As the Government strictly limited aircraft, together with the full package of support the number of airlines who were permitted to operate including spares and training. Unfortunately the scheduled flights on international routes, all other choice of aircraft was not a wise one as this series British carriers were limited to Charter flights. A aircraft was an early type with high hours and, method had already been devised which would therefore, greater maintenance requirements. With its enable the operation of consecutive flights. This was limited range when carrying a full load the type was known as ‘affinity group’ charters and involved the not really a Trans-Atlantic aircraft. This decision was targeting of groups of people who shared a common destined to present us with many problems on our interest, most often members of clubs. These groups future Trans-Atlantic operation. Pan-American sent a technical lecturer to the UK were offered a specially arranged flight to a transto instruct the first Atlantic destination A Travel Agent’s display model announcing the new Dan-Air course of pilots and at much reduced 707. flight engineers, cost. When the which was conducted number who wanted in the Training to travel was Centre which I had sufficient to fill the set up at Horsham. seats, the organisers The subjects covered would charter an on the course were aircraft. It was typical of those on all obvious that the real aircraft conversion economies required a courses and included return load and a few the power plant and people, like Ron

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Right: at the office - Captain Arthur Larkman in the left hand seat of one of the Dan-Air 707s.

Below: the famous 707 vertical fin appeared on the Dan-Air Summer timetable for 1974.

its accessories, the airframe, including the electrical, fuel, pneumatic, hydraulic, and electronic systems. Navigation Aids, emergency equipment and procedures, performance data, cruise control, flight planning and loading plus much more. To assist with the training we obtained system mock-ups, panel trainers and a Cockpit Procedure Trainer which was a flight deck mock up in which drills and procedures

could be practiced. We were already equipped with projectors for transparencies, films etc. Examinations were held at regular intervals throughout the course and on its completion the CAA's exams were undertaken. I joined the B-707 course at Horsham on the 11th. The crews on this course included Bob Atkins, John Cotter, George Sutton, Alan Farrar, Sam Bee, Bob Hope, Gordon Pumphrey, Ken Topliffe and Flight Engineers Bill Snow, Cliff Lewton, Ned Cleary, Alec Ewen and Tim Ware. The Boeing ground course was completed on 29 January and the next day we flew to New York, where we were to be trained on the simulator at Pan-Am's Training Center at Kennedy Airport. We stayed at the Ramada Inn, which was sufficiently close to the airport boundary for us to be able to walk to and from the Training Center. Pan-Am had arranged our accommodation very cleverly, for there was nothing to distract us from our studies. The facilities at the training centre were very good and the instruction was first class. The instructors were pilots who had been seconded from the line and were now occupied solely with training, although they were scheduled for occasional line flights to keep them current. One of my instructors was Bob Dooley, an ex-Airforce bomber pilot who before joining Pan-Am had been a Commander of Airforce One (the President's aircraft). One of Bob’s recommended procedures for dealing with an emergency on the aircraft was to say-- ‘Aw Sh-t', before dealing with the problem. This was wise advice, designed to avoid precipitate action before analysing the problem. After returning to the UK I commenced the base training on the 707 which I had planned to take place

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at Newcastle as usual. The instructors were Bob Dooley and Al Bernstein, who worked us very hard but managed to make the experience very enjoyable. When this training was completed I returned to Gatwick to prepare the 707 line training programme. Pan-Am was sending to the UK the line training Captains who would fly with us on the line flights and complete our training. My priorities were to arrange their accommodation and to have their Licences endorsed by the CAA which would give them approval to fly in command of a British aircraft. I had already provided the CAA with all the details of the Pan-Am pilots, and the approvals were issued without any delay. To save expense I housed them in one of the local guest houses and told them that this would be much more enjoyable than an impersonal hotel as they would be able to get to know more of English life in the countryside. My fingers were crossed as I

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expected that they would demand accommodation in a hotel in a town. I had already visited several establishments in the area and selected those most likely to be acceptable. When the Captains arrived from New York it was a warm and sunny April day. I drove them to the first establishment on the list but there was no reply at the front door so we made our way to the garden at the rear. We were somewhat surprised to find the two youngish women who ran the guest house, with whom I had previously discussed the arrangements, were sitting in their swimming costumes alongside the small swimming pool. Introductions were made and while drinks were brought, one of the pilots spoke for the others when he said ‘This will do just fine'. I left them there and never heard any complaint about accommodation! The inaugural flight of our first 707, G-AYSL, on which my line training began, was to Niagara Falls. We set off with a full load of passengers and re-fuelled

The Captain’s and First Officer’s Control panels on Dan-Air’s 707 G-AYSL.

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1 2 3 4 5

Marker­Beacon­System. Clock. Turn­and­Bank­Indicator. Machmeter. Ground­Proximity­Warning Light. 6 Nav­Warning­Light. 7 Horizontal­Situation Indicator 8 Attitude­Director­Indicator. 9 Approach­Progress­Display. 10 Radio­Magnetic­Indicator.

Captain’s Panel

11 Servo-Pneumatic­Altimeter. 12­Autopilot­disengaged warning­light. 13 Approach­Progress­Display. 14 Altitude­Warning­Light 15 Flight­Director 16 Radio­Altimeter 17 Pneumatic­Brake­Handle 18 Vertical­Speed­Indicator 19­Trim­Indicator 20 Integrated­Flight­System Transfer­Switches

21 Radio/Instrument­Navigation System­Selector. 22 Instrument­Navigation System/CDI­light.­ 23 Distance­Measuring Equipment­Indicator. 24 Pitot-Static­Selector. 25 Integrated­Flight­System Transfer­Switches 26 Flight­Director­&­Autopilot Annunicator­Lighting Intensity­Reset­Switch.

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Above: Four of the Stewardesses who were to fly regularly on the 707. Left to Right: Miss Dilys Ruffle, Miss Riley Siponen, Miss C Brewen and Miss Jackie Gallagher, 707 Fleet Stewardess. Below: 707 G-AYSL being loaded with passengers at London Gatwick prior to its first commercial service with the company on 8 April 1971. The flight, under the command of Captain Bob Atkins, Dan-Air’s Chief Pilot, was to Niagara Falls, Canada.

at Shannon as we were too heavy to carry the fuel required for a non-stop flight. We nightstopped at Niagara while another crew who had positioned there as passengers flew the aircraft back to Gatwick. From there another crew flew the aircraft to New York. The day after our arrival at Niagara we travelled by taxi to Buffalo where we took a scheduled flight to La Guardia. At La Guardia we again took taxis to John F Kennedy, New York’s main international airport. We met our aircraft, Sierra Lima, there and flew it to Toronto, where another crew were waiting to take it to Gatwick. The aircraft was then flown to New York and was returning to Gatwick with a few empty seats which, to save airfares, we could use for our return to the UK From Toronto, therefore, we positioned on a scheduled flight to JFK, and then took taxis to the North Passenger Terminal where our aircraft was arriving. This complicated mixture of flights and travelling was the result of the many and varied destinations to which we operated and was to be the pattern of our existence for some years to come. After my return to the UK I attended three meetings in London with Air Spain in quick succession and two days later I flew IT charters on the 707 to Palma and to Prestwick, then from Luton to Munich, followed by a flight to Nairobi. After returning from Nairobi to Gatwick, a flight to New York followed--a busy April. In June I flew several trips to Toronto from both Gatwick and Prestwick. At Toronto it was interesting to observe a variation on airport terminal arrangements that I had previously only seen in the

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third world. All arriving passengers exited Customs through a door which opened directly into the terminal landside area. Our 189 passengers had to force their way through at least as many welcoming relatives and friends crowding the doorway. It was completely chaotic and always took a long time for the hundreds of people and their baggage to become disentangled. A positive factor was the evident enthusiasm of the welcome, although if more than one aircraft had arrived, things tended to get out of hand. Among other flights I made that month were to Vancouver and to Seattle. One of the staff of Sea-Tac, our handling agents at Seattle, was Barbara Walder. Barbara later joined Dan-Air at Gatwick and was my Secretary for many years. The 707 destinations were very varied and this made the operation much more interesting. For example one of the flights I made in October was from Toronto to Barbados. We were positioning empty to Gatwick from Barbados the next day and Bob Atkins and his crew who had slipped in Toronto from another flight, came as passengers with us to save airfares back to London. Everyone enjoyed the nightstop in Barbados and we all had an early morning swim on the day of departure to freshen up after our night out. On the long ocean crossing only the First Officer, the Flight Engineer and the ‘galley hostess’ were awake. At one stage in the flight the F/O went back to the cabin to chat to our passengers, and while there he asked the hostess on ‘galley’ duty to bring up two coffees for the F/E and myself. In the meantime the F/E had gone down into ‘Lower 41', a

hold below the flight deck, to check some electrical equipment. When the hostess arrived with the two coffees I was alone, and she asked where the F/E was. Rather cruelly, I didn’t tell her but asked her to look for him. In the meantime I told the F/E to remain in the hold. Several minutes later she re-appeared and in a very worried voice said she had looked everywhere and he wasn't on board. I called him on the intercom and said he could come up now and when he climbed up the ladder and opened the hatch in the flight deck floor she was greatly relieved. One of a series we were operating was a weekly flight to Vancouver. The return flight to Gatwick was operated by a crew already at Vancouver, and the crew which had flown the aircraft in, remained in Vancouver for a week. The aircraft was fully occupied with flights to other destinations during this time before returning to Vancouver, when the slip crew in Vancouver would fly the aircraft back to the UK. The stopover in Vanvouver was always popular as it is a very attractive city with a great many amenities, and is surrounded by areas of interest such as Stanley Park, and skiing on Grouse Mountain which is in North Vancouver on the other side of the inlet. Because of my commitments I could not afford to stay away for so long, so I was able to fly on only one of these very popular trips. In September 1971 I operated a flight whose schedule differed from the usual flights. On this flight the crew had a four day slip in Vancouver and then we were rostered to travel to Seattle where we would meet the aircraft when it landed, and then fly it back to Gatwick.

The 707 was the largest company aircraft the Dan Air engineers at Lasham had to deal with up to this time. Nevertheless, the soon learned the ins and out of the big Boeing. (Dan Air Staff Aassociation)

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1 Ground­Proximity­Warning Light. 2 Approach­Progress­Display. Clock. 3 Nav­Warning­Light. 4 Machmeter. 5 Flight­Director 6 Attitude­Director­Indicator. 7 Servo-Pneumatic­Altimeter. 8 Autopilot­disengaged warning­light. 9 Altitude­Warning­Light 10 Radio­Altimeter 11 Vertical­Speed­Indicator

First Officer’s Panel

12­Marker­Beacon­System. 13 Flight­Director­&­Autopilot Annunicator­Lighting Intensity­Reset­Switch. 14 Radio­Magnetic­Indicator. 15 Radio/Instrument­Navigation System­Selector. 16 Instrument­Navigation System/CDI­light.­ 17 Distance­Measuring Equipment­Indicator. 18 Horizontal­Situation Indicator

19­Pitot-Static­Selector. 20 Turn­and­Bank­Indicator. Integrated­Flight­System Transfer­Switches 21 Ground­Proximity­test switch. 22 Hyraulic­Brake­Pressure Indicator. 23 Clock. 24 Static­Air­Temperature Indicator. 25 Total­Air­Temperature Indicator.

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1 Master­Fire­Warning­Light and­Bell­Cutout­Switch (Captain) 2­ Flight­Director­(1) 3 Flight­Director­(2) 4 Altitude­Selector/Control 5 Master­Fire­Warning­Light and­Bell­Cutout­Switch­(First Officer) 6 Landing­Gear­Warning­Lights and­Gear­Down­Lights 7 Flap­Position­Indicators

Ratio­(EPR)­Ind;­Thrust Reverser­Operating­Light.­ 14 Engine­No.1­&­2­Low­Oil Pressure/Filter­Bypass Warning­Light. 15 Standby­Horizon­Indicator. 16 Servo-Pneumatic­Altimeter. 17 Mach­Trim­Disengaged Warning­Light 18 True­Airspeed­Indicator. 19 Flight­Deck­Light­Controls.

Pilot’s Centre Panel and Light Shield. 8 Rudder­Boost­Low­Pressure Warning­Light 9 Essential­Power­Failure­Light. 10 Landing­Gear­Lever 11 Engine­No.3­&­4­Low­Oil Pressure­/Filter­Bypass Warning­Light. 12 Leading­Edge­Flaps­Lights 13 Engine­Indicators,­Bottom­to Top:­Fluel­Flow­Ind;­Exhaust Gas­Temp­(EGT); Tachometer;­Engine­Pressure

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Al Bernstein, the Pan-Am training Captain, came to the UK in November in order to conduct the biannual Competency Checks on our crews and while he was here checked John Cotter and myself out as B-707 Base Training Instructors. This was carried out under the supervision of Captain Spence, a Civil Aviation Flying Unit examiner and Captain Harris, a Ministry Inspector. We were also cleared as Type Rating Examiners on the 707. Al gave me a hard time, covering every type of unusual situation that could arise when instructing a beginner on the type who could put the aircraft into a dangerous position. All types of emergency procedures were practiced, including failing two engines on the same side shortly after I had taken off. I completed the circuit and landed on two engines. The reason for this gruelling trial became clear when sometime later Al suggested I might like a job as a Training Captain with PanAm, an offer which I declined. We purchased a second B-707 from Pan-Am. The Company was expanding rapidly and the administration was running hard to keep up, but the operations staff relished the challenge and the extra activity was absorbed with but little indigestion. The number of crews on the 707 had to be increased with the addition of another aircraft, so in January ‘72 John Cotter and Bill Snow, and Tim Ware and I, went to New York to be checked out by the Pan-Am trainers while we gave the full course of conversion training to our crews on the simulator. They included Brian Martin and Brian Zeitlyn, Chuck Smith, Bill Grief and Pat Fry. I fitted in a full programme of training on both the B-707 aircraft and the simulator in New York. TWA put their 707 simulator up for sale in October 1972 and, as it seemed likely that Dan-Air would expand this fleet. John Cotter and I took the opportunity, during a two day stopover in Toronto, to inspect the simulator which was housed in TWA's training centre in Kansas City. They accommodated us while we assessed its performance, as part of which we flew the same programme on it as we did

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when air testing an aircraft for the renewal of its Certificate of Airworthiness. This is a very demanding test covering all aspects of the aircraft's capability including measurement of its performance with engine and systems failures. We found that it did not meet the requirements for CAA approval for mandatory 1179 Check items. This meant that we would have to continue bringing crews to New York to carry out the Mandatory Checks and training on the Pan-Am simulator which was approved. In March of 1972 the Company organised a sales presentation tour in Western Canada. The Commercial and other Departmental Managers and our PR manager set off in the 707 which I flew to Prestwick where we picked up a reduced load of passengers bound for Calgary. As the aircraft was not full this allowed all our staff to travel together. Alan Snudden had asked my wife Joy to accompany us and assist the PR Manager in spreading the word. In Calgary a round of meetings with Tour Operators and Travel Agents followed, with cocktail parties held in the evenings. I didn't see much of Joy at these occasions as she was always surrounded with people. We then flew on to Edmonton where we repeated the process. The return flight was on March 16th, my birthday. We had passengers for Amsterdam and after unloading them there we positioned back empty to Gatwick. During this short flight the cabin staff asked me to come back and look at a problem in the cabin. Leaving the aircraft in the capable hands of Sam Bee I went back to find a birthday cake, covered in candles, awaiting me. Air France found themselves short of aircraft in the early summer and contracted us to operate their scheduled services between Orly and Heathrow on our B-707. The flights went very well and the crews very much enjoyed the catering, which was uplifted in Paris. I was intrigued, when I flew the service, to find that the crew meals were accompanied by a carton of small bottles of wine, three red and three white, especially for the use of the flight deck crew. More crew training followed at Newcastle in July

707 G-AYSL awaits it’s passengers at London Gatwick prior to its first commercial service with the company on 8 April 1971. (Dan Air Staff Association)

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1 2 3 4

Emergency­Flap­Switches Mach­Trim/Warning Engine­Start­Controls Fire­Detection­and Extinguishing­Controls. 5 Lighting­Controls 6 Hold­Smoke­Detection 7 Engine­Start­Controls 8 Ground­Start­Switch 9 PA­Speakers 10­Internal­Navigation­System Mode­Selector­Switch. 11 SelCal­Controls. 12 Oxygen­Controls. 13 Internal­Navigation­System Mode­Selector­Switch

Pilot’s Overhead Panel 14 ‘No­Smoking/Seat­Belts’ Switch. 15 Emergency­Exits­Lighting Switch. 16 Cockpit­Voice­Recorder 17 Window­Heat­Controls. 18 Probe­Heater­Controls 19 Rain­Repellant­Control;­First Officer. 20 Nose­Gear­Light­Switch 21 Gyro­Compass­Controls 22 Ground­Crew/Cabin­Crew Call­Buttons 23 Yaw­Damper­Switch 24 Yaw­Damper­Light 25 Radio­Altimeter­Test­Switch

26 Windshield­Wiper­Controls 27 Exterior­Lighting­Controls 28 Anti-Ice­Controls 29 Gyro­Compass­Controls 30 Oleo­Bypass­Test Switch/Attitude­Warning Selector­and­Test­Switch. 31 Rain­Repellant­Control; Captain 32 Nacelle­Anti-Ice­Controls. 33 Rudder/Spoiler­Control switches 34 Anti-Skid­brake­controls 35 Communications­Call­System 36 Main­Cabin­Lights 37 Flight­Recorder­ON/OFF

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Not only did Dan-Air pilots have to learn about flying in to Hong Kong with the 707, but the Stewardesses had to learn about Far-Eastern cuisine! In the mortar-board and gown is Eva Lam, Manager of the Far East travel Centre’s Chinese Department. The Dan-Air stewardessses are, from left to right:: Sue Evans, Lynne Boreham, Velma Sharma and Sue Hale. (Dan Air Staff Association)

where I flew with Ken Grover, Keith Moody, Tony Kirk and Stan Lee. With the addition of a second B-707 the number of trans-Atlantic flights greatly increased. Toronto was now such a frequent destination that Jock Mills, with his wife, took up residence there as our Station Engineer. We had also based Alan Barker in Toronto as our Company representative. Alan had flown with us as a First Officer, but had recently lost his licence on medical grounds. The number of New York flights also increased. Charter aircraft were very often processed at the North Passenger Terminal (NPT), which was on the north side of JFK airport. The facilities were rather primitive although comparatively peaceful compared to the International Terminal in the central area. One evening, when we had positioned from Toronto to JFK, we were parked at the NPT to embark the passengers waiting there for the flight to UK. The immigration official who met us on our arrival at the NPT told us that he could clear the passengers out of the country, but not the crew as they had not been cleared into the country. I suggested

that he should, therefore, clear us in to the country, but he replied that he was not empowered to deal with persons entering the country, even though we would be leaving the country as soon as our departure procedures were completed. He told us that only the Immigration Officer at the International Arrivals Terminal could clear us and we would have to enter the country there. He could not be persuaded of the illogicality of this so we had no choice but to comply. International Arrivals could only be reached by travelling through the local suburb of Jamaica as there was no connecting road within the airport boundary. We took taxis therefore, out of the Airport boundary, drove through the countryside, and then entered the Airport once again at the International Arrivals Terminal. When we entered the terminal we exited the country through Immigration Control, turned around and were cleared to enter again. The officials here saw nothing wrong with the process as the paperwork was now in order. We went back through the countryside to the NPT by taxi and were then allowed to leave the country. A very stressful aspect of our turn-rounds at JFK

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1 Control­Display­Unit;­Captain 2 Weather­radar 3 Control­Display­Unit;­First Officer.

Forward Electronic Control Panel 4 ATC­Transponder­System HF­Radio­Controls;­First Officer 6 Instrument­Comparator

Warning­System 7 HF­Radio­Controls;­Captain 8 Antenna­Stabiliser­Controls.

Aft Electronic Control Panel

1 Distance­Measuring Equipment;­First Officer. 2 Autopilot 3­ADF­Radio:­First Officer 4 Transceiver Malfunction Indicator. 5 ADF­Radio:­Captain 6 Distance­Measuring Equipment;­Captain.

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Two company in-flight magazines from the 707 period the upper one from 1973 when it was called a ‘souvenir booklet’ and below, No1 of the true Inflight Magazine, that used the flight-deck of a 707 as a backdrop. (Dan Air Staff Association)

was the handling process. Our contract with the handling agents required them to provide only steps if we were not on a finger, the ground power, and passenger handling. All other services were provided by a variety of individual suppliers. Preparing for departure was a test of how to bring order out of chaos. Because of the limitations on the amount of load our 321 series Boeings could carry, it was necessary to calculate exactly the maximum load we could uplift in the prevailing conditions. To do this the first information required was the breakdown of the load which had to be obtained from the agents, but was not usually provided until the last minute. From this I would calculate the total weight of the female passengers as well as that of the males, children and infants if any. The weight of the baggage and its distribution in the freight holds had to be calculated and all of this translated on to the load sheet to give the take-off weight and the balance of the aircraft. It was necessary to ensure that the final calculation was within the maximum limits dictated by the length of the runway in use, the wind speed and direction, and the temperature. This was done while sitting on the flight deck, as it was necessary to maintain radio contact with the handling agents and with the airport ground control. At the same time a queue of the suppliers would form at the flight deck door, all with their bills in hand for which they wanted payment in cash. I had to count out the dollars to the catering, cabin cleaning, toilet emptying, and water replenishment etc. suppliers, while attending to the many other pre-departure duties. It was not wise to fall out with any of these service suppliers, much as one was tempted to do at times, as practically every activity on the airport was controlled by the Mafia, and we all had heard tales of the troubles ensuing for unco-operative clients. My duties with Dan-Air were as demanding as ever however, and I was also flying intensively. One of the flights in September was a very welcome change as it was chartered to carry a replacement ship’s crew to a P&O cruise liner in Sydney, and to return the replaced crew to the UK. In Singapore, on the return journey, I met up with John Cameron who in 1956 had persuaded me to join Dan-Air when he was Chief Pilot of the Company. After a disagreement with Laurie Moore he had resigned and joined Middle East Airlines. Subsequently he became Operations Manager of West African Airways but left them after he had refused to train some of their First Officers. West African had bought B-707s and they wanted all their indigenous pilots to be converted onto the aircraft, but John failed some of them as he considered them

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Control Stand

1 Speed­Brake­Lever 2 Thrust­Reverse Levers,­Engine­1­& 2. 3 Thrust­Reverse Levers,­Engine­3­& 4. 4 Trim­Wheel;­First Officer 5 Flap­Lever­and Indicator 6 Stabilizer­Trim Indicator;­First Officer. 7 Stabilizer­Trim Cutout­Switches. 8 Stabilizer­Trim Light. 9 Thrust­Levers, Engines­3­&­4 10­Start­Levers, Engines­1,2,3,4. 11 Horn­Cutout­Lever. 12­Stabilizer­Brake Release­Knob. 13 Aileron­Trim­Scale 14 Aileron­Trim Wheel. 15 Rudder­Trim­Wheel 16 Radio­Panel­Light Control. 17 Rudder­Trim­Scale. 18 Thrust­Levers, Engines­1­&­2. 19 Parking­Brake Warning­Light. 20 Parking­Brake Lever. 21 Stabilizer­Trim Indicator;­Captain. 22 Trim­Wheel; Captain.

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to be below the required standard for that aircraft. He then rejoined Singapore Airlines and was now flying Boeing 747s. Soon after returning to Gatwick from Sydney, I flew to Seattle and from there positioned to Los Angeles. The crew and I set off on a sightseeing tour but the famous sights are spread over such a wide area that we saw only a few of those that we had looked forward to. In November I flew a party of golfers to West Palm Beach in Florida. The stopover was very pleasant but the return was a disaster. The so-called handling agents, who had been selected by London Office, were, in fact, a small flying club. They knew nothing about handling a large international flight with the result that the take-off was well delayed. When we were settled in the cruise, the pressurisation system began to fluctuate and Alec Ewen, the flight engineer, was unable to get it under control. I descended to a lower altitude but the problem continued with large surges in the pressure, so much so that the passenger oxygen masks were automatically released, although we were unaware of it until the hostess came to the flight deck. The cabin was a ridiculous sight with the jungle of masks hanging from their tubes, and most of the passengers breathing from them, although the cabin pressure was sufficiently high to maintain the cabin altitude below 10,000 feet. We had no choice but to divert to Bangor, where the crew re-stowed the masks. There had been several reports in the Technical log of problems with the system but Lasham had not yet rectified it. Once again inadequate maintenance proved very costly to the airline. Our problems were not yet over as the weather at Gatwick, our destination, had deteriorated and by the time of our much delayed arrival, a howling gale was blowing across the runway. The wind speed was well above the aircraft's cross-wind limits, so we were forced to divert to Manchester. The passengers had to travel to London by coach, and I got the impression that they were none too pleased. When the aircraft returned it was taken out of service and the system was overhauled at last but, of course, the cost to DanAir Services of the incident was not shown on the Dan-Air Engineering balance sheet. At the end of December 1972 The Company was contracted to position two 707s at Teheran to be exclusively employed in the carriage of Muslim pilgrims to Mecca during the period of the Hadj. Our crews stayed in the Teheran Sheraton which was more comfortable than we had anticipated. Both aircraft were engaged throughout the twenty-four hours in flying the pilgrims to Jeddah, the airport

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Dan-Air put the 707 on just about every piece of literature it produced, including this Duty Free Tariff Card. (Dan Air Staff Association)

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1 Galley­Power­Switch 2 External­Power­Selector­+ lights. 3 Battery­Switch. 4 DC­Power­Voltmeter 5 DC­Power­Loadmeter. 6 Selector,­Load­&­Volts 7 Air­Compressor­Start/Stop Switch. 8 Air­Compressor­Low­Oil Pressure­Warning­Light. 9 Air­Conditionion­& Pressurisation­Panel­(Engines­2 -­3­-­4) 10 Air­Compressor­Tachometer. 11­Air­Compressor­Overspeed Trip­Light. 12 Ram­Air­Switch. 13 Crew­Auxilliary­Heat­Valve Switch. 14 Engine­Bleed­Air­and­Wing Valve­Switches. 15 Duct­Overheat­Warning­Lights. 16 Cabin­Temperature­Selector: Crew­Compartment. 17 Cabin­Temperature­Selector

Main­Cabin. 18 Air­Conditioning­Lights 19 Air­Conditioning­Unit Switches. 20 Cabin­Air­Temperature Indicator. 21 Cabin­Air­Temperature­Source Selector. 22 Cabin­Altitude­Warning­Horn Cutout­Switch. 23 Cabin­Air­Thrust­Valve Switch. 24 Conditioned­Air­Duct­Pressure Indicator. 25 Cabin­Diff.­Pressure­Indicator. 26 Pressurisation­Manual­Control Selector. 27 Outflow­Valve­Position Indicators. 28 Outflow­Valve­Balance Control. 29 Cabin­Altimeter. 30 Altitude­Selection­Indicator­& Barometric­Correction Indicator. 31 Pressurisation­Rate­Selector.

Flight Engineer’s Upper Panel

32 Cabin­Rate­Of­Climb­Indicator. 33 Air­Supply­Duct­Pressure Indicator. 34 Frequency­Meter­&­AC Voltmeter. 35 KVARS­Switch 36 AC­Paralleling­Selector 37 Essential­Power­Failure Warning­Light­&­Selector 38 AC­Power­column­Engine­4 39 AC­Power­column­Engine­3 40 AC­Power­column­Engine­2 41 AC­Power­column­Engine­1 42 Frequency­Control. 43­KW/KVAR­Meter. 44 Generator­Control­Off­Light­& Switch. 45 Generator­Breaker­Circuit Open­Light­&­Switch. 46 Bus­Tie­Breaker­Light­and Switch. 47 Generator­Drive­Oil Temperature­Rise­Indicator. 48 Generator­Drive­Low­Pressure Light­and­Generator­Drive Discconnect­Switch.

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1 2 3 4 5

Fuel­System:­Engine­1 Fuel­System:­Engine­2 Fuel­System:­Engine­3 Fuel­System:­Engine­4 Engine­Oil­Quantity­Test Switch. 6 Equipment­Cool­Valves Warning­Lights. 7 Equipment­Cooling­Switches. 8 Alternate­Low­Pressure­Start Switch,­Engines­1,2,3,4. 9 Oil­Quantity­Indicator,­Engines 1,2,3,4. 10 Oil­Temperature­Indicator, Engines­1,2,3,4. 11 60Htz­Converter­Switch. 12 Oil­Pressure­Indicator,­Engines 1,2,3,4. 13 N2 Tachometer,­Engines 1,2,3,4.

Flight Engineer’s Lower Panel

14 Start­Air­Pressure­Indicator. 15 Hydraulic­Reservoir­Quantity Indicator­Utility­System 16 Utility­and­Auxiliary­System Pump­Low­Pressure­Lights. 17 Vibration­Amplitude­Indicator, Engines­1,2,3,4. 18 Vibration­Monitor­Test­Switch. 19 Vibration­Pickup­Selector. 20 Hydraulic­Pump­Switches 21 Utility­System­Pump­Switches. 22 Interconnect­Valve­Switch. 23 Auxiliary­System­Pump Switches 24 Utility­System­Pressure Indicator. 25 Rudder­Hydraulic­Pressure Indicator. 26 Fuel­temperature­Selector. 27 Fuel­temperature­Gauge

28 Total­Fuel­Quantity­Gauge­for usable­fuel­in­all­tanks. 29 Fuel­Heater­Switches­&­Fuel Icing­Lights. 30 Fuel­Quantity­Gauge­for­each tank. 31 Fuel­Crossfeed­Selector, Engines­1,2,3,4. 32 Fuel­Quantity­Indicator, Engines­1,2,3,4. 33 Boost­Pump­Switches,­Engines 1,2,3,4. 34 Low­Pressure­Lights,­Engines 1,2,3,4. 35 Engine­Fuel­Shutoff­Valve Switch,­Engines­1,2,3,4. 36 Fuel­Valve­Position­Light, Engines­1,2,3,4.

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Dan-Air Engineering was part of the Davis and Newman Group of Companies and had a major facility at Lasham Airfield in Hampshire. Here one of the company 707 undergoes deep maintenance. (Dan Air Staff Association)

near Mecca. An impressive new terminal, the design of which was based on a very large tented encampment in the desert, handled an enormous flow of passengers pouring in from every Muslim country. The air traffic control system was not very advanced but the controllers achieved the remarkable feat of getting the aircraft, which were circling the airfield like a swarm of bees, safely onto the ground. Just as remarkably they succeeded in getting those on the ground into the air again and separated from the swarm of arrivals. It was an exciting experience, and I thought that maybe their faith in Allah had been justified throughout this period, as there were several near misses, but no accidents. The same process was repeated at the end of the Hadj when the hundreds of thousands had to be evacuated. The flights went smoothly and the passengers, many of whom had never flown before, behaved surprisingly well. We carried four of our own girls on each flight, from a team led by Val Barnett with the assistance of Susie Calderwood, and three Iranian hostesses as translators and cabin staff assistants. I flew eight of these round trips in eight days, and then flew the aircraft back to Gatwick as there was a lull before the series of return flights began. The return to Gatwick was in order to operate a charter flight to Barbados, so there was no gap in the utilisation of the aircraft. Because we had full loads we had to refuel at Santa Maria in the Azores both ways. After a brief rest when I arrived back at Gatwick I flew the aircraft back to Teheran. During

the stay in Teheran I saw a lot of Joe Reaney, an old friend who had been a fellow pilot in Malayan Airways and was now flying with IranAir. He had flown the DC-7 with Dan-Air for a period but left when the Company had not provided War Risk insurance for the crew when he flew a charter to Biafra during the war being waged upon it by the Nigerian Government. After I returned to the UK and waded through the backlog of office work, John Cotter and I flew a charter to Ankara and Karachi. After our return we both flew to New York in mid February 1973, where we commenced the conversion training for the additional crews joining the 707 fleet. While we were there we carried out all the Competency Checks and Instrument Rating Renewals for the current crews. During our stay in New York one of the Pan-Am instructors, who had flown with the US Navy, took us to dinner in the Mess at the Brooklyn Navy Yard. Another concentrated period of 707 training took place in March 1973 when I went to Newcastle to base train two more crews including Pat Fry and Bill Grief. At that time all the emergency manoeuvres had to be practised in the aircraft in flight so that the time spent in the aircraft during Base Training was very

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extensive. With the advances in simulator technology which have been made since then, it is no longer necessary to do this and these manoeuvres are practised in the simulator. The high altitude procedures included stalling the aircraft in differing configurations of flap and Undercarriage positions and recovery from Dutch Rolls. This roll is an uncomfortable gyration of the aircraft during which the aircraft wings move up and down alternately while the whole aircraft slides from side to side at the same time as the nose swings back and forth and rises and dips. These effects result from the swept wing design which causes the centre of lift to move aft along each wing as it yaws into the airflow, then forward again along the retreating wing. The recovery is not difficult but the instructor had to keep his wits about him because the instinctive action of the trainee is to apply rudder to stop the nose swinging. The danger is that excessive use of the rudder makes the problem worse and can lead to a ‘jet upset’ – a problem which caused severe problems in the early days of B-707 operation when aircraft fell through thousands of feet. In some cases engines were shed from the wing as a result of these ‘upsets’. It is essential for the trainer is to keep his feet firmly on the rudders so that they can't be moved by the trainee and to ensure that recovery is made by using the ailerons to damp down the rising wing. I mention this because Bill tried to apply violent rudder movement in the recovery and I had to use a good deal of strength to prevent any movement. Another interesting exercise was the

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demonstration of ‘Mach Tuck’ which is the aircraft’s progressive nose down attitude change as a result of increasing airspeed. The aircraft was set up in a .82 Mach cruise configuration (82% of the speed of sound), and the nose was then lowered 5 degrees. Initially, as the speed increases, the nose tends to rise but, because the increased speed moves the centre of lift further back down the swept wings, this has the effect of lifting the tail and pushing the nose down. The more the nose goes down the faster the airspeed increases and the more difficult it becomes to raise the nose. Reducing the power makes the problem worse as cutting the power on the under slung engines results in an increase in the nose down moment. Within 20 seconds, if uncorrected, the speed will increase beyond the maximum allowed, and if uncorrected could lead to a ‘jet upset’ which, on some occasions, resulted in the loss of the aircraft. To reduce height at the end of these exercises an Emergency Descent was made. Depending on the experience of the trainee these exercises could raise the adrenaline level of the Instructor quite considerably. The Inclusive Tour (IT) activity was expanded and the number of B-707 flights was increased by the addition of series of flights from Manchester and Prestwick to North America. In February John Cotter and I operated a flight to Bangor and Chicago where we nightstopped, while another crew picked up the aircraft. The hotel where we stayed in Chicago was one of the original hotels started by Conrad Hilton. It was famous then

Arthur Larkman,left, our B-707 on the tarmac at Teheran’s airport along with Sam Bee and Ken Balsdon. (Athur Larkman)

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The long and short of it! A publicity photograph demonstrating that Dan-Air were able to offer aircraft for charter ranging from the 29-seat Nord 262 to the long-range 189-seat Boeing 707. (DASA)

for its new concepts in hotel accommodation and for its size. It set the pattern for the modern hotel chains with their standardised rooms and service. Fortunately the Chicago Hilton was one of a kind as it was reputed to have more rooms than any other hotel; it certainly was oversized. The rooms were comfortable and well appointed but the endless corridors were very off-putting, and one needed a route map to find the way around. One of the things which took me aback was the reaction at the checkin desk when I replied "cash" to their question of how I intended to pay the bill. Captains were supplied with Travellers Cheques to pay expenses because it had been decided not to issue them with credit cards. On extended flights the Captain carried many thousands of pounds in Travellers Cheques. Many hotels and 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 11

12 13

businesses either did not accept these cheques or applied a surcharge for cashing them, so I usually exchanged them for dollars at the airport. On this occasion I found that because of the enormous throughput of guests at the hotel they only accepted credit cards- money was not acceptable. On another stopover in Chicago the Company had booked us into a hotel in suburban Albany. This was the area favoured by gangsters in pre-war days and the hotel manager was proud that many of the famous names of that time had stayed there. I could well believe it as several of the current occupants looked as if they were following in the tradition. We didn't stay there again. The booking of hotels for the crew was done by the operations staff at Gatwick and the choice of hotels was determined by the cheaper

Flight Engineer’s Auxilliary Panels

Coolant­Air­System;­Valve Position­Indicator. Coolant­Air­System;­Valve Position­Selector. Coolant­Air­System;­Inlet Valve­Switches. Coolant­Air­System;­Exit Valve­Switches. Main­Cabin­Heating­Panels Switch. Gasper­Air­Fan­Switch Turbofan­Exit­Valve­Override Switches. Safety­Valve­Override­Switch. Zone­Termperature­Control Indicators. Zone­Temperature­Control Overheat­Light. Zone­Temerature­Control Switches. Fuel/Defuel/Dump­Control System Fuel/Defuel/Dump­Control System­Cover.

14 Auxilliary­Power­Unit Generator­on/off­Switch 15 Auxilliary­Power­Unit­AC Output­Gauge. 16 Auxilliary­Power­Unit Exhaust­Temperature­Gauge 17 Auxilliary­Power­Unit­Master On/off­switch 18 Auxilliary­Power­Unit­Fire Bottle­Discharge­Button 19 Auxilliary­Power­Unit­Fire test­button 20 Interphone­Selector­Panel. 21 Flight­Recorder­Encoder:­time remaining. 22 Flight­Recorder­Encoder: Digitizers 23 Door­Warning­Lights 24 Door­Warning­test­button. 25 Emergency­Oxygen­Lever. 26 Oxygen­Flow­Indicator. 27 Oxygen­Diluter­Lever. 28 Crew­and­Passenger­Oxygen Pressure­Indicator.

29 Personnel­Accomodations Oxygen­Pressure­Indicator. 30 Oxygen­Quality­Indicator. 31 Oxygen­Supply­Lever. 32 Service­Interphone­Switch 33 Panel­Lighting­Dimmer Control 34 Panel­Background­Lighting Dimmer­Control 35 Circuit­Breaker­Lighting Dimmer­Control. 36 Table­Lighting­Dimmer Control 37 Auxilliary­Power­Unit­­Pull­to Test­Switch 38 Auxilliary­Power­Unit Warning­Lights. 39 Auxilliary­Power­Unit­­RPM Indicator. 40 Hand­Microphone. 41 Interphone­jack­sockets. 42 AC­Potential­Lights.

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quotes they received. This was a logical method if the hotel standard was satisfactory, as was generally the case. In earlier years some of the hotels arranged for us were disgusting, particularly in the UK where for several years after the war even the better hotels were very sub-standard. A wash basin in the room was considered a luxury. In fact they were very similar to hotels I encountered in Iron Curtain countries. Early in my time in the Company I discovered that if the room rate that the Company had contracted could be revealed, I could visit other hotels of a better standard and, obtain as good a rate and often better than that achieved by the Company, by meeting the Manager in a face to face negotiation. This was particularly true in North America where the business culture is open to making a deal on the spot. In Vancouver for example, I negotiated a price in the Bay Shore, the best hotel at that time, which was less than the inferior hotel which had been arranged for us. From Chicago we flew another aircraft to New York where we slipped for three days, before flying yet another aircraft to Gatwick. During those days spent at Kennedy we had arranged to carry out a series of periodic checks on those crews who were due for them. With the only simulator approved for the conduct of these mandatory tests being the PanAm machine, John and I went to extraordinary lengths to arrange the programme in such a way as to get examiners and crews together in the most economical way. A large part of the potential cost was avoided because we had done a deal with PanAm for free travel for our crews on flights from

London to and from the simulator .The cost of doing this was much less than doing the checks on the aircraft, even ignoring the increased cost of having the aircraft out of service. The following month I flew to Ottawa and after a stopover there positioned with the crew to Halifax, Nova Scotia, by Air Canada. We were scheduled to nightstop there and take over an aircraft flying in from the UK the next day, which happened to be my birthday. We were to position the aircraft to Montréal, and from there to Gatwick with a fresh load of passengers. The next morning the weather was foul with low cloud and poor visibility in driving snow. We waited at the airport for news of the incoming aircraft and eventually heard that it was diverting to Moncton in New Brunswick. I hired three taxis to take us the 270 miles to Moncton. The journey was slow and depressing at first but eventually the weather began to improve and we stopped at a village for a quick snack. While I was sitting at the table Tony Kirk, who was acting as co-pilot, marched up to the table carrying a small sponge cake on which was a large lighted candle in the shape of a fir tree. The whole crew sang Happy Birthday while I blew out the candle. It brightened up the whole day for me. Further flights to Canada and to Berlin for IT series followed as the summer season got into full swing. Further activity on the 707 was provided by another series for Air France operating their scheduled flights on the Paris/London route. In early April I operated a flight with mixed groups of passengers each heading for a different destination.

A classic scene at London Gatwick in the early 1970s; Dan-Air’s 707 G-AZTG about to depart on another long-haul flight. In the background can be seen a trio of BEA Airtours Comets. (DASA)

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Exterior Lighting Positions and Controls on Overhead Panel on Flightdeck

1

2

3 4 5

Left & Right Retractable Landing Light Switch: ON­-­Retractable­landing­Lights illuminate. Left & Right Retract-Extend Switch. EXTEND­-­extends­outboard­landing­lights. RETRACT­-­retracts­outboard­landing­lights Left & Right Fixed Landing Light Switch. ON­-­Fixed­Landing­Lights­Illuminate. Left & Right Runway Turnoff Light Switch. ON­-­Runway­turnoff­light­illuminates. Navigation Light Switch. ON­BAT­Ground­use­only.­Light­supplied­from­28V

We flew to Sondestrom in Greenland where we refuelled before flying on to Winnipeg. From there we flew to Toronto, then returned to Prestwick to off-load some passengers and from there we flew to Manchester where more dis-embarked and then carried on to Gatwick, all of which was accomplished

6 7

8

9

DC­Essential­busses.­ON­-­Power­for­light supplied­by­28V­AC­bus. Beacon Light Switch. ON­-­Beacon­(anticollision)­lights­illuminate­and­rotate. Wing Light Switch. ON­-­Illuminates­the­tops and­leading­edges­of­the­wings­and­engine nacell­area. Wheel Well Light Switch. NORMAL­Allows­the­individual­lights­to­be­controlled­by switches­near­each­unit.­ON­-­Wheel­Well Lights­Illuminate. Nose Gear Light Switch. ON­-­Nose­Gear Taxi­Light­Illuminates.

in three days. A relaxation in the requirements for single group affinity flights had made this possible and thus enabled us to operate more flights. From mid October ‘75 to mid February 1976 I did not fly at all but at last managed to operate part of a Bangladeshi series. John Cotter and I positioned

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Operation of typical Entry or Galley Door. To Open Door From Inside: CAUTION — Check escape slide retention strap detached from floor and stowed before opening door. — Rotate door control handle in direction of arrow; this will cause door to swing inward. — Push out on aft edge of door and swing door outward. — Continue pushing on assist handle and aft edge of door swinging door parallel to airplane. Make certain door latch has engaged. To Close Door — Release door latch and pull door aft and inboard. Rotate door handle in opposite direction to arrow until door locks are closed. Boeing engineers were hard pressed to design a door that could not be blown out by the pressure difference that existed between the inside and the outside of the cabin. How could a door be opened outward and still fit as a plug inside the doorway? Four such doors are fitted on the Boeing jet liners, two passenger-entry doors on the left side and two galley-service doors on the right side.

When closed, the outward-opening, plug-type door seals the pressurised air in the cabin. It was opened by turning the handle which folds the door’s upper and lower edges inward and rotates the door outward, edge first, through the doorway. In trials a door was tested under high pressures and in a cold chamber to make certain it could be opened even with a coat of ice covering it, and opened and closed more than 25,000 times in a life test.

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the aircraft to Heathrow and as I hadn't flown for four months, he used this short hop to give me a three engined take-off and a three engined landing at Heathrow. A very busy 15 minute flight. This, plus the ensuing line check on the flight to Dubai satisfied the requirements for my authorisation to fly in command once again. Another crew took the aircraft on to Dhaka and back to Dubai where we waited to fly it back to London. We were dozing in the sun by the swimming pool the next morning when I heard the unmistakeable voice of Joan Buckett. She was an Australian girl who had been a hostess with us for some years and had left to take a cabin staff job with Gulf Air, based in Bahrain. She was with a group of five other girls, all Gulf Air hostesses, and four of them were also ex-Dan-Air. We had a very pleasant re-union until they departed on their flight that evening. In March I managed to operate a flight to Pittsburgh, then nothing more until June when I flew another mixed group from Gatwick, Manchester, and Prestwick to Toronto, then returned via Boston and New York. In July I flew our newly acquired 707321C freighter into Gatwick for the first time. It was fitted with very large doors and strengthened floor and with its sister aircraft subsequently flew many cargo flights. After all these years we were carrying freight again. A few days later I flew it to Venice on its first service with us. While we awaited the decision on a suitable candidate for the operations management position, I agreed to fill the vacancy on a temporary basis. Frank Horridge finally came up with the solution to the problem and proposed that I become the Head of Operations. This was agreed, although I was far from enthusiastic about it and accepted on the understanding that I would serve only until a suitable person was found. Alan Snudden issued a memo in February, notifying the changes— "As a result of the increasing flying programme and the need to integrate and improve the Company's Operations and Passenger Services function, it has

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been decided to appoint Captain Larkman, who has been actively engaged in re-organising our Operations Department, to the new post of Operations Services Director. He will be assisted by Mr J Stevens, the Operational Performance Manager. Captain Larkman will be responsible to Mr. F. Horridge, the Deputy Managing Director". I invented my title of ‘Operations Services Director’ to avoid embarrassment to Bob Atkins, whose existing title was ‘Operations Director, Flying’, and the possible confusion of having two Operations Directors. John Stevens served with us for a period during which the Operations Control staff continued to develop the strategies of circumventing Air Traffic delays. This was a skill in which Dan-Air outshone all our competitors, much to their chagrin. Roy McDougall, the Operations Director of Britannia Airways, was particularly interested in Air Traffic Control (ATC) matters and had met John at various ATC conferences. In 1978 Roy persuaded him to join Britannia's Operations Department but, unfortunately for Roy, John had not yet mastered the arcane skills that Roy had hoped he would bring with him, and they were no farther forward. Other Managers in Operations were Eric Bristow, the Ops. Administration Manager, Thornton Simmons, who was Liaison Officer for the IAS freight contract on which our two 707-321C's were employed, and Dermot Mulvagh, the Passenger Services Manager. Another responsibility which I assumed was to represent the Company on the National Aviation Security Commission (NASC). This Committee met regularly at the Department of Trade in London, where the policy for all aspects of Aviation Security including the procedures used by the airlines, the airports, the Police Services etc. were discussed and decided upon. We were regularly briefed by the Intelligence Services on their continuous assessment of all current and future threats, and planned the counter measures required to combat them. The number of aircraft hi-jacks taking place world wide

707 G-AYSL taxies in at Gatwick after another flight to the USA.

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1 2 3 4 5

Forward­and­Aft­Toilet­Call Lights­(Press­to­Reset) Passenger­Call­Lights.­(Press to­Reset) Lounge­Call­Lights.­(Press­to Reset) Public­Address­System Operate­Button­(Push­to­use) Public­Address­System

Cabin Attendant’s Panel

Override­Switch Music­High/Low­Selector Oxygen­Valve. Tape­Preproducer­­Unit Switch 9 Lighting­Priority­Selector 10 Ceiling­Light­Switch 11 Chime­Switch 12 Window­Light­Switch 6 7 8

remained high throughout this period and there was much terrorist activity. The first two weeks of November were taken up with the training of crews converting onto the 707, who included Malcolm Grant and Pete Jamieson. After they completed their simulator training we set off from Gatwick to carry out the base training. I put Pete in the left hand Captain's seat so that he could fly the positioning leg up to Newcastle. This was his first experience of handling the aircraft after completing the simulator training. We took off and had just commenced the initial climb out of Gatwick when there was a fire warning on one of the engines. Pete calmly ordered the shut down and fire drill and landed the aircraft back at Gatwick. When we were

13 14 15 16 17 18

Aft­Cargo­Light­Switch Board­Light­Switch Lavatory­Light­Switch Galley­Light­Control Handset. Attendant­to­Pilot­call Switch/Call­Light­and­­Pilot­to Attendant­Reset­Switch.

on the ground at Gatwick he told me that I had made him practice so many fire drills during the simulator training that he remained calm and carried out the procedures as a matter of routine. He said that he suspected that I was simulating the fault on the aircraft but, in fact, this time it was the real thing. At the end of November I flew G-BEBP, our second 707-321C, out to Hong Kong and, fortunately, Joy was able to come with me. The aircraft had been chartered by Cathay Pacific to carry out freight services for them as they were short of an aircraft. I was very pleased to meet once again two Cathay staff who had been among Dan-Air's best traffic officers; Derek Smith, who had been our Traffic Superintendent at Gatwick, and was now

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Cathay's Manager at Kai Tak, and Gerry Penwarden, who was now Cathay’s Manager for the whole of South East Asia. They looked after us extremely well and made our stay very enjoyable. Joy accompanied me on a flight I operated from Hong Kong to Singapore, where we slipped for two nights. The morning after our arrival we were collected by Phil Caroline, who offered to take us on a tour of the city. Phil was a Singapore Airlines Boeing 747 Captain who had been my Best Man when Joy and I were married in Singapore Cathedral in 1953. I had visited Singapore many times over the years and was fairly familiar with the many changes which had been made to the city and, indeed, to the very shape of the island by land reclamation. Joy, however, had not been back since we left for the UK in 1956. We had lived in Singapore for several years so she was really looking forward to seeing it again. We returned from Hong Kong in December with a load for Maastricht before finally landing at Gatwick in time for Christmas. This aircraft crashed just over five months later because of a design fault in its construction. The report into the crash of G-BEBP made grim reading. We were flying on behalf of International Aviation Services Limited, who themselves were trading as IAS Cargo Airlines, who had been subcontracted by Zambia Airways to operate a weekly scheduled all-cargo service between London

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Heathrow and the Zambian capital, Lusaka, via Athens and Nairobi. The aircraft - a 707-321C - had first entered service with Pan American World Airways in 1963. This aircraft was also the first convertible 707 built. We acquired it in 1976. The flight originated from London Heathrow Airport to Athens Hellinikon Airport, which was uneventful; from Athens the crew flew to Nairobi . Departure from Nairobi for Lusaka on the final leg occurred as planned at 07:17, 14 May 1977. The 707 cruised at flight level 310 for about two hours, after which it was cleared for descent to flight level 110. Flight level 110 was reached at approximately 09:23, and clearance was granted to begin descent towards a target of flight level 70. Just before 09:30, clearance to descend to 6,000 feet was granted, and moments later the plane was cleared to make a visual approach to runway 10. A few minutes later, eyewitnesses saw the entire right horizontal stabiliser and elevator detach from the aircraft. The aircraft lost pitch control and entered a nose-dive from about 800 feet to ground level, destroying the aircraft on impact. All six on board were killed. A full investigation was launched by the Zambian authorities and then delegated to the UK Air Accidents Investigation Branch. The conclusions made are as follows: It was determined that the structure of the right horizontal stabiliser failed due to metal fatigue in the rear spar structure, and due to

Most of Dan-Air aircraft had nicknames, usually generated from their registrations. 707 G-AYSL was always known by the crews as old ‘Spread Legs’. (Dan-Air Staff Association)

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A company 707 rests between flights at Hong Kong’s old Kai Tak airport. (Dan-Air Staff Association)

the lack of an adequate fail-safe structure or device should such an event occur. The investigation also identified deficiencies in the assessment of aircraft designs and their certification and in the way aircraft were inspected. The crack found in the failed stabiliser after the accident was thought by investigators unlikely to have been detectable using normal testing means, such as fluorescent dye. It was also thought that the crack had been present for at least 6,000 flight hours before the accident, and before we had acquired Echo Papa from Pan Am. Inspections of the Boeing 707-300 fleet, made as a result of the crash, found another thirty-eight aircraft with similar cracks. 1976 had been a mixed year for the Company but overall was quite successful. Profit before taxation was almost £2,000,000, an improvement of £500,000 over 1975's figure, even though the de-valuation of the pound had increased many costs, particularly that of fuel. The contracts for fuel supplies are always in US dollars, so this had made a very large impact on us. The number of passengers carried also increased to more than 2.8 million. The number of aircraft operated now totalled 55, with four 707s, six 727s,

six 1-11 500s, six 1-11 200/400s, sixteen Comets and sixteen 748s. Possibly­ the­ last­ word­ on­ the­ Dan-Air­ 707 operation­should­go­to­Captain­Keith­Moody,­who later­became­Fleet­Manager­on­our­727­fleet.­ ‘The 707 may have ruled the air - but it did not like short runways. The 707 may have been King of the skies, but it had a problem. It's performance was relatively sedate - fine if you had plenty of space and long, long runways. That was caused by the wing sweepback, which were great for high-speed flight, but they did not produce much lift at low speeds, meaning that it was imperative to bring the aircraft in fast, and that meant eating up massive amounts of runway before you could bring it to a stop. It was a real man’s aeroplane. When Boeing built it they decided that all of the pilots who were going to come on to it had previously flown piston engined aircraft, and were used to high forces needed to operate the flying surfaces. The 707 needed nearly 10,000 feet to get airborne or to stop safely. There was no way we could use it on any of our mediterranean charters other than into places like Athens or Rome - we left those services to our Comets or 72s!

G-BEBP seen at Gatwick in a partial Dan-Air colour scheme with joint Dan-Air/IAS titling. (Dan-Air Staff Association)

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Chapter­Eight

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Military­707s The EC-137D; E-3 Sentry. In­ 1963­ the­ USAF­ asked­ for­ proposals­ for­ an Airborne­Warning­and­Control­System­(AWACS) to­ replace­ its­ Lockheed­ EC-121­Warning­ Stars, which­had­served­in­the­airborne­early­warning role­for­over­a­decade.­The­new­aircraft­design would­be­able­to­take­advantage­of­improvements in­ radar­ technology,­ computer­ aided­ radar­ data analysis­ and­ data­ reduction.­ This­ would­ allow airborne­ radars­ to­ ‘look­ down’­ to­ detect­ the movement­of­low-flying­aircraft­and­discriminate -­even­over­land­at­a­range­of­200­miles­-­a­target

aircraft's­ movements,­ which­ up­ until­ then­ was impossible,­due­to­the­inability­to­discriminate­an aircraft’s­track­from­ground­clutter. AWACS­ would­ be­ able­ to­ carry­ out­ the NORAD­support­role­and­also­operate­as­a­tactical command­post­for­the­direction­of­air­and­ground forces­in­specific­battle­situations. Contracts­were­issued­to­Boeing,­Douglas,­and Lockheed,­the­latter­being­eliminated­in­July­1966. In­1967,­a­parallel­programme­was­put­into­place to­develop­the­radar,­with­Westinghouse­Electric and­Hughes­Aircraft­being­asked­to­compete­in

An unidentifiable USAF E-3 in flight. Apart from the huge rotodome, there are assorted ‘lumps and bumps’ along the aircraft spine. Particularly noticabler are the refuelling recepticle and markings. (USAF)

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producing­ the­ radar­ system.­ In­ 1968,­ it­ was referred­to­as­Overland­Radar­Technology­(ORT) during­ development­ tests­ on­ the­ modified­ EC121Q.­The­Westinghouse­radar­antenna­was­going to­be­used­by­whichever­company­won­the­radar competition,­since­Westinghouse­had­pioneered­in the­design­of­high-power­RF­phase-shifters. Boeing­were­appointed­in­July­1970­as­prime contractor­for­the­system,­which­was­to­be­based on­the­airframe­of­the­Boeing­707-320B­transport. The­first­EC-137­made­its­maiden­flight­on­9 February­1972,­with­the­fly-off­between­the­two radars­taking­place­during­March–July­that­year. Favourable­ test­ results­ led­ to­ the­ selection­ of Westinghouse's­radar­for­the­production­aircraft. Hughes's­radar­was­initially­thought­to­be­a­certain winner,­simply­because­much­of­its­design­was also­ going­ into­ the­ new­ F-15­ Eagle's­ radar programme.­ The­ Westinghouse­ radar­ used­ a pipelined­fast­fourier­transform­(FFT)­to­digitally resolve­128­Doppler­frequencies,­while­Hughes's radars­used­analogue­filters­based­on­the­design­for the­ F-15­ fighter.­ An­ FFT­ is­ an­ algorithm­ that computes­the­discrete­Fourier­transform­(DFT)­of a­ sequence,­ or­ its­ inverse.­ Fourier­ analysis converts­a­signal­from­its­original­domain­(often time­or­space)­to­a­representation­in­the­frequency domain­and­vice­versa.

Westinghouse's­ engineering­ team­ won­ this competition­ by­ using­ a­ programmable­ 18-bit computer­ whose­ software­ could­ be­ modified before­ each­ mission.­ This­ computer­ was­ the AN/AYK-8­design­from­the­B-57G­program,­and designated­ AYK-8-EP1­ for­ its­ much­ expanded memory.­This­radar­also­multiplexed­a­beyondthe-horizon­ (BTH)­ pulse­ mode­ that­ could complement­the­pulse-Doppler­radar­mode.­This proved­to­be­beneficial­especially­when­the­BTH mode­ was­ used­ to­ detect­ ships­ at­ sea­ when­ the radar­beam­was­directed­below­the­horizon. Boeing­built­two­prototypes­of­the­EC-137D (later­to­be­called­the­E-3A),­the­first­of­which­(711407)­first­flew­on­9­February­1972.­To­save­costs, the­endurance­requirements­were­relaxed,­allowing the­ new­ aircraft­ to­ retain­ the­ four­ JT3D­ (US Military­designation­TF33)­turbofans.­ln­basic­E3A­configuration­the­heart­of­the­aircraft­was­the AN/APY-1­ surveillance­ radar,­ housed­ within­ a large­ ‘rotodome’­ radar­ dish­ mounted­ on­ twin pylons­above­the­rear­fuselage­and­designed­to­turn at­a­rate­of­six­cycles­per­minute.­Data­from­the system­were­processed­by­an­IBM­CC-1­computer which­provided­information­to­the­mission­crew­at up­ to­ nineteen­ situation­ display­ units­ (SDUs), while­ some­ thirteen­ different­ channels­ were provided­for­air-to-ground­communications.

Two of the crew stations aboard a USAF Sentry. (USAF)

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Approval­was­given­on­26­January­1973­for full-scale­development­of­the­AWACS­system.­To allow­ further­ development­ of­ the­ aircraft's systems,­ orders­ were­ placed­ for­ three preproduction­ aircraft,­ the­ first­ of­ which performed­its­maiden­flight­in­February­1975.­IBM and­Hazeltine­were­selected­to­develop­the­mission computer­and­display­system.­The­IBM­computer received­the­designation­4PI,­and­the­software­was written­ in­ JOVIAL.­A­ Semi-Automatic­ Ground Environment­ (SAGE)­ or­ back-up­ interceptor control­(BUIC)­operator­would­immediately­be­at home­with­the­track­displays­and­tabular­displays, but­ differences­ in­ symbology­ would­ create compatibility­ problems­ in­ tactical­ ground­ radar systems­in­Iceland,­Europe,­and­Korea­over­Link11­(TADIL-A). JOVIAL­ was­ a­ high-level­ computer programming­ language,­ but­ specialised­ for­ the development­ of­ embedded­ systems;­ that­ is, specialised­computer­systems­designed­to­perform one­ or­ a­ few­ dedicated­ functions,­ usually embedded­as­part­of­a­complete­device­including mechanical­parts. JOVIAL­was­developed­as­a­new­‘high-order’ programming­language,­beginning­in­1959­by­a team­at­System­Development­Corporation­(SDC) headed­by­Jules­Schwartz­to­compose­software­for the­ electronics­ of­ military­ aircraft.­ The­ name JOVIAL­is­an­acronym­for­‘Jules­Own­Version­of the­International­Algebraic­Language.’­ During­the­1960s­JOVIAL­was­a­part­of­the­US Military­L-project­series,­in­particular­465L­(the SACCS­ project),­ due­ to­ a­ lack­ of­ real-time processing­languages­available.­Some­95%­of­the SACCS­project,­managed­by­ITT­with­software primarily­written­by­SDC,­was­written­in­JOVIAL. The­software­project­took­two­years­and­no­fewer than­1400­programmer­years. During­the­late­1970s­and­early­1980s,­the­US Air­Force­adopted­a­standardised­CPU,­the­MILSTD-1750A,­ and­ subsequent­ JOVIAL programmes­were­built­for­that­processor.­Several commercial­ vendors­ provided­ compilers­ and related­tools­to­build­JOVIAL­for­processors­such as­ the­ MIL-STD-1750A,­ including­ Advanced Computer­ Techniques­ (ACT),­ TLD­ Systems, Proprietary­Software­Systems­(PSS),­and­others. JOVIAL­was­standardised­during­1973­with MIL-STD-1589­and­was­revised­during­1984­with MIL-STD-1589C.­It­is­still­much­used­to­update and­maintain­software­on­older­military­vehicles and­aircraft.­ Modifications­to­the­Boeing­707­for­the­E-3

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Sentry­included­a­rotating­radar­dome,­single-point ground­ refuelling,­ air­ refuelling,­ and­ a­ bail-out tunnel­or­chute.­The­original­design­had­two­(one forward,­and­one­aft),­but­the­aft­bail-out­chute­was deleted­to­cut­mounting­costs.­Engineering,­test and­evaluation­began­on­the­first­E-3­Sentry­in October­1975.­ The­first­of­the­planned­thirty-four­production aircraft­-­now­named­‘Sentry’­-­was­delivered­to Tactical­Air­Command’s­­552nd­Airborne­Warning and­ Control­ Wing­ (now­ the­ 552nd­Air­ Control Wing)­at­Tinker­AFB,­Oklahoma­received­the­first E-3­aircraft,­commanded­by­Major­James­R­Sterk, on­ 24­ March­ 1977.­ Further­ development­ was already­ under­ way,­ however,­ and­ the­ 25th­ and subsequent­aircraft­were­delivered­with­the­much higher­capacity­IBM­CC-2­computer,­additional UHF­radios,­maritime­surveillance­capability­and anti-jamming­ voice­ communications.­ These aircraft­ were­ later­ further­ upgraded­ to­ E-3C standard­ with­ five­ additional­ SDls­ and­ other alterations.­ The­ original­ batch­ of­ ‘core’­ E-3As became­ E-3Bs­ following­ an­ upgrade­ to­ similar standard. The­34th­and­last­USAF­Sentry­was­delivered in­June­1984.­In­March­1996,­the­USAF­activated the­ 513th­ Air­ Control­ Group­ (513th­ ACG),­ an ACC-gained­ Air­ Force­ Reserve­ Command (AFRC)­AWACS­unit­under­the­Reserve­Associate Program.­ Co-located­ with­ the­ 552nd­ ACW­ at Tinker­ AFB,­ the­ 513rd­ ACG­ performs­ similar duties­on­active­duty­E-3­aircraft­shared­with­the 552nd­ACW. The­E-3­Sentry's­airframe­is­a­modified­Boeing 707-320B­Advanced­model.­USAF­and­NATO­E3s­have­an­unrefuelled­range­of­some­4,000­miles or­eight­hours­of­flying.­The­newer­E-3­versions bought­by­France,­Saudi­Arabia,­and­the­United Kingdom­ are­ equipped­ with­ newer­ CFM56-2 turbofan­engines,­and­these­can­fly­for­about­11 hours­or­about­5,000­miles.­The­Sentry's­range­and on-station­time­can­be­increased­through­air-to-air refuelling­and­the­crews­can­work­in­shifts­by­the use­of­an­on-board­crew­rest­and­meals­area. When­deployed,­the­E-3­monitors­an­assigned area­of­the­battlefield­and­provides­information­for commanders­of­air­operations­to­gain­and­maintain control­of­the­battle;­while­as­an­air­defence­asset, E-3s­can­detect,­identify,­and­track­airborne­enemy forces­far­from­the­boundaries­of­the­US­or­NATO countries­and­can­direct­fighter-interceptor­aircraft to­ these­ targets.­ In­ support­ of­ air-to-ground operations,­the­E-3­can­provide­direct­information needed­for­interdiction,­reconnaissance,­airlift,­and

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close-air­support­for­friendly­ground­forces. On­18­November­2015,­an­E-3G­was­deployed to­the­Middle­East­to­begin­flying­combat­missions in­support­of­Operation­Inherent­Resolve­against ISIL,­marking­the­first­combat­deployment­of­the upgraded­AWAC­ Block­ 40/45.­The­ $2.7­ billion development­effort­started­in­2003,­with­the­first five­aircraft­achieving­initial­operational­capability (IOC)­ in­ July­ 2015.­ The­ Block­ 40/45­ Mission Computer­and­Display­upgrade­replaced­current 1970­vintage­mission­computing­and­displays­with a­true­open­system­and­commercial­off-the-shelf hardware­and­software,­giving­AWACS­crews­the modern­computing­tools­needed­to­perform,­and vastly­improve­mission­capability.­Estimated­fleet upgrades­are­due­for­completion­in­2020.­The­Air Force­plans­to­convert­twenty-four­AWACS­to­E3G­standard,­while­retiring­seven­from­the­fleet­to avoid­upgrade­costs­and­harvest­out-of-production components. NATO AWACS The­need­for­a­European­AWACS­system­came about­ after­ the­ Warsaw­ pact­ countries­ first acquired­the­capability­of­using­their­attack­aircraft at­very­low­altitudes­so­defeating­friendly­radar­by operating­ 'out­ of­ sight'­ behind­ topographical features.­It­was­obvious­that­a­method­had­to­be devised­to­counter­the­threat­as­the­warning­time of­the­enemy­raider's­approach­had­been­reduced to­less­than­two­minutes.­The­answer­was­the­E3A­Sentry. Between­1968­and­1974­the­NATO­powers­set

up­a­high-ranking­study­group­that­recommended the­ American­ equipment.­ However,­ the­ initial proposals­were­too­expensive­for­NATO­Council members­ and­ cuts­ to­ numbers­ and­ ob-board equipment­ had­ to­ be­ made­ to­ keep­ the­ project within­budget. An­organisation­was­set­up­in­Brussels­which was­tasked­with­preparing­the­complete­proposals for­ member­ countries­ approval­ including­ the number­ and­ configuration­ of­ aircraft­ and­ how these­could­readily­fit­into­existing­NATO­groundbased­air­defence­systems.­Finally­the­overall­cost had­to­be­confirmed­and­a­method­devised­so­that this­could­be­split­fairly­amongst­the­individual nations­who­had­set­the­project­up.­On­7­December 1978­ an­ inter-governmental­ agreement­ was reached­and­signed­by­NATO­Defence­Ministers thus­giving­the­signal­for­the­realisation­of­one­of the­most­ambitious­international­defence­schemes yet­devised. Headed­ by­ a­ German­ Major­ General,­ an organisation­was­set­up­to­carry­out­this­complex programme,­given­the­title­of­NAPMO­(NAEW Programme­Management­Organisation)­on­which all­ twelve­ NATO­ countries­ taking­ part­ were represented.­ They­ had­ three­ main­ tasks­ to accomplish.­Firstly­the­actual­procurement­of­the agreed­ eighteen­ aircraft­ modified­ to­ NATO requirements­ plus­ all­ the­ associated­ ground equipment­ and­ flight­ and­ mission­ simulators. Secondly­ the­ NATO­ Air­ Defence­ Ground Environment­(NADGE)­radar­stations­in­Europe stretching­from­northern­Norway­to­Turkey­had­to

LX-N­2000,­one­of­the­three­707-307Cs­used­by­NATO­as­support­trainers­for­their­fleet­of­E-3As­(NATO)

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Sixteen E-3A aircraft are assigned to the NATO E-3A Component. Normally, only a certain number of the E-3As are at NATO Air Base Geilenkirchen at any given time. The remainder are deployed to the Component’s Forward Operating Bases in Aktion, (Preveza) Greece; Trapani, Italy; and Konya, Turkey; and to the Forward Operating Location at Oerland, Norway; or to other allied airfields. Above: LX-N90454 comes in to land at Aktion National Airport in Greece. The bulges under the aircraft’s chin house a suite of electronic warfare support measures.(Author) Right: The flightdeck crew of NATO E-3s consist of Pilot, First Officer, Navigator and Flight Engineer. (NATO)

be­converted­to­accept­information­provided­by­the E-3A’s­data­link­system.­Finally­an­airfield­base had­ to­ be­ found­ that­ would­ be­ suitable­ for­ the general­headquarters­but­with­four­other­forward operating­bases­established­from­which­the­aircraft could­increase­their­range­and­ability­to­stay­on station­longer. As­from­1980­the­NATO­Early­Warning­Force Command­was­set­up­as­a­NATO­agency­under SACEUR­ in­ Belgium­ and­ co-located­ with SHAPE.­It­is­commanded­by­a­Major-General­and the­post­is­held­alternately­by­the­USAF­and­the German­Air­Force. Out­of­the­twelve­nations­­taking­part,­one, Luxembourg,­has­not­got­an­air­force­of­its­own and­therefore­the­aircraft­themselves­were­placed on­the­civil­aircraft­register­of­that­country­in­a­true spirit­of­compromise­and­in­order­to­overcome­the legal­requirements­of­aircraft­ownership. The­gigantic­task­of­setting­up­what­in­effect was­ a­ new­ air­ force­ with­ all­ the­ necessary command­structure,­rules­and­regulations,­its­own police­force­and­a­complete­training­and­spares organisation­was­not­easy.­Basically­the­NATO­‘air force’­is­structured­after­the­German­Geschwader principle­ and­ has­ three­ component­ squadrons. Training­and­supply­areas­were­based­on­American

systems­which­­had­already­been­established­by the­ USAF­ although­ NATO’s­ aircraft­ were differently­configured­and­had­a­slightly­modified task­to­their­American­counterparts.­The­common language­was­English­and­each­nation­contributed air­crew­members­in­numbers­according­to­their financial­contribution­to­the­whole­project. Even­though­aircrew­members­with­previous experience­ of­ AWACS­ operations­ such­ as­ the USAF­personnel­seconded­to­NATO’s­air­arm,­had to­ go­ through­ the­ training­ system­ again­ at Geilenkirchen­before­being­declared­operational. In­all­thirty­multi-national­crews­from­eleven countries­including­the­USA,­Canada,­Belgium, Denmark,­ Germany,­ Greece,­ Italy,­ Turkey,­ The Netherlands,­ Portugal­ and­ Greece­ make­ up­ the Component’s­ Operational­ Wing­ with­ ten­ crews assigned­to­each­of­the­three­squadrons. The­ E-3A­ Component­ was­ NATO's­ first operational­ flying­ unit­ with­ multinational manning.­The­Component­commander’s­position is­of­Brigadier­General­rank­and­is­held­alternately by­ Germany­ and­ the­ USA.­ The­ Component’s organizational­structure­comprises­a­Headquarters staff­ and­ five­ major­ functional­ elements (Operations­Wing,­Logistics­Wing,­Base­Support Wing,­Training­Wing­and­Information­Technology

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The specially painted anniversary AWACS was first presented in 2007 as part of the celebration of the NATO E3A Component’s 25th anniversary. (NATO)

Wing).­Each­Wing­is­commanded­by­a­Colonel, each­from­a­different­NATO­member­nation. The­ Component’s­ multinational,­ fully integrated­workforce­consists­of­more­than­3,000 military­ and­ civilian­ personnel­ from­ 16­ NATO member­nations.­This­figure­includes­personnel assigned­ to­ support­ functions,­ such­ as­ the engineering­ support­ teams­ of­ the­ Bundeswehr Service­Centre,­National­Support­Unit­personnel, and­morale­and­welfare­activities­staff. The­ Component­ operates­ sixteen­ (out­ of­ an original­order­for­eighteen)­Boeing­E-3A­AWACS aircraft­and­also­operated­three­Boeing­707­Trainer Cargo­Aircraft,­but­these­were­retired­in­2011.­ In­terms­of­hardware,­the­flightdeck­of­a­NATO E-3A­ ­ is­ just­ like­ any­ Boeing­ 707­ but­ with­ the addition­of­the­navigator’s­equipment­on­the­port side­ making­ it­ a­ little­ more­ cramped­ than­ its equivalent­in­an­airliner.­ With­ the­ first­ NATO­ E-3A­ being­ delivered green­ from­ Boeing’s­ Seattle­ plant­ in­ February 1982,­ the­ internal­ equipment­ was­ fitted­ by Dornier-Werke­at­Oberpfaffenhofen.­The­last­of the­eighteen­aircraft­was­delivered­in­mid-1985. Each­is­fitted­with­high­performance­Pratt­and Whitney­TF-33-100A­engines­giving­more­power than­ the­ civil­ Boeing­ 707­ equivalent­ and­ the internal­structure­is­strengthened­to­allow­for­the weight­ of­ equipment­ carried,­ especially­ the rotodome.­Internally­the­operational­equipment­is

sub-divided­into­four­compartments­excluding­the flight­deck.­From­front­to­rear­these­consist­of­the communications­consoles­including­radio­voice systems­ and­ the­ data­ transmission­ link.­ It­ is operated­by­two­technicians­who­are­responsible for­maintaining­the­equipment­whilst­in­flight­and providing­any­of­the­many­services­that­can­keep the­E-3A­in­touch­with­other­agencies­or­aircraft. This­ is­ followed­ by­ the­ data­ processing­ system with­a­powerful­computer­which­was­somewhat old­technology­but­at­the­same­time­thoroughly reliable­and­well-proven. In­the­centre­fuselage­there­are­nine­tactical workstations­with­multi-purpose­consoles­having a­centrally­mounted­VDU­display­on­which­at­a selection­of­various­distance­and­scale­modes­all aircraft­ can­ be­ displayed­ or­ shipping­ search conducted.­ Each­ target­ is­ labelled­ and­ nonessential­information­taken­off­the­screen­at­will. At­any­one­time­the­aircraft­can­watch­over 312,000­square­kilometres­of­the­earth’s­surface and­ three­ NATO­ AWACS­ aircraft­ flying overlapping­orbits­can­provide­ground­agencies with­ a­ complete­ radar­ picture­ of­ the­ whole­ of central­ Europe­ extending­ into­ the­ Warsaw­ Pact countries.­The­E-3A­can­detect­low­flying­aircraft or­ missiles­ at­ a­ range­ of­ up­ to­ 400­ kms­ and medium­altitude­targets­up­to­520­kms. A­ popular­ myth­ from­ the­ early­ days­ of­ the

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NATO­ AWACS­ was­ that­ they­ could­ detect­ an armoured­column­on­the­move­-­this­was­certainly not­the­case;­or­at­least,­not­without­one­of­the AFVs­having­a­radar­responder­or­an­identifying signal­that­could­also­be­picked­up­by­the­enemy. The­AWACS­task­was­with­low­flying­aircraft­and not­the­land­battles­as­such.­ However,­there­was­one­very­useful­secondary role­ that­ the­ E-3­ could­ perform.­ If­ an­ aircraft within­range­declared­any­form­of­emergency,­this signal­could­be­accurately­tracked­until­it­landed safely. One­ machine­ -­ LX-N90457­ -­ was­ lost following­multiple­bird­strikes­on­take­off­from Préveza-Aktion­Airport,­Greece­on­14­July­1996.­ The­planned­take­-­off­time­was­­1815­hours local.­ The­ normal­ crew­ of­ seventeen­ had­ been reduced­ to­ fourteen­ for­ the­ mission­ due­ to­ an expected­low­level­of­air­activity.­ The­take-off­brief­called­for­a­rolling­right­seat take-off.­At­approximately­120­knots­a­­flock­of birds­was­seen­rising­towards­the­left­side­of­the aircraft­and­sounds­of­impact­along­the­left­side­of the­fuselage­were­heard.­The­Aircraft­Commander contemplated­ aborting­ the­ take­ -­ off­ at­ that moment,­ but­ elected­ to­ continue.­ The­ ­ aircraft continued­to­accelerate­with­all­engine­indications normal.­As­the­aircraft­nose­started­to­rise­the­crew saw­a­large­black­bird­moving­from­left­to­right­in close­proximity­to­the­aircraft.­A­noise,­interpreted as­the­bird­impact,­was­then­heard­on­the­righthand­side­of­the­aircraft.­The­Aircraft­Commander then­elected­to­abort­the­take-off­and­initiated­the procedure.­The­remainder­of­the­flight­deck­crew responded­ accordingly.­ However,­ as­ the­ abort procedure­ was­ carried­ out,­ it­ became­ rapidly apparent­that­the­aircraft­would­not­be­stopped­on the­remaining­runway.­The­aircraft­departed­the

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runway­at­approximately­60­knots­down­a­sandy incline­onto­the­landing­lights­support­pier­and­into the­Ionian­sea.­The­main­landing­gear­separated from­the­aircraft­after­contacting­the­rocks,­while the­aircraft­continued­forward,­eventually­coming to­ rest­ some­ five­ hundred­ feet­ from­ the­ end­ of runway­ 25R,­ rotated­ about­ sixty­ degrees­ to­ the right,­with­the­aft­section­on­the­runway­lighting support­pier­and­the­partly­separated­nose­section resting­in­the­sea.­ On­ 23­ June­ 2015,­ the­ first­ of­ the­ original eighteen­NATO­E-3A­AWACS­aircraft­to­retire, arrived­at­Davis-Monthan­AFB­near­Tucson,­AZ. The­ aircraft,­ LX-N90449,­ was­ placed­ in­ parts reclamation­ storage­ where­ critical­ items­ were removed­ by­ NATO­ technicians­ to­ support­ their remaining­ fleet­ of­ E-3A­ aircraft.­ It­ had accumulated­ 22,206­ flight­ hours­ between­ 19 August­1983­and­13­May­2015­and­operated­out of­ twenty-one­ different­ countries­ in­ support­ of NATO­operational­activities.­The­aircraft­was­due in­mid-July­2015­for­a­six-year­cycle­Depot­Level Maintenance­(DLM)­inspection­which­would­have been­ very­ costly.­ Without­ the­ inspection,­ the aircraft­would­no­longer­be­allowed­to­fly.­The­socalled­ ‘449­ Retirement­ Project’­ resulted­ in reclamation­ of­ critical­ parts­ with­ a­ value­ of upwards­of­$40,000,000.­Some­of­the­parts­to­be removed­ were­ no­ longer­ on­ the­ market­ or­ had become­ very­ expensive.­ The­ surviving­ sixteen aircraft­ of­ the­ NATO­ E-3A­ Component­ are­ all registered­in­Luxembourg­as­part­of­that­country’s contribution­to­the­NATO­AWACS­programme. Since­coming­into­service­in­the­early­1980s, the­aircraft,­their­onboard­systems­and­associated ground-based­equipment­have­undergone­regular upgrading.­Three­major­programmes­have­been accomplished­ since­ the­ early­ 1990s.­ The­ MidThe demise of LXN90457. The Sentry failed to stop on the runway and ended up in the water - not surprising considering the 9419 foot runway has its ends in either the Amvrakikoa Kolpos (Ambracian Gulf, also known as the Gulf of Arta or the Gulf of Actium) and the other in the Ionian Sea. (Σπύρος Σπυρίδων)

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Term­Modernization­Programme,­was­completed in­December­2008.­It­included­the­retrofitting­of seventeen­ E-3As­ with­ improved­ navigation systems,­digital­communication­systems­and­five additional­ workstations,­ as­ well­ as­ the enhancement­ of­ two­ Mission­ Simulators.­ As­ a result­of­this­project­the­NATO­AWACS­will­be able­to­continue­to­fulfill­its­intended­role­as­an important­NATO­asset­for­maintaining­peace­and security. The­ Component’s­ two­ operational­ E-3A squadrons­and­its­former­TCA­squadron­have­a total­of­thirty­multinational­aircrews­from­fourteen of­ NATO’s­ twenty-eight­ nations:­ Belgium, Denmark,­Germany,­Greece,­Hungary,­Italy,­the Netherlands,­ Norway,­ Poland,­ Portugal,­ Spain, Turkey,­Romania­and­the­United­States.­Canada withdrew­ its­ participation­ from­ the­ AWACS program­in­2014.­In­addition,­the­Aircrew­Training Squadron­ operates­ on­ an­ equally­ multinational basis­under­the­direction­of­Training­Wing. The­ Component­ has­ approximately­ thirty military­and­civilian­assigned­personnel­at­each site;­these­are­NATO­personnel,­but­all­are­from the­respective­host­nation. The­ fleet­ of­ E-3s­ has­ remained­ in­ operation since­the­Cold­War­and­has­adapted­its­mission­to emerging­security­threats,­primarily­in­European airspace.­ Despite­ stringent­ self-imposed­ flight restrictions,­ including­ conducting­ a­ significant portion­ of­ training­ flights­ at­ different­ airfields throughout­ Europe­ and­ North­ America,­ E-3A operations­ in­ Geilenkirchen­ caused­ noise pollution,­ according­ to­ a­ recent­ study­ by­ the Netherlands­National­Institute­for­Public­Health and­ the­ Environment,­ affecting­ over­ 40,000 citizens­ of­ Parkstad­ Limburg­ across­ the­ nearby German-Dutch­border,­who­have­formed­an­NGO aiming­ to­ stop­ AWACS­ flights.­ The­ Dutch government­has­asked­for­a­mid-life­upgrade­of­the AWACS­fleet­to­include­upgrading­the­engines­to make­ the­ fleet­ meet­ the­ maximum­ noise­ levels allowed­for­civilian­air­traffic.­ The­unpressurised­rotodome­is­thirty­feet­in diameter,­six­feet­thick­at­the­centre,­and­is­held eleven­feet­above­the­fuselage­by­two­struts.­It­is tilted­down­at­the­front­to­reduce­its­aerodynamic drag,­which­lessens­its­detrimental­effect­on­takeoffs­ and­ endurance­ (which­ is­ corrected electronically­ by­ both­ the­ radar­ and­ secondary surveillance­ radar­ antenna­ phase­ shifters).­ The dome­ uses­ both­ bleed­ air­ and­ cooling­ doors­ to remove­ the­ heat­ generated­ by­ electronic­ and mechanical­equipment.­The­hydraulically­rotated

antenna­ system­ permits­ the­ Westinghouse Corporation's­AN/APY-1­and­AN/APY-2­passive electronically­ scanned­ array­ radar­ system­ to provide­surveillance­from­the­Earth's­surface­up into­the­stratosphere,­over­land­or­water. Other­major­sub-systems­in­the­E-3­Sentry­are navigation,­ communications,­ and­ computers. Consoles­ display­ computer-processed­ data­ in graphic­ and­ tabular­ format­ on­ video­ screens. Console­ operators­ perform­ surveillance, identification,­ weapons­ control,­ battle management­and­communications­functions.­The radar­and­computer­sub-systems­on­the­E-3­can gather­and­present­broad­and­detailed­battlefield information.­This­includes­position­and­tracking information­ on­ enemy­ aircraft­ and­ ships,­ and location­and­status­of­friendly­aircraft­and­naval vessels.­ The­ information­ can­ be­ sent­ to­ major command­ and­ control­ centers­ in­ rear­ areas­ or aboard­ ships.­ In­ times­ of­ crisis,­ data­ can­ be forwarded­to­the­National­Command­Authority­in the­US­via­RC-135­or­naval­aircraft­carrier­task forces. Electrical­generators­mounted­on­each­of­the E-3's­four­engines­provide­the­one­megawatt­of electrical­power­that­is­required­by­the­E-3's­radars and­other­electronics.­Its­pulse-Doppler­radar­(PD) has­a­range­of­more­than­250­miles­for­low-flying targets­ at­ its­ operating­ altitude,­ and­ the­ pulse (BTH)­ radar­ has­ a­ range­ of­ approximately­ 400 miles­ for­ aircraft­ flying­ at­ medium­ to­ high altitudes.­ Starting­in­1987,­USAF­E-3s­were­upgraded under­the­‘Block­30/35­Modification­Program’­to enhance­ the­ E-3s­ capabilities.­ On­ 30­ October 2001,­the­final­airframe­to­be­upgraded­under­this program­ was­ rolled­ out.­ Several­ major enhancements­were­made,­firstly­the­installation of­ electronic­ support­ measures­ (ESM)­ and­ an electronic­surveillance­capability,­for­both­active and­ passive­ means­ of­ detection.­ Also,­ Joint Tactical­Information­Distribution­System­(JTIDS) was­ installed,­ which­ provides­ rapid­ and­ secure communication­ for­ transmitting­ information, including­target­positions­and­identification­data, to­ other­ friendly­ platforms.­ Global­ Positioning System­(GPS)­capability­was­also­added.­Onboard computers­were­also­overhauled­to­accommodate JTIDS,­ Link-16,­ the­ new­ ESM­ systems­ and­ to provide­for­future­enhancements. All­transmissions­from­a­radar­set­are­unique to­ that­ type­ of­ radar,­ and­ can­ be­ identified­ by anyone­with­a­suitable­radar­frequency­receiver and­ a­ decent­ database­ of­ radar­ parameters.­ ­ 8

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A dramatic head-on shot showing the huge rotodome on top of RAF E-3D Sentry XH103 ‘Happy’ at RAF Waddington in early 1996. (author)

Squadron’s­E-3D­Sentries­are­fitted­with­the­Loral 1017­‘Yellowgate’­ESM­system,­unique­to­the­E3D­within­the­AEW­world,­located­in­the­aircraft's distinctive­wing­pods.­This­system­gives­automatic identification­of­radar­transmissions­together­with a­bearing­of­that­radar’s­source.­­This­allows­the ESM­ operator­ some­ degree­ of­ identification­ of radar­contacts­in­a­tactical­situation. The­E-3D­can­pass­information­by­a­variety­of data­links,­and­radios.­­Voice­communication­is achieved­via­satellite­communications,­UHF,­VHF and­HF­voice­radios.­­Data­can­be­passed­by­data link.­­The­main­links­include: Joint­Tactical­Information­Distribution­System (JTIDS),­which­uses­both­Interim­JTIDS­Message Standard­(IJMS)­and­Link­16­message­standards. Link­ 16­ is­ used­ to­ pass­ tactical­ information between­ the­ E-3D­ and­ the­ Tornado­ F3s­ and Typhoons.­­IJMS­is­the­main­NATO­air-picture data­link. Link­11­is­used­to­pass­data­to­Naval­Forces,

UK­ air-defence­ sites­ and­ to­ some­ air­ platforms such­as­maritime­patrol­and­Elint­aircraft. Seven­different­internal­communication­nets allow­ the­ crew­ to­ co-ordinate­ internally,­ either discretely­or­crew-wide.­­Three­of­these­nets­are capable­of­carrying­classified­information­without risk­of­interception. Sensor­ data­ is­ processed­ by­ the­ on-board computer,­­known­as­the­‘mission­computer’­and presented­ to­ the­ E-3D­ mission­ crew­ via­ ten ‘Situation­Display­Consoles.’­­The­operators­track these­ contacts­ –­ information­ such­ as­ position, heading,­speed,­height­and­identification­is­also stored­in­the­computer.­­This­track­information­can be­passed­to­other­computer­systems,­either­on­the ground­or­in­ships­and­other­aircraft,­via­data­links. The­ Radar­ System­ Improvement­ Program (RSIP)­ was­ a­ joint­ US/NATO­ development program.­RSIP­enhances­the­operational­capability of­the­E-3­radars’­electronic­countermeasures,­and dramatically­ improve­ the­ system's­ reliability,

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maintainability,­and­availability.­Essentially,­this programme­replaced­the­older­transistor-transistor logic­ and­ emitter-coupled­ logic­ electronic components,­long-since­out­of­production,­with off-the-shelf­digital­computers­that­utilised­a­Highlevel­programming­language­instead­of­assembly language.­ These­ hardware­ and­ software modifications­ improved­ the­ E-3­ radars’ performance,­providing­enhanced­detection­with an­ emphasis­ towards­ low­ radar­ cross-section (RCS)­targets. The­RAF­had­also­joined­the­USAF­in­adding RSIP­to­upgrade­the­E-3's­radars.­The­retrofitting of­the­E-3­squadrons­was­completed­in­December 2000.­ Along­ with­ the­ RSIP­ upgrade­ was

installation­ of­ the­ Global­ Positioning System/Inertial­ Navigation­ Systems­ which dramatically­ improve­ positioning­ accuracy.­ In 2002,­Boeing­was­awarded­a­contract­to­add­RSIP to­the­small­French­AWACS­squadron.­Installation was­completed­in­2006. The­ USAF­ has­ a­ total­ of­ thirty-one­ E-3s­ in active­ service.­ Twenty-seven­ are­ stationed­ at Tinker­ AFB­ and­ belong­ to­ the­ Air­ Combat Command­(ACC).­Four­are­assigned­to­the­Pacific Air­Forces­(PACAF)­and­stationed­at­Kadena­AB, Okinawa­ and­ Elmendorf­ AFB,­ Alaska.­ One aircraft­(TS-3)­was­assigned­to­Boeing­for­testing and­development­(retired/scrapped­June­2012).­In 1977,­Iran­placed­an­order­for­ten­E-3s,­but­this

The new and the old! The nose of 8 Squadron’s Sentry AEW.1 XH107 ‘Bashful’ with XW664, a 51 Squadron R.1P Nimrod behind taken during a series of severe snowstorms that hit RAF Waddington on 26 January 1996. The E-3 wears the city of Lincoln crest below the captain’s window. (author)

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An RAF Sentry waddles out to the end of Coningsby’s main runway to take off on another sortie. At the time 8 Squadron were away from their normal base of RAF Waddington which was undergoing runway work. (author)

order­was­cancelled­following­the­1979­revolution. The­United­Kingdom­and­France­are­not­part of­the­NATO­E-3A­Component,­instead­procuring E-3­aircraft­through­a­joint­project.­The­UK­and France­operate­their­E-3­aircraft­independently­of each­ other­ and­ of­ NATO.­ The­ UK­ operates­ six aircraft­(with­a­seventh­now­retired)­and­France operates­ four­ aircraft,­ all­ fitted­ with­ the­ newer CFM56-2­engines.­The­British­requirement­came about­ following­ the­ cancellation­ of­ the­ British Aerospace­Nimrod­AEW3­project­to­replace­the Avro­Shackleton­AEW2­during­the­1980s.­The­UK E-3­ order­ was­ placed­ in­ February­ 1987,­ with deliveries­starting­in­1990. The­Royal­Air­Force­operates­the­Sentries­in the­ airborne­ surveillance­ and­ command-andcontrol­ role.­ The­ aircraft­ are­ based­ at­ RAF Waddington,­ where­ they­ are­ operated­ by­ 8 Squadron­as­the­UK’s­contribution­to­the­NATO Airborne­Early­Warning­and­Control­Force.­The E-3D­also­forms­one­arm­of­the­UK­Intelligence, Surveillance,­ Target­ Acquisition­ and Reconnaissance­(ISTAR)­triad­of­Sentinel­R1,­E3D­ and­ Shadow­ R1­ aircraft.­ Whilst­ primarily procured­as­an­airborne­early­warning­aircraft,­the E-3D­ has­ been­ extensively­ employed­ in­ the Airborne­Warning­and­Control­System­(AWACS) role.­The­E-3D­Sentry,­known­to­the­RAF­as­the AEW1,­ has­ been­ extensively­ modified­ and updated­to­accommodate­modern­mission­systems. Mission­endurance­is­approximately­eleven­hours, although­ this­ can­ be­ extended­ by­ air-to-air refuelling.­ The­ E-3D­ is­ the­ only­ aircraft­ in­ the RAF’s­inventory­capable­of­air-to-air­refuelling­by both­the­American­‘flying-boom’­system­and­the RAF’s­‘probe-and-drogue’­method. The­ normal­ crew­ complement­ of­ eighteen comprises­four­flight-deck­crew,­three­technicians and­an­eleven-man­mission­crew.­The­mission­crew comprises­ a­ tactical­ director­ (mission­ crew commander),­ a­ fighter­ allocator,­ three­ weapons

controllers,­a­surveillance­controller,­two­surveillance operators,­a­data-link­manager,­a­communications operator­ and­ an­ electronic-support-measures operator.­ The­ Sentry’s­ roles­ include­ air­ and­ sea surveillance,­ airborne­ command­ and­ control, weapons­ control­ and­ it­ can­ also­ operate­ as­ an extensive­communications­platform. The­ aircraft­ cruises­ at­ 30,000­ feet­ and­ 400 knots­and­its­Northrop­Grumman­AN/APY-2­highperformance,­multimode­lookdown­radar­is­able­to separate­ airborne­ and­ maritime­ targets­ from ground­and­sea­clutter.­One­E-3D­flying­at­30,000 feet­ can­ scan­ at­ distances­ of­ over­ 300­ nautical miles;­it­can­detect­low-flying­targets­or­maritime surface­contacts­within­215­nautical­miles­and­it can­detect­medium-level­airborne­targets­at­ranges in­excess­of­280­nautical­miles.­The­multi-mode radar­provides­lookdown­surveillance­to­the­radar horizon­and­an­electronic­vertical­scan­of­the­radar beam­provides­target­elevation­and­beyond-thehorizon­operation­for­long-range­surveillance­of medium­and­high-altitude­aircraft.­These­attributes allow­it­to­determine­the­location,­altitude,­course and­speed­of­large­numbers­of­airborne­targets. The­ aircraft’s­ mission­ systems­ can­ separate, manage­ and­ display­ targets­ individually­ on situation­ displays­ within­ the­ aircraft,­ or­ it­ can transmit­the­information­to­ground-based­and­shipbased­units­using­a­variety­of­digital­data­links Almost­ immediately­ upon­ becoming operational­on­the­Sentry­in­1991,­8­Squadron­was deployed­ on­ operations­ over­ the­ Balkans.­ The squadron,­ along­ with­ its­ sister­ 23­ Squadron, assumed­ the­Airborne­ Early­Warning­ role­ upon reformation­ in­ April­ 1996,­ sharing­ the­ RAF's Sentry­ AEW1­ fleet­ with­ 8­ Squadron.­ Both squadrons­ operated­ the­ Sentry­ over­ Bosnia, Kosovo,­ Afghanistan,­ Iraq­ and­ Libya­ until­ 23 Squadron­disbanded­on­2­October­2009,­when­it amalgamated­with­8­Squadron. Just­as­8­Squadron­Shackletons­used­to­carry

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XH104 ‘Sleepy’ seen surrounded by ground equipment during a temporary deployment from RAF Waddington to RAF Coningsby on 24 October 2014 while runway work was carried out at the former airfield. (author)

the­names­of­‘Magic Roundabout’ and­‘The Herbs’ characters,­the­Sentries­are­also­named,­after­Walt Disney’s­‘Seven Dwarfs’. The­names­on­a­plaque, along­with­a­embroidered­caricature­is­located­on a­bulkhead­just­to­the­right­of­the­main­crew­entry door.­For­the­record,­ZH101­Doc; ZH102­Dopey; ZH103­Happy; ZH104­­Sleepy; ZH105­Sneezy; ZH106­Grumpy and­ZH107­Bashful. While­still­operating­the­venerable­Shackleton AEW­ aircraft­ from­ Lossiemouth­ in­ Scotland,­ 8 Squadron­had­been­earmarked­in­1987­to­be­the unit­ to­ fly­ the­ new­ Sentry­AEW.1­ aircraft­ from Waddington. Some­ personnel­ were­ sent­ to­ the­ NATO­ air base­ at­ Geilenkirchen­ for­ training,­ the­ first qualifying­in­October­1988.­Over­the­next­year,­the equivalent­ of­ two­ more­ crews­ were­ trained­ at Geilenkirchen,­returning­in­1990­to­form­elements of­the­STS­and­8­Squadron­crews.­The­aircraft­for the­RAF­were,­meanwhile,­under­construction­at the­Boeing­plant­at­Seattle,­where­the­first­one, ZH101,­took­to­the­air­on­5­January­1990.­First­to arrive­at­Waddington­however,­was­ZH102,­which flew­in­on­4­July­1990,­followed­by­ZH101­on­26

March­1991.­ Although­not­yet­officially­in­existence­as­the Sentry­squadron,­8­Squadron­(Designate)­began operating­the­Sentry­on­UK­air­defence­duties­on 8­ May­ 1991,­ when­ Flt.­ Lt.­ David­ Buchanan captained­ZH102­on­a­flight­of­almost­nine­hours during­which­the­crew­­co-operated­with­the­Sector Operations­Centre­at­Neatishead,­Norfolk. On­1­July­1991­8­Squadron­formally­took­up its­first­posting­in­England­in­seventy­years,­when on­that­day­the­‘old’­squadron­was­disbanded,­to be­instantly­reformed­at­Waddington.­Previously the­squadron­had­spent­nineteen­years­in­Scotland and­before­that­had­been­stationed­in­the­Middle East­since­October­1920,­using­a­wide­variety­of aircraft­over­the­years.

The forward starboard side of XH104 ‘Sleepy’. The close up picture shows the two crests below the copilot’s windows, the one on the left being that of 54 Squadron, the one on the right being the NATO AEW emblem. (author)

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To­mark­the­new­circumstances,­the­squadron paraded­at­Waddington,­two­Flights­of­personnel marching­ in­ review­ order­ behind­ a­ kilted­ pipe band.­ On­ the­ apron­ where­ the­ parade­ was­ held stood­two­Sentry­aircraft­flanking­one­venerable Shackleton,­ and­ at­ the­ right­ moment­ another Shackleton­flew­by­at­low­level­to­symbolise­the change­ of­ aircraft.­ The­ squadron­ standard­ was paraded­and­handed­over­by­Wg­Cdr­C­J­Booth­to the­new­CO,­Wg­Cdr­R­G­Thompson,­and­those on­ parade­ were­ inspected­ by­ ­AM­ Sir­ Kenneth Hayr,­a­former­member­of­8­Squadron­and­now­the Deputy­Chief­of­Defence­Staff. 8­Squadron's­first­operation­after­reformation took­place­on­4­July­1991­as­part­of­an­offensive support­ exercise­ involving­ control­ of­ Jaguars, Tornados­and­Harriers.­The­final­Sentry,­ZH107, was­ handed­ over­ to­ the­ RAF­ in­ March­ 1992, enabling­ 8­ Squadron­ to­ reach­ full­ operational standard­ on­ 1­ July,­ and­ two­ weeks­ later­ the squadron­ was­ tasked­ by­ NATO­ AEW­ Force Command­at­SHAPE­to­operate­in­support­of­UN sanctions­in­Bosnia.­Since­then,­the­RAF­Sentries have­ worked­ closely­ with­ the­ similar­ NATO aircraft­and­with­the­USAF,­Italian­Air­Force­and l'Armee­de­l'Air,­providing­detachments­at­forward operating­bases­in­Italy­and­Norway.­During­the Bosnian­ crisis­ 8­ Squadron­ maintained­ regular surveillance­of­the­Bosnia-Herzogovina­‘no­fly’ zone­ under­ Operation­ ‘Sky­ Monitor’.­ On­ 19 January­1993­one­of­the­Sentries­and­a­NATO­E-3 visited­Budapest­in­Hungary­to­show­appreciation

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for­ the­ use­ of­ that­ country's­ airspace,­ in­ which orbits­south­of­Budapest­were­flown­to­allow­the radar­coverage­to­be­enhanced. In­addition,­the­squadron­in­its­first­­eighteen months­ deployed­ aircraft­ to­ Alaska,­ Cyprus, Denmark,­Holland,­France,­Germany­and­Canada to­ take­ part­ in­ NATO­ exercises.­ A­ notable milestone­was­reached­on­3­March­1992,­when­a Sentry­was­air-refuelled­twice­during­a­five-andthree-quarter­ hour­ flight,­ once­ by­ the­ British ‘probe­ and­ drogue’­ method­ and­ once­ by­ the USAF's­rigid­boom,­the­aircraft­being­fitted­with both­systems.­The­aircraft­can­be­airborne­for­up to­ twelve­ hours­ without­ refuelling,­ and­ much longer­ after­ ‘topping­ up’,­ though­ in­ normal practice­this­is­not­necessary.­­ In­RAF­service­the­Sentry­AEW.1­has­a­crew that­can­be­divided­into­two­sections:­Flight­Deck and­Mission.­On­the­flight­deck­the­Captain­(1st Pilot)­is­responsible­for­the­safety­of­the­aircraft and­its­occupants. Co­ Pilot:­ Both­ pilots­ are­ fully­ qualified­ to operate­the­aircraft,­which­is­generally­‘operated’ from­the­left-hand­seat.­­Pilots,­therefore,­fly­most sorties­from­the­left-hand­seat­to­ensure­‘hands­on’ time­is­shared­evenly.­­The­pilot­in­the­right-hand seat­is­responsible­for­radio­communication­and the­monitoring­of­navigation­radio­aids. Navigator:­His­duties,­amongst­others,­include ensuring­that­the­aircraft­reaches­and­maintains­its orbit­position,­often­in­airspace­giving­little­margin for­error.

This head on shot of XH104 ‘Sleepy’ taken during the walkround shows the dual re-fuelling system fitted to the RAF E-3Ds, the aircraft being capable of taking fuel from both probe and drogue and flying boom systems.(author)

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© G.M.Simons

Above: the main cabin layout of a Royal Air Force E-3D Sentry, showing most of the crew positions. Below: the Data Processing section, with display screens. The Communications and Encripto section is further forward. (author)

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Above: the data processing area of XH104 ‘Sleepy’ looking aft towards the radar and radar operator’s area. At the time the aircraft was having maintenance done on the wing spoilers, so the over-wing escape hatches were open. Nevertheless, considering the interior has no real windows, just ‘portholes’ in the escape hatches, the light levels are good, and there is no sense of being inside a gloomy, claustrophobic tube.

Right: the radar operator’s position. All the chairs have full four-point harnesses, and rotate away from the work stations. (both author)

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Although basically the Boeing 707, the RAF’s E-3D are fitted with CFM-56 engines and the fuselage does not have the long row of windows on either side; they also carry ‘low visibitity’ markings. (author)

Flight­ Engineer:­ The flight­ engineer­ is responsible­for­monitoring the­engine­power­and­flight performance­of­the­aircraft. Head­ of­ the­ Mission Crew­ is­ the­ ­ Tactical Director,­ ­ responsible­ for the­overall­conduct­of­the mission,­ as­ tasked­ by­ the operating­authorities.­­He­is the­ senior­ member­ of­ the mission­ crew­ and­ liaises directly­with­the­operating authorities. The­Surveillance­Team is­ commanded­ by­ the Surveillance­ Controller, who­provides­the­optimum radar­picture­with­which­to work.­­Working­for­him­are the­ Links­ manager,­ who ensures­ the­ efficient employment­of­the­digital data­ links,­ two­ or­ three Surveillance­operators­­and­an­ESM­operator­who compile­the­recognised­air­and­surface­picture­for onward­transmission­to­the­ground­and­other­units. The­ weapons­ team­ is­ headed­ by­ the­ Fighter Allocator­who­is­responsible­for­the­safe­conduct­of all­aircraft­which­have­been­allocated­to­the­E-3D­to control.­­His­two­or­three­Weapons­Controllers­­can control­ a­ wide­ variety­ of­ air­ missions­ including Offensive­ and­ Defensive­ Counter­ Air­ operations using­fighters,­Close­Air­Support­and­Battlefield­Air Interdiction­ using­ bombers­ and­ a­ wide­ variety­ of operational­support­aircraft. The­Communications­Operator­is­in­charge­of­all the­Sentry's­on-board­communications.­­He­allocates access­to­radios­and­data­links­to­those­who­need them.

Because­ of­ the­ complexity­ of­ the­ on-board systems­the­E-3D­is­unique­in­the­Royal­Air­Force in­ carrying­ airborne­ technicians­ who­ initialise, monitor­ and­ provide­ basic­ maintenance­ of­ the highly­sophisticated­mission­equipment: The­Communications­Technician­­assists­the Communications­Operator­in­the­running­of­all­the on-board­communications­systems­including­the physical­data­links. The­ Display­Technician­ initialises,­ runs­ and maintains­the­on-board­computer­systems­which are­the­heart­of­the­mission­equipment. The­Radar­Technician­­runs­the­mission­radar, without­ which­ there­ would­ be­ no­ mission.­ ­ He liaises­ with­ the­ Surveillance­ Controller­ and­ the Display­Technician­to­provide­the­best­possible

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radar­ picture­ for­ the­ surveillance­ and­ weapons teams­to­work­with. Formed­ on­ 1­ January­ 1993,­ the­ Sentry Standards­Unit­was­responsible­for­checking­flying standards­ of­ all­ Sentry­ crews.­ It­ gradually expanded­ to­ the­ point­ where­ it­ had­ a­ crew­ of instructors­ which­ was­ virtually­ operational, covering­all­the­special­functions. Over­ the­ years­ the­ SSU­ gradually­ evolved until­ on­ 5­ September­ 2005,­ 54­ (R)­ Squadron officially­reformed­with­a­new­role,­taking­over operational­training­of­three­aircraft­types­at­RAF Waddington­ as­ the­ Intelligence­ Surveillance, Target­Acquisition­and­Reconnaissance­(ISTAR) Operational­ Conversion­ Unit­ to­ train­ aircrews from­ the­ three­ ISTAR­ platform,­ E-3D­ Sentry, Nimrod­R1­and­Sentinel­R1. French Sentries In­ the­ late­ 1990s­ France’s­ E-3F­ fleet­ received upgrades­such­as­electronic­support­measures­that could­detect­and­backtrack­incoming­radar­beams and­ other­ electromagnetic­ emissions,­ a­ passive listening­and­detection­system,­and­a­radar­system improvement­ programme,­ which­ enhanced­ the capability­to­detect­and­track­aircraft­and­missiles. This­ brought­ them­ to­ roughly­ Block­ 30/35 equivalent.

Above: the low visibility marks including the 8 Squadron emblem and tiny fin flash on the tail of XH107 ‘Bashful’. Below: XH104 undergoes work on the wing spoilers. (both author)

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E-3D Details

Above: the back end and (below) the front, both covered and uncovered CFM-56s that power the RAFs Sentries. Right: one of the ‘Yellowgate’ wingtip ESM pods. (all author)

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One for the modellers! Lumps, bumps, hatches and aerials. The rear fuselage of the last 707 airframe built, ZH107, shows an array of ‘interesting things’. (author)

In­2004­France­decided­to­look­at­upgrading their­ E-3Fs­ from­ Block­ 30/35.­They­ contracted with­Hanscom­AFB’s­Electronic­Systems­Center to­ perform­ a­ feasibility­ study­ to­ identify­ what would­ be­ the­ new­ French­ AWACS­ mid-life upgrade­ for­ mission­ computing­ and­ air­ battle management. The­study­was­performed­to­compare­the­US Block­ 40/45­ system­ and­ the­ NATO­ mid-term system.­After­the­study,­the­French­concluded­they wanted­ to­ pursue­ the­ US­ Block­ 40/45,­ with French-specific­requirements­added­or­retained. On­ 26­ September­ 2008­ the­ US­ Defense Security­ Co-operation­ Agency­ announced France’s­request­to­upgrade­four­E-3F­AWACS with­Block­40/45­Mission­Computing,­Electronic Support­ Measures­ and­ Radar­ System Improvement­Program­Interface,­and­Mode­5/S Identification­ Friend­ or­ Foe.­ In­ addition,­ this proposed­sale­was­to­include­related­spare­and repair­parts,­support­equipment,­publications­and technical­documentation,­integration,­personnel training­and­equipment,­contractor­engineering and­technical­support­services,­and­other­related elements­of­programme­support.­The­estimated cost­was­$400­million. France­ used­ this­ upgrade­ to­ maintain­ full interoperability­ and­ interchangeability­ with­ US and­ other­ NATO­ coalition­ partners,­ and­ would

have­ no­ difficulty­ absorbing­ the­ additional AWACS­ aircraft­ into­ its­ armed­ forces.­ Boeing Integrated­Defense­Systems­in­Seattle,­WA­would be­the­prime­contractor,­but­implementation­of­this sale­would­not­require­the­assignment­of­any­US Government­ and­ contractor­ representatives­ to France. On­7­January­2011­Air­France­Industries­and KLM­Engineering­&­Maintenance,­which­joined forces­ following­ the­Air­ France/­ KLM­ merger, announced­a­contract­with­Boeing­Defense,­Space &­Security­to­install­the­E-3F’s­modification­kits. The­work­was­begun­in­2012­in­the­AFI­facility at­Le­Bourget,­outside­Paris,­and­ended­when­the 4th­ and­ last­ aircraft­ was­ refitted.­ A­ team­ from Boeing­was­on-hand­throughout­the­program­to oversee­operations. Later­that­year,­on­12­September,­Air­France and­ the­ French­ MdlD’s­ SIMMAD­ Aircraft Through­Life­Support­Organization­announced­the renewal­of­the­through-life­support­contract­for France’s­fleet­of­four­E-3F­AWACS.­This­five-year deal­increment­was­to­run­through­to­1­September 2016­and­although­­Air­France­KLM­would­not disclose­costs,­a­press­release­said: “Through life support covers the complete array of AWACS engineering support services… technical and documentary support for the aircraft and its mission-specific systems, painting, and

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702-CB is towed into the hangar for updates at Le Bourget. (AFI/KLM)

heavy maintenance concurrently with Mid-Life Upgrade work, maintaining the related engineering resources, and providing IT and logistics support services. Two related projects will also by continued under the terms of the contract, namely the digitization of all technical documentation, and the integration of airworthiness monitoring into the AWACS computer systems.” Then,­ on­ 24­ September­ 2012,­ France­ had problems­ in­ upgrading­ its­ E-3F­ AWACS­ fleet became­apparent,­thanks­to­bureaucratic­bungling on­the­American­side­of­the­table.­The­problem was­that­the­Pentagon­ordered­Boeing­to­stop­work on­ the­ upgrade,­ because­ they­ needed­ to­ hold­ a review­regarding­technologies­that­might­be­too sensitive­for­export.­Boeing­already­had­staff­in

Paris,­who­needed­to­be­kept­but­could­not­work. Overall­costs:­another­$5­million. The­US­government­wanted­France­to­pay­the extra­ $5­ million.­ France­ had­ already­ spent­ $10 million­on­a­2009­risk­reduction­study­that­looked at­engineering­and­technologies,­and­the­Pentagon didn’t­ make­ an­ issue­ of­ anything­ at­ that­ time. France­ said,­ not­ unreasonably,­ that­ if­ the Pentagon’s­ serial­ mistakes­ caused­ the­ problem, and­they­were­the­ones­managing­the­programme under­ Foreign­ Military­ Sale­ rules,­ then­ the Pentagon­could­pay­for­the­extra­costs.­ On­ 17­ February­ 2014­ Boeing’s­ team successfully­completed­the­first­of­the­four­MidLife­Upgrades­to­France’s­E-3F­fleet.­All­machines underwent­ ground­ and­ flight­ tests­ at­Avord­Air Base,­following­their­upgrade­rotation­through­AFI

36-CA, one of the four French E-3F fleet in flight. (Armee de L’Air)

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The same aircraft is rolled out at Le Bouget on completion of the upgrades. (AFI/KLM)

KLM­E&M’s­facility­at­Charles­De­Gaulle­Airport in­Paris.­ The­ other­ operator­ of­ the­ type,­ delivered between­June­1986­and­September­1987,­is­Saudi Arabia­which­operated­five­aircraft,­all­fitted­with CFM56-2­engines. E-3­ Sentry­ aircraft­ were­ among­ the­ first­ to deploy­during­Operation­Desert­Shield,­where­they immediately­established­an­around-the-clock­radar screen­ to­ defend­ against­ Iraqi­ forces.­ During Operation­Desert­Storm,­E-3s­flew­379­missions and­logged­5,052­hours­of­on-station­time.­The data­ collection­ capability­ of­ the­ E-3­ radar­ and computer­sub-systems­allowed­an­entire­air­war­to be­recorded­for­the­first­time­in­history.­In­addition to­providing­senior­leadership­with­time-critical information­on­the­actions­of­enemy­forces,­E-3 controllers­assisted­in­38­of­the­41­air-to-air­kills recorded­during­the­conflict. NATO­E-3s­joined­their­USAF­colleagues­for joint­air­defence­as­part­of­Operation­Eagle­Assist in­ the­ wake­ of­ the­ 11­ September­ 2001­ terrorist attacks­on­the­World­Trade­Center­towers­and­the Pentagon.

J-Stars The­ Northrop­ Grumman­ E-8­ Joint­ Surveillance Target­ Attack­ Radar­ System,­ known­ as­ Joint STARS,­is­a­USAF­Airborne­ground­surveillance, battle­ management­ and­ command­ and­ control aircraft.­ It­ tracks­ ground­ vehicles­ and­ some aircraft,­ collects­ imagery,­ and­ relays­ tactical pictures­to­ground­and­air­theatre­commanders. The­aircraft­is­operated­by­both­active­duty­Air

Force­ and­ Air­ National­ Guard­ units­ and­ also carries­ specially­ trained­ US­Army­ personnel­ as additional­flight­crew. Joint­ STARS­ evolved­ from­ separate­ United States­ Army­ and­ Air­ Force­ programmes­ to develop,­detect,­locate­and­attack­enemy­armour at­ranges­beyond­the­forward­area­of­troops.­In 1982­the­two­programmes­were­merged­and­the USAF­ became­ the­ lead­ agent.­The­ concept­ and sensor­technology­for­the­E-8­was­developed­and tested­on­the­Tacit­Blue­experimental­aircraft.­The prime­ contract­ was­ awarded­ to­ Grumman Aerospace­Corporation­in­September­1985­for­two E-8A­development­systems. The­ E-8C­ is­ an­ aircraft­ modified­ from­ the Boeing­ 707-300­ series­ commercial­ airliner.­ It carries­ specialised­ radar,­ communications, operations­ and­ control­ sub-systems.­ The­ most prominent­external­feature­is­the­40­foot­canoeshaped­ radome­ under­ the­ forward­ fuselage­ that houses­ the­ 24­ foot­ long­ side-looking­ APY-7 passive­electronically­scanned­array­antenna. The­E-8C­can­respond­quickly­and­effectively to­ support­ worldwide­ military­ contingency operations.­It­is­a­jam-resistant­system­capable­of operating­ while­ experiencing­ heavy­ electronic countermeasures.­It­can­fly­a­mission­profile­for nine­hours­without­refuelling.­Its­range­and­onstation­time­can­be­substantially­increased­through in-flight­refuelling. The­AN/APY-7­radar­can­operate­in­wide­area surveillance,­ground­moving­target­indicator­(GMTI), fixed­target­indicator­(FTI)­target­classification,­and synthetic­aperture­radar­(SAR)­modes.

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To­pick­up­moving­targets,­the­radar­looks­at the­Doppler­frequency­shift­of­the­returned­signal. It­can­look­from­a­long­range,­which­the­military refers­to­as­a­high­standoff­capability.­The­antenna can­be­tilted­to­either­side­of­the­aircraft­for­a­120degree­field­of­view­covering­nearly­20,000­square miles­and­can­simultaneously­track­600­targets­at more­than­150­miles.­The­GMTI­modes­cannot pick­up­objects­that­are­too­small,­insufficiently dense,­or­stationary.­Data­processing­allows­the APY-7­to­differentiate­between­armoured­vehicles and­trucks,­allowing­targeting­personnel­to­better select­the­appropriate­ordnance­for­various­targets. The­system's­SAR­modes­can­produce­images of­stationary­objects.­Objects­with­many­angles­-­for example,­the­interior­of­a­truck­bed­-­will­give­a much­better­radar­signature,­or­specular­return.­In addition­to­being­able­to­detect,­locate­and­track large­numbers­of­ground­vehicles,­the­radar­has­a limited­ capability­ to­ detect­ helicopters,­ rotating antennas­and­low,­slow-moving­fixed-wing­aircraft. The­radar­and­computer­subsystems­on­the­E8C­ can­ gather­ and­ display­ broad­ and­ detailed battlefield­information.­Data­is­collected­as­events occur.­ This­ includes­ position­ and­ tracking information­on­enemy­and­friendly­ground­forces. The­information­is­relayed­in­near-real­time­to­the US­Army's­common­ground­stations­via­the­secure jam-resistant­ surveillance­ and­ control­ data­ link and­to­other­ground­­nodes­beyond­line-of-sight via­ultra­high­frequency­satellite­communications. Other­major­E-8C­prime­mission­equipment are­the­communications/datalink­and­operations and­ control­ subsystems.­ Eighteen­ operator

workstations­display­computer-processed­data­in graphic­ and­ tabular­ format­ on­ video­ screens. Operators­ and­ technicians­ perform­ battle management,­surveillance,­weapons,­intelligence, communications­and­maintenance­functions. Northrop­Grumman­has­tested­the­installation of­a­MS-177­camera­on­an­E-8C­to­provide­real time­visual­target­confirmation. In­missions­from­peacekeeping­operations­to major­theatre­war,­the­E-8C­can­provide­targeting data­ and­ intelligence­ for­ attack­ aviation,­ naval surface­fire,­field­artillery­and­friendly­manoeuvre forces.­ The­ information­ helps­ air­ and­ land commanders­to­control­the­battlespace. The­ E-8's­ ground-moving­ radar­ can­ tell approximate­number­of­vehicles,­location,­speed, and­direction­of­travel.­It­cannot­identify­exactly what­ type­ of­ vehicle­ a­ target­ is,­ tell­ what equipment­it­has,­or­discern­whether­it­is­friendly, hostile,­ or­ a­ bystander,­ so­ commanders­ often crosscheck­the­JSTARS­data­against­other­sources. In­ the­ Army,­ JSTARS­ data­ is­ analyzed­ in­ and disseminated­from­a­Ground­Station­Module. Midway­ through­ the­ ratification­ testing,­ in 1991­ Iraq­ invaded­ Kuwait,­ so­ the­ two­ E-8A development­ aircraft­ were­ rapidly­ deployed­ to participate­in­Operation­Desert­Storm­under­the direction­of­Albert­J.­Verderosa,­even­though­they were­ still­ in­ development.­ Technicians­ still working­on­the­aircraft,­along­with­770­tons­of material,­were­flown­to­Riyadh­in­Saudi­Arabia­by C-141­Starlifter­and­C-5­Galaxy­in­support. The­joint­programme­accurately­tracked­mobile Iraqi­ forces,­ including­ tanks­ and­ Scud­ missiles.

Joint Stars E-8A 86-0416 was the former QANTAS 707-338C VH-AEF. (USAF)

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The E-8C Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System is the only airborne platform in operation that can maintain realtime surveillance over a corps-sized area of the battlefield. A joint Air Force - Army programme, the Joint STARS uses a multi-mode side looking radar to detect, track, and classify moving ground vehicles in all conditions deep behind enemy lines. 92-3290 is the former N4115J and has an interesting history. This B707, named ‘City of Tamworth’ was delivered to QANTAS on 6 June 1967. It was sold to Zambia Airways as 9J-AEL on 20 May1977, and Trans Arabian as ST-ALP in March 1989. It was refurbished and converted to a E-8C JStars 92-3290 based at 93rd ACW, Robbins AFB Georgia. (US Air Force photo)

Crews­flew­developmental­aircraft­on­49­combat sorties,­accumulating­more­than­500­combat­hours and­a­100%­mission­effectiveness­rate. Excellent­ results­ shown­ in­ combat­ led­ to­ a contract­for­the­series­production­on­24­April­1992, revised­in­May­1993­for­the­addition­of­a­further six­units­to­those­already­planned. The­provision­for­the­manufacture­of­two­per year­was­delayed­following­Boeing’s­withdrawal from­the­project,­alleviated­by­the­intervention­of Northrop,­ who­ continued­ production­ at­ their Melbourne,­Florida­plant.­The­third­unit­was­ready in­December­1993­and­made­its­first­flight­on­25 March­1994,­by­which­time­three­more­units­were ready­in­USAF­hangers.The­acquisition­of­three second-hand­CC-137s­-­the­designation­given­to five­ Boeing­ 707-347C­ which­ served­ with­ the Canadian­ Forces­ from­ 1970­ to­ 1997,­ was­ also required,­ each­ costing­ 6.8­ million­ dollars,­ and these­started­arriving­in­1996. That­ same­ year­ Variant­ C­ was­ declared operationa|­ of­ which­ thirteen­ were­ destined­ for Wing­93­of­Airborne­Control­and­Surveillance­at Robins­Air­Base­in­Georgia. At­ one­ time­ six­ units­ for­ NATO’s­Airborne Ground­ Surveillance­ programme­ were­ being considered.­ These­ Joint­ STARS­ developmental aircraft­ also­ participated­ in­ Operation­ Joint Endeavor,­ a­ NATO­ peacekeeping­ mission,­ in December­1995.­While­flying­in­friendly­air­space, the­test-bed­E-8A­and­pre-production­E-8C­aircraft

monitored­ ground­ movements­ to­ confirm compliance­ with­ the­ Dayton­ Peace­ Accords agreements.­Crews­flew­ninety-five­consecutive operational­ sorties­ and­ more­ than­ 1,000­ flight hours­with­a­98%­mission­effectiveness­rate. The­93d­Air­Control­Wing,­which­activated on­29­January­1996,­accepted­its­first­aircraft.­On 11­ June­ 1996,­ and­ deployed­ in­ support­ of Operation­ Joint­ Endeavor­ in­ October.­ The provisional­ 93d­ Air­ Expeditionary­ Group monitored­treaty­compliance­while­NATO­rotated troops­through­Bosnia­and­Herzegovina.­The­first production­E-8C­and­a­pre-production­E-8C­flew thirty-six­operational­sorties­and­more­than­470 flight­hours­with­a­100%­effectiveness­rate.­The Wing­declared­initial­operational­capability­on­18 December­ 1997­ after­ receiving­ the­ second production­aircraft.­Operation­Allied­Force­saw Joint­STARS­in­action­again­from­February­to June­1999,­accumulating­more­than­1,000­flight hours­and­a­94.5%­mission-effectiveness­rate­in support­of­the­US­led­Kosovo­War. On­1­October­2002,­the­93rd­Air­Control­Wing (93­ACW)­was­amalgamated­with­the­116th­Bomb Wing­ in­ a­ ceremony­ at­ Robins­Air­ Force­ Base, Georgia.­ The­ 116th­ BW­ was­ an­ Air­ National Guard­ wing­ equipped­ with­ the­ B-1B­ Lancer bomber­ at­ Robins­AFB.­As­ a­ result­ of­ a­ USAF reorganization­of­the­B-1B­force,­all­B-1Bs­were assigned­to­active­duty­wings,­resulting­in­the­116 BW­lacking­a­current­mission.­Extensive­efforts

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The Ground Moving Target Indicator display overlaid on a ground image. (USAF)

by­ Georgia's­ governor­ and­ congressional delegation­led­to­the­resulting­amalgamation,­with the­newly­created­wing­designated­as­the­116th­Air Control­Wing.­The­93rd­ACW­was­inactivated­the same­ day.­The­ 116th­ACW­ constituted­ the­ first fully­blended­wing­of­active­duty­and­Air­National Guard­airmen. The­116th­ACW­has­been­heavily­involved­in both­Operation­Enduring­Freedom­and­Operation Iraqi­ Freedom,­ earning­ high­ marks­ for operational­effectiveness­and­recently­completing 10,000­combat­hours.­The­Wing­took­delivery­of the­17th­and­final­E-8C­on­23­March­2005.­E-8C Joint­STARS­routinely­support­various­taskings of­the­Combined­Force­Command­Korea­during

the­North­Korean­winter­exercise­cycle­and­for the­United­Nations,­enforcing­UN­resolutions­on Iraq.­ The­ twelfth­ production­ aircraft,­ outfitted with­ an­ upgraded­ operations­ and­ control subsystem,­ was­ delivered­ to­ the­ USAF­ on­ 5 November­2001. On­13­March­2009,­a­Joint­STARS­aircraft­was damaged­beyond­economical­repair­when­a­test plug­ was­ left­ on­ a­ fuel­ tank­ vent,­ subsequently causing­the­fuel­tank­to­rupture­during­in-flight refuelling.­There­were­no­casualties­but­the­aircraft allegedly­sustained­$25­million­in­damage. On­3­September­2009,­Dr­Loren­B­Thompson of­the­Lexington­Institute­raised­the­question­of why­most­of­the­Joint­STARS­fleet­was­sitting­idle

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instead­ of­ being­ used­ to­ track­ insurgents­ in Afghanistan.­Thompson­stated­that­the­JSTARS’ radar­ has­ an­ inherent­ capacity­ to­ find­ what­ the Army­ calls­ ‘dismounted’­ targets­ -­ insurgents walking­ around­ or­ placing­ roadside­ bombs. Thompson's­ neutrality­ has­ been­ questioned­ by some­since­Lexington­Institute­has­been­heavily funded­by­defense­contractors,­including­Northrop Grumman. Recent­ trials­ of­ JSTARS­ in­Afghanistan­ are destined­ to­ develop­ tactics,­ techniques­ and procedures­in­tracking­dismounted,­moving­groups of­Taliban. On­ 28­ November­ 2010,­ amidst­ escalating danger­ of­ war­ breaking­ out­ between­ North­ and South­ Korea,­ the­ South­ Korean­ government requested­the­US­to­implement­JSTARS­in­order to­ monitor­ and­ track­ North­ Korean­ military movements­near­the­DMZ. On­17­January­2011,­Northrop­Grumman's­E8C­Joint­STARS­test­bed­aircraft­completed­the second­of­two­deployments­to­Naval­Air­Station Point­Mugu,­California,­in­support­of­the­US­Navy Joint­Surface­Warfare­Joint­Capability­Technology Demonstration­ to­ test­ its­ Network-Enabled Weapon­architecture. The­ Joint­ STARS­ aircraft­ executed­ three Operational­ Utility­ Assessment­ flights­ and demonstrated­its­ability­to­guide­anti-ship­weapons against­surface­combatants­at­a­variety­of­standoff

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distances­ in­ the­ NEW­ architecture.­ The­ Joint STARS­aircraft­served­as­the­network­commandand-control­ node,­ as­ well­ as­ a­ node­ for transmitting­in-flight­target­message­updates­to­an AGM-154­C-1­Joint­Standoff­Weapon­carried­by US­Navy­F/A-18­Hornets­using­its­advanced­long range­tracking­and­targeting­capability. From­2001­to­January­2011­the­Joint­STARS fleet­ flew­ over­ 63,000­ hours­ in­ 5,200­ combat missions­in­support­of­Operations­Iraqi­Freedom, Enduring­Freedom­and­New­Dawn. On­ 1­ October­ 2011,­ the­ amalgamated construct­ of­ the­ 116th­ Air­ Control­ Wing combining­Air­National­Guard­and­Regular­Air Force­personnel­in­a­single­unit­was­discontinued. On­ this­ date,­ the­ 461st­ Air­ Control­ Wing­ was established­at­Robins­AFB­as­the­Air­Force's­sole active­ duty­ E-8­ JSTARS­ Wing­ while­ the­ 116th ACW­reverted­to­a­traditional­Air­National­Guard Wing­within­the­Georgia­Air­National­Guard.­Both units­share­the­same­E-8­aircraft­and­will­often­fly with­mixed­crews,­but­now­function­as­separate units. Four­ variants­ were­ ­ allocated­ the­ E-8 designation:­E-8A:­original­platform­configuration TE-8A:­­Single­aircraft­with­mission­equipment removed,­used­for­flight­crew­training.­YE-8B:­­a single­ aircraft,­ was­ to­ be­ a­ US­ Navy­ E-6­ but transferred­to­the­US­Air­Force­as­a­development aircraft­before­it­was­decided­to­convert­second-

The forty-foot ‘canoe’ fitted under the front lower fuselage of the Joint STARS aircraft provided very little ground clearance. (USAF)

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hand­Boeing­707/CC-137­for­the­JSTARS­role; E-8C:­ Production­ Joint­ Stars­ platform configuration­ converted­ from­ second-hand Boeing­707/­CC-137.­

E-6 Mercury The­Boeing­E-6­Mercury­-­formerly­E-6­Hermes is­an­airborne­command­post­and­communications relay­based­on­the­Boeing­707-320.­The­original E-6A­manufactured­by­Boeing's­defense­division entered­service­with­the­United­States­Navy­in­July 1989,­ replacing­ the­ EC-130Q.­ It­ conveyed instructions­ from­ the­ National­ Command Authority­to­fleet­ballistic­missile­submarines,­a mission­known­as­TACAMO­(TAke­Charge­And Move­Out).­The­E-6B­model­deployed­in­October 1998­kept­this­role,­but­added­further­command post­capabilities­and­control­of­land-based­missiles and­nuclear-armed­strategic­bombers.­The­E-6B replaced­ Air­ Force­ EC-135Cs­ in­ the­ ‘Looking Glass’­role,­providing­command­and­control­of­US nuclear­ forces­ should­ ground-based­ control become­inoperable.­With­production­lasting­until 1991,­the­E-6­was­the­final­new­derivative­of­the Boeing­707­to­be­built. Like­the­E-3­Sentry­AWACS­aircraft,­the­E-6 is­adapted­from­Boeing's­707-320­airliner.­The first­E-6­made­its­maiden­flight­from­Boeing's Renton­ Factory­ on­ 19­ February­ 1987,­ when­ it was­flown­to­Boeing­Field,­Seattle,­for­fitting­of mission­avionics.­The­aircraft­was­delivered­to the­Navy­for­testing­on­22­July­1988.­The­E-6A, which­ was­ initially­ named­ Hermes, entered service­with­VQ-3­on­3­August­1989,­­the­second squadron,­ VQ-4,­ receiving­ its­ first­ E-6As­ in January­ 1991,­ allowing­ the­ EC-130Q­ to­ be phased­ out­ in­ June­ that­ year.­ The­ E-6A­ was renamed­Mercury in­autumn­1991­by­request­of the­US­Navy.­Sixteen­were­delivered­from­1988 to­1992.­ The­ E-6B­ is­ an­ upgrade­ to­ the­ E-6A.­ It included­a­battlestaff­area­and­updated­mission equipment.­The­ flight­ deck­ systems­ were­ later replaced­ with­ an­ off-the-shelf­ 737­ Next Generation­ cockpit.­ This­ greatly­ increases­ the situational­ awareness­ of­ the­ pilot­ and­ saves significant­cost­over­the­previous­custom­avionics package.­ The­ first­ E-6B­ was­ accepted­ in December­1997.­All­sixteen­E-6A­aircraft­were modified­ to­ the­ E-6B­ standard,­ with­ the­ final delivery­taking­place­on­1­December­2006. The­ E-6­ fleet­ is­ based­ at­ Tinker­Air­ Force Base,­ Oklahoma,­ and­ operated­ by­ Fleet­ Air Reconnaissance­Squadron­3­(VQ-3)­and­VQ-4.

C-137 There­seems­to­be­something­of­a­myth­that­the­C137­was­a­KC-135­variant­-­it­was­not.­The­Boeing C-137­ Stratoliner­ was­ a­ USAF­ VIP­ transport aircraft­ based­ on­ and­ derived­ from­ the­ 707.­ A number­of­other­nations­also­bought­both­new­and used­707s­for­military­service,­primarily­as­VIP­or tanker­transports.­As­already­seen,­the­707­served as­the­basis­for­several­specialised­versions,­such as­the­E-3­Sentry­AWACS­aircraft. USAF­procurement­of­the­Boeing­707­was­very limited,­ amounting­ to­ three­ Model­ 707-153s designated­VC-137A.­When­delivered­in­1959­these had­four­13,500­pound­­dry­thrust­Pratt­&­Whitney J57­ (JT3C6)­ turbojets;­ when­ subsequently­ reengined­with­18,000­pounds­dry­thrust­TF33-P-5 (JT3D)­turbofans­they­were­redesignated­VC-137B. Operated­by­the­89th­Military­Airlift­Wing,­they were­ further­ redesignated­ C-137B­ when downgraded­from­the­VIP­role. Only­one­other­variant­served­from­new­with the­ USAF:­ this­ was­ the­ VC-137C­ ­ presidential transport,­the­two­examples­of­which­were­Model 707-320B­ Intercontinentals­ with­ specialized interior­furnishings­and­advanced­communications equipment.­They­were­internally­configured­to­seat twenty-two­ in­ comfort­ with­ extra­ equipment­ to serve­occupants­as­an­Airborne­Command­Post. Two­further­non-presidential­C-137C­aircraft­were later­added.­Contrary­to­popular­legend­these­were not­ named­ ‘Air­ Force­ One’,­ which­ was­ the aircraft’s­ call-sign­ only­ used­ when­ the­ US President­ was­ on­ board.­ This­ was­ a­ special designation­established­in­1953­when­President Dwight­D.­Eisenhower­was­on­a­flight­that­used that­call­sign­to­avoid­confusion­with­other­aircraft. At­the­request­of­President­Kennedy,­a­new­paint scheme­ was­ developed­ by­ First­ Lady­ Jacqueline Kennedy­and­famous­industrial­designer,­Raymond Loewy.­ In­ addition­ to­ the­ vibrant­ blue­ and­ white coloors,­the­words­‘United­States­of­America’­were emblazoned­in­tall­letters­along­the­fuselage­and­an American­ flag­ was­ placed­ on­ the­ tail.­ These distinctive­markings­reflect­the­stature­of­the­Office of­the­President­and­serve­as­a­highly­visible­symbol of­American­prestige. One­of­the­world’s­most­historic­aircraft,­SAM 26000­carried­eight­American­presidents:­Kennedy, Johnson,­Nixon,­Ford,­Carter,­Reagan,­George­H.W. Bush­and­Clinton.­The­aircraft­played­an­important role­ in­ American­ presidential,­ political­ and diplomatic­ history,­ and­ it­ remains­ an­ important national­symbol­from­the­Cold­War­period.­In­June 1963,­SAM­26000­flew­President­Kennedy­via­RAF

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Waddington­ in­ Lincolnshire­ UK,­ to­ West­ Berlin, Germany,­where­he­declared­to­the­world­that­‘Ich bin­ein­Berliner’­(I­am­a­Berliner),­boldly­assuring continued­American­support­in­the­face­of­communist threats­and­the­construction­of­the­Berlin­Wall. SAM­26000­bears­an­intimate­connection­to­one of­ the­ nation’s­ greatest­ tragedies,­ a­ moment­ that forever­altered­the­course­of­American­history.­On­22 November­ 1963,­ President­ Kennedy­ was assassinated­while­travelling­in­a­motorcade­through downtown­Dallas,­Texas.­ Many­long­minutes­later­after­the­dramatic­events in­Dealey­Plaza,­a­phone­call­finally­came­through­to the­terminal­at­Love­Field­from­Brigadier­General Godfrey­McHugh,­the­President’s­military­aide,­at Parkland­Hospital:­Fuel­up­and­file­a­flight­plan­for Washington.­ The­ pilot­ of­ Air­ Force­ One,­ Colonel­ James Swindal­had­no­knowledge­of­what­had­occurred,­but he­ obeyed­ the­ order,­ rushing­ for­ the­ stairs­ and shouting­to­his­flight­engineer­standing­on­the­tarmac below:­‘Get fuel onboard! Get ready to go!’ Swindal­ only­ found­ out­ what­ had­ actually

Below: Boeing VC-137C SAM 62-6000 during its final flight on 20 May 1998, arriving at the National Museum of the United States Air Force, Dayton Ohio. The ‘SAM’ prefix stands for Special Air Missions, used to mark the carriage of eight sitting presidents and countless heads of state, diplomats, dignitaries and officials on many historic journeys. (US Air Force photo) Right: The flight deck of 62-6000. (author)

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happened­to­Kennedy­when­he­turned­on­the­TV­in the­ presidential­ compartment­ and­ heard­ that­ he’d been­shot.­As­word­spread,­Love­Field­came­alive. Military­ personnel­ streamed­ out­ of­ the­ terminal, returning­to­Air­Force­One­and­Air­Force­Two,­the Vice­President’s­aircraft,­parked­nearby.­Swindal’s copilot,­Colonel­Lewis­‘Swede’­Hanson,­who­had driven­ to­ his­ mother-in-law’s­ house­ close­ by­ the airport­for­a­visit,­raced­back. Sergeant­ John­ Trimble,­ one­ of­ the­ Air­ Force signalmen­ on­ the­ airliner,­ was­ working­ his­ radio, talking­ to­ Andrews­ Air­ Force­ Base,­ when­ word passed­through­the­VC-137­that­President­Kennedy was­dead.­'All the chatter ceased. We were all numb and did our jobs automatically as we waited for the body to arrive.' Extra­ security­ began­ to­ surround­ the­ aircraft. Then­came­the­first­sign­of­what­had­gone­so­terribly wrong:­Shortly­after­1:15,­the­presidential­limousine, its­back­seat­covered­in­blood,­arrived­back­at­the airfield­and­headed­for­the­military­C-130­Hercules transport­that­had­brought­the­motorcade­to­Dallas. From­the­limo,­Secret­Service­agent­Samuel­Kinney,

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Left: President John F Kennedy with the two US Senators from Maine, Edmund Muskie and Margaret Chase Smith, and Col Robert C Marshall (US Army Corps of Engineers) on SAM 26000 as it overflew the Passamaquoddy Tidal Basin in Maine on 19 October 1963.

Below: President John F Kennedy's casket is unloaded from Boeing VC-137C SAM 26000 (Air Force One) after his assassination in Dallas, Texas, in November 1963.

Below: President Lyndon B Johnson in the presidential bedroom aboard Air Force One (SAM 26000). From left to right are Senator Mike Mansfield; President Johnson; Chief Master Sgt Paul Glynn, serving the president; US Navy Aide Capt Beach; and Senator Fulbright.

Below right: Still wearing her blood-soaked outfit, Jackie Kennedy boards the VC-137 to take her husband’s body back to Washington DC. (all US Air Force photos)

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Colonel James Swindal and Colonel Lewis ‘Swede’ Hanson aboard one of the VC-137s at Andrews Air Force Base. (USAF)

who­ had­ helped­ carry­ Kennedy­ into­ Parkland Hospital­before­reinstalling­the­car’s­bubble­top­for the­drive­back­to­the­airport,­radioed­ahead­to­the Hercules:­'…Have the ramp down - we’re driving right aboard.' Meanwhile,­just­outside­the­stateroom,­the­crew, Swindal,­­Hanson,­flight­engineer­Joe­Chappell,­and steward­Joe­Ayres,­began­tearing­apart­the­rear­of­the aircraft.­As­word­arrived­that­Air­Force­One­would be­ carrying­ the­ President’s­ body­ home­ to Washington,­everyone­on­the­crew­had­had­nearly­the same­thought:­President­Kennedy­could­not­go­into the­baggage­compartment. They­could­get­a­casket­through­the­rear­door,­but a­partition­would­block­the­turn­into­the­aisle,­so­the crew­had­taken­a­saw­to­the­partition­and­unbolted four­seats­to­make­room.­They­carried­the­seats­down the­stairs­and­across­the­tarmac­to­the­other­Boeing that­ had­ been­ serving­ as­ Air­ Force­ Two.­ As­ Joe Chappell­was­later­to­recount:­'...we finished up just before the hearse arrived'. Disregarding­the­Dallas­coroner’s­order­that­the President’s­corpse­remain­in­the­city,­Kennedy­aides had­ manhandled­ the­ casket­ through­ the­ crowded hallways­of­Parkland­Hospital,­past­priests,­medical workers,­and­security,­and­out­into­a­hearse,­racing as­quickly­for­Love­Field­as­they­could,­arriving­there a­little­after­2pm.

Now­Secret­Service­agents­pulled­open­the­hearse doors,­ as­ those­ aides­ gathered­ to­ carry­ their­ boss home.­General­Ted­Clifton,­who­had­run­Kennedy’s daily­ intelligence­ briefings,­ appraised­ the­ stairs nervously:­'Do you suppose we can get it up there?. It was too narrow to accomplish this without some difficulty,' recalled­O’Brien.­ Activity­on­the­tarmac­fell­eerily­silent.­Nearby, Air­Force­personnel­saluted. Many­hands­wrestled­the­casket,­a­solid-bronze Elgin­ Britannia,­ the­ very­ best­ at­ Vernon­ Oneal’s Dallas­mortuary,­into­the­fuselage­and­around­the partition­cut­open­by­the­crew,­then­lowered­it­to­the floor.­ Generals­Clifton­and­McHugh,­the­two­highestranking­military­men­on­the­aircraft,­their­pristine uniforms­now­soaked­with­sweat­from­carrying­the casket­in­the­heat­knew­their­duty;­both­stood­stiffly at­attention­beside­the­coffin,­the­lone­honour­guard observing­a­military­custom­since­time­immemorial: A­fallen­commander-in-chief­is­never­left­alone. By­all­accounts­there­was­confusion­about­the VC-137:­McHugh­turned­to­O’Donnell:­‘Should we get airborne?' McHugh­ran­for­the­cockpit,­breezing past­the­closed­door­of­the­presidential­stateroom, where­ LBJ­ was­ once­ again­ on­ the­ phone­ to Washington,­not­realising­that­the­new­President­was aboard.

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immediately­on­his­command­to­take­off.­He­ordered Swindal­a­second­time,­now­angrily:­‘Take off! The President is aboard!’ ‘Mr. Kilduff says we can’t.’ Swindal­flatly­replied. Johnson­ had­ quickly­ seized­ on­ Mac­ Kilduff, President­Kennedy’s­Assistant­Press­Secretary­as­a key­liaison­-­and­the­only­press­aide­available.­He­had charged­Kilduff­with­setting­up­the­swearing-in. After­checking­with­Johnson,­Kilduff­­ended­up pulling­ aboard­ three­ reporters­ to­ witness­ the swearing-in:­ Newsweek’s Charles­ Roberts,­ UPI’s Merriman­Smith,­and­Sid­Davis­of­Westinghouse Broadcasting­Company. At­Swindal’s­reply,­McHugh’s­anger­boiled­over: he­could­not­understand­why­some­civilian­press­guy doing­ countermanding­ the­ order­ of­ an­Air­ Force general. ‘Not until Johnson has taken the oath,’ Kilduff tried­ to­ explain,­ when­ McHugh­ confronted­ him outside­the­cockpit.­‘Johnson isn’t here...’ McHugh argued.­‘He’s on the backup plane.’ ‘Then you go back and tell that six-foot Texan he isn’t Lyndon Johnson,’ Kilduff­retorted.­‘We’re not going to Andrews until the President has been sworn.’ A detail view of the presidential seal on 26000. (author)

The interior layout of SAM 26000 as it was during the flight from Love Field to Washington DC with the body of President John Fitzgerald Kennedy. (via USAFM)

‘You leave right now,’ O’Donnell­commanded General­McHugh­when­he­returned­to­the­rear­and Air­ Force­ One­ still­ wasn’t­ moving.­ ‘Please, let’s leave,...’ Jackie­pleaded­to­McHugh­a­second­time. Doubling­back­to­the­cockpit­after­a­few­minutes had­passed­without­the­engines­starting­up,­McHugh couldn’t­ understand­ why­ Swindal­ wasn’t­ acting

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McHugh’s­ unwitting­ reply­ captured­ the­ entire day’s­confusion­and­sadness­and,­for­all­intents­and purposes,­ended­his­military­career: ‘I have only one President and he’s lying back in that cabin.’ As­ O’Donnell­ recalled.­ ‘I was flabbergasted. Johnson could have waited until he got to Washington and spared all of us on Air Force One that day, especially Jackie, a lot of discomfort and anxiety.’ But­the­aircraft’s­schedule­revolved­around Lyndon­Johnson’s­wishes.­There­may­have­been­two Presidents­on­board,­but­only­one­of­them­counted for­official­purposes.­JFK­was­no­longer­Passenger Number­One. While­ waiting­ for­ Judge­ Hughes­ to­ arrive­ to swear­the­new­President­in,­Jackie­Kennedy­decided that­ while­ she­ wouldn’t­ change­ her­ clothes,­ she could­clean­herself­up.­She­took­a­step­from­the­aft

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compartment­toward­the­presidential­bedroom­and opened­the­door­-­only­to­find­LBJ­sprawled­on­the bed,­her­bed,­dictating­to­Marie­Fehmer.­Johnson had­realised­that­as­uncomfortable­as­the­room­made him,­it­was­the­one­space­on­the­aircraft­where­he could­have­privacy. He­ and­ Jackie­ looked­ at­ each­ other­ for­ a moment,­and­Johnson­stood­to­exit,­squeezing­by her­in­the­tight­passageway.­‘We scurried out of that bedroom,’ Fehmer­was­later­to­say:­‘It was really embarrassing.” Jackie­was­left­in­the­room­where­she’d­last been­alone­with­her­husband­that­morning.­She moved­to­the­bathroom,­looking­at­herself­in­the mirror,­and­proceeded­to­wipe­the­blood­and­hair from­her­face­with­a­Kleenex.­She­immediately regretted­it:­‘History! Why did I wash the blood

Air Force One Passenger Manifest A complete list of passengers and crew aboard Air Force One’s flight back from Dallas on 22 November 1963, does not appear to exist, possibly due to the confusion of the day. This manifest is the most comprehensive available based on eyewitnesses and written records. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

President John F. Kennedy Jacqueline Kennedy President Lyndon B. Johnson Lady Bird Johnson Kenneth P. O’Donnell, special assistant to the President Larry O’Brien, special assistant to the President for congressional relations David F. Powers, special assistant to the President Bill Moyers, associate director of the Peace Corps Congressman Homer Thornberry (Texas) Congressman Al Thomas (Texas) Congressman Jack Brooks (Texas) Malcolm ‘Mac’ Kilduff, White House assistant press secretary General Chester ‘Ted’ V. Clifton Jr., senior military aide General Godfrey T. McHugh, Air Force aide Admiral Dr. George Burkley, President’s physician Evelyn Lincoln, personal secretary to the President Mary Gallagher, personal secretary to Mrs. Kennedy Pamela Turnure, press secretary to Mrs. Kennedy Sergeant George “Boots” Miller, Air Force One crew Master Sergeant Joseph Giordano, Air Force One crew Staff Sergeant Paul J. Glynn, Vice President’s valet Chief Warrant Officer Ira D. Gearhart, military aide Elizabeth ‘Liz’ Carpenter, executive assistant to the Vice President Jack Valenti, partner, Weekley & Valenti advertising and political-consulting agency Marie Fehmer, secretary to the Vice President Cliff Carter, aide to the Vice President George Thomas, President’s valet Roy Kellerman, assistant special agent in charge, presidential Secret Service detail Clint Hill, First Lady’s Secret Service detail

30 John J. ‘Muggsy’ O’Leary, presidential Secret Service detail 31 Warren Taylor, vice-presidential Secret Service detail 32 Henry Rybka, presidential Secret Service detail 33 William Greer, limousine driver, presidential Secret Service detail 34 Stewart ‘Stu”‘ Stout, presidential Secret Service detail 35 Sam Sulliman, presidential Secret Service detail 36 Richard E. Johnsen, presidential Secret Service detail 37 Ernest E. Olsson, presidential Secret Service detail 38 Rufus Youngblood, special agent in charge, vicepresidential Secret Service detail 39 Lem Johns, assistant special agent in charge, vicepresidential Secret Service detail 40 Jerry Kivett, vice-presidential Secret Service detail 41 Paul Landis, presidential Secret Service detail 42 Merriman Smith, reporter, UPI 43 Charles Roberts, reporter, Newsweek Secret Service records show the crew for the flight to Texas was as follows. It is assumed they also returned with the aircraft to Andrews Air Force Base. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Colonel James B. Swindal, pilot Lieutenant Colonel Lewis G. ‘Swede’ Hanson, copilot Senior Master Sergeant William J. ‘Joe’ Chappell Major David D. Odor, flight engineer Chief Warrant Officer John R. McLane Master Sergeant John C. Trimble, flight engineer Senior Master Sergeant Joseph C. Ayres, radioman Master Sergeant Vernon J. ‘Red’ Shell, flight steward Technical Sergeant R.M. McMillan, flight steward Staff Sergeant John T. Hames Master Sergeant Wyatt A. Broom, flight steward Staff Sergeant Eulogio Gomez Technical Sergeant Charles R. Ruberg, security aide

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off? I should have left it there, let them see what they’ve done’. Judge­Sarah­Hughes­raced­to­the­airport­in­her red­sports­car­around­2:10­pm.­The­Dallas­police chief­spotted­her­car­as­she­approached­Love­Field and­cleared­a­path.­ Police­Chief­Jesse­Curry­escorted­her­to­the aircraft.­A­flight­steward­who­had­been­assigned to­wait­for­the­judge­saw­a­big­Texan­in­his­Stetson hat­approach­and­stepped­forward­to­greet­the­man he­assumed­was­the­jurist:­‘Judge, will you come with me?’ ‘Oh, just a minute,”‘ the­chief­said,­gesturing to­the­small,­67-year-old­woman­behind­him. As­they­gathered­for­the­swearing­in­aboard­the VC-137,­Kilduff­realized­they­should­record­the oath,­but­no­one­had­a­tape­recorder.­‘There’s a Dictaphone thing on the President’s desk,’ Stoughton­volunteered,­and­after­some­scrambling Kilduff­ had­ his­ arm­ outstretched­ with­ the microphone,­ holding­ on­ tightly­ to­ the­ five-inch

reel­recorder. Just­as­Hughes,­in­her­brown-and-white­polkadot­dress,­began,­a­military­aide­handed­O’Brien­a white­ box­ containing­ a­ Bible­ found­ in­ the presidential­ quarters.­ O’Brien­ interrupted­ the judge,­handing­her­the­book­and­saying,­‘This is a Catholic Bible.’ It­was­a­small­book,­with­a­black leather­cover­emblazoned­with­a­cross.­Handmade out­of­calfskin,­it­had­the­initials­JFK­embossed­on the­inside­cover.­No­one­noticed­in­the­moment that­it­wasn’t­actually­a­Bible­-­it­was­a­St.­Joseph Sunday­Missal,­a­prayer­book­the­Catholic­Church uses­to­lead­the­faithful­through­the­annual­cycle of­Masses. LBJ­rested­one­hand­on­the­book,­raising­his other­ one.­ ­ Hughes­ began­ to­ recite­ the­ famous words­‘I do solemnly swear . . . After­the­swearing­in,­the­judge­de-planed,­the door­closed­and­the­VC-137­began­to­move. The­ Love­ Field­ tower­ radioed­ Swindal:­ ‘Air Force One, you are cleared for takeoff, runway 31L.’

President and Mrs. Nixon are met by People’s Republic of China Premier Zhou Enlai. For a short period, President Nixon renamed SAM 26000 as The Spirit of 76 in honour of the nation’s bicentennial. (via USAFM)

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Spectators watch one of two C-137B Stratoliner aircraft returning freed hostages to the USA after their release from Iran in 1981. (via USAFM)

The­four­­turbofans­began­to­scream­as­Swindal raised­them­to­maximum­throttle.­ The­President’s­casket­rattled­next­to­Jackie­as she­sat­in­the­aft­breakfast­nook.­The­new­President in­ his­ cabin,­ already­ on­ the­ phone­ again,­ was pushed­into­his­seat­by­the­acceleration.­ President­John­F­Kennedy­was­going­home. At­2:47,­as­the­engines­pushed­the­airliner­past 150­knots,­takeoff­speed,­Swede­Hanson­called­V1,­­and­Colonel­Swindal­eased­his­yoke­back,tilting the­aircraft’s­nose­upward,­and­Air­Force­One’s wheels­left­the­Texas­soil. Air­Force­One­banked­toward­the­northeast­as news­ of­ its­ takeoff­ passed­ through­ the­ military radio­channels,­using­the­aircraft’s­longstanding Secret­Service­code­name:­‘Angel is airborne.’ The­aircraft­then­carried­Kennedy’s­body­and President­Johnson­back­to­Washington,­DC,­and­a grieving­nation. During­the­Southeast­Asia­War,­SAM­26000 transported­President­Johnson­to­visit­US­troops in­ South­ Vietnam.­ In­ 1970­ President­ Nixon’s national­ security­ advisor,­ Dr.­ Henry­ Kissinger, travelled­aboard­the­aircraft­on­thirteen­separate trips­ to­ secret­ peace­ talks­ with­ the­ North Vietnamese­ in­ Paris,­ France.­ In­ February­ 1972 SAM­26000­flew­President­Nixon­to­the­People’s Republic­ of­ China­ on­ his­ famous­ ‘Journey­ for Peace,’­the­first­visit­by­an­American­president­to China.­ Three­ months­ later,­ it­ carried­ President Nixon­ on­ an­ unprecedented­ visit­ to­ the­ Soviet Union,­where­he­signed­two­historic­nuclear­arms control­agreements. In­ December­ 1972­ SAM­ 26000­ became­ the

president’s­ backup­ aircraft­ when­ the­Air­ Force acquired­another­Boeing­VC-137C­(serial­number 72-7000).­However,­SAM­26000­continued­flying presidents,­vice-presidents­and­other­high-ranking government­ officials­ on­ important­ missions.­ In October­1981,­it­carried­former­Presidents­Nixon, Ford­and­Carter­to­the­funeral­of­the­slain­Egyptian president­ Anwar­ Sadat.­ In­ March­ 1983­ Queen Elizabeth­II­of­the­United­Kingdom­flew­on­SAM 26000­during­her­visit­to­the­United­States.­When SAM­26000­left­the­presidential­fleet­in­1990,­it continued­to­fly­prominent­government­officials. Secretary­of­State­James­Baker­flew­aboard­the aircraft­prior­to­the­1991­Gulf­War­for­talks­with Iraqi­leaders­regarding­their­invasion­of­Kuwait. The­two­707-353Bs,­termed­VC-137Cs,­were purchased­by­the­USAF­(one­in­1961­and­one­in 1972)­for­service­as­presidential­transports­with call­signs­SAM­26000­and­SAM­27000­and­were later­redesignated­C-137C­when­downgraded­from presidential­ use.­ Two­ further­ C-137Cs­ were acquired­by­the­USAF,­one­707-396C­(a­seized aircraft­formerly­used­for­arms­smuggling­acquired in­1985)­and­one­707-382B­bought­second-hand in­1987. The­C-18­is­the­US­military­designation­for­the conversions­of­the­707-320B­series. C-18A Eight­second-hand­(former­American­Airlines)­707323Cs­bought­as­crew­trainers­for­the­EC-18Bs, four­of­which­were­later­converted­to­EC-18B,­two converted­to­EC-18D,­one­to­C-18B;­one­was­not taken­into­service­and­was­used­for­spares.

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Former Presidents Gerald Ford, Richard Nixon and Jimmy Carter on the steps of Boeing VC-137C SAM 26000 (US Air Force photo)

C-18B One­C-18A­modified­with­instrumentation­and equipment­to­support­the­Military­Strategic­and Tactical­Relay­System­(MILSTAR).

EC-18B Four­C-18As­modified­alongside­examples­of the­C-135­for­Advanced­Range­Instrumentation Aircraft­ (ARIA)­ missions­ in­ support­ of­ the Apollo­space­program.­The­designation­E-7­was originally­ applied­ to­ modified­ Boeing­ 707s before­being­replaced­by­the­EC-18­designation. EC-18C Original­designation­for­two­prototype­J-STAR aircraft,­later­redesignated­E-8A.

EC-18D Two­ C-18As­ modified­ as­ a­ Cruise­ Missile Mission­Control­Aircraft­(CMMCA).

TC-18E Two­second-hand­(former­Trans­World­Airlines) 707-331­aircraft­modified­for­E-3­pilot­and­crew training.

TC-18F Two­second-hand­(former­TAP­Portugal)­707382­aircraft­modified­for­E-6­pilot­training.

EC-137D Two­aircraft­built­as­Early­Warning­and­Control System­ prototypes.­ Later­ re-engined­ and­ redesignated­ E-3A.­ A­ further­ second-hand 707-355C­aircraft­was­acquired­and­configured as­an­airborne­special­operations­command­post.­ CT-49A NATO­Trainer-Cargo­Aircraft­(TCA)­operated to­ support­ E-3A­ AWACS­ training­ and­ air transport/cargo­for­NATO­(NAEW&CF)­based on­Boeing­707-320B.

Harvesting For Spares - or use. The­ longer­ the­ USAF­ used­ the­ KC-135­ and­ its derivatives,­the­harder­to­find­and­more­expensive replacement­parts­became,­especially­after­Boeing ceased­manufacturing­items­for­the­type. It­ was­ not­ surprising­ therefore­ that­ in­ 1984 Congress­ instructed­ the­ USAF­ to­ start­ buying commerical­707s­for­spare­parts­or­for­further­use,

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the­C-18­programme­being­a­purpose­in­point. Another­reason­for­harvesting­from­civilian­707s was­to­use­engines­and­spare­parts­in­a­re-engineering programme­ for­ Boeing­ KC-135A­ Stratotanker aircraft.­The­modifications­to­the­KC-135E­entailed changing­ the­ J57­ engine­ for­ the­ TF33-PW-102 engines,­ improved­ brakes,­ avionics­ upgrades­ and new­ horizontal­ stabilizers.­ The­ KC-135E­ was fourteen­percent­more­fuel­efficient­than­the­KC135A­and­could­offload­twenty­percent­more­fuel. Buying­second,­third­or­fourth-hand­aircraft could­be­questionable,­and­it­was­not­long­before potential­pitfalls­for­Air­Force­purchasers­of­used aircraft­involving­the­condition­and­acceptability verification­of­used­airframes­started­to­appear. Used­aircraft­are­very­much­like­used­cars,­in­that two­identical­models­may­be­sitting­on­the­ramp in­very­different­conditions.­Inspections­of­B-707 aircraft­during­the­C-l8­selection­process­showed an­ extreme­ variation­ in­ aircraft­ condition,­ even among­ aircraft­ operated­ by­ the­ same­ carrier. Variations­in­aircraft­condition­were­even­greater between­carriers­even­though­the­airlines­maintain aircraft­to­the­same­FAA­requirements.­According

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to­­William­Yri,­C-18­programme­manager­at­the time­ of­ the­ inspections­ ,­ the­ maintenance philosophy­of­the­individual­carrier­bore­heavily on­ the­ actual­ condition­ of­ the­ aircraft.­ ‘Some carriers appear to make maintenance decisions based solely on near term cost considerations. Their aircraft were best suited for scrap. Other carriers had obviously tried more to maintain a quality asset’ The­task­of­accurately­evaluating­condition­and acceptability­ of­ commercial­ used­ aircraft­ was made­more­complex­by­differences­in­the­ways­the Air­Force­and­the­airlines­measure­aircraft­age­and need­ for­ service/overhaul.­ In­ the­ commercial environment­ aircraft­ are­ tracked­ by­ both­ flight hours­ and­ by­ ground-air-ground­ cycles.­ These were­the­primary­means­of­establishing­aircraft fatigue­ life,­ and­ are­ used­ by­ the­ aircraft manufacturer­ to­ develop­ service­ bulletins­ that correct­ maintenance­ or­ fatigue­ problems.­ Of particular­significance­to­a­potential­buyer­are­the life­extension­and­corrosion­control­bulletins­that have­been­issued­against­the­aircraft­series­being considered.­ Knowledge­ of­ the­ bulletins­ which

Retired 707s from the airlines were acquired by the USAF, flown or transported to the the high desert at DavisMonthan in Arizona and ‘harvested’ for any spare parts that could be used on either the military 707s or KC-135 upgrades. (AMARC via USAF)

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A technician checks the last pin for damage while a crane hold the fin at a 45 degree angle prior to proceeding in the operation of lowering the vertical stabilizer of a civil Boeing 707 aircraft on 6 December 1984. The Military Aircraft Disposition and Storage Center at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona, was reclaiming commercial Boeing 707 aircraft, using engines and spare parts in a reengineering program for Boeing KC-135A Stratotanker aircraft.

The low rainfall with resulting low humidity of the high desert meant that airframes and engines could be stored with little risk of corrosion as long as other environmental considerations - like dust were protected against.(USAF)

have­been­issued­and­when­installation­is­required or­ recommended­ gives­ the­ potential­ buyer­ the ability­to­decide­which­of­the­bulletins­should­be applied­and­to­plan­for­the­costs­involved.­In­the case­of­engine­condition­verification­the­standard airline­ practice­ is­ acceptable,­ but­ must­ be understood­by­those­responsible­for­inspections during­ the­ selection­ process.­ The­ commercial practice­is­to­specify­a­minimum­number­of­hours remaining­before­overhaul­‘across­the­wing’­with a­minimum­for­­wing­with­not­less­than­1000­hours on­any­one­engine­was­typical. The­Air­Force­buyer­had­to­keep­in­mind­that commercial­ maintenance­ practices­ reflect­ the commercial­concern­for­bottom­line­profit.­Wheel wells,­flap,­and­slat­areas­in­particular,­tend­to­have a­ great­ deal­ of­ surface­ corrosion.­ ­ The­ airlines

consider­such­corrosion­to­be a­ cosmetic­ rather­ than­ a safety­ problem,­ and­ the military­customer­may­need to­ invest­ 1,000­ or­ more manhours­per­aircraft­with­an allowance­for­miscellaneous parts­to­bring­the­aircraft­up to­ acceptable­ military standards.­ Once­ again, anticipation­ is­ the­ key­ to developing­an­acquisition­strategy­flexible­enough to­ discriminate­ quality­ used­ ­ aircraft­ from­ the ‘lemons' Closely­ related­ to­ the­ many­ difficulties involved­ with­ condition­ verification­ are­ the potential­ problems­ presented­ by­ required modifications­to­the­used­aircraft.­Again,­both­time and­dollar­costs­are­involved,­so­early­planning was­the­key­to­remaining­on­track­after­the­aircraft is­in­Air­Force­hands. The­ most­ obvious­ modifications­ are­ those required­to­take­the­basic­commercial­aircraft­and outfit­it­to­perform­its­military­mission.­Depending on­the­nature­of­the­programme­this­could­take­a few­weeks­or­many­months.­It­is­the­programme manager's­task­early­on­in­the­acquisition­cycle­to carefully­ outline­ and­ plan­ for­ every­ detail­ of

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modification­that­will­be­required­on­the­aircraft. Most­ of­ the­ acquired­ aircraft­ were­ initally stored­ at­ the­ Aerospace­ Maintenance­ and Regeneration­Center­(AMARC),­­based­at­DavisMonthan­AFB­near­Tucson,­AZ.­The­current­site was­originally­the­Tucson­municipal­airport­and is­named­after­two­local­military­aviators­who were­ killed­ in­ accidents­ in­ the­ early­ 1920s. Expansion­ followed,­ and­ in­ 1945­ the­ airfield began­its­role­as­a­storage­depot­when­the­first aircraft­were­retired­there­after­the­second­world war.­The­original­plan­was­to­both­store­aircraft for­potential­return­to­service­and­remove­spare parts­ that­ could­ be­ re-used­ and­ scrap­ the remainder.­ During­ the­ late­ 1950s­ the­ facilities were­unable­to­cope­with­the­quantity­and­this­led to­ the­ number­ of­ scrap­ yards­ like­ National Aircraft­ Inc.,­ Bob's­ Air­ Park­ and­ Southwest Alloys­that­developed­around­the­base.­In­1963, to­show­the­role­was­being­expanded­to­address all­ US­Air­ Forces,­ the­ name­ of­ the­ incumbent unit,­ the­ 2704th­ AF­ Storage­ and­ Disposition Group­(AFSDG),­part­of­Air­Materiel­Command, was­changed­to­the­Military­Aircraft­Storage­and Disposition­ Center­ MASDC)­ but­ this­ was changed­again­in­October­1985­to­AMARC­to­put more­emphasis­on­the­regeneration­of­aircraft­as well­as­storage. The­primary­roles­of­AMARC­are­to­provide­a storage­facility­for­aircraft­that­are­currently­not needed;­ provide­ a­ source­ of­ spare­ parts­ from aircraft­ that­ have­ been­ permanently­ withdrawn from­service;­prepare­aircraft­for­return­to­service or­for­sale­to­overseas­military­forces.­ The­reasons­for­using­this­edge­of­the­Sanora desert­for­storage­are­the­low­local­annual­rainfall coupled­ with­ the­ low­ humidity­ and­ the­ hard alkaline­soil­which­make­it­possible­to­park­aircraft

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without­ the­ need­ for­ concrete­ or­ steel­ aprons Because­ of­ the­ weather­ there­ is­ minimum deterioration­or­corrosion­to­the­airframe,­which undergoes­a­preservation­process­on­arrival.­Firstly all­‘live’­equipment­such­as­guns­and­ejector­seats are­removed­along­with­any­classified­equipment, then­ all­ fuel­ is­ drained­ from­ the­ aircraft­ and replaced­by­a­lubricating­oil­which­is­itself­then drained­to­leave­a­film­protecting­the­fuel­system. Aircraft­ are­ cleaned­ and­ any­ visible­ corrosion treated­before­being­towed­to­an­allocated­parking area.­All­engine­intakes,­exhausts­and­other­cracks and­gaps­are­taped­to­prevent­damage­during­the dust­storms­that­occur­in­the­area­and­then­they­are covered­ with­ a­ vinyl­ plastic­ covering­ called ‘Spraylat’,­along­with­delicate­parts­like­canopies, windows­and­radomes.­The­Spraylat­is­made­up­of two­parts;­the­first­layer­is­black­and­keeps­out­dust and­water­while­the­second­coat,­which­is­white, acts­ as­ a­ temperature­ controller.­ As­ can­ be imagined,­the­temperature­in­stored­aircraft­parked in­the­Arizona­desert­can­cause­damage­to­sensitive equipment­ but­ the­ Spraylat­ maintains­ a temperature­only­slightly­above­the­ambient.­ Undersides­of­aircraft­are­not­sealed­to­allow circulation­of­air­and­prevent­condensation­buildup.­The­condition­of­the­coating­is­usually­checked every­six­months­and­replaced­every­four­years, latterly­ some­ aircraft­ have­ been­ placed­ in­ large plastic­‘bags’­as­a­cheaper­alternative. Aircraft­ stored­ at­ AMARC­ fall­ in­ various categories­as­follows:­ Type 1000 Long-term storage. These­are­the long­term­storage­aircraft­that­undergo­the­four yearly­renewing­of­the­Spraylat;­they­are­usually stored­examples­of­types­still­current­in­the­US Forces,making­a­return­to­service­a­possibility.­ Type 2000 Storage for Reclamation. These­are

N897WA was originally N764PA of Pan American. Behind is N6598W, originally a 707-344B of South African Airways. Like most 707s and 720s that were spares reclaimed, their vertical fins and rudders were put to immediate use. (Dr Harry Friedman)

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N7158Z in African Express Airways colours aways the axeman. (Dr Harry Friedman)

aircraft­that­are­being­used­for­spares­recovery.­ Type 3000 Storage. After­arrival­aircraft­are­held in­a­flyable­condition­for­ninety­days­(which­can be­extended)­while­awaiting­a­decision­on­their disposal;­ also­ held­ under­ this­ category­ are­ the aircraft­for­Foreign­Military­Sales.­ Type 4000 - for Disposal. These­are­aircraft where­all­useable­parts­have­been­removed­and basically­only­the­hulk­remains.­They­are­usually sold­to­the­local­scrap-yards­and­are­towed­to­the exit­ gates,­ where­ some­ scrapping­ takes­ place before­being­taken­to­the­‘melting’­pots. Besides­providing­a­storage­environment,­the staff­at­AMARC­provide­a­valuable­source­of­spare parts­to­keep­other­examples­of­a­type­still­flying. They­are­also­responsible­for­conducting­some­low level­ maintenance­ on­ aircraft­ removed­ from storage­ prior­ to­ Foreign­ Military­ Sales­ and preparing­them,­as­in­the­case­of­the­KC-135s­for flights­to­McConnell­and­Tinker­AFBs­for­depot level­maintenance­and­painting.­­ On­ arrival­ an­ aircraft­ is­ allocated­ a­ unique identifier­ known­ as­ the­ AMARC­ inventory

number­which­describes­both­the­type­of­aircraft and­its­sequential­number.­All­USAF­C-135s­had the­ prefix­ CA,­ while­ ex-civilian­ 707s­ for­ KC135E­ spares­ were­ allocated­ CZ­ and­ ex­ USN aircraft­are­identified­with­a­number­and­letter (e.g.­6G­for­NKC-135­and­3G­for­C-137s).­­Up to­October­1994­these­codes­were­followed­by­a three­digit­number­but­the­impending­arrival­of the­1000th­Phantom­led­to­a­fourth­digit­being added­plus­an­extra­two­letters­at­the­beginning to­show­which­service­flew­the­aircraft,­thus­a KC-135­ with­ the­ code­ CA101­ became AACAO101­(AA­being­the­code­for­ex-USAF aircraft). Each­ aircraft­ is­ allocated­ a­ unique­ storage code­consisting­of­six­digits­and­these­refer­to­its location­within­the­complex­-­the­first­two­digits refer­to­the­storage­area­(there­are­twenty-nine areas­ within­ AMARC­ with­ seventeen­ and nineteen­being­the­Processing­in­and­out­as­well as­maintenance­areas)­followed­by­four­numbers representing­the­position­of­an­aircraft­in­a­row in­these­numbered­areas.­­

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Chapter­Nine

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‘Come Fly With me’

composed­by­Jimmy­Van­Heusen,­with­lyrics­by­Sammy­Cahn;­written­for­Frank­Sinatra.

With­so­many­aircraft­built­in­the­production­run, even­with­a­book­this­size,­it­is­impossible­to­detail each­and­every­airframe­constructed­-­and­even­it­was was,­it­is­by­no­means­certain­that­those­histories would­be­described­with­any­degree­of­certainty!­Let me­explain­what­I­mean­using­an­interesting­machine with­what­is,­a­fairly­simple­history. Not­ everyone­ can­ own­ their­ own­ 707;­ but American­actor,­producer,­dancer,­author­and­singer John­Travolta­is­one­such­person. His­ film,­ dancing­ and­ singing­ career­ is­ well documented­elsewhere,­and­he­is­on­record­as­saying that­his­acting­funded­his­passion­for­aviation.­He earned­his­private­pilot’s­license­at­age­22­and­today owns­several­aircraft,­including­a­Boeing­707-138 that­was­previously­part­of­Qantas­Airways’­fleet.­His home­ is­ in­ Jumbolair­ Aviation­ Estates,­ a­ fly-in community­ at­ north­ central­ Florida’s­ private Greystone­Airport.­He­has­a­taxiway­right­to­his­door, where­he­parks­the­707. The­airliner­has­been­updated­over­the­years,­and is­now­fitted­with­hush-kits­and­upgraded­avionics that­ include­ GPS­ and­ TCAS;­ It­ now­ has­ the­ tail number­N707JT,­and­is­the­last­of­its­kind­in­service.

Its­luxurious­interior­features­wide­leather­seats, sofas­and­rich­wood­panelling­and­it­was­serendipity that­brought­the­actor­and­the­707­together:­‘I was promoting a film called Get Shorty at the time and in the promotion of that movie, they wanted me to go to Berlin for just the weekend. I said: 'I'm not going to be able to go to Berlin for the weekend and be ready for work on Monday if I don't have a plane that at least has a bedroom.' "So they found one - they found this plane. That was the deal, so they rented it for me. I fell in love with it, because on departure I went into the bedroom, I fell asleep and arrived in Berlin so rested it was as though I had never travelled at all’. Travolta­knew­he­wanted­the­airliner­but­it­was too­expensive­at­the­time.­He­was­forced­to­wait­three years­until­it­hit­the­right­price­in­1998. "I was told to put a certain kind of offer in and I would get the plane if I did and they were right on. I did and I never looked back." His­love­of­aviation­went­back­to­childhood­when he­ lived­ under­ the­ flight­ path­ of­ New­ York's LaGuardia­Airport. ‘By the time planes were about 2000 feet after

VH-EBM comes in to land at Essendon during its original service with QANTAS. (QANTAS)

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departure, they were over my house. Constellations, DC-6s, DC-7s - I fell in love. I watched them all day long. Then I started collecting books on aviation and that's where I learnt about Qantas and how they had a distinct personality with long-distance, over-water flights, their safety record - they were just kind of untouchable - and I always kept my eye on them, just to see what they were up to." When­Travolta­was­about­six,­his­show-business sisters­started­to­travel­and­the­family­would­take them­to­the­airport.­Close-up­views­of­the­aircraft further­fanned­the­young­John's­enthusiasm­and­at eight­he­took­his­first­flight­-­a­30-minute­trip­from Newark­Airport­to­Philadelphia.­He­still­remembers that­the­outbound­leg­was­on­National­Airlines­DC6­and­the­return­trip­on­a­United­Airlines­Caravelle. Attesting­to­his­early­charisma,­he­persuaded­the girls­ in­ his­ neighborhood­ to­ don­ their­ Brownie uniforms­to­play­flight­attendants­as­he­‘captained’ his­backyard­airliner.Every­six­months­from­then­he was­allowed­to­fly­somewhere­to­visit­his­sisters. "So twice a year I got to fly in an airliner and, finally, at 15, I start studying aviation. At 16, I started taking lessons and then at 19 I got my solo. At 23 I got my licence and at 25 I got my jet licence." Was­ he­ tempted­ to­ become­ a­ pilot?­ "I was at some point, but I realised that the routing for that would have taken a level of scholarships and finances that we didn't have in our upbringing. It just would have been too expensive and the military wouldn't have even supported me, because I wouldn't have the college behind me to be a pilot. So I really had no choice but to self-finance being a pilot. And I did it through theatre and television earlier, and then through movies. So my whole aviation career has been financed by my other profession."

His­first­aircraft­was­an­ERCO­Aircoupe,­that flew­like­a­car­and­was­advertised­for­doctors­and lawyers,­which­he­bought­for­$2500­instead­of­a­car. "I had a little motorcycle and I had the plane, That's all I needed. So I had a plane before I had a car." An­ambitious­jump­saw­Travolta­buy­a­legendary Douglas­DC-3­before­moving­into­a­range­of­highperformance­ and­ jet­ aircraft­ as­ well­ as­ another legendary­ airliner,­ the­ four-engine­ Lockheed Constellation.­Of­all­the­aircraft­he­has­owned,­the 707­takes­pride­of­place.­ "This is majestic, and when I grew up I was dreaming about flying, so this is kind of a dream come true.” Travolta­paid­for­maintenance­of­the­707­for­the first­ four­ years,­ before­ striking­ a­ deal­ with­ then QANTAS­chief­executive­Geoff­Dixon­to­paint­the aircraft­in­QANTAS­colours­and­come­on­board­as the­airline's­ambassador,­a­job­he­clearly­relishes.­ “The quid pro quo was that Qantas took over the aircraft's expensive maintenance. "Any plane this size is too pricey. I did it for four years on my own and it was much easier to do a barter system and promote the airline. But more importantly, I really wanted to be part of the airline. So it was gorgeous, because I couldn't have dreamed of a better fit - owning a big plane like this without it looking like an airline seems odd to me." ­ VH-EBM­was­delivered­to­the­airline­in­1964­and flew­with­it­until­it­was­sold­to­Braniff­International Airways­in­1969.­It­was­converted­to­a­VIP­jet­in 1973­and­had­a­number­of­owners,­including­singer Frank­Sinatra­and­billionaire­Kirk­Kirkorian. So just who HAD owned it?

QANTAS re-painted VH-EBM in full Braniff blue and white livery before delivery as N108BN. (QANTAS)

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Most­ pilots­ know­ that­ with­ aircraft­ -­ especially airliners­-­ownership­is­often­not­all­that­it­seems,­a fact­ that­ many­ enthusiasts­ completely­ fail­ to understand.­­The­words­‘Owned­by’­and­‘Operated by’­are­two­totally­different­things.­As­William­‘Bill’ Armstrong,­owner­and­founder­of­Autair­Airways­and many­other­airlines­once­told­me­years­ago;­‘...unless you were actually there to see the suitcases full of cash change hands, never say that such-and-such aircraft was owned by xxxxx!’ Often­the­only­proof­of­who­actually­owns­an aircraft­can­be­gained­from­a­visit­to­the­flight­deck, where­a­small,­usually­stainless­steel­plaque­carries the­legend­‘Aircraft XXXXX, Construction Number YYYYYY is owned by ZZZZZZZ’. The­situation­can be­made­even­more­complex­when­a­machine­enters the­murky­world­of­aircraft­financing,­leasing­and asset­management,­often­owned­by­a­mortgage­to­a bank,­trust­group­or­insurance­company.­­So­it­was for­much­of­the­life­of­John­Travolta’s­707-138B. John’s­aircraft­was­built­in­1964,­constructed­at Boeing­Seattle­and­has­Boeing­construction­number 18740­Line­No.388,­being­delivered­to­QANTAS­as VH-EBM­ ‘City of Launceston’. After­ that­ point, everything­is­open­to­discussion,­doubt­myth­and legend. The­aircraft­was­primary­used­by­QANTAS­for routes­from­Sydney­to­Asia­and­North/South­America until­on­1­November­1968­it­was­withdrawn­from­use and­stored­engineless­at­Sydney­Airport.­­ According­to­some­sources,­on­7­June­1969­its new­owner­became­Braniff­International­Airways. It’s­registration­number­changed­to­N108BNanf­it remained­with­the­airline­until­24­­February­1972. Tucked away in a corner of the flightdeck - and remarkably difficult to photograph - is the aircraft data plate. Although in this case it is for Boeing 757 G-OOOU of Air 2000, it would be the same for many a 707. The plate states ‘Serial No. 25240. This aircraft is owned by Abbey National June Leasing (2) Limited and is leased to Air 2000 Limited and may not be operated by any other person without the prior written consent of Rolls Royce and Partners Finance Limited.’ (author)

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Here­the­first­of­a­number­of­mysteries­sets­in:­some sources­say­that­it­was­then­owned­by­singer­Frank Sinatra­until­1975,­although­he­only­operated­it­until 20­October­1973,­when­it­was­withdrawn­from­use and­stored. Enquiries­with­the­Frank­Sinatra­Foundation­and his­daughter­Nancy­­brought­forth­a­list­of­aircraft­her father­owned­-­and­there­is­no­trace­of­a­707­on­it.­Of course,­there­is­the­possibility­that­the­aircraft­was chartered­from­Braniff. Another­ source­ states­ that­ the­ aircraft­ was withdrawn­ from­ service­ and­ retired­ to­ Regency Income­and­registered­to­a­Mr­John­M­King,­who passed­it­to­Boeing­in­a­trade-in­deal­in­June­1975. Other­ records­ suggest­ that­ it­ remained­ on­ the books­ of­ Braniff­ International­ until­ sometime­ in 1975,­when­it­was­sold­to­Boeing.­ Whatever­ happened­ from­ 1972­ to­ 1975,­ it­ is known­that­not­long­after­it­was­sold­to­Boeing,­it­was registered­ in­ September­ to­ Kirk­ Kerkorian,­ an American­billionaire. Kerkor­‘Kirk’­Kerkorian­(b.­6­June­1917 –­­d.­15 June­ 2015)­ was­ a­ businessman,­ investor,­ and philanthropist.­ Of­ Armenian­ American­ origin, Kerkorian­was­the­president­and­CEO­of­Tracinda Corporation,­his­private­holding­company­based­in Beverly­Hills,­California.­Kerkorian­was­known­for having­ been­ one­ of­ the­ important­ figures­ in­ the shaping­of­Las­Vegas­and,­with­architect­Martin­Stern Jr­­has­been­described­as­the­‘father­of­the­megaresort’.­ He,­ along­ with­ that­ other­ aviation entrepreneur­and­billionare­Howard­Hughes,­played a­ large­ part­ in­ the­ development­ of­ Las­ Vegas. Kerkorian­built­the­world's­largest­hotel­in­Las­Vegas

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With that hillside covered with parked Vauxhalls it could only be Luton Airport in the late 1970s. Here N108BN is seen parked on the McAlpine executive jet port of the airport. 108BN wears the TIC livery, the full name being the Tracinda Corporation, but often reported as the ‘Tracy Corp’. (DGR Photo Library)

three­times:­the­International­Hotel­(opened­in­1969), the­MGM­Grand­Hotel­(1973)­and­the­MGM­Grand (1993).­ He­ purchased­ the­ Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer movie­studio­in­1969. Of­immigrant­origin­and­living­in­Los­Angeles, he­ sensed­ the­ onset­ of­ World­ War­ Two,­ and­ not wanting­to­join­the­infantry,­Kerkorian­learned­to­fly at­ the­ Happy­ Bottom­ Riding­ Club­ in­ the­ Mojave Desert­ -­ adjacent­ to­ the­ United­ States­ Army­ Air Corps's­Muroc­Field,­now­Edwards­Air­Force­Base. In­exchange­for­flying­lessons­from­pioneer­aviator Pancho­Barnes,­he­agreed­to­milk­and­look­after­her cattle. On­gaining­his­commercial­pilot's­certificate­in six­months,­Kerkorian­learned­that­the­British­RAF was­ferrying­Canadian-built­de­Havilland­Mosquitos over­the­North­Atlantic­to­Scotland.­The­Mosquito's

fuel­tank­carried­enough­fuel­for­1,400­miles,­while the­trip­directly­was­2,200­miles.­Rather­than­take­the safer­Montreal­-­Labrador­-­Greenland­-­Iceland­Scotland­ route,­ Kerkorian­ preferred­ the­ direct ‘Iceland­Wave’­route,­which­blew­the­planes­at­jetspeed­ to­ Europe.­ Legend­ has­ it­ that­ the­ fee­ was $1,000­per­flight.­In­May­1944,­Kerkorian­and­Wing Commander­John­de­Lacy­Wooldridge­rode­the­wave and­ broke­ the­ old­ crossing­ record.­ Wooldridge reached­Scotland­in­six­hours,­46­minutes;­Kerkorian in­seven­hours,­nine­minutes.­In­two­and­a­half­years with­RAF­Ferry­Command,­Kerkorian­delivered­33 aircraft,­logged­thousands­of­hours,­travelled­to­four continents­and­flew­his­first­four-engine­aircraft. After­the­war,­having­saved­most­of­his­wages, Kerkorian­spent­$5,000­on­a­Cessna.­He­worked­as­a general­aviation­pilot,­and­made­his­first­visit­to­Las

N108BN seen in full TAG livery at Le Bourget, France. (DGR Photo Library)

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Vegas­ in­ 1944.­ After­ spending­ much­ time­ there during­the­1940s,­Kerkorian­gave­up­gambling­and in­1947­paid­$60,000­for­Trans­International­Airlines, a­small­air-charter­service­that­flew­gamblers­from Los­Angeles­to­Las­Vegas.­He­then­bid­on­some­war surplus­ bombers,­ using­ money­ on­ loan­ from­ the Seagram­family.­Gasoline,­and­especially­airplane fuel,­was­in­short­supply­at­the­time,­so­he­sold­the fuel­from­the­aircrafts’­tanks,­paid­off­his­loan,­and still­had­the­airpcraft.­In­1962,­Kerkorian­bought­80 acres­in­Las­Vegas,­across­the­Las­Vegas­Strip­from the­Flamingo,­for­$960,000.­This­purchase­led­to­the building­of­Caesars­Palace,­which­rented­the­land from­Kerkorian;­the­rent­and­eventual­sale­of­the­land to­Caesars­in­1968­made­Kerkorian­$9­million.­He operated­the­airline­until­1968­when­he­sold­it­for $104­million­to­the­Transamerica­Corporation. Kerkoran’s­holding­company­retained­ownership of­the­707­until­26­September­1977,­when­it­passed to­TAG­Aviation,­a­­company­based­in­Luxembourg.­ The­parent­company,­TAG­(Techniques­d'Avant Garde),­ was­ an­ investment­ company­ focused­ on advanced­technologies.­It­had­been­formed­in­1977 by­Akram­Ojjeh­(1923­-1991),­a­Syria-born­Saudi businessman.­ He­ was­ an­ intermediary­ in­ deals between­Saudi­Arabia­and­France,­particularly­for arms­sales.­Ojjeh­brokered­the­sale­of­tanks,­aircraft and­electronic­equipment­to­Saudi­Arabia­and­large French­purchases­of­oil.­ During­this­time­the­707­had­the­registration­HKKA1­allocated­to­it,­supposedly­for­a­lease­to­Saudi Arabian­ Sheikh­ Akram,­ for­ short­ time­ but­ the registration­was­never­taken­up. The­ aircraft­ remained­ in­ service­ with­ TAG Aviation­until­25­August­1981,­when­the­707­was again­withdrawn­from­use,­stored­at­Newark,­New Jersey.­ Records­ suggest­ that­ the­ registration­ was cancelled­­in­August­1982,­but­the­aircraft­was­back in­service­that­October.­­It­was­ferried­to­Le­Bourget for­ further­ storage­ in­August­ 1983.­ In­ September 1983­it­returned­to­the­American­register­as­N108BN, again­for­TAG­Aviation,­remaining­with­them­until 18­March­1985,­when­it­passed­to­TAG­Group­USA, then­back­to­TAG­Aviation­that­October. In­ November­ 1987­ the­ records­ suggest­ it­ had been­sold­to­what­appears­to­be­a­somewhat­shadowy organisation:­Trans­Oceanic­Aviation.­Very­little­is known­about­this­organisation,­apart­from­that­they seem­to­have­also­leased­another­707­-­this­time­a­309C­with­a­tail­number­N707ZS,­for­cargo­flights. During­1988­and­1989­it­was­out­of­service­again. Sometime­ during­ this­ period­ a­ VIP­ interior­ was installed­and­the­aircraft­was­modified­with­hush­kits which­converted­it­to­a­707-138B(Q).

297 THE HISTORY OF BOEING 707-138, MANUFACTURERS SERIAL NUMBER 18740. Line No: 388

First­Flight:­1­September­1964.

VH-EBM: Delivered­to­QANTAS­10­­September 1964.­Withdrawn­from­serice­and­placed­in­storage at­Sydney,­Australia­1­November­1968. N108BN: Purchased­ by­ Braniff­ International Airways­9­June­1969.

Purchased­ by­ Regency­ Income­ Corporation­ of Denver­Colorado­and­leased­to­Braniff­International on­24­June­1969.­Wore­blue­‘jellybean’­colours.­

Withdrawn­from­service­by­Braniff­on­10­October 1973­and­registration­transferred­to­John­M­King­of Regency­Income­Corp.­ To­Boeing­Commercial­Airplane­Co.­June­1975

Purchased­ by­ Kerkor­ ‘Kirk’­ Kerkorian­ on­ 1 September­November­1975. To­the­Tracinda­Corporation­28­March­1977.­This was­a­holding­company­of­which­Kerkorian­was­the CEO.

Sold­to­TAG­­Aviation,­26­September­­1977.­Based in­Geneva,­Switzerland,­TAG­Aviation­is­a­provider of­business­aviation­services,­aircraft­management, aircraft­charter,­maintenance,­sales­and­acquisitions. HZ-KA1 (registration allocated but not taken up): Leased­to­Sheikh­Akram­on­26­September­1977

N108BN: Withdrawn­from­use­and­placed­in­storage at­Newark­on­25­August­1981­and­listed­as­for­sale.­ Registration­ cancelled­ August­ 1982.­ Restored­ to register­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­ Ferried­to­Le­Bourget­and­place­in­storage­in­August 1983.­Reentered­service­in­December­1983. Purchased­by­Trans­Oceanic­Aviation­in­November 1987. New­VIP­interior­installed­while­out­of­service­1988.

Recorded­as­being­modified­with­hush­kits­which converted­it­to­a­707-138B(Q)­in­1989. N707XX: Returned­to­service­in­July­1990 To­Aviation­Methods,­Seattle­in­1995.

Ferried­to­Istanbul­and­placed­in­storage­on­October 29,­1995 Offered­ for­ sale­ with­ a­ low­ TAT­ of­ 27,682hrs­ in September­1996

N707JT: Purchased­ by­ John­ Travolta­ on­ 20­ May 1998.

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‘Captain John’ during his world tour with N707JT, painted in the full QANTAS ‘V-Jet livery. (QANTAS)

In­July­1990,­its­registration­number­changed­to N707XX­it­returned­to­service­for­an­undetermined time.­What­records­are­available­suggest­that­it­was stored­ at­ Las­ Vegas­ until­ 2­ March­ 1994,­ when according­to­some­sources­it­was­flown­to­London Heathrow­ on­ ­ 3­ May.­ ­ In­ 1995­ it­ changed­ hands again,­this­time­to­Aviation­Methods­Inc,­an­airline support­and­management­company­with­a­mailing address­in­Seattle.­We­then­need­to­delve­into­the world­of­aircraft­loggers,­who­record­that­N707XX flew­from­Washinton-Dulles­to­Shannon­in­Eire­and then­on­to­Istanbul­on­29­October­1995.­It­was­logged at­London­Heathrow­again­during­November­1996 still­in­TAG­colours.­Previously,­in­­September­1996, with­only­27,682­of­total­flying­hours,­it­was­offered for­sale. On­20­May­1998­the­airliner­was­registered­to­Jet Clipper­Johnny­LLC­(John­Travolta),­sold­on­May 25,­and­changed­registration­on­13­December­­­1998 to­N707JT­‘707 Jett Clipper Ella’. It­was­named­after his­children­Jett­and­Ella,­along­with­‘Clipper’­in homage­to­legendary­airline­Pan­Am,­which­used­the term­in­all­their­aircraft­names.

As­previously­described,­in­June­2002,­the­707 finally­returned­home­to­QANTAS,­since­Travolta participated­ in­ the­ QANTAS­ ‘Spirit­ of Friendship’tour,­because­it­was­always­his­dream­to be­involved­with­a­major­airline­in­some­way.­He­was piloting­his­own­Boeing­707­on­a­thirteen­city,­35,000 mile­tour.­­He­continues­as­Ambassador-at-Large­for QANTAS.­For­this­campaign­the­plane­was­repainted in­full­classical­Qantas­‘V-Jet’­livery.­The­same­livery that­was­used­for­the­707’s­first­flights,­back­in­the old­days. At­the­time­of­writing­(2017)­the­aircraft­is­kept at­Travolta’s­house­in­Florida­that­has­its­own­eight thousand­foot­runway. As­can­be­seen,­there­are­huge­sections­of­this single­ aircraft’s­ history­ that­ is­ open­ to­ wide speculation­as­to­what­actually­happened­to­it,­and who­was­operating­it,­let­alone­who­actually­owned it!­ Multiply­ that­ by­ the­ simple­ fact­ that­ over­ one thousand­airframes­were­built,­and­it­becomes,­in­my opinion,­impossible­to­research­with­any­degree­of accuracy!

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299

Appendix­I Summary of new build aircraft. 707­Model­New­Build­Summary­Through­January­2017 Model-Series­ Orders­ Deliveries 707-320B­ 174­ 174­ 707-120­ 56­ 56­ 707-E3A­ 61­ 61­ 707-138­ 7­ 7­ 707-E3D­ 7­ 7­ 707-KE3­ 8­ 8­ 707-E6A­ 17­ 17­ 720-000­ 65­ 65­ 707-120B­ 72­ 72­ 707-220­ 5­ 5­ 707-420­ 37­ 37­ 707-138B­ 6­ 6­ 720-000B­ 89­ 89­ 707-320C­ 337­ 337­ 707-320­ 69­ 69­ 707­Total­ 1010­ 1010­

Model­ Eng­ Ordered­ Quantity­ Delivered­ First­Del Aer Lingus (Ireland) 707-320C­­P&W­ 15/3/63­ 4­ 4­ 10/6/64 720-000­ P&W­ 11/3/59­ 3­ 3­ 24/10/60 Subtotal­ 7­ 7­ Aerolineas Argentinas (Argentina) 707-320B­ P&W­ 21/9/65­ 4­ 707-320C­ P&W­ 29/5/68­ 2­ Subtotal­ 6­ Air France (France) 707-320­ P&W­ 28/12/55­ 707-320B­ P&W­ 10/10/61­ 707-320C­ P&W­ 15/4/64­ Subtotal­ Air India (India) 707-320B­ P&W­ 15/5/63­ 707-320C­ P&W­ 15/12/65­ 707-420­ RR­ 31/8/56­ Subtotal­

Airlift International (USA) 707-320C­ P&W­ 16/2/67­ Subtotal­

21­ 8­ 9­ 38­ 3­ 2­ 6­ 11­ 3­ 3­

4­ 2­ 6­

21­ 8­ 9­ 38­ 3­ 2­ 6­ 11­ 3­ 3­

20-11/66 04/11/68 21/10/59 14/11/62 05/8/65 25/5/64 10/2/67 18/2/60 14/4/67

Airline of the Islamic Republic (Iran (Islamic Republic of)) 707-320C­ P&W­ 13/12/68­ 3­ 3­ 31/12/69 Subtotal­ 3­ 3­ American Airlines (USA) 707-120­ P&W­ 09/11/55­ 707-120B­ P&W­ 07/7/59­ 707-320B­ P&W­ 03/4/68­ 707-320C­ P&W­ 24/10/62­ 720-000­ P&W­ 30/7/58­ 720-000B­ P&W­ 30/7/58­ Subtotal­ Avianca (Colombia) 707-320B­ P&W­ 18/1/67­ 720-000B­ P&W­ 30/6/60­ Subtotal­

25­ 31­ 10­ 37­ 10­ 15­ 128­ 2­ 3­ 5­

Aviation Service & Support (USA) 707-320B­ P&W­ 08/1/75­ 1­ 707-320C­ P&W­ 09/6/75­ 1­ Subtotal­ 2­ Braniff Airlines (USA) 707-220­ P&W­ 01/12/55­ 707-320C­ P&W­ 15/5/65­ 720-000­ P&W­ 09/3/60­ Subtotal­

5­ 9­ 5­ 19­

British Airways (United Kingdom) 707-320B­ P&W­ 16/1/70­ 2­ 707-320C­ P&W­ 15/1/65­ 8­ 707-420­ RR­ 24/10/56­ 19­ Subtotal­ 29­

25­ 31­ 10­ 37­ 10­ 15­ 128­

23/10/58 25/5/61 09/4/69 19/11/63 24/7/60 03/2/61

1­ 1­ 2­

08/1/75 09/6/75

2­ 3­ 5­

07/3/68 08/11/61

5­ 9­ 5­ 19­

03/12/59 26/5/66 11/2/61

2­ 8­ 19­ 29­

18/2/71 19/12/65 27/4/60

British Caledonian Airways (United Kingdom) 707-320C­ P&W­ 15/11/65­ 2­ 2­ 13/7/67 Subtotal­ 2­ 2­

British Eagle International (United Kingdom) 707-320C­ P&W­ 06/1/67­ 1­ 1­ 21/12/67 707-420­ RR­ 25/5/61­ 1­ 1­ 27/2/62 Subtotal­ 2­ 2­ British Royal Air Force (United Kingdom) 707-E3D­ CF­ 25/2/87­ 7­ 7­ Subtotal­ 7­ 7­

The stunning red and white scheme on Air Bahama’s 707C N525EJ. (author)

01/3/91

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300

CAAC-Civil Aviation of China (China) 707-320B­ P&W­ 12/9/72­ 4­ 4­ 707-320C­ P&W­ 12/9/72­ 6­ 6­ Subtotal­ 10­ 10­ Cameroon Airlines (Cameroon) 707-320C­ P&W­ 31/5/72­ 1­ Subtotal­ 1­ Canadian Air Force (Canada) 707-320C­ P&W­ 28/2/70­ 5­ Subtotal­ 5­ China Airlines (Taiwan) 707-320C­ P&W­ 18/10/68­ Subtotal­ Eastern Air Lines (USA) 720-000­ P&W­ 03/8/60­ Subtotal­ Egyptair (Egypt) 707-320C­ P&W­ 20/6/66­ Subtotal­

2­ 2­

15­ 15­ 9­ 9­

EL AL Israel Airlines (Israel) 707-320B­ P&W­ 15/9/64­ 3­ 707-320C­ P&W­ 05/12/67­ 2­ 707-420­ RR­ 25/3/60­ 3­ 720-000B­ P&W­ 03/5/61­ 2­ Subtotal­ 10­

1­ 1­ 5­ 5­

24/8/73 12/11/73 20/11/72 28/2/70

2­ 2­

07/11/69

9­ 9­

18/9/68

15­ 15­

3­ 2­ 3­ 2­ 10­

Estado Nacional Argentino ENA (Argentina) 707-320B­ P&W­ 11/6/75­ 1­ 1­ Subtotal­ 1­ 1­

11/8/61

07/1/66 15/5/69 24/4/61 23/3/62 11/6/75

Ethiopian Airlines (Ethiopia) 707-320C­ P&W­ 11/11/66­ 2­ 720-000B­ P&W­ 16/7/60­ 3­ Subtotal­ 5­

2­ 3­ 5­

08/4/68 02/11/62

FAA (USA) 720-000­ P&W­ 26/1/61­ Subtotal­

1­ 1­

12/5/61

Executive Jet Aviation (USA) 707-320C­ P&W­ 17/11/66­ 2­ Subtotal­ 2­

Flying Tiger (USA) 707-320C­ P&W­ 15/1/65­ Subtotal­

1­ 1­ 4­ 4­

German Air Force (Germany) 707-320C­ P&W­ 08/11/67­ 4­ Subtotal­ 4­

2­ 2­

4­ 4­ 4­ 4­

19/5/67

28/9/65 28/9/68

Government of Egypt (Egypt) 707-320C­ P&W­ 26/9/73­ 1­ Subtotal­ 1­

1­ 1­

21/8/74

Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force 707-320C­ P&W­ 10/5/74­ 15­ Subtotal­ 15­

15­ 15­

10/5/74

Iraqi Airways (Iraq) 707-320C­ P&W­ 01/10/73­ Subtotal­

3­ 3­

3­ 3­

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Saudi Arabia) 707-320C­ P&W­ 25/9/75­ 1­ 1­ 707-E3A­ CF­ 16/6/83­ 5­ 5­ 707-KE3­ CF­ 16/6/83­ 8­ 8­ Subtotal­ 14­ 14­

27/8/74

25/9/75 29/6/86 12/2/87

Korean Air (South Korea) 707-320C­ P&W­ 02/4/71­ Subtotal­

1­ 1­

1­ 1­

LATAM Airlines Group (Chile) 707-320C­ P&W­ 20/12/69­ 1­ Subtotal­ 1­

1­ 1­

20/12/69

12­ 6­ 5­ 8­ 31­

28/2/63 10/11/65 25/2/60 08/3/61

MSA-Malaysia/Singapore A/L (Singapore) 707-320B­ P&W­ 16/5/67­ 3­ 3­ Subtotal­ 3­ 3­

28/5/68

Nigeria Airways (Nigeria) 707-320C­ P&W­ 07/5/71­ Subtotal­

3­ 3­

07/5/71

2­ 4­ 6­

19/12/68 11/5/66

Pakistan International Airline (Pakistan) 707-320C­ P&W­ 15/7/65­ 7­ 7­ 720-000B­ P&W­ 17/4/61­ 4­ 4­ Subtotal­ 11­ 11­

19/7/66 26/12/61

Pelita Air Service (Indonesia) 707-320C­ P&W­ 05/12/74­ 1­ Subtotal­ 1­

25/4/75

Kuwait Airways (Kuwait) 707-320C­ P&W­ 29/11/67­ Subtotal­

5­ 5­

Libyan Airlines (State of Libya) 707-320C­ P&W­ 19/7/76­ 1­ Subtotal­ 1­

Lufthansa Group (Germany) 707-320B­ P&W­ 18/12/61­ 12­ 707-320C­ P&W­ 15/9/64­ 6­ 707-420­ RR­ 24/4/56­ 5­ 720-000B­ P&W­ 01/2/60­ 8­ Subtotal­ 31­ Middle East Airlines (Lebanon) 707-320C­ P&W­ 03/8/68­ 4­ Subtotal­ 4­

5­ 5­

1­ 1­

06/8/71 04/11/68

19/7/76

4­ 4­

18/11/68

NATO (Belgium) 707-E3A­ P&W­ 30/5/80­ Subtotal­

18­ 18­

18­ 18­

01/1/82

Northwest Airlines (USA) 707-320B­ P&W­ 11/6/62­ 707-320C­ P&W­ 15/11/63­ 720-000B­ P&W­ 16/3/61­ Subtotal­

10­ 26­ 13­ 49­

10­ 26­ 13­ 49­

05/6/63 10/4/64 26/5/61

Pacific Northern (USA) 720-000­ P&W­ 06/4/61­ Subtotal­

2­ 2­

2­ 2­

Olympic Airlines (Greece) 707-320B­ P&W­ 11/1/68­ 707-320C­ P&W­ 15/4/65­ Subtotal­

3­ 3­

2­ 4­ 6­

23/3/62

Pan Am World Airways (USA) 707-120­ P&W­ 13/10/55­ 6­ 707-320­ P&W­ 13/10/55­ 26­ 707-320B­ P&W­ 13/2/61­ 60­ 707-320C­ P&W­ 25/4/62­ 34­ Subtotal­ 126­

6­ 26­ 60­ 34­ 126­

15/8/58 19/7/59 12/4/62 02/5/63

QANTAS 707-138­ 707-138B­ 707-320C­ Subtotal­

7­ 6­ 21­ 34­

26/6/59 29/7/61 10/2/65

(Australia) P&W­ 06/9/56­ P&W­ 01/3/60­ P&W­ 15/12/63­

7­ 6­ 21­ 34­

1­ 1­

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301

Transavia Holland’s 707-335 PH-TRF served for a short time with the Executive Jet fleet. It is seen at Schipol Airport during October 1968. (author)

Qatar Airways (Qatar) 707-320C­ P&W­ 30/6/76­ Subtotal­

1­ 1­

1­ 1­

28/7/77

Republic of Portugal (Portugal) 707-320C­ P&W­ 05/1/71­ 2­ Subtotal­ 2­

2­ 2­

23/9/71

Republic of France (France) 707-E3A­ CF­ 25/2/87­ 4­ Subtotal­ 4­

Royal Jordanian (Jordan) 707-320C­ P&W­ 15/7/70­ Subtotal­

2­ 2­

SABENA (Belgium) 707-320­ P&W­ 28/12/55­ 707-320C­ P&W­ 15/5/64­ Subtotal­

4­ 4­

01/5/91

2­ 2­

26/1/71

7­ 7­ 14­

7­ 7­ 14­

04/12/59 15/4/65

Seaboard World Airlines (USA) 707-320C­ P&W­ 05/6/67­ 2­ Subtotal­ 2­

2­ 2­

27/2/68

Royal Moroccan Air Force (Morocco) 707-320C­ P&W­ 10/3/82­ 1­ Subtotal­ 1­

1­ 1­

Saudi Arabian Airlines (Saudi Arabia) 707-320C­ P&W­ 03/5/67­ 7­ 7­ 720-000B­ P&W­ 01/9/61­ 2­ 2­ Subtotal­ 9­ 9­

Socialist Republic of Romania (Romania) 707-320C­ P&W­ 12/3/73­ 2­ 2­ Subtotal­ 2­ 2­ South African Airways (South Africa) 707-320­ P&W­ 21/2/58­ 3­ 707-320B­ P&W­ 15/3/64­ 2­ 707-320C­ P&W­ 11/8/66­ 5­ Subtotal­ 10­ Sudan Airways (Sudan) 707-320C­ P&W­ 30/5/73­ Subtotal­

TAP Portugal (Portugal) 707-320B­ P&W­ 15/12/64­ Subtotal­

2­ 2­ 7­ 7­

3­ 2­ 5­ 10­ 2­ 2­ 7­ 7­

10/3/82

08/1/68 20/12/61

03/6/74 01/7/60 01/9/65 23/2/68 17/6/74 17/12/65

TAROM S.A. (Romania) 707-320C­ P&W­ 12/3/73­ Subtotal­

2­ 2­

2­ 2­

21/2/74

Trans World Airlines (USA) 707-120­ P&W­ 07/2/56­ 707-120B­ P&W­ 01/5/61­ 707-320­ P&W­ 19/3/56­ 707-320B­ P&W­ 01/5/61­ 707-320C­ P&W­ 15/4/63­ 720-000B­ P&W­ 01/5/61­ Subtotal­

15­ 41­ 12­ 38­ 17­ 4­ 127­

15­ 41­ 12­ 38­ 17­ 4­ 127­

29/1/59 29/3/62 10/11/59 01/11/62 18/11/63 22/7/61

United States Navy (USA) 707-E6A­ CF­ 12/2/86­ Subtotal­

17­ 17­

17­ 17­

01/8/89

United Airlines (USA) 707-120­ P&W­ 12/12/55­ 707-320C­ P&W­ 15/6/64­ 720-000­ P&W­ 22/11/57­ 720-000B­ P&W­ 13/6/61­ Subtotal­

US Air Force (USA) 707-120­ P&W­ 14/5/58­ 707-320B­ P&W­ 09/2/62­ 707-E3A­ P&W­ 31/12/71­ Subtotal­ Varig Airlines (Brazil) 707-320C­ P&W­ 15/8/65­ 707-420­ RR­ 06/9/57­ Subtotal­ Wardair (Canada) 707-320C­ P&W­ 12/1/68­ Subtotal­ Western Airlines 707-120­ P&W­ 707-320C­ P&W­ 720-000B­ P&W­ Subtotal­

(USA) 01/1/60­ 22/5/67­ 15/2/60­

World Airways, Inc. (USA) 707-320C­ P&W­ 16/5/62­ Subotal­ ­

5­ 13­ 29­ 8­ 55­

3­ 2­ 34­ 39­ 6­ 3­ 9­ 2­ 2­

2­ 5­ 27­ 34­ 9­ 9­

5­ 13­ 29­ 8­ 55­

19/4/59 21/8/64 30/4/60 28/4/62

3­ 2­ 34­ 39­

19/5/59 01/10/62 01/3/77

2­ 2­

17/4/68

9­ 9­

16/7/63

6­ 3­ 9­

28/12/66 07/6/60

2­ 5­ 27­ 34­

04/5/60 22/6/68 07/4/61

707­Total­ 1010­ 1010­ Orders­Deliveries­Unfilled­

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Model 367-80 Type:­ Accommodation:­ Powerplant:

Appendix­II Specifications transport­prototype. 3­crew­and­specialist personnel­as­required. four­10,000­pounds­thrust Pratt­&­Whitney­JT3C turbojets. 582­mph­at­25,000­ft. 550­mph. 2,500­feet­per­minute. 43,000­ft. 3,530­miles.

Maximum­Speed: Cruising­Speed: Initial­Climb­Rate:­ Service­Ceiling:­ Range:­ Weights Empty­Equipped­wt:­ 892,120­pounds. Normal­Take-Off­wt:­ — Maximum­Take-Off­wt:­190,000­pounds. Maximum­Payload:­ — Span:­ 129­feet­8­inches. Length:­ 127­feet­10­inches Height:­ 38­feet. Wing­Area:­ 2,400­square­feet. Max.­Fuselage­Width: 132­inches Max.­Fuselage­Height: 164­inches --------------------------------------------------------------KC-135A Stratotanker Type: inflight-refuelling­tanker with­airlift­capability. Accommodation: flightcrew­of­5,­plus­up­to 145­passengers. Powerplant: four­13,750­pounds­­thrust Pratt­&­Whitney­J57-P59W­turbojets. Maximum­speed: 630­mph. Cruising­speed: 532­mph­at­35,000­ft, Initial­climb­rate: 1,290­feet­per­minute Service­ceiling: 45,000­feet. Range: 1,150­miles­with­120,000 pounds­of­transfer­fuel. Empty­equipped­wt: 106,305­pounds­ Normal­take-off­wt: 301,600­pounds Maximum­take-off­wt: 316,000­pounds Payload: 120,000­pounds­of­transfer fuel 50,000­pounds­of­freight Span: 130­feet­10­inches. Length: 134­feet­6­inches. Height: 41­feet­8­inches. Wing­area 2,433­square­feet. Max.­Fuselage­Width: 144­inches Max.­Fuselage­Height: 166­inches

C-135B Stratolifter Type: Accommodation:­

transport flightcrew­of­4,­plus­up­to 126­passengers Powerplant:­­ four­13,750­pounds­­thrust Pratt­&­Whitney­J57-P59W­turbojets. Maximum­speed­ 600­mph. Cruising­speed­ 530­mph­at­35,000­ft. Initial­climb­rate: — Service­ceiling: — Range­ 4,000­miles­with­a­55,000pounds­payload empty­equipped­wt: — normal­take-off­wt: — maximum­take-off­wt:­ 272,000­pounds. payload­ 89,000­pounds. Span: 130­feet­10­inches.­ Length: 134­feet­6­inches.­ Height: 41­feet­8­inches. Wing­area 2,433­square­feet. Max.­Fuselage­Width: 144­inches Max.­Fuselage­Height:­ 166­inches --------------------------------------------------------------KC-135R Type:­ inflight-refuelling­tanker with­airlift­capability Accommodation:­ flightcrew­of­4 Powerplant:­ four­22,000­pounds­thrust GE/SNECMA­CFM56 turbofans Maximum­speed:­ 600­mph. Cruising­speed:­ 530­mph­at­35,000­feet. Initial­climb­rate: — Service­ceiling: — Range:­ 4,000­miles­with­a­55,000 pounds­payload Empty­equipped­wt: — Normal­take-off­wt: — Maximum­take-off­wt: 325,000­pounds Span: 130­feet­10­inches. Length: 134­feet­6­inches. Height: 41­feet­8­inches. Wing­area: 2,433­square­feet­ Max.­Fuselage­Width: 144­inches Max.­Fuselage­Height:­ 166­inches --------------------------------------------------------------Model 707-100 Type:­ transcontinental­transport. Accommodation:­ 3­crew­on­flightdeck,­up­to

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179­passengers,­and variable­cabin­staff. Powerplant:­ four­12,500­pounds­­thrust Pratt­&­Whitney­JT3C-6 turbojets. Maximum­speed: 623­mph. Cruising­speed: 592­mph­at­40,000­feet­. Initial­climb­rate: 1,400­feet­per­minute. Service­ceiling: 40,000­feet­. Range: 3,915­miles­with maximum­payload. Empty­equipped­wt: 114,500­pounds­. Normal­take-off­wt: 247,000­pounds­. Maximum­take-off­wt: 257,000­pounds­. Maximum­payload: 42,433­pounds. Span: 130­feet­10­inches. Length: 144­feet­6­inches. Height­(short­fin): 38­feet­7­inches. Wing­area: 2,433­square­feet. Max.­Fuselage­Width: 148­inches Max.­Fuselage­Height: 170.5­inches --------------------------------------------------------------Model 707-100B Type: transcontinental­transport Accommodation:­ 3­crew­on­flightdeck,­up­to 179­passengers,­and variable­cabin­staff. Powerplant:­ four­18,000­pounds­thrust Pratt­&­Whitney­JT3D-38 turbofans

303

Maximum­speed: 623­mph Cruising­speed: 612­mph­at­40,000­feet. Initial­climb­rate­ — Service­ceiling­ 40,000­feet Max­Payload­Range: 4,900­miles Empty­equipped­wt:­ 118,500­pounds Normal­take-off­wt: — Maximum­take-off­­wt: 258,000­pounds Maximum­payload: 44,000­pounds Span: 130­feet­10­inches. Length: 144­feet­6­inches. Height­(short­fin): 38­feet­7­inches. Wing­area: 2,433­square­feet. Max.­Fuselage­Width: 148­inches. Max.­Fuselage­Height: 170.5­inches --------------------------------------------------------------Model 707-200 Type:­ transcontinental­transport Accommodation:­ 3­crew­on­flightdeck,­up­to 179­passengers,­and variable­cabin­staff. Powerplant:­ four­15,800­pounds­thrust Pratt­&­Whitney­JT4A-3 turbojets. Maximum­speed: 623­mph. Cruising­speed: 592­mph­at­40,000­feet. Initial­climb­rate: 1,400­feet­per­minute. Service­ceiling: 40,000­feet. Range: 3,915­miles­with maximum­payload.

The Condor was modification of the Boeing 707 for the Airborne Early Warning role (AEW) designed by Isreali Aircraft Industries and Elta, of Israel. The aircraft started its development in 1990 and the prototype, built for Chile's Air Force, made its first public showing at the Paris Air Show in 1993. IAI named it Phalcon, but in Chile it is known as the Condor and FACH has asigned to it the serial N° 904. (author’s collection)

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304

Olympic Airways’ 720-051B SX-DBH was withdrawn from use at Athens in 1980. It was scrapped in 1982.

Empty­equipped­wt: — Normal­take-off­wt: — Maximum­take-off­wt: 257,000­pounds Maximum­payload — Span: 130­feet­10­inches. Length: 144­feet­6­inches. Height­(short­fin): 38­feet­7­inches. Wing­area: 2,433­square­feet. Max.­Fuselage­Width: 148­inches Max.­Fuselage­Height: 170.5­inches --------------------------------------------------------------Model 707-300 Intercontinental Type: intercontinental­transport Accommodation: 4­crew­on­flightdeck,­up­to 189­passengers,­and variable­cabin­staff Powerplant:­ four­17,500­pounds­thrust Pratt­&­Whitney­JT4A-11 turbojets Maximum­speed: 623­mph­ Cruising­speed: 602­mph­­at­25,000­ft. Initial­climb­rate:­ 2,890­feet­per­minute Service­ceiling:­ 37,200­feet Max­Payload­Range: 4,784­miles.­ Empty­equipped­wt: 135,000­pounds. Normal­take-off­wt: — Maximum­take-off­wt: 312,000­pounds. Payload: 55,000­pounds. Span: 142­feet­5­inches Length: 152­feet­11­inches Height:­ 41­feet­8­inches Wing­area:­ 2,892­square­feet­ Max.­Fuselage­Width: 148­inches Max.­Fuselage­Height:­ 170.5­inches --------------------------------------------------------------Model 707-300B lntercontinental Type:­ intercontinental­transport Accommodation: 4­crew­on­flightdeck,­up to­189­passengers,­and variable­cabin­staff

Powerplant:

four­19,000­pounds­thrust Pratt­&­Whitney­JT3D-7 turbofans­(typical) Maximum­speed: 627­mph­ Cruising­speed: 600­mph­at­25,000­feet Initial­climb­rate­ 2,370­feet­­per­minute Service­ceiling: 6,000­feet Max­Payload­Range: 6,160­miles Empty­equipped­wt: 140,525­pounds. normal­take-off­wt: — maximum­take-off­wt: 335,000­pounds. Payload: 54,475­pounds. Span: 145­feet­9­inches Length: 152­feet­11­inches Height: 42­feet­5­inches­ Wing­area:­ 3,010­square­feet Max.­Fuselage­Width: 148­inches Max.­Fuselage­Height:­ 170.5­inches --------------------------------------------------------------Model 707-300C Convertible Type: intercontinental convertible­freight­passenger­­transport. Accommodation: 4­crew­on­flightdeck,­up­to 219­passengers,­and variable­cabin­staff. Powerplant: four­18,000­pounds­thrust Pratt­&­Whitney­JT3D-3B turbofans­(typical installation) Maximum­speed: 627­mph cruising­speed: 600­mph­­at­25,000 Initial­climb­rate: 4,000­feet­per­minute Service­ceiling 39,000­feet Max­Payload­ange 4,300­miles­ Empty­equipped­wt: 133,875­pounds­for­cargo Normal­take-off­wt: Maximum­take-off­wt:­ 333,600­pounds­­ Payload: 84,000­pounds­­for passenger,­91,390­pounds

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for­cargo Span: 145­feet­9­inches Length: 152­feet­11­inches Height: 42­feet­5­inches­ Wing­area: 3,010­square­feet Max.­Fuselage­Width: 148­inches Max.­Fuselage­Height:­ 170.5­inches --------------------------------------------------------------Model 707-400 Type:­ intercontinental­transport Accommodation:­ 4­crew­on­flightdeck,­up­to 189­passengers,­and variable­cabin­staff Powerplant:­ four­18,000­pounds­thrust Rolls-Royce­Conway 508A­turbofans Maximum­speed: 627­mph­ Cruising­speed: 600­mph­at­25,000­ft Initial­climb­rate: 2,370­feet­­per­minute Service­ceiling: 36,000­feet­­ Max­Payload­Range: 4,865­miles Empty­equipped­wt: 133,000­pounds­ Normal­take-off­wt: Maximum­take-off­wt: 335,000­pounds­ Payload: 57,000­pounds­ Span: 145­feet­9­inches Length: 152­feet­11­inches Height: 42­feet­5­inches

305

Wing­area: 3,010­sq­feet­­ Max.­Fuselage­Width: 148­inches Max.­Fuselage­Height:­ 170.5­inches --------------------------------------------------------------Model 720 (Model 707-000) Type:­ medium-range­transport Accommodation:­ 4­crew­on­flightdeck,­up­to 165­passengers,­and variable­cabin­staff Powerplant: four­12,000­pound­thrust Pratt­&Whitney­JT3C-12 turbojets Maximum­speed: 627­mph­ Cruising­speed 601­mph­at­25,000­feet­ Initial­climb­rate­ 2,100­feet­­­per­minute Service­ceiling­ 38,500­feet­­­range­3,005 miles­­with­maximum payload Empty­equipped­wt: 99,920­pounds­ Normal­take-off­wt: 203,000­pounds­ Maximum­take-off­wt 229,000­pounds­ Payload; 37,000­pounds­ Span: 130­feet­10­inches Length: 136­feet­9­inches Height: 37­feet­11­inches Wing­areaL 2,521­sq­feet­ Max.­Fuselage­Width: 148­inches Max.­Fuselage­Height:­ 170­inches

Braniff International’s advertsing was decidedly risqué for the time, and just as colourful as their fleet of 707s.

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Model 720B Type:­ Accommodation:­

medium-range­transport 4­crew­on­fiightdeck,­up­to 181­1­passengers,­and variable­cabin­staff Powerplant: four­18,000­pounds­thrust Pratt­&­Whitney­JT3D-3 turbofans Maximum­speed:­ 627­mph­ Cruising­speed: 608­mph­at­25,000­feet­­ Initial­climb­rate:­ 3,700­feet­per­minute Service­ceiling: 40,500­feet­­ Max­Payload­range: 4,110­miles­ Empty­equipped­wt: 11500010­pounds Normal­take-off­wt: Maximum­take-off­wt: 234,000­pounds­­ Payload: 41,000­pounds­­ Span: 130­feet­10­inches Length: 136­feet­9­inches height­ 41­feet­7­inches wing­area­ 2,521­sq­feet­ Max.­Fuselage­Width: 148­inches Max.­Fuselage­Height:­ 170.5­inches --------------------------------------------------------------VC-137C Type: VIP­and­special­freight transport Accommodation: flightcrew­of­4,­plus passengers Powerplant: four­18,000­pounds­­thrust Pratt­&­Whitney­JT3D-3 turbofans Maximum­speed: 627­mph­ Cruising­speed: 600­mph­­at­25,000­ft Initial­climb­rate: -

Service­ceiling: about­40,000­feet­ Range 7,610­miles,­no­reserves Empty­equipped­wt: Normal­take-off­wt: maximum­take-off­ 327,000­pounds­­ Span­ 145­feet­9­inches Length­ 152­feet­11­inches Height 42­feet­5­inches­ Wing­area­ 3,010­square­feet Max.­Fuselage­Width: 148­inches Max.­Fuselage­Height:­ 170.5­inches --------------------------------------------------------------E-3A Sentry Type: airborne­warning­and control­system­aircraft Accommodation: flightcrew­of­4­and­13 AWACS­specialists Powerplant: four­21,000­pounds­thrust Pratt­&­Whitney­TF33-P100A­turbofans maximum­speed 530­mph cruising­speed initial­climb­rate service­ceiling 39,370­feet range 6­hours­on­station­at­1,000 mi|e­radius Empty­equipped­wt: about­172,000­pounds Normal­take-off­wt: Maximum­take-off­wt: 325,000­pounds­ Span: 145­feet­9­inches Length: 152­feet­11­inches Height: 42­feet­5­inches­ Wing­area:­ 3,010­square­feet Max.­Fuselage­Width: 148­inches Max.­Fuselage­Height:­ 170.5­inches

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The­Jet­Makers:­The­Aerospace­Industry­from­19451972.­Lawrence,­Kansas:­University­Press­of­Kansas. ISBN­978-0700601721.­(January­1986). Caidin,­Martin.­Boeing 707. New­York:­Bantam­Books, 1959. Cearley,­George­Walker.­Boeing 707 & 720: A Pictorial History. Dallas,­TX:­G.W.­Cearley­Jr,­1993.­No­ISBN. Cook,­William­H.­Road to the 707: The Inside Story of Designing the 707. Bellevue,­WA:­TYC­Publishing Company,­1991.­ISBN­0-9629605-0-0. Curtin,­Neal­P.­Testimony­Before­the­Subcommittee­on Projection­Forces,­Committee­on­Armed­Services,­House of­Representatives;­MILITARY­AIRCRAFT: Information­on­Air­Force­Aerial­Refueling­Tankers (Report).­General­Accounting­Office.­(June­24,­2003). Donald,­David.­‘Boeing Model 717 (C/KC-135 Stratoliner/Stratotanker).’ The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. Barnes­&­Noble­Books,­1997.­ISBN­07607-0592-5. FAA­Type­Certificate­Data­Sheet http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rg MakeModel.nsf/0/8b6ebaa7513ba29a852567240060420 c/$FILE/4a21.PDF Federal­Aviation­Administration­issued­Supplemental­Type Certificate­SA2699NM­to­SHANNON­engineering March­6,­1985. Finlan,­Alastair.­The Royal Navy in the Falklands Conflict and the Gulf War: Culture and Strategy (British­Politics and­Society).­London:­Rutelage,­2004.­ISBN­978-07146-8569-4. Francillon,­René.­Boeing 707: Pioneer Jetliner. Shrewsbury, Shropshire,­UK:­Motor­Books­International,­1999.­ISBN 0-7603-0675-3. Freeman,­Roger.­‘The Strategic Bomber’ Macdonalnds­and Janes,­London­1975 Gilmore,­Gerry­J.­‘Air­Force­Awards­Tanker­Contract­to Northrop­Grumman’.­American­Forces­Press­Service. (February­29,­2008). Gunston,­Bill.­‘Diamond­Flight.­British­Midland­1938-1988.’ Henry­Melland,­London­1989. Haenggi,­Michael­Boeing Widebodies. Saint­Paul, Minnesota:­Zenith­Press.­ISBN­0-7603-0842-X.­(2003). Hebert,­Adam­J.­‘When Aircraft Get Old’. Air­Force Magazine.­Arlington,­Virginia:­Air­Force­Association. (January­2003). Hopkins,­III,­Robert­S.­Boeing­KC-135­Stratotanker:­More Than­Just­a­Tanker.­Leicester,­England:­Midland Publishing­Limited.­ISBN­1-85780-069-9.­(1997). HQ USSTRATCOM/CSH History of the United States Strategic Air Command, June 1, 1992 — October 1, 2002 (Report).­United­States­Strategic­Command. (January­2004). Johnston,­A.M.,­Tex­Johnston:­Jet-Age Test Pilot, Smithsonian­Books,­December­2000,­p.­247.­ISBN­9781-56098-931-8. Lloyd,­Alwyn­T.­Boeing 707 & AWACS in Detail and Scale. Falbrook,­CA:­Aero­Publishers,­1987.­ISBN­0-83068533-2. Lombardi,­Michael­‘Historical Perspective, Start of a Proud Mission’ Boeing Frontiers. Chicago,­Illinois:­Boeing. (July­2006). May,­Mike­‘Gas Stations in the Sky’. Invention­& Technology.­American­Heritage­Society.­(Spring­2004). MILITARY­AIRCRAFT:­DOD­Needs­to­Determine­its Aerial­Refueling­Aircraft­Requirements­(Report).­US General­Accounting­Office.­June­4,­2004.­

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Air Force reservists help the 97th Air Mobility Wing train crew members on KC-135 Stratotankers (above) and C-17 Globemasters (below). An Air Force Reserve Command associate unit is slated to stand up at Altus Air Force Base, Okla., in 2010. (U.S. Air Force photo/Airman 1st Class Marianne E. Lane) Miller,­Kent;­Putrich,­Gayle­S.;­Tran,­Pierre­‘Tanker­Contract Decision­Announced’.­Army­Times.­Springfield, Virginia.­(February­29,­2008). Opall-Rome,­Barbara­‘Israelis­Slam­US-Hyped­Arms Package’.­Defense­News.­Gannett­Government­Media Corporation.­(29­April­2013). Pellerin,­Cheryl­‘Hagel,­Yaalon­Finalize­New­Israel­Military Capabilities’.­American­Forces­Press­Service.­Pentagon. (22­April­2013). Pither,­Tony.­The Boeing 707, 720 and C-135. Tonbridge, Kent,­UK:­Air-Britain­(Historians)­Ltd.,­1998.­ISBN­085130-236-X. Price,­Alfred.­The­Boeing­707.­Leatherhead,­Surrey,­UK: Profile­Publications,­1967. Proctor,­Jon­(2001).­Boeing­720.­Miami,­FL:­World Transport­Press.­ISBN­1-892437-03-1. Proctor,­Jon;­Mike­Machat;­Craig­Kodera­(2010).­From Props­to­Jets:­Commercial­Aviation's­Transition­to­the­Jet Age­1952–1962.­North­Branch,­MN:­Specialty­Press. ISBN­978-1-58007-146-8. Proctor,­Jon.­Boeing­720.­Miami,­FL:­World­Transport­Press, 2001.­ISBN­1-892437-03-1. Reed,­John­(February­25,­2010).­‘USAF­Sets­KC-X­First Flight,­IOC­Dates’.­Defense­News.­Springfield,­Virginia.­­ Riley,­Charles­‘Air­Force­awards­Boeing­$35­billion contract’.­CNN.­(24­February­2011). Ruffin,­Steven­A.­Aviation’s Most Wanted: The Top 10 book of Winged Wonders, Lucky Landings and Other Aerial Oddities. Washington­D.C.:­Potomac­Books.­p.­320. ISBN­1574886746.­(2005) Rummel,­Robert­W.­‘Howard Hughes and TWA’.

Smithsonian­Aviation­Series,­Washington,­DC.­1991. Schiff,­Barry­J.­The Boeing 707. Blue­Ridge­Summit,­PA: Tab­Books,­1982,­First­edition­1967.­ISBN­0-8168-56532. Smallpeice,­Sir­Basil. ‘Of Comets and Kings’. Airlife Publishing,­London.­1981. Smith­Jr,­Myron­J.­‘The Airline Encyclopedia 1909-2000 Vol. 1’. Scarecrow­Press­Inc.­(2002) Smith­Jr,­Myron­J.­‘The Airline Encyclopedia 1909-2000 Vol. 2’. Scarecrow­Press­Inc.­(2002) Smith­Jr,­Myron­J.­‘The Airline Encyclopedia 1909-2000 Vol. 3’.­Scarecrow­Press­Inc.­(2002) Smith,­Paul­Raymond. Boeing 707 – Airline Markings No. 3. Shrewsbury,­Shropshire,­UK:­Swan­Hill­Press,­1993. ISBN­1-85310-087-0. Stachiw,­Anthony­L.­and­Andrew­Tattersall.­Boeing CC137 (Boeing 347C) in Canadian Service. St.­Catherines,­ON: Vanwell­Publishing­Ltd.,­2004.­ISBN­1-55125-079-9. Tirpak,­John­A.­(February­2004). ‘Tanker Twilight Zone’. Air Force Magazine. Arlington,­Virginia:­Air­Force Association.­Archived­from­the­original­on­February­6, 2004.­Retrieved­October­23,­2014. Whittle,­John­A.­The Boeing 707 and 720. Tonbridge,­Kent: Air­Britain­(Historians),­1972.­ISBN­0-85130-025-1. Wilson,­Stewart.­Airliners of the World. Fyshwick,­Australia: Aerospace­Publications,­1999.­ISBN­1-875671-44-7. Wilson,­Stewart.­Boeing 707, Douglas DC-8, and Vickers VC-10. Fyshwick,­Australia:­Aerospace­Publications, 1998.­ISBN­1-875671-36-6. Winchester,­Jim.­Boeing 707. Shrewsbury,­Shropshire,­UK: Airlife,­2002.­ISBN­1-84037-311-3.

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Index

A Abel­AG­Airways:­­­­­205. Abell,­Charles:­­­­171. Aboulafia,­Richard:­­­­­136. Adam,­Ken:­­­­­190. Aer­Lingus:­­­­­146,­151,­204,­209,­219. Aerolineas­Argentinas:­­­­­201. Aerolineas­de­Guatemala­Aviateca:­­­­209. African­Express­Airways:­­­­­292. Air­Algerie:­­­­­211. Air­Bahama:­­­­­299. Air­Canada:­­­­­201,­248. Air­France:­­­­­33,­34,­71,­112,­162,­165,­167,­168, 172,­193,­204,­214,­235,­248,­273-275. Air­India:­­­­­167,­201,­204. Air­Inter:­­­­­211,­214. Air­Line­Pilot’s­Association:­­­­48. Air­Portugal:­­­­­200. Air­Transport­Association­(ATA):­­­­40,­51. Air­West:­­­­­146. Airfast:­­­­­219. Airlift­International:­­­­208. Airlines­for­America­(A4A):­­­­40. Akram,­Sheikh:­­­­­297. Albright,­Eddie:­­­­­48. Alexander,­J­H:­­­­70. Alitalia:­­­­­179. Allen,­Ivan­Jr:­­­­166. Allen,­Oliver­E:­­­­11. Allen,­William­M­‘Bill’­:­­­­­19,­45,­49,­50,­52,­54,­55, 57,­60,­65,­66,­79,­80,­154. Allis­Chalmers:­­­­­24,­27. Almquist,­Captain­Roy:­­­­­169. Ambassadair:­­­­­213,­219. American­Airlines­(AA):­­­­­20,­65,­66,­67,­146,­147, 150,­152,­155,­156,­160,­161,­173,­178,­179,­181, 183,­185,­192,­194,­197,­198,­200,­204,­209,­214, 288. American­Overseas­Airlines:­­­­­19. American­Trans­Air:­­­­213,­219. American­Travel­Air:­­­­­219. Anderson,­Jack:­­­­­17. Anfuso,­Judge­Victor­L:­­­­­29. Argüello,­Patrick:­­­­­215,­216. Armstrong­Whitworth:­­­­­34. Armstrong,­William­‘Bill’:­­­­­223,­295. Arnold,­Major­General­Henry­H­‘Hap’:­­­­­22-25,­28, 29,­30. Atkins,­Captain­Bob:­­­­­228,­231,­232,­251. Austin,­Captain­Fred­Lester­Jr:­­­­­179,­180,­181. Autair­International­Airways:­­­­­223,­295. Avianca:­­­­­201. Aviation­Corporation­of­the­Amercias:­­­­­15. Avistar­Airlines:­­­­­224. Ayres,­Joe:­­­­­283.

B Bagi,­Mohammed­Abdel:­­­­­209. Bain,­Donald:­­­­­179. Baker,­George­T:­­­­­36. Baker,­James:­­­­­287. Balsdon,­Ken:­­­­­245. Bangladesh­Biman:­­­­­211. Barker,­Alan:­­­­­237. Barna,­First­Officer­Michael­jr:­­­­­160. Barnes,­‘Pancho’:­­­­­296. Barnett,­Val:­­­­­244. Barr,­Julius:­­­­­17. Barr,­Margery:­­­­­83. Baxter,­James­Phinney:­­­­­23. Baxter,­Joseph­R:­­­­­79. BEA­(later­British)­Airtours:­­­­­153,­209,­214,­218, 248. Beach,­Captain:­­­­­282. Beall,­Wellwood­Edmeston:­­­­­47,­49. Beard,­Dan:­­­­­67. Bee,­Captain­Sam:­­­­­228,­235,­245. Belafonte,­Harry:­­­­­167. Bell­Aircraft:­­­­­25. Bell,­Lawrence­Dale:­­­­­25. Bennett,­Paul:­­­­­73. Berke,­Captain­John­A:­­­­­157,­158. Bernstein,­Al:­­­­­228. Binegar,­L­A­‘Bert’:­­­­­54,­60,­61. Bishop,­Ronald­E:­­­­­35. Bisset,­Jacqueline:­­­­­176. Blake,­Norman­T:­­­­­158. Boeing­&­Westervelt­Co.­(B&W)­:­­­­­9. Boeing­Aircraft: Model­247:­­­­­13 Model­307:­­­­­15,­16 Model­314:­­­­­17 Model­377/C-97:­18-20,­43,­44,­45 B-47:­­­­­30-32 Model­432:­­­­­31 Model­450:­­­­­31 Model­473-X:­­­­­41-44 Model­707-6:­­­­44 Boeing­Air­Transport­Inc:­­­­­12,­14. Boeing­Air­transport­System:­­­­­13. Boeing­School­of­Aeronautics:­­­­14. Boeing,­Bertha­Marie:­­­­52. Boeing,­William­Edward­‘Bill’:­­­­­9,­10-12,­14. Boeing,­William­Edward­Jr.:­­­­­10,­11. Bohan,­Marc:­­­­162. Böing,­Marie:­­­­­10. Böing,­Wilhelm:­­­­­10. Booth,­Wing­Commander­C­J:­­­­267. Boreham,­Lynne:­­­­­237. Bosov,­Captain­Alexander:­­­­­220. Boyd,­General­Albert:­­­­­58,­59.

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A KC-135 Stratotanker from Fairchild AFB, Wash., refuels a C-5 Galaxy from Travis Air Force Base, California, during a refueling mission 13 March 2014. The flight was an all-female mission held to honour and commemorate Women’s History Month. (US Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Veronica Montes) Brabazon­Committee:­­­­­33,­34. Braniff­Airlines:­­­­­52,­71,­146,­147,­151,­156-158, 178,­186,­189,­204,­209,­294,­295,­297,­305. Braznell,­Walt­W:­­­­­66,­67. Brewen,­C:­­­­­231. Brewster,­Senator­Ralph­Owen:­­­­­17,­19. Bristow,­Eric:­­­­­251. Bristow,­Guy:­­­­­26. Britannia­Airways:­­­­­212,­251. British­Airways­(BA):­­­­­209,­211. British­Caledonian­Airways­(BCAL):­­­­­206,­211. British­Commonwealth­Pacific­Airlines:­­­­­34. British­Midland­Airways­(BMA):­­­209,­210,­211,­212. British­Overseas­Airways­Corporation­(BOAC):­­­­­18, 19,­33-36,­39,­44,­45,­151,­153,­154,­170,­171, 173,­185,­189,­190,­201,­214,­216. British­United­Airways:­­­­­181. British­West­Indian­Airways­(BWIA):­­­­­209,­226. Broccoli,­Albert­R­‘Cubby’:­­­­­190. Brown,­Alexander:­­­­­11. Brown,­Dr­Harold:­­­­­29. Brown,­James:­­­­­11. Brown,­Walter­Folger:­­­­­13. Bryant,­Ron:­­­­­227. Buchanan,­Flt­Lt­David:­­­­­266. Buck,­Captain­Robert­N:­­­­­181. Buckett,­Joan:­­­­­251. Buckingham,­Edgar:­­­­21. Buffalo­Airways:­­­­­202.

Burcham,­Milo:­­­­­26. Bush,­Vannevar:­­­­­23.

C CAAC­(Civil­Aviation­Administration­of­China):­­201. Cain,­Flight­Engineer­Robert:­­­­­160. Calderwood,­Susie:­­­­­244. Caledonian­Airways:­­­­­181. Cameron,­John:­­­­­­239. Canadian­Pacific­Airlines:­­­­­34. Capital­Airlines:­­­­­35,­39. Carleton,­R­V:­­­70. Carlyon,­Bill:­­­­171. Caroline,­Phil:­­­­­253. Carter,­President­James­‘Jimmy’:­­­­­281,­288. Catayée,­Justin:­­­­­168. Chappell,­Joe:­­­­­283. China­Airlines:­­­­­225. Churchill,­Winaton:­­­­­23. Clark,­P­L:­­­­­60. Clearly,­Ned:­­­­­228. Cleveland,­Carl:­­­­­65. Clifton,­Gen­Ted:­­­­­283. Clinton,­President­William­J­‘Bill’:­­­­­281. Close,­Col.­Winston:­­­­­83. Cobb,­Gen­Robert­W:­­­­­131. Collins,­Fred:­­­­­49. Colonial­Air­Transport:­­­­­15. Connoly,­Admiral­Richard­Lansing:­­­­162.

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A B-1B Lancer assigned to the 9th Expeditionary Bomb Squadron, deployed to Andersen Air Force Base, Guam, receives fuel from a KC-135 Stratotanker over the Pacific Ocean 10 March 2017. The B-1B's are deployed to Andersen AFB as part of U.S. Pacific Command's continuous bomber presence operations. This forward deployed presence demonstrates continuing U.S. commitment to stability and security in the Indo-Asia-Pacific region. (U.S. Air Force photo/ Airman 1st Class Christopher E. Quail) Continental­Airlines:­­­­­35,­147,­158,­160,­163,­181, 193,­209,­211. Cotter,­Captain­John:­­­­­228,­235,­244,­245,­248,­249. Cram,­Ralph:­­­­­17. Crosby,­Ralph:­­­­­135. Cunard­Eagle­Airways:­­­­­153. Curry,­Jesse:­­­­286. D Dale,­John­R:­­­­172. Dan­Air­Services­(Dan­Air)­:­­­­­222,­223,­227-254. Davison,­Robert:­­­­­219. De­Havilland­Comet:­33,­34,­36,­37-39,­44,­78,­137, 139,­140,­152,­160,­173,­185,­192,­209,­254. Del­Giudice,­Frank­J:­­­­­52,­68. Denver­Ports­of­Call:­­­­­212,­213. DETA:­­­­211. Dieckman,­Johnny:­­­­162. Dietrich,­Noah:­­­­­17,­19. Dior,­Christian:­­­­162. Dobson,­Captain­Bernard:­­­­­190. Dooley,­Bob:­­­­­228. Dorwin­Teague:­­­­­52. Doty,­Thomas­G:­­­­­163,­164,­165. Douglas­Aircraft­Corporation:­­­­­20. Douglas­DC-2:­­­­­37. Douglas­DC-3:­­­­­19,­33,­72,­294. Douglas­DC-4:­­­­­20,­33,­138. Douglas­DC-6:­­­­­19,­20,­39,­40,­138,­203,­264. Douglas­DC-7:­­­­­20,­33,­37,­40,­64,­138,­141, 144,­244,­294.

Douglas­DC-8:­­­­­40,­51,­64,­66,­67,­71,­75,­76, 138,­141,­144,­145,­152,­172,­185,­188­189, 191,­192,­193,­198,­202,­204,­205,­206,­208, 209. Douglas­DC-9:­­­­­­192. Douglas­DC-10:­­­­­209. Druyun,­Darleen:­­­­129,­130,­131. Dryden,­Hugh­L:­­­­­29. DuBois,­John,­:­­­­­179,­180 DuBridge,­Dr­Lee­A:­­­­­29 E Eagle­Airways:­­­­­153 East­African­Airways­(EAA):­­­­­211 Eastern­Airlines:­­­­­36,­71,­182,­208. Eastman,­Linda:­­­­162. Eastman,­Louise­Lindner:­­­­162. Edmonds,­Thomas:­­­­­72. Eisenhower,­President­Dwight­D:­­­­­206,­280. El­Al:­­­­­173,­193,­198,­199,­200,­201,­215,­216. Epstein,­Brian:­­­­166. Erbeck,­Bonnie:­­­­­219. Erbeck,­Captain­Andrew:­­­­­219. Evans,­Sue:­­­­­237. Everheart,­Gen­Carlton:­­­­­136. Ewen:­Alec:­­­­­228,­241. F Farrar,­Alan:­­­­­228. Fehmer,­Marie:­­­­285,­286. Felbeck,­George­T:­­­­162.

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Feldman,­Captain­Sam:­­­­­173. Ferguson,­Earl:­­­­­17. Field,­Captain­H­J­Dexter:­­­­171. Finch,­Captain­Harrison:­­­­­179,­180,­181. Finlay,­Donald­W:­­­­­62,­64. Flying­Tigers­Line:­­­­­180. Flying­Tigers:­­­­­180,­208. Ford,­President­Gerald:­­­­281,­288. Franz,­Anselm:­­­­21. Fredrickson,­Paul­S:­­­­­37. Free,­F­William:­­­­­178. Fry,­Pat:­­­­­235,­244. Fulbright,­Senator:­­­­­282. G Gallagher,­Jackie:­­­­­231. Galvin­Brass­and­Iron­Works:­­­­­10. Gannett,­James­R:­­­­­181. Gannett,­Jim:­­­­­65,­67,­72. Ganzer,­Vic:­­­­­31. Gates,­Robert:­­­­­134. General­Electric:­­­­­24,­25,­26,­27. German­Cargo:­­­216,­217. Gilbert,­Lewis:­­­­­190. Gillan,­Tom:­­­­171. Gimble,­Gen­Thomas­F:­­­­­131. Glenn­L­Martin­Co.­:­­­­­10. Glynn,­Sgt­Paul:­­­­­282. Gorky,­Arshile:­­­­162. Gorney,­Serge:­­­­171.

Grabow,­Shirley:­­­­­160. Grant,­Malcolm:­­­­­252. Greenwood­Timber­Co.­:­­­­­10. Grief,­Bill:­­­­­235,­244,­245. Griffith,­A­A:­­­­­21. Grover,­Ken:­­­­235. Gulf­Air:­­­­­211,­212,­251.

H Hailey,­Arthur:­­­­­175. Hale,­Barbara:­­­­­176. Hale,­Sue:­­­­­237. Hamilton­Aero­Manufacturing­Company:­­­­­12. Hamilton­Metalplane­Company:­­­­­12. Hamilton­Standard­Propeller­Company:­­­­­14. Handy,­Gen.John­W:­­­­97. Hanson,­Col­Lewis­‘Swede’:­­­­­281,­283,­287. Hardy,­Captain­Ron:­­­­­212. Harrison,­George:­­­­166. Harrison,­Todd:­­­­­136. Hayes,­Helen:­­­­­176. Hayr,­Sir­Kenneth:­­­­­267. Heath­Shipyard:­­­­­10. Heath,­Edward:­­­­­10. Heath,­Prime­Minister­Edward:­­­­­218. Hedren,­Tippy:­­­­­178. Heflin,­Van:­­­­­176. Heinemann,­Milt:­­­­­52. Heinkel,­Ernst:­­­­­21. Heist,­Captain­James:­­­­­160.

313

Airmen from the 92nd Aircraft Maintenance Squadron work together to deice a KC-135 Stratotanker 29 January 2014, at Fairchild Air Force Base, Wash. Aircraft deicing is a process in which liquid solutions are sprayed onto an aircraft during the winter to both defrost and prevent future precipitation from freezing. Snow and ice on the wings and rear tail component change their shape and disrupt the airflow making it difficult to fly and diminishes fuel economy. (U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Alexandre Montes)

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Helpern,­Milton:­­­­­163. Henry:­­­­­287 Hill,­Archibald:­­­­­23. Hilton,­Conrad:­­­­­245. Hoche,­Captain­Roland:­­­­166. Holliday,­Raymond:­­­­­148. Hope,­Bob:­­­­­228. Horrage,­Frank:­­­­­227,­251. Howell,­Joe:­­­­­32. Hughes­Aircraft­Co:­­­­255. Hughes,­Howard­Robart­Jr:­­­­­16-20,­38,­39,­75,­146148,­150,­208,­295. Hughes,­Judge­Sarah:­­­­­285,­286. Hunter,­Ross:­­­­­176. Hymans,­Max:­­­­­70. I IAS­Cargo­Airlines:­­­­­253. Independent­Air:­­­­­205. Inter­Am:­­­­­206. Iran­Air:­­­­­181,­244. Iraqi­Airways:­­­­­211. Ireland,­Ray:­­­­­20. Irvine,­Lt­Gen­Clarence­S:­­­­­79.

J Jamieson,­Pete:­­­­­252. Japan­Air­Lines­(JAL):­­­­­34. Johnson,­Clarence­L­‘Kelly’:­­­­­25. Johnson,­President­Lyndon:­­­­­175,­281,­282,­283,­287 Johnston,­Alvin­Melvin­‘Tex’:­­­­­52-59,­61-63,­65,­67, 71,­72,­80,­154. Jones,­Robert­T­‘Bob’:­­­­­30. Jones,­W­Alton:­­­­162. K Kaled,­Leila:­­­­­215,­216,­218. Kantlehner,­John­R:­­­­172. Keisler,­Gen­Peter­D:­­­­­130. Kelly,­Gene:­­­­­158. Kelly,­Lois:­­­­­160. Kelly,­Raymond­D:­­­­­64. Kennedy,­George:­­­­­176. Kennedy,­Jackie:­­­­­175,­280-285. Kennedy,­President­John­F:­­­­29,­85,­175,­178,­280285. Kent,­Harvey:­­­­­77,­78,­79. Kenya­Airways:­­­­­211. Kerefov,­Anatoly:­­­­221,­222. Kershaw,­Charles­James:­­­­­11. Kershaw,­Mary­Leavenworth:­­­­­11. Kilduff,­Malcolm­‘Mac’:­­­­­284,­285,­286. King­County­International­Airport:­­­­­11. King­Hussein­of­Jordan:­­­­­218. King,­John­M:­­­­­295,­297. King,­Martin­Luther­Jr:­­­­­167. Kinney,­Samuel:­­­­­283. Kirk,­Captain­Tony:­­­­­235,­248. Kirkeby,­Arnold:­­­­162.

Kirkorian,­Kerkor­‘Kirk’:­­­­­294,­295,­296,­297. Kissinger,­Dr:­­­­­287. Knuth,­Captain­George­F:­­­­172. Koninklijke­Luchtvaart­Maatschappij­(KLM-Royal Dutch­Airlines)­:­­­­­17,­33,­65,­273,­274,­275. Korean­Airlines:­­­­­219,­221,­222. Kuwait­Airways:­­­­­211,­212. Kyu,­Captain­Kim­Chang:­­­­­220,­221.

L Laird,­John:­­­­­158. Laird,­Melvin:­­­­­216,­218. Lam,­Eva:­­­­­237. Lancaster,­Burt:­­­­­176. Larkman,­Captain­Arthur:­­­­­227-254. Larkman,­Joy:­­­­­235,­252,­253. Larsen,­John:­­­­­181. Larson,­R­R:­­­­­60. Laudan,­Fred:­­­­­49. Leavenworth,­Henry:­­­­­11. Lee,­Stan:­­­­­235. LeMay,­Brig­Gen­Curtis­Emerson:­­­­­29,­76,­79,­80. Lennon,­John:­­­­166. Lev,­Captain­Uri­Bar:­­­­­215. Lewis,­George­W:­­­­­23. Lewton,­Cliff:­­­­­228. Libyan­Arab­Airlines:­­­­­211. Lindbergh,­Charles:­­­­­69. Linea­Aeropostal­Venezolana:­­­­34. Lisieur­Henri­J:­­­­­70. Lloyd­International:­­­­­214. Lloyd,­Frank:­­­­­38. Lockheed­Aircraft­Corporation:­­­­­20,­22,­25,­26 Loesch,­Richard­L­‘Dix’­:­­­­­54,­55,­56,­57,­60-62, 70,­72,­79,­80. Loewy,­Raymond:­­­­­175. Loewy,­Raymond:­­­­­280. Long­Island­Airways:­­­­­15. Lord­Brabazon­of­Tara:­­­­33. Los­Angeles­Airways:­­­­­146. Los­Angeles­Dodgers:­­­­­216. Lufthansa:­­­­­65,­169,­172,­197,­201,­209. Lusty,­Ivor:­­­­171. Lynch,­Captain­Waldo­W:­­­­­158,­159,­160. Lynn,­William:­­­­­131. M Malayan­Airways:­­­­­244. Malaysian­Airline­System­(MAS):­­­­­211. Malloch,­Jack:­­­­­223. Mansfield,­Senatore­Mike:­­­­282. MAOF:­­­­­218. Marshall,­Col­Robert­C:­­­­­282. Martin,­Brian­‘Sport’:­­­­222,­223,­235. Martin,­Captain­Jack:­­­­­181. Martin,­Dean:­­­­­176. Martin,­George­C:­­­­­62. Masse,­Peter­F:­­­­162. McCain,­Senator­John:­­­­­129. McCarthy,­Glenn:­­­­­17.

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A KC-135 Stratotanker connects with a B-52H Stratofortress from Minot Air Force Base, N.D., during an aerial refueling mission over the Alaskan coastline as part of exercise Amalgam Dart 15-28 May 2015. The annual North American Aerospace Defense Command exercise afforded American and Canadian forces field training aimed at improving NORAD's operational capability in a binational environment. The exercise spanned two forward operating locations in Canada’s Northwest Territories, two US Air Force bases in Alaska, and a mobile radar site in Resolute, Nunavut, as well as the sky over much of NORAD’s area of responsibility. (U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Benjamin W. Stratton) McCartney,­Paul:­­­­162,­166. McDougall,­Roy:­­­­­251. McGarrigle,­Karen:­­­­­79. McHugh,­Brig­Gen­Godfrey­T:­­­­­29,­281,­283,­284. McNulty,­Gen­Paul­J:­­­­­130. Mengel,­W­Bruce:­­­­­60,­67. Merchant,­Joseph­‘Joe’:­­­­­114. Middle­Eastern­Airlines­(MEA):­­­­208,­214,­219,­220, 239. Mikal,­Maj.­John:­­­­117,­119. Military­Units­and­Squadrons 100th­ARW­(USAF):­­­­­119-128. 1370th­PMW­(USAF):­­­­­86. 196th­ARS­(USAF):­­­­­97. 370th­Flight­Test­Squadron­(USAF):­­­­­118. 412th­Operations­Group­(USAF):­­­­­­118. 412th­Test­and­Engineering­Group­(USAF):­­­­118. 412th­Test­Wing­(USAF):­­­­­118. 418th­FLTS­(USAF):­­­­­119. 434th­ARW­(USAF):­­­­103. 445th­Flight­Test­Squadron­(USAF):­­­­­118. 452nd­FLTS­(USAF):­­­­­93. 4th­ACCS­(USAF):­­­­­89. 51­Squadron­(RAF):­­­­­116,­117.

513rd­Air­Control­Group­(USAF):­­­­­257. 552nd­ACW­(USAF):­­­­­257. 55th­Wing­(USAF):­­­­93,­97,­116. 6th­AMW­(USAF):­105-109. 70th­AREFS­(USAF):­­­­­89. 773rd­Test­Squadron­(USAF):­­­­­118. 775th­Test­Squadron­(USAF):­­­­­118. 8­Squadron­(RAF):­263-273. 82nd­RS­(USAF):­­­­­100. 82nd­TW­(USAF):­­­­­90. 89th­AW­(USAF):­­­­­99,­100. 89th­MAW­(USAF):­­­­­­280. 927th­ARW­(USAF):­105-109. 93rd­ACW­(USAF):­­­­­277,­278. 93rd­ARS­(USAF):­­­­­83,­85. 93rd­BW­(USAF):­­­­83. 9th­SRW­(USAF):­­­­­119. FEWSG­(USN):­­­­­92. FTRG­(USN):­­­­­92. Mills,­Jock:­­­­­237. Mobutu,­President:­­­­­224. Mohawk­Airlines:­­­­­161. Monarch­Airlines:­­­­­218. Monroney,­Senator­Almer­Stillwell­‘Mike’­Stillwell:­­­206.

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A Luftwaffe Tornado disconnects from the boom of a KC-135 Stratotanker 14 October 2014, over Germany. (US Air Force photo/Airman 1st Class Dillon Johnston) Moody,­Captain­Keith:­­­­­235,­254. Moore,­Betty:­­­­­160. Moore,­Laurie:­­­­­­239. Mulvaugh,­Dermot:­­­­­251. Muskie,­Edmund:­­­­­282.

N National­Air­Transport:­­­­14. National­Airlines:­­­­­36,­71,­178. Nelson,­Barry:­­­­­176. New­Goma­Air:­­­­­223. Nigeria­Airways:­­­­­209. Nigerian­Airways:­­­­­211. Nixon,­President­Richard­M:­­­­­216,­218,­281.­288. Nolan,­Lloyd:­­­­­176. Northeast­Airlines:­­­­­35,­146. Northrop­Aircraft:­­­­­22. Northwest­Airlines:­­­­­13,­18,­65,­147,­164,­169. Northwest­Orient­Airlines:­­­­­19,­200,­201,­208,­226. O O’Donnell,­Kenneth­P:­­­284,­285. Occidental­Airlines:­­­­­223,­224. Ojjeh,­Akram:­­­­­297. Olympic­Airways:­­­­­193,­201,­304. Omega­Air:­­­­­183. Orringer,­Paul­L:­­­­172. Ortmann,­Karl:­­­­­10. Osler,­Scott:­­­­­32.

P Pacific­Aero­Products­Co.:­­­­­9. Pacific­Air­Transport:­­­­­12,­14. Pacific­Northern­Airlines:­208,­209. Pakistan­International­Airlines­(PIA):­­­­­194. Pakistan­International­Airways:­­­­­211. Pam­Ann:­­­­­179. Pan­American­Airways­System­(PAA/Pan­Am):­­­­1419,­33,­36,­37,­39,­65-67,­147,­148,­151,­152,­158, 160,­165,­168,­172-174,­178,­179,­181,­183,­185, 186,­187,­188,­192,­193,­194,­200-202,­208,­209, 215-219,­227-229,­235,­244,­248,­253,­254,­290, 291,­298. Panair­do­Brazil:­­­­34. Pascall­,­Bertha­Marie­Potter­(Mrs­William­Boeing): 11. Pascall­,­Nathaniel­‘Nat’­Jr.:­­­­­­11. Pascall,­Cranston:­11. Pecor,­Second­Officer­Robert:­­­­­160. Pennell,­Maynard­L:­­­­­47,­51,­52. Penwardem,­Jerry:­­­­­253. Peoples­Savings­Bank:­­­­­10. Perez,­Diana:­­­­­219. Peters,­Captain­Samuel­T:­­­­­158. Pfafman,­Calvin­E:­­­­­62,­63. Pfrang,­Kenneth:­­­­­219. Phillipines­Airlines:­­­­­20. Pilots­Pals:­­­­­­114. Pirson,­Fecicen:­­­­­70.

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A B-2 Spirit moves into position for refueling from a KC-135 Stratotanker over the Pacific Ocean on Tuesday, 30 May 2006. The B-2 is from the 509th Bomb Wing at Whiteman Air Force Base, Mo., and the KC-135 is from the Pennsylvania Air National Guard's 171st Air Refueling Wing at the Pittsburgh International Airport. The bomber is part of Pacific Command's continuous bomber presence in the Asia-Pacific region. (U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Bennie J. Davis III) Pitoiset,­Jacques:­­­­166. Planet­Air:­­­­­223. Pohl,­Robert­Wichard:­­­­­21. Potter,­Alice­Kershaw:­­­­­11. Potter,­Howard­Cranston:­­­­­11. Potter,­Howard:­­­­­11. Power­Jets­Ltd:­­­­­24. Pratt­&­Whitney:­­­­­12-15,­19-21,­27-29,­39,­40,­42, 43,­44,­53,­66,­81,­84,­87,151,­187,­190,­191,­196, 197,­199,­203,­214,­215,­220,­260,­280. Pratt,­Perry­W:­­­­­28. President­George­H­W:­­­­­281. President­Zhou­Enlai:­­­­286. Price,­C­H:­­­­­147. Pucci,­Emilio:­­­­­157. Pumphrey,­Gordon:­­­­­228. Q QANTAS­(Queensland­and­Northern­Territories­Air Services)­:­­­­­181-184,­186,­187,­193,­200,­211, 276,­277,­293,­294,­295,­296,­297,­298 Quarles,­Donald­A:­­­­­79. Queen­Elizabeth­II:­­­­­287. R Reagan,­President­Ronald:­­­­281. Reaney,­Joe:­­­­­244.

Redes­Estaduais­Aéreas­Limitadas­(REAL):­­­­­191. Reed,­William­G:­­­­­60. Reid,­Caroline:­­­­­179. Renschler,­Frederick­B:­­­­­12. Rickenbacker,­Captain­Edward­V­‘Eddie’:­­­­­­36. Roberts,­Charles:­­­­­284,­285. Robins,­Robert:­­­­­32. Rockwell,­Colonel­William­F:­180. Rosenberg,­Chuck:­­­­­130. Rosendahl,­Vice­Admiral­Charles­E:­­­­64. Rossignol,­Ronald:­­­­­223,­224,­225. Roth,­Lt­Col­M­S:­­­­­25. Rubine,­Irvin­G:­­­­162. Ruffle,­Dylis:­­­­­231. Rummel,­Robert­W:­­­­­37,­150.

S Saarinen,­Eero:­­­­­148. SABENA­Belgian­World­Airlines:­­­­33,­70,­159,­160, 172,­224. Sadat,­President­Anwar:­­­­­287. Saltzman,­Harry:­­­­­190. Saturn­Airways:­­­­­208. Savitsky,­Yevgeniy:­­­­222. Sawyer,­Robert­E­‘Bob’:­­­­­70. Scandanavian­Airline­System­(SAS):­­­­­33. Scandanavian­Airlines­System­(SAS):­­­­­186.

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Schairer,­George­S:­­­­­30,­52. Schleeh,­Russ:­­­­­32. Schleier,­Maj.­Erich:­­­­­80. Schriever,­Gen­Bernard:­­­­­29. Schwarzkopf,­Gen­Norman:­­­­116. Sears,­Michael:­­­­­130. Seaton,­George:­­­­­176. Seberg,­Jean:­­­­­176. Sega,­Dr.­Ron:­­­­­­131. Seitz,­­Frederick:­­­­­29. Sharif,­Bassan­Abu:­­­­216. Sharma,­Velma:­­­­­237. Sharp,­Martin­C:­­­­­25. Shogran,­Ivar­L:­­­­­64. Sikorsky­Aviation­Corporation:­­­­­12,­14. Simmons,­Thorton:­­­­­251. Sinatra,­Frank:­178,­294,­295. Sinatra,­Nancy:­­­­­295. Singapore­Airlines:­­­­­202,­241. Sinski,­George:­­­­­158. Siponen,­Riley:­­­­­231. Skyworld­Airlines:­­­­­213. Smith­C­R:­­­­­66. Smith,­C­I:­­­­­227. Smith,­Chuck:­­­­­235. Smith,­Derek:­­­­­252.

Smith,­Margaret­Chase:­­­­282. Smith,­Merriman:­­­­­284,­285. Smithsonian­Institution/Smithsonian­National­Air­And Space­Museum:­­­­­46,­73,­74. Snow,­Bill:­­­­­228,­235. Snudden,­Alan:­­­­­227­,­235,­251. Society­of­British­Aerospace­Companies­(SBAC): 34,­36. Sommermeyer,­Captain­‘Gus’:­­­­­65. South­African­Airways­(SAA):­­­­­185,­192,­201,­291. Spalding,­Tom:­­­­171. Stainler,­M­C:­­­­­70. Staley,­Captain­M­Frank:­­­­­157,­158. Standard­Life­Insurance­Co.­:­­­­­10. Standard­Steel­Propeller­Company:­­­­­12. Stapleton,­Maureen:­­­­­176. Starr,­Ringo:­­­­166. Stearman­Aircraft­Company:­­­­­12. Steiner,­Jack:­­­­­52. Sterk,­Major­James­R:­­­­­257. Stern,­Martin­Jr:­­­­­295. Stevens,­J:­­­­­251. Stewart,­Rosalind:­­­­­160. Storck,­Captain­Gail:­­­­­150. Stout­Airlines:­­­­­12. Sudan­Airways:­­­­­209.

Maj. Christopher Marriott and Capt. Alexandra Trana, both KC-135 Stratotanker pilots from the 909th Air Refueling Squadron, taxi behind several KC-135s during an elephant walk as part of the Forceful Tiger exercise on Kadena Air Base, Japan, 1 April 2015. During the aerial exercise, the Stratotankers delivered 800,000 pounds of fuel to approximately 50 aircraft. (U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Maeson L. Elleman)

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An F-15E Strike Eagle receives fuel from a KC-135 Stratotanker 23 September 2014, over northern Iraq after conducting airstrikes in Syria. These aircraft were part of a large coalition strike package that was the first to strike Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant targets in Syria. (US Air Force photo/Senior Airman Matthew Bruch) Sudan­Airways:­­­­­211. Sutter,­Joseph­‘Joe’:­­­­­62,­63. Sutton,­George:­­­­­228. Swindle,­Col.­James:­­­­­281,­283,­284,­285,­287. Swissair:­­­­33,­­216. Syrian­Arab­Airlines:­­­­­211.

T Talbott,­Harold­E:­­­­­60,­61,­76. Thomas,­Brig­Gen­Jon:­­­­­136. Thomas,­Lowell:­­­­­179,­180. Thomas,­Sir­Miles:­­­­­36. Thompson,­Dr­Loren­B:­­­­­135,­279. Thompson,­Wing­Commander­R­G:­­­­­267. Tizzard­Mission:­­­22,­23. Tizzard,­Sir­Henry:­­­­­22,­23. Tohar,­Captain­Zvi:­­­­­173. Topliffe,­Ken:­­­­­228. Townsend,­Lt­Col­Guy­M:­­­­­60. Tracinda­Corporation:­­­­­296. Tradewinds:­­­­208. Tran-Canada­Airlines:­­­­­14,­34. Trans­Arabian­Air­Transport­(TAAT):­­­­226,­277. Trans­Canadian­Airlines­(TCA)­:­­­­­33,­35. Trans­Global­Airlines­(sic)­176,­177. Trans­International­Airlines:­­­­­297. Trans­Mediterranean­Airways­(TMA):­­­­­201. Trans­Polar:­­­­­209. Trans­World­Airways­(TWA)­:­­­­­16,­17,­20,­33,­37,

39,­69,­75,­146-151,­178,­179,­181,­183,­185,­191, 193,­208,­209,­216,­288. Transavia­Holland:­­­­­301. Transcontinental­and­Western­Air:­­­­­16. Transportes­Aéreos­Portugueses­(TAP):­­­­­199,­201, 288. Travolta,­John:­­­­­293-297. Trezes,­Georgette­D:­­­­162. Trimble,­Sgt­John:­­­­­281. Trippe,­Juan­Terry:­­­­­14-20,­37,­66,­67,­148. Tsarkov,­Vladimir:­­­­220,­221. Tunis­Air:­­­­­211. Tyler­More,­Mary:­­­­­149.

U Uncles,­J­L:­­­­171. Union­Aeromaritime­de­Transport­(UAT):­­­­­34. United­Aircraft­&­Transport­Corporation:­­­­­12,­14. United­Aircraft­&­Transportation­Company:­­­­­13. United­Aircraft­Corporation:­­­­­14. United­Airlines­Inc:­­­­­12,­19,­35,­64,­65,­71,­147,­160, 172,­177,­185,­186,­191,­192,­209. United­Airlines­Transportation­Company:­­­­­11. V Varney­Airlines:­­­­­12,­14. Vernieuw,­Anselme:­­­­­70. Viação­Aérea­Rio-Grandense­(VARIG);­­­­163,­168, 193.

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320

Finished with engines! Senior Airman Clarissa Banks, a 340th Aircraft Maintenance Unit crew chief, controls the movement of a KC-135 Stratotanker on Al Udeid Air Base, Qatar, 8 April 2015. Al Udeid is a strategic coalition air base in Qatar that supports over 90 combat and support aircraft and houses more than 5,000 military personnel. (U.S. Air Force photo/Senior Airman James Richardson) Vickers­Viscount:­­­­­33-35,­209. Vider,­Shlomo:­­­­­216. Virgin­Airlines:­­­­­179. Von­Baumhauer,­Albert:­­­­­17. Von­Kármán,­Dr­Theodore­:­­­­­28,­29,­30. Von­Ohain,­Hans­Joachim­Pabst:­­­­21. Vought­Aircraft:­­­­14.

W Walder,­Barbara:­­­­232. Wallick,­S­Lewis:­­­­72. Walter­Dorwin­Teague­Associates:­­­­68. Ware,­Tim:­­­­­228,­235. Warsitz,­Erich:­­­­­21. Warton,­Hank:­­­­­223. Waterlot,­Paul:­­­­­224. Watson-Watt,­Robert:­­­­­23. Wells,­Edward­Curtiss­‘Ed’:­­­­­47,­49,­52,­60. West­African­Airways:­­­­­­239. Western­Airlines:­­­­­146,­204,­208,­209. Westervelt,­Commander­George­Conrad:­­­­­9,­11,­ Westinghouse:­­­­­24. Whitehead,­Bell:­­­­­60.

Whiton,­Emelyn:­­­­162. Whittle,­Frank:­­­­­21,­22,­23,­27. Wiesner,­Dr­Jerome­B:­­­­­29. Willgoos,­Andrew:­­­­­28. Wooldridge,­Wing­Commander­John­de­Lacy:­­­­­296. World­Airways:­­­­­173,­208,­211,­253. Wright­Aeronautics:­­­­­27. Wynter,­Dana:­­­­­176. X,­Malcom:­­­­­167. Y Yang,­Debra­Wong:­­­­­130. Yeasting,­John:­­­­­49. Yorty,­Sam:­­­­­167. Young,­Freddie:­­­­­190. Young,­John:­­­­­134. Yri,­William:­­­­289.

Z Zak,­Edwin:­­­­­149. Zambia­Airways:­­­­­211,­253,­277. Zeitlyn,­Brian:­­­­­235.

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