Higher Education in China

Jianmin Gu · Xueping Li · Lihua Wang

Higher Education in China

Higher Education in China

Jianmin Gu Xueping Li Lihua Wang •

Higher Education in China

Higher Education Press

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Jianmin Gu Institute of Higher Education, College of Education Zhejiang University Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China

Lihua Wang Institute of Higher Education, College of Education Zhejiang University Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China

Xueping Li Institute of Higher Education, College of Education Zhejiang University Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China

ISBN 978-981-13-0844-4 ISBN 978-981-13-0845-1 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0845-1

(eBook)

Jointly published with Higher Education Press, Beijing, China The print edition is not for sale in Mainland China. Customers from Mainland China please order the print book from: Higher Education Press. Library of Congress Control Number: 2018945442 © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Higher Education Press 2018 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publishers, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publishers, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publishers nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publishers remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Foreword

Of all human activities, Education is among the highest and noblest. As a social factor, it has been seen as “an engine of social development”, “a purifier of human harmony” and “an expression of culture”. Without education, the prospects for humanity would be bleak and world prosperity might be a mere dream. Civilization, social development and personal advancement are continuous with education: they precede and follow it. Nations, families and individuals stake their hopes on education. Because of its special role at all levels of human progress, education has been given priority in all ages in countries the world over. As a result, humanity has accumulated a wealth of positive experience and, in the world’s long history, many intractable problems have been solved, setbacks have been tackled and challenges have been turned into opportunities. But we cannot rest on our laurels or stop addressing the present and the future. New challenges and problems have come as a consequence of the faster pace of change and expansion, which characterizes the new century. To promote steady and sustainable development and foster understanding among peoples in this increasingly global world of ours, we should never give up exploring new avenues and finding new opportunities. Education, as history shows, is perhaps the single best approach we can rely on to achieve our goals. With this background, mutual exchange and cooperation become all the more important. China’s rise in the recent past has benefited from educational development spanning a period of nearly seventy years, beginning with the birth of the People’s Republic of China. China has made considerable strides and achieved enviable goals in the field of education during often very difficult times. Now, with the largest education system in the world, China is well on track in successfully achieving the “popularization of compulsory education” and the “massification of higher education”. Some of China’s achievements may surprise us: a modern education system is basically in place; vocational and technical education policy tries to meet the demands of social and economic development; the internationalization of education has set out along a broad avenue; educational policies and legislation are being regularly improved, etc. At the same time, however, China is still facing many hurdles and challenges in her task of further developing the v

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education system. Education is part of China’s overall development, and as such it requires her own efforts, wisdom and innovation in order to set up and manage a modern education system able to respond to the unique challenges she faces. To sustain development, China needs to learn from the experiences, the achievements, the researches and experimentation of other countries, without underestimating, in the process, her own achievements and characteristics. With significant Chinese characteristics, Chinese educational development will also play an important role in the global educational system. This year is the 40th anniversary of The Reform and Opening Up and the 5th anniversary of the Belt and Road Initiative. Along with the fast social and economic development in the past years, Chinese education has witnessed tremendous achievements due to the increasing public financial support, changing attitude towards education, and the progress of information technology. Mutual understanding is the precondition for international exchange and cooperation. However, up to now, foreigners have encountered many hurdles in trying to improve their knowledge of Chinese education. On the one hand, not many of them manage to achieve a working knowledge of the Chinese language and, on the other hand, there is an undeniable shortage of English literature on Chinese Education. In order to help foreign friends and scholars know more about today’s Chinese education, Chinese Education Series comes into being. This series include four volumes, namely Educational Policies and Legislation in China, Educational Governance in China, Higher Education in China, and Technical and Vocational Education in China. The various volumes endeavor to explain the context of Chinese education, to introduce educational development in the present situation, to analyze the problems as they develop, and to look forward to the future of Chinese education in different areas, with each author offering his or her own original perspective. We hope that the series have to some extent help global society to better know the outline and features of modern Chinese education, that it has aroused interest in it, and has encouraged readers to explore the legislation governing its development. Many thanks are due to Higher Education Press and Springer, for undertaking the publication of the Chinese Education Series. I would also like to express my sincere appreciation to the authors who carefully revise the volumes with true professionalism and selflessness, while handling busy schedules, and to all the friends and colleagues who have offered invaluable criticism, advice and encouragement. Hangzhou, China

Xiaozhou Xu

Foreword

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Prof. Xiaozhou Xu is an outstanding scholar in the field of comparative education and entrepreneurship education. He is Dean of the Academy of Humanities and Social Sciences at Zhejiang University, and Yangtze River Scholar Chair Professor of Ministry of Education of China. He is currently the holder of UNESCO Chair in Entrepreneurship Education and President of UNESCO Entrepreneurship Education Network National Chapter of China. He undertook international and national research projects from UNESCO, the World Bank, and the National Social Science Fund of China. He edited a range of influential series which cover Entrepreneurship Education Research, Changes in Higher Education Policy, 60 Years of Education in China, and Research on Strategy and Decision of Education Development. He has published over a hundred essays in academic journals and over ten monographs including Building the Entrepreneurship Education System in University, Strategies of College Students’ Entrepreneurial Skill Development. Over ten research outcomes were rewarded by Ministry of Education of China and Zhejiang Province government.

Preface

For quite some time now, the world has been watching with interest China’s 38-year reform and opening up to the outside world which has not only brought about changes within but also propelled the country into the global scene as an important player in almost every field of commerce and industry. Among the factors that contributed to this unprecedented progress are, undoubtedly, the developments in its higher education system. Taking inspiration from former Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping who said, “Education should open out towards the world, towards the future and towards modernization,” a wide range of reforms have been introduced into higher education in China in the last 38 years. Several international exchange programs facilitating mutual visits of faculty and research scholars and other collaborative efforts with leading universities in the world have helped to advance the internationalization of higher education in China. As a result, the world is getting to know more about higher education in China and Chinese higher education is becoming more open to the world. This book is an attempt to provide international readers a comprehensive introduction to higher education in China. It is hoped that this work will help readers across the globe make sense of the amazingly huge and complex machinery that higher education in China is today. The authors have taken pains to introduce the reader, step by step, to all the important aspects of higher education in China— its history and development, its magnitude and structure, its operational system and management, and its processes of enrollment and employment. There is also an overview of the various levels of higher education in China, namely, specialized higher education, undergraduate education, postgraduate education, research, and teaching staff. In a word, this is a book that tells you what higher education in China is and how it works. While economic globalization and internationalization of education have greatly reduced the differences among educational systems in various countries, it cannot be denied that Higher Education in a country needs to be deeply rooted in its culture and traditions. Besides, many aspects of higher education are to be defined by the practical circumstances prevailing in the country. Thus, China makes it clear that ix

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while moving ahead with the rest of the world, it does not wish to limit or diminish its unique national and cultural characteristics. Without doubt, higher education in a country cannot thrive if it is distanced from the ground realities, if it has no roots in the soil, if it ignores the people and their daily needs. Some of the distinguishing characteristics of higher education in China highlighted in this book are the following: First, long history: China is a country with a long tradition of higher education. Although the process of modernization of higher education in China started only in the mid-nineteenth century, mostly through contacts with the western world, one cannot forget the fact that China is a country with a 5000-year-old history and a culture steeped in the pursuit of learning and excellence whose best-known icon is Confucius, who visualized education as a powerful means for transforming both the self and the State. Not surprisingly, Confucian thought still holds its influence on the social and moral fabric of China. Second, enormous proportions: Higher education in China is an institution of enormous proportions. With the rapid growth of education during the last decades of the twentieth century, China saw the phenomenon of mass higher education entering its threshold in the beginning of the twenty-first century. As a result, today there are 2560 Higher Education Institutions (HEI) catering to over 36 million college students (over 28 million full-timers), and over 7 million graduates coming out its colleges every year. Yet, in comparison with other countries, it cannot be said that China is a world leader in higher education. The major task facing higher education in China today is that of ensuring quality at every level of specialization. Third, centralized management: China has long been a society with high centripetal tendencies. This is reflected in every aspect of administration, including higher education. Even after the formation of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the power of decision-making and management mainly lay in the hands of the central government. In the new climate of reform and modernization, the operational system of higher education has definitely become more diversified. A new system of two-level management (by the central government and the provincial government) has been introduced in which provincial governments play the key role. However, the system still has the characteristics of centralized management which is reflected, for example, in the reform of cost-recovery policies, the merger of higher education institutions, the enrollment expansion of HEIs, the construction of higher education zones, the “211 Project”, the “985 Project”, the “2011 Program”, and the “Double First-class” University Construction. Fourth, the pragmatic trend: The pragmatic trend in Chinese Higher Education is quite obvious. For the lack of the spiritual quality, higher education in China has always focused on the needs of economic and social development. While the political function of higher education was emphasized in the past, its economic function has come to center stage today. This is particularly evident in the phenomenon of HEIs running factories and farms. It is also seen in the kinds of specialties introduced in the curriculum, in the planning of curriculum, and in the teaching process in HEIs. While education must have a social dimension, and

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higher education must keep in mind socioeconomic development, these cannot be the sole aims of higher education. Another important feature of higher education in China is its many nonformal forms. Besides the large-scale formal system, higher education in China has many non-formal forms, such as Distance Higher Education (provided through continuing education departments), Evening University, TV University, Correspondence University and the Self-study Examination of Higher Education, and the like. This book mainly deals with the formal system of higher education in China, keeping universities as the main focus. If this book can arouse the interest of international readers to find out more about higher education in China, we would feel the book has served its purpose, which is what we do hope. This book is the joint work of Prof. Jianmin Gu, Dr. Lihua Wang, and Dr. Xueping Li —all from the Institute of Higher Education of Zhejiang University— and doctoral student Jiyun Wang. Professor Jianmin Gu drew up the outline of this book and cooperated with Ms. Jiyun Wang in writing Sect. 5 of Chaps. 3, 8, and 9. Sects. 1–4 of Chaps. 3, 5, and 6 were written by Dr. Lihua Wang, while Chaps. 1, 2, 4, and 7 were written by Dr. Xueping Li. Dr. Lihua Wang also took responsibility for editing the English translation of this book. This book was supported by Program for New Century Excellent Talents in University. Lastly, we owe a great deal to Seeco Education Research Center of Zhejiang University and Prof. Xiaozhou Xu. Without their planning, invitation, and support, the publication of this book would not have been possible. Zhejiang, China

Jianmin Gu Xueping Li Lihua Wang

Contents

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1 History of Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Higher Learning in Ancient Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 Confucius and His Private Academe . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.2 The Taixue (Institution of Supreme Learning) and Shuyuan (Academy or Scholarly Society) . . . . . . . . 1.2 Modern Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 The Modern College in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.2 The Modern University in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.3 Modern Higher Education in the Republic of China (1911–1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Contemporary Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.1 Higher Education in the Early Years of the PRC (1949–1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.2 Higher Education During the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.3 Higher Education in the New Era (Since 1978) . . . . 2 Structure of Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 Form of Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2 Form of Ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Disciplines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Categories of Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 Discipline-Based Categories: Single-Discipline Institutions, Multidisciplinary Institutions, and Comprehensive Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.2 Function–Based Categories: Teaching Institutions, Teaching-Research Institutions, and Research Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4 Admission and Graduate Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 College Admission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1 Reforms of Admission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2 Forms of Admission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Postgraduate Admission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Master’s Admission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Doctoral Admission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Graduate Employment: Policy Changes and Current Situation . 4.3.1 Policy Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Current Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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5 Specialized Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 Levels of Tertiary Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2 Programs of Tertiary Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Mission and Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Structure of the Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2 Sequence of Courses in the Curriculum . . . . . . . 5.3.3 Degree of Control Over Curricular Content . . . . . 5.4 Establishment and Adjustment of Specialties . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Modes of Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.1 Alternative Work and Study Mode . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.2 College-Industry Collaborative Mode . . . . . . . . . 5.5.3 Employment/Position-Oriented or Made-to-Order Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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3 Higher Education Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 The Ownership System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 The Administrative System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Administration of Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Decentralization of Higher Education Administration After 1985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3 Changes of Higher Education Coordination . . . . . . . . 3.3 The Funding System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Diversification of Higher Education Funding . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Growth of Private Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 Government Expenditures on Education . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Planning and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 State Education Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2 Evaluation of Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 The Organizational Management of HEIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1 Organization and Structure of HEIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.2 Leadership System of HEIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.3 Rules and Regulations of HEIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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5.5.4 Platform Plus Module Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 5.5.5 Learning by Doing Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 5.6 The Management System of Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 117 117 117 120 120 125 132 138 141

6 Undergraduate Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Missions and Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 Curriculum for Undergraduate Education Before 1985 . 6.3.2 Curriculum of Undergraduate Education After 1985 . . 6.4 Establishment and Adjustment of Undergraduate Specialties . . 6.5 Modes of Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 The Management System of Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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7 Postgraduate Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Academic Degrees System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 Establishment of Academic Degrees Ordinance of the PRC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.2 Basic Characteristics of the Academic Degrees System 7.3 Master’s Degree Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.1 Recent Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.2 New Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Doctoral Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.1 Recent Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.2 New Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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8 Research in HEIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Present State of Research in HEIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.1 The Research System in HEIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.2 Personnel Engaged in Research at HEIs . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.3 Research Capacity of HEIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.4 Social Contribution of Researches Conducted by HEIs 8.2 Features of Research in HEIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Organizational Structure of Research in HEIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 Operation Mechanism of Research in HEIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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9 Teaching Staff in HEIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 Composition of Teaching Staff in HEIs . 9.2 Recruitment of Teaching Staff in HEIs . . 9.3 Assessment of Teaching Staff in HEIs . . 9.4 Compensation of Teaching Staff in HEIs

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Appendix A: Higher Education Law of the People’s Republic of China. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Appendix B: Regulations on Academic Degrees of the People’s Republic of China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Appendix C: ‘211 Project’ and ‘985 Project’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Appendix D: National Model Tertiary Vocational and Technical Colleges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Appendix E: The Websites for the Related Data on Chinese Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

About the Author

Prof. Jianmin Gu is a scholar in the field of higher education management and policy in China with several published manuscripts in the field and hundreds of journal articles. He has produced several books on the development and reform of tenure systems in the UK, the US, and Germany, the development strategy of private higher education in China, science popularization at higher education institutions, the models and formations of university governance, essentials of engineering education, etc. He also serves as a Senior Administrator at the College of Education, Zhejiang University.

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Acronyms

CAS CASS CESRI CPC GDP HEI ICHEFAP ISCED KMT LBHE & SNC MOE MOF MOHE MOL MOP MOST NAEA NCEE NDRC NPC NSFC PRC RC SCCAD SEDC UNESCO

Chinese Academy of Sciences Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Central Educational Science Research Institute Communist Party of China Gross Domestic Product Higher Education Institution International Comparative Higher Education Finance and Accessibility Project International Standard Classification of Education Kuomintang Liaoning Bureau of Higher Education & Shengyang Normal College Ministry of Education Ministry of Finance Ministry of Higher Education Ministry of Labor Ministry of Personnel Ministry of Scientific and Technology National Academy of Education Administration National College Entrance Examination National Development and Reform Commission National People’s Congress National Natural Science Foundation of China People’s Republic of China Republic of China State Council Committee on Academic Degrees State Education Commission United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

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Abstract

This book is an introduction to higher education in China. After giving a brief account of the origin and historical development of higher education in China, it discusses in detail the various aspects of the current system of higher education in the People’s Republic of China—its structure, management, admissions, graduate employment, undergraduate and postgraduate education, specialized education, research, and teaching staff in higher education institutions.

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Chapter 1

History of Higher Education

1.1

Higher Learning in Ancient Times

Historically, higher learning in ancient China can be traced back to the Shang Dynasty (roughly 1600–1100 BC), but there is no consensus among historians about its exact origin. Most scholars, however, agree that in ancient China the institution of daxue (a Chinese term for ‘university’ but with a special meaning in the Chinese context) originated from the youxue in the Shang Dynasty. The youxue was a special multifunctional place where education was only a part of its many activities. In the Western Zhou Dynasty (1100–771 BC), daxue, was established in the capital city as part of the national educational institutions (guoxue), and was even called ‘piyong’ (imperial daxue) for a time. Roughly speaking, daxue and other similar institutions of higher learning in the later period of ancient China had several main features. They were usually controlled by the upper ruling class for the purpose of educating political elites. The content of education in these institutions centered upon Confucian classics. Education at xue zai guanfu (government-owned agencies) and at li shi heyi (combination of officials and masters) dominated most historical periods of ancient China. Besides the daxue, the early private academe and the distinctive shuyuan (Academy or Scholarly Society) were particularly important alternative types of higher learning institutions in ancient China. The taixue (Institution of Supreme Learning) was another key institution of education for a long period of time.

1.1.1

Confucius and His Private Academe

During the Spring and Autumn Period (770–475 BC) and the Warring States Period (403–221 BC) of Chinese history, the entire society changed dramatically. © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Higher Education Press 2018 J. Gu et al., Higher Education in China, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0845-1_1

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2

1 History of Higher Education

Government-owned education declined while private education rose remarkably. Moreover, private education, supported by various kingdoms, became the normal way of education. Private educational institutions, as a new form of education, in contrast to government-owned ones, recruited not only the children of the elite but also the children of the poor. In reality, many of them were institutions of higher learning, rather than of basic learning. Scholars in these institutions often opened up free discussions and heated debates. Among these scholars, Confucius was a well-known practitioner of private institutional learning at the end of the Spring and Autumn period. His private academe at Xingtan (Qufu, Shangdong Province, today) was a fairly large institution with a ‘tang’ (hall) for giving lectures and a ‘nei’ (inner room) for accommodating students. Confucius usually offered courses on varied subjects based on the students’ individual traits and personal differences. It was believed that Confucius had around 3000 disciples, 70 of whom were sages. During this period, besides Confucius, Mo-tse, Mencius and other great scholars from different schools of thoughts were committed to initiating various private educational institutions. Similar to the Confucian academe, they were also institutions of higher learning, which provided advanced knowledge instead of general knowledge and high-level professional training instead of practical occupational training. These academes aimed at educating the shi (intellectual elites) who served the ruling class.

1.1.2

The Taixue (Institution of Supreme Learning) and Shuyuan (Academy or Scholarly Society)

1.1.2.1

The Taixue

The positive recuperation (xiuyang shengxi) policy in the early Han Dynasty (206– 220 AD) brought about the development of education. Prior to this period, education had been thoroughly destroyed by the infamous policy of ‘books to be burnt and Confucians to be buried alive’ (fenshu kengru) that was followed by the Qin Dynasty (221–207 BC). In the context of the policy change, the taixue was initially founded in Chang’an (Xi’an, Shaanxi Province today), the capital city, in the year of 124 BC, which is considered the earliest central institution of supreme learning in ancient China. The proposal of founding the taixue was first sent to the Emperor by Zongshu Dong who believed in the superior value of Confucianism, and succeeded in convincing the emperor about its importance. Although there were only around 50 boshi dizi (‘disciples of doctors’—boshi is a doctor or mentor and dizi, a disciple or student) at the beginning of the taixue, their number grew to 30,000 in due course. The taixue marked the beginning of the government-owned, imperial institution for the most advanced learning in the Chinese feudal society. At the taixue, not only advanced

1.1 Higher Learning in Ancient Times

3

knowledge and scholarship were pursued by mentors and disciples but also the Five Classics (wujin) were taught as the typical Confucian classics. The Five Classics included the Book of Songs (shi), the Book of History (shu), the Book of Change (yi), the Book of Rites (li), and the Spring and Autumn Annals (chunqiu). During the long period between the demise of the Han Dynasty and the unification of the Sui Dynasty (220–589 AD), the taixue continued to grow. But the split of the dynasty into multiple princedoms, continuous wars, and social unrest slowed down its growth. However, it is noteworthy that the Institution of the Sons of the Emperor (guozixue) was established in the year of 276 AD in the Western Jin Dynasty, coexisting side by side with the taixue. This guozixue was the common origin of other guozixue, the Temple of the Sons of the Emperor (guozishi) or the Supervision Hall of the Sons of the Emperor (guozijian) in the later dynasties. All these imperial agencies, with different names, were similar supreme imperial institutions of higher learning for the sons of the emperors in many dynasties. In the Sui Dynasty (581–618), the guozijian took charge of the entire education enterprise in the country and consisted of five schools, namely, guozixue, taixue, simenxue (four subjects), shuxue (calligraphy), and suanxue (arithmetic and math). Following the Sui Dynasty, the guozijian in the Tang Dynasty (618–907AD) expanded into six schools, adding law (lixue) to the previous five. The education offered at guozixue, taixue and simenxue of the six schools was classical education of higher learning. Due to the gradual decline and eventual collapse of higher learning in the dynasties of the Yuan, the Ming and the Qing (1271–1911 AD), the imperial institution of supreme learning could hardly develop. There were guozixue, menggu guozixue and huihui guozixue in the Yuan Dynasty. The central daxue was named guozixue at first and renamed guozijian later in the Ming Dynasty. In the Qing Dynasty, guozijian was also called taixue.

1.1.2.2

The Shuyuan

The earliest shuyuan in Chinese history also emerged in the Han Dynasty, three centuries after the taixue. In 178 AD, the Hongdumen Academy (hongdumenxue) was founded at Hongdumen, Luoyang, where literature and art were studied and taught. It is commonly viewed as the first special shuyuan in Chinese history. Its focus on phraseology and ode (cifu), novel (xiaoshuo), epistolary art (chidu), and calligraphy and painting (zihua) went beyond the long-standing educational ideology according to which Confucian classics was to dominate the content of teaching. For similar reasons, the Hongdumen Academy, like the taxue, developed very slowly during the period of the Three Kingdoms, namely, the Wei, the Jin, and the Nan-Bei Chao [Northern and Southern] Dynasties. In the early Song Dynasty, the shuyuan became a real institution of higher learning, no longer as the National Library or a private learning center in the Tang Dynasty. At that time, the distinctive features that characterized the teaching at shuyuan were: the connection

4

1 History of Higher Education

between research and teaching, freedom of teaching, freedom of learning; the predominance of self-study in students’ learning process, teachers’ emphasis on enlightenment in their teaching and the close relationship between students and teachers. The well-established ‘four great shuyuan on earth’ in history, namely: Bailudong Shuyuan (in Lushan, Jiangxi Province), Yuelu Shuyuan (in Changsha, Hunan Province), Yingtianfu Shuyuan (in Shangqiu, Henan Province) and Shitougu Shuyuan (in Hengyang, Hunan Province) flourished in the Northern Song Dynasty. The shuyuan was transformed into a government agency when the Qing Dynasty started to control the country. As a result, it functioned very passively, serving simply as a vassal of the imperial examination system. In 1901, the shuyuan was replaced by ‘college’, a modern or new type of Higher Education Institution (HEI), leading to the discontinuation of the academy which had a history of nearly one thousand years.

1.2

Modern Higher Education

The traditional higher education in the Qing Dynasty was gradually replaced by the modern system of higher education; this transformation of traditional higher education was shaped slowly between 1840 and 1911. In these seventy years of the last dynasty, the emergence of modern higher education in China was the result of both the introduction of Western systems of higher education and the impact of other social reforms in the late Qing Dynasty. There were two important types of modern HEIs in the late Qing Dynasty. The earliest type was the modern college (yangwu xuetang), a new, government-owned type of specialized institution aimed at training the kind of modern workforce the nation badly needed at that time. Another type of institution was the modern university (daxuetang), a Western-style university offering 4-year courses, primarily focusing on specialized academic disciplines.

1.2.1

The Modern College in China

The first and second Opium Wars prompted the Qing Dynasty to initiate a wide range of social reforms. Many top officials were determined to learn from the outside world, especially from the industrialized nations. The modernization movement (Yangwu movement), an unprecedented military, technological, industrial and educational movement advocated by a group of open-minded reformists of the time, opened the door of the antiquated dynasty to ‘new’, ‘modern’ and ‘Western’ things in an attempt to bring about social changes and create a powerful and wealthy nation. The reformists set up ‘modern industries,’ supported “Western learning” and introduced ‘new education’ through diverse channels. In the course of the movement, numerous untraditional things were borrowed in an enormous

1.2 Modern Higher Education

5

amount from the West and introduced continually into the last dynasty in Chinese history, all of which were fundamentally different from those that had existed for long in the past dynasties of ancient China. Modern education, as an essential part of the modernization movement, emphasized Western languages (xiwen) and Western technical knowledge (xiyi). Historically, the Imperial College (jingshi tongwenguan), created in 1862, was the first modern college established by the Qing government with the aid of some active reformists. Initially, it simply served the purpose of training translators in English, French, Russian and other foreign languages. Nevertheless, it started to expand in 1867 from a one-subject college to a polytechnic consisting of many modern subjects like physics and chemistry. Forty years later, it merged into the Imperial University (jingshi daxuetang, established in 1898, which became Peking University later). The Imperial College, as the first government-owned, modern college in the late Qing Dynasty, marked not merely the emergence of Chinese modern higher education but also the start of a gradual transition from traditional to modern Chinese higher education. Table 1.1 shows that, between 1862 and 1898, the reformists initiated a total of 44 modern colleges like the Imperial College. These earliest institutions had two new features. Firstly, they offered, for the first time in modern China, courses on Western learning (xixue) like foreign languages, natural sciences and practical technologies challenging the traditional ideologies and practices of education. Secondly, military colleges were given great importance in the system. Out of a total of 44 earliest modern colleges, 22 were military colleges. Military technology was considered the key to defeat foreign invaders; so they hoped to achieve a military technology-centered modernization through modern military education. Overall, in the last decade before the 1911 Xinhai Revolution, some other types of modern colleges, namely, specialized HEIs, emerged. Among them were colleges of higher education (gaodeng xuetang), industrial colleges (gaodeng shiye xuetang), senior normal colleges (youji shifan xuetang), colleges of politics and law (fazheng xuetang), and some private colleges and missionary colleges, as well. After the Renyin School System (1902) and the Zouding School System (1904) were introduced, colleges of higher education were created in large numbers in individual provinces. Many well-known provincial shuyuan directly became new colleges of higher education. It was literally the first time in modern China that so many colleges of higher education appeared. Besides, many so-called universities (daxuetang) with less than three subjects were named colleges of higher education in order to meet the related requirements in the two school systems. For instance, the University of Zhejiang (Zhejiang daxuetang) became the Zhejiang College of Higher Education (Zhejiang gaodeng xuetang) in 1903. Industrial colleges did not become an independent type of modern college until the 1904 Zouding School System was introduced. They actually included various colleges of agriculture, industry, commerce and mine. However, like colleges of higher education, industrial colleges developed only with great difficulties for some reasons. In 1909, there were 5 colleges of agriculture, 7 colleges of industry, and 1 college of commerce (Zhu, 1989: 221).

6

1 History of Higher Education

Table 1.1 The Earliest Modern Colleges (Yangwu xuetang) (1862–1898) Types of colleges Colleges of foreign language (Waiyu xuetang)

Military colleges (Junshi xuetang)

Colleges of science & technology (Keji xuetang)

Location of founding Beijing Shanghai Guangdong Xinjiang Taiwan Jilin Hubei Hunan Nanjing Fujian Shanghai Guangdong

Number of colleges 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 3

Tianjin

2

Beijing Shandong

1 2

Jiangsu

3

Liaoning Hebei Hubei Zhejiang Guizhou Shaanxi Anhui Shanxi Guangdong Fujian Tianjin Shanghai Hubei

1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2

Tianjin Hebei Jiangsu

1 1 3

Hubei 2 Note aN stands for no exact figure or record Source (Li, 2005: 63–71)

Year of founding 1862 1863 1864 1887 1888 1889 1893 1895 N 1866 1873 1880; 1886; 1886 1880; 1888 1888 1889; 1894 1890; 1895; 1896 1890 1896 1896 1897 1898 1898 1898 1898 1866 1876 1880 1882 1891; 1892 1894 1895 1896; 1896; 1898 1898

Founder or funding organization Xin Yi Hongzhang Li Hongbin Mao Xiangqin Liu Mingchuan Liu Shun Chang Zhidong Zhang Na N Zongtang Zuo N Shusheng Zhang; Zhidong Zhang; Zhidong Zhang Hongzhang Li Huan Yi Ruchang Ding; N Guoquan Zeng; Zhidong Zhang; Zhidong Zhang Northern Fleet Shikai Yuan Zhidong Zhang Shoufeng Liao Yuzao Wang Guangtao Wei Huaxi Deng Pinzhi Hu N Richang Ding Hongzhang Li N Zhidong Zhang; Hubei Mining Administration Hongzhang Li Jinru Railway Corp. Zhidong Zhang; Zhidong Zhang; Yuntai Hu Zhidong Zhang

1.2 Modern Higher Education

7

Senior normal colleges also did not emerge as an independent type until 1904. Normal education was regarded as a separate system and divided into junior normal schools and senior normal colleges in the Zouding School System. In 1909, there were 30 normal colleges nationwide (Zhu, 1989: 468). Colleges of Politics and Law were not considered a separate type in the 1904 Zouding School System, but they grew so fast between 1905 and 1911 that they eventually became very noticeable in higher education in the last few years of the Qing Dynasty. In 1909, there were 46 provincial colleges of politics and law, nationwide. Actually, there were numerous such institutions scattered in local regions and counties (He, 1999: 87).

1.2.2

The Modern University in China

During the reform movement of the 1890s, the modern university in the Western sense began to emerge in China. It has been generally acknowledged that the establishment of three main HEIs in Tianjin, Shanghai and Beijing marked the birth, though in rudimentary form, of the modern or new university system in modern China, where some specialized, modern disciplines or the four-year system from abroad took their definitive forms. In 1895, Xuanhuai Sheng established the Sino-Western College (zhongxi xuetang, the predecessor of Tianjin University) in Tianjin with the approval of Emperor Guangxu. The college focused on disciplines like foreign languages, science and technology, and engineering. It was renamed Beiyang University (beiyang daxuetang) in 1903. The college was a two-tier institution, consisting of the First-Class Hall and the Second-Class Hall. The First-Class Hall initially planned to offer five separate programs of teaching in five specialized disciplines (actually not offered until 1905) aimed at training future professionals, with a four-year system, which for long had been adopted by many Western universities. In 1896, Xuanhuai Sheng gained the Emperor’s approval for a second time to set up Nanyang College (nanyang gongxue, the predecessor of Shanghai Jiaotong University). The college had four halls and was more complex than the previous college in Tianjin. It had a Normal Education Hall in the beginning and added an Upper Hall, a Middle Hall and an External Hall a few years later. The latter three halls adopted the four-year system like the Sino-Western College. In 1900, the Upper Hall started to recruit students who had graduated from the Middle Hall and at that time it was like a Western-style specialized institution offering politics, economics, law and other subjects. The Nanyang College was renamed Nanyang Industrial College (nanyang gaodeng shiye xuetang) in 1905 and then Nanyang University (nanyang daxuetang) in 1911. In 1898, Emperor Guangxu ordered to found the Imperial University (jingshi daxuetang, the predecessor of Peking University) in Beijing. It had general divisions (required for all students) and special divisions (where students choose one or two subjects). It expanded into a larger institution in 1909 with eight subjects:

8

1 History of Higher Education

classics, literature, politics and law, engineering, agriculture, business, medicine and science (gezhi). Public HEIs in the late Qing Dynasty consisted of public universities, provincial colleges of higher education, provincial specialized colleges, private institutions and missionary institutions. In 1909, there were only three public universities (Imperial University, Beiyang University and Shanxi University), 24 provincial colleges of higher education and 127 provincial specialized colleges. In the latter two types of HEIs, there were a total of 26,938 students in 1909. In addition, there were some private and missionary institutions; in 1911, for example, there were more than 10 missionary institutions (Gu, 2008: 19).

1.2.3

Modern Higher Education in the Republic of China (1911–1949)

Modern higher education continued its development with several important adjustments over the period of the Republic of China [RC] (1911–1949). The entire period was generally classified into three developmental phases: the period of the Nanjing Interim Government (1912), the period of the Northern Warlords [Beiyang Warlords] (1912–1928) and the period of the National Government (1927–1949). The measures taken in 1912 by the temporary government for educational change set the tone for higher education development in the succeeding years. They included the new Renzi Guizi School System promoted by Yuanpei Cai, the Minister of Education, the promulgations of the University Ordinance and the Specialized College Ordinance, and the permission given to establish private universities and specialized colleges, except private normal colleges. During the second period, some progress was still made, though it was a tough time of frequent wars. The Amendment to University Ordinance (1917), the Renxu School System (1917), and the National University Statute (1924) were issued. In 1925, there were 58 specialized colleges. In 1927, there were 34 public universities, including 24 national universities and 10 provincial universities, and 18 private universities approved by the Ministry of Education (MOE) of the RC as a result of another rising tide of interest in private universities (Yang, 2006: 46–47). During the last period under the control of the Kuomintang (KMT), a series of new statutes and regulations were released by the MOE of the RC: the Faculty Qualifications Statute (1927), the University Establishment Act (1929), the University Regulations (1929), the Specialized College Regulations (1929), the Specialized College Establishment Act (1929), the Amendments to Specialized College Regulations (1931), the Establishment Regulations for Research Institutes at Universities (1934), the Degrees Conferment Act (1935), etc. Detailed specifications on major issues like purposes, establishment benchmarks and management of higher education were laid down. However, many of them were not enforced because of endless wars.

1.2 Modern Higher Education

9

During the period of the Revolutionary War (1924–1949), in the regions under the leadership of the Communist Party of China (CPC), a great number of different but unique HEIs came into existence. The institutions such as the Sino-French University (1925), the University of the Chinese Workers’ and Peasants’ Red Army (1933), the Chinese People’s Anti-Japanese Military and Political University (1936), and the School of the CPC Central Committee (1942) were characterized by the CPC’s educational ideals. They trained political, military, economic and cultural workforces for the CPC’s revolutionary war, emphasizing the link between theory and practice, political attitudes and ‘red’ thoughts, and well-rounded individual personalities (with high qualities in moral, intellectual and physical aspects) in terms of training objectives. Unlike the universities in the regions under the control of the KMT, they were just specialized colleges. In 1949, there were 205 HEIs throughout the country, including 49 universities, 28 technological institutions, 61 private institutions, and 21 missionary institutions (Yu, 1994: 3). Table 1.2 provides a snapshot of HEIs in China in 1947, by their types, number of faculty members, students, and graduates. Table 1.3 offers a chronological profile about the growth of different types of HEIs and their faculty, students, and graduates, from 1912 to 1946.

Table 1.2 Profile of HEIs across China in 1947 Types of HEIs Total National Provincial/City’s Private University National Private Independent National Provincial Private 4-year institutions National Provincial Private Source (He, 1999: 288)

Number of HEIs

Number of faculty

Number of students

Number of graduates

207 74 54 79 55 31 24 75 23 21 31 77 20 33 24

20,133 12,775 2276 5102 12,124 9345 2779 5159 2318 1206 1635 2850 1092 1070 688

155,036 81,153 15,727 58,156 93,398 62,257 31,141 42,346 13,576 8188 20,582 19,292 5320 7539 6433

25,089 14,852 2708 7538 16,656 12,160 44,496 5134 1882 977 2275 3308 810 1732 767

7

7

10

10

11

50

49

73

78

67

70

73

80

83

85

89

90

89

117

1914

1915

1916

1920

1925

1928

1931

1936

1937

1938

1939

1940

1941

1942

1943

1944

1945

1946

Note aN stands for no figure Source (He, 1999: 285–287)

4

1913

68

52

55

44

47

46

33

28

27

24

30

30

25

58

76

76

94

95

109

111

Specialized colleges

Number of HEIs

Univ. & independent colleges

1912

Academic year

185

141

145

133

132

129

113

101

97

91

108

103

74

108

87

86

104

102

116

115

Subtotal

14,057

9504

9411

9171

8129

7591

6894

5929

5544

5175

6615

6183

4567

2260

1679

1790

1365

1292

1075

704

585

535

482

947

870

647

2909

1622

Na 4669

1616

2051

1985

2148

2083

Specialized colleges

420

319

312

319

229

Univ. & independent colleges

Number of faculty

Table 1.3 Profile of HEIs across China (1912–1946)

16,317

11,183

11,201

10,536

9421

8666

7593

6514

6079

5657

7560

7053

5214

7578

N

2036

2370

2297

2467

2312

Subtotal

481

110,438

70,047

65,269

62,646

54,388

51,861

47,135

39,252

32,183

27,926

37,330

33,966

17,792

25,278

N

1446

1219

73

1371

18,893

13,449

13,640

11,023

9769

7596

5241

5170

3997

3262

4592

10,201

7406

11,043

9734

15,795

24,023

31,346

37,002

39,633

Specialized education students & short-cycle training students

Number of students Undergraduates & postgraduates

129,326

83,498

78,909

73,669

64,096

59,457

52,376

44,422

36,180

31,188

41,922

44,167

25,198

36,321

N

17,241

25,242

32,079

38,373

40,114

Subtotal

20,185

14,463

12,078

10,514

9056

8035

7710

5622

5085

5137

9154

7034

3253

2272

1446

1470

1364

1048

976

490

Number of graduates

N

16,766,763,264

3,199,190,837

645,452,335

233,526,650

102,927,050

61,105,940

37,982,650

31,125,068

30,431,556

39,275,386

33,619,237

17,909,810

15,446,338

2,794,026

3,673,155

4,682,963

5,728,476

4,171,372

3,971,361

Amount of annual expenditures (in yuan)

10 1 History of Higher Education

1.3 Contemporary Higher Education

1.3 1.3.1

11

Contemporary Higher Education Higher Education in the Early Years of the PRC (1949–1966)

The People’s Republic of China (PRC) was founded in 1949. Between 1949 and 1966, higher education in China underwent two different periods of transition— one, between 1949 and 1957, known as the period of ‘rebuilding for socialism’ and the other, between 1958 and 1966, known as the period of ‘overall socialism construction’. During the period of rebuilding for socialism, the old educational system adopted by the KMT in Old China, which was regarded ideologically outdated and destructive, was abolished from the very start. Public and private HEIs in Old China were taken over and private institutions renamed as public ones. Those institutions supported by foreign funds or foreign organizations were either cancelled or reorganized. In 1950, the MOE of the PRC issued several educational documents, such as the Provisional Regulations for HEI, the Provisional Regulations for Higher Specialized College, and the Decision on Leadership in HEI. In the same year, the State Council of the PRC issued the Decision on School System Reform, a piece of document on the policy of the new national school system. All these new documents signified the beginning of the formal transition of higher education from old forms to new ones. In the context of rebuilding a new republic of socialism, an extensive adjustment of HEIs and departments was initiated in 1952, which fundamentally changed the course of Chinese higher education in many ways. The adjustment was implemented on the basis of the educational model that was prevalent in the former Soviet Union. In practice, it copied the Russian higher education system under the slogan ‘follower of Russia’ in a radical and revolutionary way, which was to influence the development of Chinese higher education in many aspects over the next decades. During the period of ‘overall socialism construction,’ higher education in the PRC progressed steadily. After 1961, the guideline of ‘adjustment, consolidation, enrichment and enhancement’ was carried out in Chinese higher education, leading to the normalization of the entire higher education enterprise. In September 1961, the well-known Provisional Ordinances for HEIs Directly under the MOE of the PRC was ratified by the CPC Central Committee. In some sense, the ordinances facilitated the institutional development of major HEIs in the early years of the 1960s.

12

1.3.2

1 History of Higher Education

Higher Education During the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976)

During the period of the Cultural Revolution, Chinese higher education was completely destroyed. All sorts of vicious things were allowed to take place in the field of higher education: abandonment of the existing system and established practices; spreading of cultural and educational nihilism; destruction of institutional leadership, preaching anarchism; denial of culture, modern scientific knowledge and advanced research, willful attack and wanton torture of scholars, intellectuals and teachers who did not espouse revolutionary thoughts; exaggerating students’ role in universities, mobilizing them to ‘enter college, control college and reframe college’; preaching one-sided pragmatism; destruction of library books, documents, research data, scientific instruments and equipment. All these mindless acts of violence and destruction had a catastrophic effect on higher education in the PRC.

1.3.3

Higher Education in the New Era (Since 1978)

Chinese higher education has changed dramatically since 1978. The Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC was held in December 1978, setting off policies of reform and opening up to the outside world. It initiated a renewal of Chinese higher education enterprise and brought about a wide range of reforms in Chinese higher education over a long period of time. In the context of renewal and reforms, a variety of new national policies were made by the central government, which fundamentally changed the landscape of Chinese higher education in contemporary times. In 1977, the Unified National College Entrance Examination was formally resumed. One year later, the National Conference on Science and the National Conference on Education were held. In 1983, the MOE of the PRC hosted the National Conference on Higher Education Work. Two years later, the historic educational policy, the Decision on the Reform of the Education System was formally issued by the CPC Central Committee, which virtually began a brand new chapter of the Chinese educational reform. In this document, several key policies of great importance regarding Chinese higher education reform were made; for example, the reform of admission and recruitment system, the reform of college graduates’ employment system, greater institutional autonomy, etc. In the same document, the principle of managing HEIs at differing levels was further defined, that is, a three-tier administrative system (the central ministry, the provincial government and the regional city) was introduced. In 1986, the Provisional Regulation on Responsibilities for Administrating Regular HEIs1 was promulgated 1

Regular HEIs are in contrast to adult HEIs in China. For simplification, HEI in the text means regular HEIs, unless otherwise indicated.

1.3 Contemporary Higher Education

13

by the State Council of the PRC, which detailed the specific administrative responsibilities of the governments at central, provincial and regional levels. In the early 1990s, Chinese higher education moved forward under the new environments of the market economy. Unlike the past decades, it began to be driven by market forces as opposed to planned forces (the state/central government forces). In October 1992, the market influence came into force in various areas in the PRC, including the education enterprise. At the end of that year, the goals of Chinese higher education reform and development in the 1990s were put forward at the National Conference on Higher Education Work: ‘larger size, higher quality, optimized structure and improved effectiveness’ (Hao & Long, 2000: 480). In 1993, another influential document on Chinese education, the Outlines of Educational Reform and Development was issued by the central government. Although it covered the education enterprise at all educational levels, it highlighted two important issues in terms of higher education: quality-oriented development of higher education, and deeper systemic reform of higher education. The ‘emphasis’ and ‘core’ of the systemic reform of higher education were clearly identified. The emphasis of systematic reform centered on the improvement of three sets of relationships for the purpose of establishing a healthy higher education system where the government would supervise at macro level and HEIs would operate with more autonomy in response to societal needs. The three sets of relationships included the relationship between the government and the HEIs, the one between the central government and provincial governments, and the one between the State Education Commission [SEDC] (the previous MOE) and the various central ministries. The core of the systematic reform was to provide ‘greater institutional autonomy’ to HEIs and encourage “autonomous institutional operation in response to societal needs”. In 1995, the notable ‘211 Project’ was sponsored by the SEDC, which was aimed at supporting the development of 100 major universities throughout the country to make them reach world-class level of scholarship and quality by the twenty-first century. The Master Plan of the ‘211 Project’ issued in 1995 brought forward the general goals, main tasks and related requirements of the project. The first group of major universities approved by the State Planning Commission to join the ‘211 Project’ in the same year included the Peking University, the Tsinghua University and some other top universities in the PRC. The central government earmarks funds for the HEIs included in the project. At the end of 1997, an inter-ministerial coordinating task force on the ‘211 Project’ was created by the State Council of the PRC to supervise the operation of the project. In 2007, there were a total of 107 HEIs supported by the ‘211 Project’ funds. In May 1998, in a famous address during the centennial celebration of the founding of Peking University, President Jiang, Zhemin of the PRC proposed that ‘China needs to build a group of leading universities with world class characteristics in order to realize the modernization of the country’. Shortly after this, the central government started the project of establishing world class universities, which was called the ‘985 Project’ later. Between 1999 and 2006, the MOE (the previous SEDC between 1985 and 1998) finished signing a series of cooperative

14

1 History of Higher Education

agreements with some provincial or municipal governments on developing first-class universities, covering 33 major universities across the country. According to the agreements, these major universities were to be jointly funded by the central government and the provincial or municipal governments. The designated government funding for the ‘985 Project’ exceeded that of the ‘211 Project’. Between 1999 and 2006, a total of 34 HEIs were approved by the MOE to join the elite club of the ‘985 Project’. In August 1998, the first Higher Education Law of the People’s Republic of China (hereafter referred to as the Higher Education Law) was passed by the National People’s Congress (NPC, the national legislative body of the PRC). As a legal product of the past developmental experience of Chinese higher education, it identified the directions for Chinese higher education reform and development in the twenty-first century. In January 1999, the State Council of the PRC formally approved the Action Plan for Vitalizing Education for the 21st Century framed by the MOE. According to the Action Plan, the enrollment rate of higher education was to reach 11% by 2000 and be close to 15% by 2010. Besides, a few major universities and a group of academic disciplines were expected to reach the highest level and quality in academia in the world (MOE, 1999). At the beginning of the twenty-first century, Chinese higher education witnessed a period of unprecedented expansion. Started in 1999, the expansion has quickly moved Chinese higher education from the elite phase to the mass phase in just a few years. In 2002, the gross enrollment rate of higher education reached 15% for the first time. There were 25 million college students in Chinese HEIs of various types in 2006, which literally outnumbered the size of college students in the US. In 2006, universities and colleges recruited a total of 5.4 million new students, five times the total number in 1998—1.08 million (Zhou, 2007). The gross enrollment rate of higher education increased from 11.5% in 2000 to 21% in 2005, and it was projected to reach 25% in 2010 as shown in China’s Eleventh Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development (Central People’s Government, 2006). Designed by 31 provincial, municipal, and autonomous regional governments in Mainland China, all the eleven five-year plans for local economic and social development listed the specific gross enrollment rates of higher education in 2005 or 2010 (see Table 1.4). As indicated in Table 1.5, the gross enrollment rate reached 26.5% in 2010, which was a little higher than the projected rate (25%) of China’s Eleventh Five-Year Plan. Amazingly, the rate had almost doubled over the decade from 2005 (21%) to 2015 (40%), as it had from 2002 (around 15%) to 2012 (30%). In 2010, the Outline of National Plan for Medium and Long Term Educational Reform and Development (2010–2020) was released by the central government. As proposed in the document, by 2020, a number of HEIs ought to become institutions which are international famous, possess institutional characteristics and are of high level; some universities ought to reach or get close to the level of world first-class universities; and both a group of world-class disciplines and a range of international first-rate original achievements ought to be produced as well. (The General Office of the CPC Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council, 2010).

1.3 Contemporary Higher Education

15

Table 1.4 Gross Enrollment Rates of Higher Education in 31 Administrative Divisions across Mainland China in 2005 and 2010 Municipalitya/province/autonomous region

2005 (%)

2010 (%)

Estimated ranking in 2010

Shanghai 55 (2004) 60 1 Beijing 53 60 1 60 1 Tianjin Nb Zhejiang 34 45 4 Jiangsu 34 40 5 Liaoning N 38 6 Jilin N 35 7 Heilongjiang N 30 8 Chongqing N 30 8 Hubei 25 30 8 Shaanxi 22 (2004) 30 8 Guangdong 22 28 12 Shanxi 21 28 12 Shandong N 26 14 Fujian 19 25 15 Sichuan N 25 15 Anhui N 25 15 Jiangxi 21 25 15 Nei Monggol 20 25 15 Hunan N 25 15 Ningxia 19 25 15 Xinjiang 18 N 22 Henan 17 23 23 Hebei N 23 23 Hainan 15 20 25 Qinghai 15 20 25 Gansu 15 20 25 Yunnan N 18 28 Guangxi 15 N 29 Guizhou N 15 30 Tibet 11 (2004) N 31 Notes athe current Municipalities of the PRC are Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai and Chongqing b N stands for no figure Source (Shang, 2008)

16

1 History of Higher Education

Table 1.5 Gross Enrollment Rates of Chinese Higher Education (1998–2015) Enrollments

Gross Enrollment Rate (%)

Enrollments

Gross Enrollment Rate (%)

1998 Na 9.8 2007 27,000,000 23.0 1999 N 10.5 2008 29,070,000 23.3 2000 N N 2009 29,790,000 24.2 2001 N N 2010 31,050,000 26.5 2002 N N 2011 31,670,000 26.9 2003 19,000,000 17.0 2012 33,250,000 30.0 2004 20,000,000 19.0 2013 34,600,000 34.5 2005 23,000,000 21.0 2014 35,590,000 37.5 2006 25,000,000 22.0 2015 36,470,000 40.0 Notes astands for no figure Source MOE. 1998–2015 Statistical Bulletin on the Development of the National Education Enterprise. Retrieved August 25, 2016 from http://www.moe.edu.cn

In 2015, the Overall Plan to Move Forward the World First-Class Universities and World First-Class Disciplines was published by the State Council. Three steps taken were clearly mapped out: the first step is that by 2020 not only some universities and a group of disciplines ought to join the world first-class rank but also some disciplines ought to be at the forefront of the world first-class disciplines; the second step is that by 2030 not only more universities and disciplines ought to join the world first-class rank but also some universities and a group of disciplines respectively ought to be at the world first-class forefront, during which the overall strength of China’s higher education ought to have been significantly improved; the third step is that by the middle of this century both the number and the strength of first-class universities and first-class disciplines ought to be at the world forefront, during which a powerful system of higher education ought to have been built up in China (The State Council, 2015). In 2016, Some Guidance on the Work of Educational Opening-up in the New Era was announced by the State Council, which is viewed as the first programmatic document on educational opening-up in China. There were six priorities assigned in the Guidance, several of which included the acceleration of promoting studying abroad and the improvement of the quality of overseas education, the perfection of the mechanism for enhancing the level of foreign education in China, the enrichment of people-to-people exchanges between China and foreign countries, and the implementation of the “Belt and Road” educational initiative promoting collaborations among all countries along the route. Among other Chinese government scholarships, a new one called “the Silk Road” was established to expand the scale of the scholarship programs, which will fund 10,000 freshmen annually to come to China to study or get trained. (The General Office of the CPC Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council, 2016).

Chapter 2

Structure of Higher Education

2.1 2.1.1

Forms Form of Higher Education

Compared with many developed countries, the diversification of educational form in China’s higher education emerged rather late. Prior to 1949, the form of education had been very simple. After the founding of the PRC in 1949, a wide range of non-formal types of higher education developed rapidly, such as the Workers’ University, the Amateur University of Workers, the Peasants’ University, Colleges of Education, Teachers’ College, College of Administrative Cadres, Radio and TV University, Correspondence Department and Evening School within University, the University of the Elderly, and the National Self-Study Examination of Higher Education. The MOE issued a Pilot Scheme for the Self-Study Examination of Higher Education in 1980. In the following year, implementation of the scheme started throughout the country. This unique form of learning has been very popular in China for decades, making great contributions to the development of the higher education enterprise. On the whole, China’s non-formal higher education has developed dramatically since the 1980s. According to 2015 Statistical Bulletin on the Development of the National Education Enterprise released by the MOE in July 2016, there were a total of 292 adult HEIs with 6,359,400 total enrollments, 2,367,500 freshmen, and 2,362,600 graduates in the year of 2015 (MOE, 2016a). Both formal and non-formal learning play their respective roles in the higher education system. The former plays a leading role and the latter a supporting role in meeting the social and personal needs of higher education. One single form of learning alone cannot fully satisfy the complex and diverse needs of individual learners. Compared with the formal system of higher education, non-formal higher education has more flexible modes of organization, shorter cycle of learning, easier access to learning, lower tuition fees, greater emphasis on practical knowledge and © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Higher Education Press 2018 J. Gu et al., Higher Education in China, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0845-1_2

17

18

2 Structure of Higher Education

skills in the educational process, and larger class size, etc. However, there have been weaknesses in non-formal higher education, such as poor educational facilities and conditions, lower quality of teaching, and narrow specialty or subject coverage, etc. In recent years, the process of development in China’s non-formal higher education has shown the following directions: (1) to establish a more flexible operating mechanism between formal and non-formal higher education and to enhance both the correlation and complementarities of the two forms of education by way of more rational coordination and planning; (2) to enhance the quality of non-formal learning by improving the assessment criteria, perfecting teaching conditions and optimizing educational resources; (3) to expand the size of non-formal learning in regular HEIs (in contrast to adult HEIs) by making full use of the institutional resources and advantages in order to absorb more students to attend evening schools, correspondence departments and long-distance learning classes; (4) to facilitate the development of non-formal higher education in the corporate sector through initiating or expanding on-the-job training system in large and medium-sized enterprises.

2.1.2

Form of Ownership

The form of ownership of higher education in modern and contemporary China has not shown a developmental continuum like in many other countries since 1840s. Private higher education was completely abandoned shortly after the founding of the PRC. From the 1950s to the early 1980s, private HEIs which were in existence for over half a century were all replaced by public ones. Public HEIs were fundamentally state-owned or government-owned institutions from then on. In the early 1980s, higher education reform in China began to break out of governmental monopoly by going beyond the boundary of public education. A new system of higher education gradually emerged, in which both government-owned institutions and non-government-owned ones coexisted in one single national system. The 1982 Constitution of the PRC stipulated that ‘the state encourages collective economic organizations, state-owned enterprises, public enterprises and social forces to participate in the education enterprise in accordance with the law’ (NPC, 1982). In the form of the Basic Law, it ratified explicitly the legitimacy of private education including private higher education. As a result, social or noncollective forces (similar to private forces in many other countries), as part of the growth of non-government forces in the wider society since the 1980s, started to reshape the developmental pathway of private higher education. In 1993, the Provisional Regulations on the Establishment of Private Colleges and Universities promulgated by the State Education Commission (SEDC)1

1

The SEDC replaced the MOE between 1985 and 1998.

2.1 Forms

19

Table 2.1 Private higher education in China in 2015 Number of private HEIs Private 734 colleges & universities Other types 813 Note aN stands for no figure Source MOE, (2016a)

Number of students Undergraduate Specialized students education students

Students pursuing master’s degrees

Subtotal

3,833,300

2,275,200

509

6,109,000

Na

N

N

777, 400

formally acknowledged private higher education as ‘an integral part of China’s higher education’. In 2002, the Private Education Promotion Law was released. Two years later, the implementation regulations on the Law was issued. Due to the gradual deregulation of government policies and the growing enthusiasm of the masses for private education, from the beginning of the 21st century private colleges and universities have become an important part of the entire higher education enterprise, furthering the massification of higher education in China. According to 2015 Statistical Bulletin on the Development of the National Education Enterprise by the MOE, in 2015, a total of 6,109,000 students enrolled in 734 private HEIs, most of whom enrolled in either private colleges and universities or independent colleges (275 independent colleges). In addition, there were a great number of institutions called ‘other types’, which included 813 small-sized institutions recruiting only 777,400 students in total (see Table 2.1). Currently, the vast majority of private colleges and universities in China set an institutional objective of training market-oriented and practice-based manpower. Private HEIs in China are primarily tertiary vocational and technical colleges or short-cycle colleges with a great emphasis on knowledge application and vocational skills. In recent years, the development of private higher education has been facing a number of key challenges, such as: (1) a lack of understanding of some fundamental problems in private higher education, for example, the specific relationship between public and private higher education, the status of private higher education, the relationship between institutional autonomy and necessary social constraints on institutions, the coordination between governmental intervention and market regulation, the lasting contradiction between the public good of private institutions and the maximization of profits of private investments in private higher education, and so on; (2) an incomplete and inadequate management system where the needs of promoting private higher education are not easy to meet, for example, the oversimplified means of management, the lack of a separate body responsible for managing private higher education at local governmental level, and so on; (3) a variety of problems which have existed within private HEIs for long—for example,

20

2 Structure of Higher Education

the limited educational conditions and resources for running the institutions, lower educational levels affecting the growth of competitiveness of the institutions, inadequacy of academic strengths, lower level of internal management of the institutions, poor qualities of the enrollments, too frequent change of faculty members, and so on. In reality, most of the problems are closely related to these institutions’ competition with public HEIs.

2.2

Levels

According to the Higher Education Law issued in 1998, both the basic duration of study and the academic standards at the three levels of higher education vary. In terms of the basic duration of study, specialized higher education takes two to three years, undergraduate education takes four to five years, and postgraduate education takes two to four years respectively. At the postgraduate level, a master’s degree usually requires two to three years, while a doctoral degree takes three to four years. In terms of the academic standard, there are different emphases at different levels. Students’ basic skills and primary capabilities related to work should be developed at the level of specialized higher education; students’ primary capabilities to conduct research should be developed at the level of undergraduate education; the focus of master’s education is on requiring students to fully master elementary theories in a certain discipline, integrated specialized knowledge, some related skills, methods and knowledge, and the capabilities to conduct both professional work and research work as well; and the emphasis of doctoral education is on students’ capabilities to engage in both professional work and original research work (NPC, 1998: Article 16–17). The first school system of the PRC, Decision to Reform the School System (1951), stipulated that ‘universities, colleges and specialized colleges’ are HEIs in China; ‘universities and colleges should set up graduate divisions’ to train faculty and researchers. From the early 1950s through the late 1980s, China’s higher education had a notable feature: graduate students and specialized higher education students accounted for an extremely low proportion of the total higher education enrollments, while undergraduate students made up a very high proportion of the total. This structural feature of higher education was even called a phenomenon of ‘one large middle division and two small ends’. The middle division was undergraduate education. The two small ends included specialized higher education at the lower end, and graduate education at the upper end. In 1989, the ratio of undergraduate students to specialized education students in regular HEIs was 100: 58 and the ratio of undergraduate students to postgraduate students stood at 100: 7 (Xu, 1995: 186). As a result, graduates with advanced degrees and specialized higher education diplomas had been insufficient on the labor market for a long time.

2.2 Levels

21

In the early 1990s, China’s higher education structure started to change dramatically. Two pieces of educational documents issued by the MOE greatly affected the rapid growth of specialized education. They were the Proposals on Strengthening Regular Specialized Education (1991) and the Outlines of Educational Reform and Development (1993). In three consecutive years, from 1992 to 1994, the total number of freshmen at specialized higher education level exceeded the total number of freshmen at undergraduate education level each year. In 1994, the total enrollments at specialized higher education level reached 1,281,700, accounting for 45.8% of those at the levels of undergraduate and specialized higher education. From 2000 to 2004, the total enrollments at specialized higher education level increased sharply, rising from 2,160,800 in 2000 to 5,956,500 in 2004. Over the years, the proportion of the total enrollments at specialized higher education level to those at the levels of undergraduate and specialized higher education increased from 38.9% in 2000 to 44.7% in 2004 (Li, 2005: 189 & 196). Thus, the aforementioned phenomenon of ‘one large middle division and two small ends’ practically disappeared. Moreover, in 2014, either in adult HEIs programs or in web-based programs, the total enrollments of short-cycle programs exceeded those of regular programs (see Table 2.2). On the other hand, postgraduate education in China also made great progress in the past few years. According to the guidelines of the MOE, graduate schools within the institutions had been established in 55 Chinese HEIs by the year of 2000. The growth rate of both entrants and the total enrollments of postgraduate education increased remarkably in the past few years. The number of entrants at the postgraduate level increased from 72, 500 in 1998 to 364,800 in 2005, showing an increase rate of 403%; over the same period, the total enrollments rose from 198,900 in 1998 to 978,600 in 2005, showing an increase rate of 392% (Ji, 2006: 2). As indicated in Table 2.2, the size of postgraduate student population in China grew much larger in 2014; the number of entrants rose to 621,323 and the total enrollments reached 1,847,689 in the same year. At present, there are three main issues concerning the levels of China’s higher education: (1) to continue with the gradual expansion of higher education at the three levels, promoting the massification of China’s higher education; (2) to restructure the relationships between the three levels so as to better adjust to the increasingly changing needs of the labor market (the manpower demands of high, medium and low levels); (3) to focus on shaping the features of specialized higher education or short-cycle higher education as a unique educational level, to expand education leading to professional degrees, and to improve the quality of doctoral degrees.

Postgraduates Doctoral degrees Master’s degrees Regular & short-cycle programs Regular programs Short-cycle programs Regular & short-cycle programs in adult HEIs Regular programs Short-cycle programs Web-based regular and short-cycle programs Regular programs Short-cycle programs Note aN stands for no figure Source MOE, (2014a)

531,478 482,210 479,126 3,338,323 3,338,323 N 141,420 141,420 N 46,816 46,816 N

899,050 1,313,279 1,661,306

586,272 1,075,034

Degrees awarded

535,863 53,653 482,210 6,593,671 3,413,787 3,179,884 2,212,329

Graduates

Table 2.2 Number of students in HEIs in 2014

781,445 1,280,407

1,102,409 1,553,631 2,061,852

621,323 72,634 548,689 7,213,987 3,834,152 3,379,835 2,656,040

Entrants Total

N N

N N N

418,010 33,054 384,956 6,712,934 3,468,839 3,468,839 N

Autumn session

401,687 665,993

N N 1,067,680

Na N N 5577 563 5014 N

Spring session

2,287,010 4,027,462

2,797,917 3,733,295 6,314,472

1,847,689 312,676 1,535,013 25,476,999 15,410,653 10,066,346 6,531,212

Enrolments

N N

1,004,011 1,514,973 N

693,629 149,190 544,439 6,998,928 3,701,175 3,297,753 2,518,984

Estimated graduates for next Year

22 2 Structure of Higher Education

2.3 Disciplines

2.3

23

Disciplines

After the founding of the PRC, the restructuring of Chinese higher education started to follow the former Soviet Union model. From then on, Chinese higher education embarked on training high-level specialized manpower for meeting the needs of economic development, particularly the development needs of a variety of industries in new China. Owing to the influential 1951–1953 adjustment of colleges and departments in numerous Chinese HEIs, some main characteristics took form in the structure of disciplines in the 1950s and remained unchanged until the late 1970s. These characteristics included an overemphasis on engineering disciplines; too many classifications of engineering disciplines with too narrow specialties within each classification; within institutions, direct and clear separations of disciplines between science and engineering, between science and agriculture, and between science and medicine; neglect of some disciplines (e.g., finance and economics, political science and law, etc.); and the abolition of politics, sociology, psychology, anthropology and some other disciplines, for ideological reasons. In the 1980s, economic factors started to affect the structure of disciplines in Chinese HEIs. Some disciplines like finance and economics, political science and law developed again and the number of specialties within these disciplines increased gradually. Since the 1990s, the structure of disciplines in China has undergone dramatic changes. Categories of disciplines and types of specialties within disciplines have returned to normal. The government issued a General Catalog of Specialties in HEIs in 1963, unifying all institutions’ specialties for the first time. The Catalog was revised twice, in 1987 and 1993. The 1993 General Catalog of Undergraduate Fields of Study in HEIs covered 10 categories of disciplines (Level I). Under Level I, there were 71 specialties (Level II) in total. Under Level II there were a total of 504 programs. A new General Catalog of Undergraduate Fields of Study in HEIs was officially promulgated by the MOE in 1998. In 1999, all HEIs started to follow this new catalog which had 11 categories of disciplines, namely, philosophy, economics, law, education, literature, history, science, engineering, agriculture, medicine and administration. Administration was added as a new category of discipline in 1998. Compared with the 1993 Catalog, in the 1998 Catalog, physical education was classified under the discipline of education; art under literature; forestry under agriculture; teacher training was classified under such disciplines as education, literature, history and science. More importantly, there were still 71 specialties at Level II, but below Level II there were only a total of 249 programs. The decrease rate literally reached 50.6 percent (‘A Great Event’, 1998). The categories of disciplines at the specialized higher education level had not been established until 2004. The MOE promulgated a Guiding Catalog of Fields of Study for Short-Cycle and Tertiary Vocational and Technical Education (Pilot Scheme) for the first time in 2004. Prior to this, the classification of disciplines, and

24

2 Structure of Higher Education

specialties within disciplines, had been chaotic at the level of specialized higher education. By and large, it was common to see short-cycle and higher vocational and technical colleges completely imitating and directly adopting the classification of disciplines at the undergraduate level. From 1998 to 2004, the growth of freshmen admissions to the institutions’ differing categories of disciplines was very fast. Several striking features could be found in the growth process: (1) the total number of entrants in social science disciplines increased at a higher rate than that in natural science and technology disciplines; (2) the growth rate of entrants in engineering disciplines took the lead; (3) the growth rate of entrants in humanities was not high and did not climb radically; the number of entrants in agriculture declined sharply; (4) the uneven proportion of the entrants for social science disciplines and natural science disciplines changed noticeably, and the ratio of the total entrants in social science disciplines to natural science disciplines changed from 1: 1.64 in 1998 to 1: 1.07 in 2004; (5) the proportion of the total entrants in applied science disciplines increased, and the ratio of the total entrants in applied science disciplines to basic science disciplines changed from 2.88: 1 in 1998 to 2.98: 1 in 2004 (Xie, Wen & Li, 2007: 49–50, 59 & 61). Some changes in the structure of disciplines in Chinese regular HEIs are shown in Tables 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5. Tables 2.3 and 2.4 show the number of specialties and educational programs and the number of students across 11 categories of disciplines in 2007. Table 2.5 shows the number of engineering students across 21 specialties within engineering disciplines in 2007. In 2011, Catalog of Disciplines for Degree Awarding and Educational Programs was released by the State Council Committee on Academic Degrees (SCCAD) and the MOE. This updated catalog listed 13 categories of disciplines, in which two categories, military science and art, were new. According to 2014 Educational Statistics, there were a total of 1,424,925 undergraduate students studying art in 2014. The structural adjustment of the disciplines in China’s higher education has been focusing on addressing the following issues: (1) adjusting the proportion of disciplines in social sciences, the humanities, sciences and engineering according to the demands of the market, and adjusting the ratio of applied science disciplines to basic science disciplines; (2) further expanding the scope and number of the applied science specialties (e.g., IT, life sciences) and their programs, greatly satisfying the growing market needs of manpower in such popular, “hot” disciplines and specialties; (3) carrying on the periodic review of disciplines and specialties in an effort to reduce redundant configuration of disciplines in HEIs.

19,038

480

54,150

615

15,783

517

Total

3

2

68

5

360

10

Philosophy

1125

15

2775

18

863

20

Economics

949

28

2027

36

1004

35

Law

Notes ed. prog. educational program; No. Number; sp. specialty Source MOE, (2007b)

No. of ed. prog.

No. of sp.

Adult HE

No. of ed. prog.

No. of sp.

Regular HE

No. of ed. prog.

No. of sp.

Graduate students

1504

51

2299

45

600

23

Education

2726

58

8860

93

1293

36

Literature

133

5

260

8

372

10

History

1330

50

4610

82

2302

70

Science

5047

144

18,145

191

5177

175

Engineering

521

31

1485

34

709

39

Agriculture

Table 2.3 Number of specialties and educational programs established by Field of Study in regular HEIs in 2007

1134

44

2404

48

1900

68

Medicine

4566

52

11,217

55

1192

24

Administration

0

0

0

0

11

7

Others

2.3 Disciplines 25

Total Philosophy Economics Law Education Literature History Science Engineering Agriculture Medicine Administration Students enrolling in teacher training institutions Note aN stands for no figure Source MOE, (2007b)

3,774,708 1417 203,957 186,164 322,317 524,806 10,605 197,231 1341,724 77,177 253,252 656,058 493,445

Graduates Total 1,726,674 1417 104,665 91,596 61,740 283,404 10,605 194,807 575,634 36,740 107,210 258,856 241,787

Normal Courses 2,048,034 Na 99,292 94,568 260,577 241,402 N 2424 766,090 40,437 146,042 397,202 251,658

Short- cycle Courses 5,460,530 2158 268,773 196,195 334,939 816,922 13,698 281,691 1992,426 100,020 380,083 1,073,625 493,444

Entrants Total

Table 2.4 Number of students in regular HEIs by Field of Study in 2007

2,530,854 2158 152,592 110,019 90,533 470,022 13,698 279,708 798,106 47,312 155,242 411,464 261,167

Normal Courses 2,929,676 N 116,181 86,176 244,406 346,900 N 1983 1194,320 52,708 224,841 662,161 232,277

Short- cycle Courses 17,388,441 6846 921,365 710,173 1,029,612 2,642,439 52,514 1,047,936 6,143,918 331,606 1,268,587 3,233,445 1,769,203

Enrolments Total 9,433,395 6846 574,452 441,090 339,420 1,677,537 52,514 1,041,387 2,958,802 188,067 688,777 1,464,503 1,105,277

Normal Courses

7,955,046 N 346,913 269,083 690,192 964,902 N 6549 3,185,116 143,539 579,810 1,768,942 663,926

Short- cycle Courses

26 2 Structure of Higher Education

2.4 Categories of Institutions

27

Table 2.5 Number of engineering students by subfield of study in regular HEIs in 2007 Total Applied Geology Materials Science Mechanical Engineering Instrument & Meter Thermal & Nuclear Energy Electronics & Information Civil Engineering & Architecture Hydraulics Survey & Measure Environment & Safety Chemical Engineering & Pharmaceutics Transportation Oceanic Light industry, Textile & Food Aeronautics & Astronautics Weaponry Engineering Mechanics Biotechnology Agriculture Engineering Forestry Engineering Public Security Technology Source MOE, (2007b)

2.4

Graduates

Entrants

Enrolments

1,301,226 13,163 27,878 170,392 10,935 14,910 711,412 120,394 13,077 6,758 32,022 39,516 57,799 1,104 45,185 2461 1716 2310 22,679 4687 1584 1244

1,995,634 33,298 43,880 367912 15,797 22,158 912,063 205,199 17,984 14,033 36,908 82,654 105,173 2,212 85,690 3737 2850 3225 30,083 5178 2552 3048

6,005,229 89,399 147,458 1,027,633 57,059 73,494 2,811,167 620,192 59,035 38,343 127,303 229,748 288,524 7,402 252,643 13,421 10,611 11,680 101,846 20,040 8591 9640

Categories of Institutions

According to the Higher Education Law (1998), universities, separately-established colleges, and specialized colleges were three categories of HEIs in China: undergraduate education and postgraduate education were offered in universities and separately-established colleges; and specialized education was offered in specialized colleges. According to 2015 Statistical Bulletin on the Development of the National Educational Enterprise, there were a total of 2560 regular HEIs in 2015, of which 1341 were short-cycle colleges (traditionally called specialized colleges in China for decades and currently called vocational and technical colleges in most cases), and 1219 were universities and colleges (the institutions awarding advanced degrees and baccalaureate degrees). Unfortunately, after 2009 the number of regular HEIs based on field of study had not been released annually by the MOE. Such statistics of 2008 is shown in Table 2.6. In addition to the above basic classification commonly assigning HEIs to three categories, there have been some other types of classification framework. In general, Chinese HEIs can be classified on the basis of different standards of

28

2 Structure of Higher Education

Table 2.6 Number of regular HEIs in 2008 Total Comprehensive University Natural Sciences & Technology Agriculture Forestry Medicine & Pharmacy Teacher Training Language & Literature Finance & Economics Political Science & Law Physical Culture Art Ethnic Nationality Non-Government/Private Colleges Source MOE, (2008a)

Total

Universities and colleges

Short-cycle colleges

2263 533 801 83 18 159 188 48 237 69 30 80 17 638

1079 246 320 41 7 103 140 21 110 23 16 39 13 369

1184 287 481 42 11 56 48 27 127 46 14 41 4 269

classification. Two types of classifications are described in the following section. One classification of HEIs is based on discipline coverage and the other is based on functions of institutions. They both classify HEIs into three categories respectively.

2.4.1

Discipline-Based Categories: Single-Discipline Institutions, Multidisciplinary Institutions, and Comprehensive Universities

In the Middle Ages, the earliest universities in Italy and France originally were teaching institutions serving the professions based on a single subject. The University of Bologna at first was only a law school, the University of Salerno was a medical school, and the University of Paris only had theology at the beginning. In modern times, many countries still retain a number of unique, single-disciplinebased professional institutions. In China, there are a number of single-disciplinebased professional institutions, for instance, the Central Academy of Fine Arts (Beijing), the China National Academy of Fine Arts (Hangzhou), and the Beijing Film Academy. The 1951 Decision to Reform the School System of the PRC proposed three categories of HEIs following the former Soviet Union’s school system: universities, colleges and specialized colleges. The three categories of institutions were required to provide students with specialized higher education, thus building a pool of high-level manpower for the state. In the course of the 1951–1953 adjustment of

2.4 Categories of Institutions

29

colleges and departments, a great number of colleges of engineering and comprehensive universities became the focus of the adjustment. As a result, while retaining a small number of liberal-arts-intensified universities, a large number of single-discipline-based colleges were established, the majority of which were virtually colleges of engineering. Since then, comprehensive universities, single discipline or multidisciplinary colleges, and specialized colleges constituted the three categories of institutions in China. While there were a total of 49 comprehensive universities in 1949, only 14 were left in 1953 (Qu, 1993: 645; Yu, 1994: 3). The structure with too many single discipline institutions and engineering institutions made an oversimplified separation among social science disciplines, natural science disciplines and engineering disciplines. Moreover, a model of manpower training which tended to overspecialization was formed in China and it lasted for nearly half a century, until the late 1990s. From the 1970s to the late 1990s, China’s higher education underwent restoration, new readjustment and development, but the fundamental problem of the established structure remained the same: too many single discipline institutions and too few comprehensive universities. In 1997, there were a total of 1022 HEIs in China, most of which (950) were still single discipline or multidisciplinary institutions, and only 72 were comprehensive universities (Min, 2002: 653). In the late 1990s, China started to re-establish a number of comprehensive universities and initiate a reform toward comprehensive development within most HEIs. Through the merger of institutions, the collaboration between institutions and other operating forms, a variety of comprehensive universities (in the true sense of the Western type of university) were reshaped in the end, such as the new Zhejiang University and the Sichuan University. Meantime, Peking University, Tsinghua University, Fudan University, and some other famous universities underwent a restructuring process in view of becoming more comprehensive than ever before, where several new colleges and departments were reorganized and key disciplines were strengthened within institutions. Soon a wide range of single discipline and multidisciplinary institutions, like these elite universities, began to move toward a more comprehensive development. This produced two results: a large number of regional multidisciplinary colleges emerged, replacing the previous single discipline institutions; and many multidisciplinary institutions widened their discipline coverage by creating new colleges or departments and expanding the scope of existing disciplines. As shown in Table 2.6, in 2008, there were a total of 2263 HEIs in China, of which 638 were non-governmental/private colleges and the remaining 1625 were public institutions. Of the total 1625 public institutions, 533 were comprehensive universities, 801 were institutions of natural sciences and technology and almost all of them were virtually multidisciplinary ones, and just a small number were institutions of single disciplines such as agriculture, forestry, art, etc.

30

2.4.2

2 Structure of Higher Education

Function–Based Categories: Teaching Institutions, Teaching-Research Institutions, and Research Universities

In terms of the basic functions of HEIs, teaching as the primary function originated in the earliest universities in the Middle Ages; research as a function has played its role in HEIs since the founding of University of Berlin in 1810 and the new idea of “a combination of teaching and research”. Nowadays, HEIs across the globe generally position themselves on the basis of their basic functions. Therefore, categories of teaching institutions, teaching-research institutions, and research universities are easily found in different national higher education systems, each category of which reflects certain options of the institutions’ basic functions, foci of institutions’ missions, or specific tasks of the institutions’ actual operation. In reality, more subcategories can be classified. For instance, the category of teaching institutions can be further divided into two subcategories: teaching institutions at undergraduate level, and those at specialized higher education level. The 1993 Outlines of Educational Reform and Development required that ‘standards for classifying HEIs should be stipulated to make all categories of institutions identify their own division of roles and develop individual characteristics of each category’ (CPC Central Committee & State Council, 1993). Thereafter, many researchers in academia attempted to classify Chinese HEIs. Two typical groupings were even classified by two scholars in 1996 and 2000. In 1996, Professor Luting Ma at the National Center for Educational Development and Research proposed four groupings, including research universities, teachingresearch universities, teaching-oriented undergraduate institutions, and specialized/ vocational colleges. In 2000, Jinggang Dai, an expert at the Division of HEIs Establishment of the MOE, suggested three groupings, including research universities, teaching institutions, and vocational and technical institutions (Ma, 2004: 67–71). China’s classification of categories of institutions can be discussed in detail within the context of the recent restructuring of higher education concerning the basic groupings of institutions. In this respect, some related issues should be taken into account: (1) to carry on searching for a better classification framework so as to help all HEIs of various types across the country position themselves more clearly and more logically; (2) to control moderately the direction for a more comprehensive development in multidisciplinary institutions and comprehensive universities, avoiding the tendency to be too comprehensive, being small but complete; (3) to focus on shaping the uniqueness characteristics of each category; in particular, to steer categories of single discipline institutions and teaching institutions to move forward differentiating themselves from other categories as well as avoiding

2.4 Categories of Institutions

31

Table 2.7 The first group of “985 Project” Jointly Sponsored Key Universities University

Joint sponsors

Date of signing the Sponsorship Agreement

Nanjing University Fudan University Shanghai Jiaotong University University of Science & Technology of China Xi’an Jiaotong University Zhejiang University Harbin Institute of Technology

MOE(1) and Jiangsu Province MOE and Shanghai City MOE and Shanghai City CAS(2), MOE and Anhui Province MOE and Shaanxi Province MOE and Zhejiang Province COSTIND(3), MOE and Heilongjiang Province MOE and Tianjin City MOE and Tianjin City MOE and Jiangsu Province MOE, Hubei Province and Wuhan City MOE and Jilin Province MOE, Fujian Province and Xiamen City MOE and Hubei Province MOE and Shandong Province MOE, Shandong Province, SOA(4), and Qingdao City MOE and Hunan Province MOE and Hunan Province COSTIND, MOE and Beijing City MOE, Liaoning Province and Dalian City COSTIND, MOE and Beijing City MOE and Chongqing City MOE and Sichuan Province MOE, Sichuan Province and Chengdu City MOE and Guangdong Province MOE and Guangdong Province

July July July July

Nankai University Tianjin University Southeast University Huazhong University of Science & Technology Jilin University Xiamen University Wuhan University Shandong University Ocean University of China Hunan University Central South University Beijing University of Technology Dalian University of Technology Beijing University of Aeronautics & Astronautics Chongqing University Sichuan University University of Electronic Science & Technology of China Zhongshan University South China University of Technology Lanzhou University Northeast University Northwest Polytechnical University

MOE and Gansu Province MOE, Liaoning Province and Shenyang City COSTIND, MOE, Shaanxi Province and Xi’an City

1999 1999 1999 1999

September 1999 November 1999 November 1999 December 2000 December 2000 February 2001 February 2001 February 2001 February 2001 February 2001 February 2001 February 2001 February 2001 February 2001 April 2001 August 2001 September 2001 September 2001 September 2001 September 2001 October 2001 October 2001 December 2001 January 2002 January 2002 (continued)

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Table 2.7 (continued) University

Joint sponsors

Date of signing the Sponsorship Agreement

Tongji University MOE and Shanghai City Central University for SEAC(5), MOE and Beijing Nationalities City Beijing Normal University MOE and Beijing City Renmin University of China MOE and Beijing City Notes 1 MOE: Ministry of Education 2 CAS: Chinese Academy of Sciences 3 COSTIND: Commission of Science, Technology and Industry for 4 SOA: State Oceanic Administration 5 SEAC: State Ethnic Affair Commission Source MOE, (2003a)

June 2002 June 2002 August 2002 September 2003

National Defense

Table 2.8 The Second group of “985 Project” Jointly Sponsored Key Universities University

Joint sponsors

Chinese University CAS(1), MOE(2) and Anhui of Science & Technology Province Dalian University of MOE, Liaoning Province and Technology Dalian City Fudan University MOE and Shanghai City Shanghai Jiaotong MOE and Shanghai City University Tongji University MOE and Shanghai City Chongqing University MOE and Chongqing City Zhejiang University MOE and Zhejiang Province Shandong University MOE and Shandong Province Jilin University MOE and Jilin Province Zhongshan University MOE and Guangdong Province South China University MOE and Guangdong Province of Technology Lanzhou University MOE and Gansu Province Nanjing University MOE and Jiangsu Province Southeast University MOE and Jiangsu Province Ocean University of MOE, Shandong Province, SOA(3) China and Qingdao City Notes (1) CAS Chinese Academy of Sciences (2) MOE Ministry of Education (3) SOA State Oceanic Administration Source MOE, (2007d)

Date of signing the Sponsorship Agreement October 2004 March 2005 June 2005 June 2005 June 2005 July 2005 July 2005 August 2005 August 2005 September 2005 September 2005 April 2006 September 2006 September 2006 December 2006

blind competition among categories; (4) to develop the category of Chinese research universities through the ‘985 Project’ (see Tables 2.7 and 2.8), centering on creating a group of world-class, high-level universities.

Chapter 3

Higher Education Management

3.1

The Ownership System

When the PRC was founded in 1949, there were a total of 205 HEIs in the regions controlled by the former government of the Republic of China (1911–1949), among which 124 were public, 21 were supported by foreign funding, and 60 were private (Yu, 1994: 3). In 1952, the state council of PRC transformed all private and foreign funded HEIs into public ones. From 1952 to 1982, all HEIs in China were public HEIs owned by the state. Within the state, the ownership of HEIs was shared between the central and local governments. At the central level, the ownership of HEIs was shared among various central commissions and ministries, including the MOE. At the local level, the ownership of HEIs was controlled by the provincial governments or city governments at various periods of time. Since private HEIs emerged in China in the 1980s, non-government entities, including individuals, non-government organizations, and private businesses, have become owners of HEIs. Private HEIs are subject to regulation and administration by provincial governments. The ownership system of higher education is closely connected with the administrative system of higher education in China. The changes in the regular HEIs owned by the MOE, other central commissions and ministries, and local governments reveal the shifting distribution of administrative and coordinating authorities among these organizations. A detailed analysis of the ownership system of higher education in different periods of time is provided in Sect. 3.2 in conjunction with an analysis of the administrative system.

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Higher Education Press 2018 J. Gu et al., Higher Education in China, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0845-1_3

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3.2

3 Higher Education Management

The Administrative System

The administrative system of higher education concerns the distribution of administrative and coordinating powers among various constituents of the higher education system. The administrative authority of higher education in China is shared between government’s administrative departments of education and the HEIs. The government administrative departments of education in charge of higher education include the MOE and the education departments of other central commissions and ministries at the central level and the departments of education in 31 provinces (Municipalities and autonomous region). They represent the top two levels of administrative authority in the Chinese higher education system. The coordinating authority of higher education used to be held solely by the government administrative departments of education before the 1980s when there was no market economy in China. Since that time, higher education has been increasingly subjected to market forces.

3.2.1

Administration of Higher Education

In reforming the administration of higher education in China, strategies of centralization and decentralization have proceeded simultaneously. These reforms concern the role and authority of the central and local governments and their relationships in the administration of higher education. Models of higher education administration in China have vacillated between centralization and decentralization since the founding of the PRC, as indicated in Table 3.1. Table 3.2 presents the number of HEIs administered by different central and local authorities at various periods of time. Each year’s data in Table 3.2 reflects a model of administration indicated in Table 3.1. For example, the 1955 data represents the centralized model of administration from 1952 to 1957. The administrative system of higher education between 1952 and 1957 was highly centralized. It was a model in which the central government monopolized decision-making authority for both macro administration of higher education and day-to-day operations of HEIs. At the central level, the administration of higher education was shared among various commissions and ministries. The State Administrative Council, the predecessor of the State Council from 1949 to 1954, passed the Decision on the Leadership in HEI in 1950, establishing the unified leadership of the MOE over all HEIs in China (NAEA, 1999). A separate Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) came into being from 1952 to 1958 (Su, 1991), due in part to the rapid expansion of higher education and the idea that higher education involved specialized professional training and should therefore be administered separately and independently of basic education (Su, 1991). In 1955, all of the 227 HEIs were directly administered by the MOE or other ministries and commissions

3.2 The Administrative System

35

Table 3.1 Models of administration in Chinese higher education Periods

Patterns

Corresponding sociopolitical events

1952–1957 1958–1963 1963–1965

Centralized leadership and administration Decentralized local administration Unified central leadership and shared administration between the central and local governments Decentralized local administration Unified central leadership Unified central leadership and shared administration between the central and provincial governments

Reconstruction Great leap forward New economic construction Cultural revolution Post-1978 reform era

1966–1976 1978–1985 1985– present

Table 3.2 The number of regular HEIs administered by different authorities 1958

1964

1976

1985

2005

2014

MOE 6 251 – 38 73 73 Other central ministries 80 – 285 38 40 Local governments 705 183 – 691 1681 2416 Of total: Private None None None – 250 727 Total 791 434 392 1014 1792 2529 Sources 1958 and 1964 data were from NAEA (1999, pp. 52–54); 1976 figure was from the MOE (1985); 1985 data were from Hayhoe (1989, p. 167); 2005 and 2014 data were from MOE (2005a, 2014b)

such as the Ministry of Health or the State Ethnic Affairs Commission (Bie, 1995). The MOE shared the decision-making and administrative authority with other commissions and ministries. From 1958 to 1963, China shifted to a decentralized local administrative system for higher education. The Regulation for the Decentralization of the Administrative Authority of Education, which was passed in 1958, authorized local governments to make local education regulations and to revise and even to abolish educational regulations issued by the State Council or the MOE (Bie, 1995). In February 1958, the MOE and MOHE merged to form a single MOE.1 At the same time, CPC committees were founded in every HEI which assumed the overall leadership. Apart from a few comprehensive universities and several short-cycle 1

The MOE was formed in October 1949, and the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) was formed and separated from the MOE in November 1952. In February 1958, the MOE and MOHE merged to form a single MOE. In December 1963, the MOE was once again separated into MOE and MOHE. Once again, in July 1966, the MOE and MOHE merged to form a single MOE, which was abolished shortly after. From late 1966 to July 1970, the central administration of education was in a void. In July 1970, the Science and Education Committee under the State Council took charge of national education administration until the re-establishment of the MOE in January 1975.

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3 Higher Education Management

colleges with strong industrial orientations (i.e. agriculture and health), which remained under the control of the central government, other HEIs were delegated to local governments for administration. Among the 791 HEIs in 1958, only 86 were under the direct administration of the central government, including six administered by the MOE, while the rest of the 705 HEIs were administered by local governments (NAEA, 1999: 52–54). In May 1963, the CPC Central Committee and the State Council issued the Decision on Unifying Management in the Higher Education System. This decision established a system that prioritized the unified leadership of the central government in the planning and administration of higher education, and mandated separate administration of HEIs at two levels: the central and the local (Xiao & He, 1996). As a result, the higher education administrative system changed to one in which there was unified central leadership by the MOE and shared administrative authority between the central and local governments from 1963 to 1965. The MOHE was reestablished in December 1963 to administer higher education affairs, separate from the MOE. After the readjustment, 251 of the total 434 HEIs were under the direct administration of the MOE and other commissions and ministries in 1965 (NAEA, 1999: 52–54). The administration of higher education was in total disarray during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), with the abolition of the MOE, the MOHE, and all local administrative departments of education. From 1966 to 1970, there was an absence of normal education administration; while Revolutionary Committees made up of workers, peasants and soldiers at all levels ran most administrative affairs of the country’s educational institutions. In order to resume control over the development of education, a Science and Education Committee was formed under the State Council in July 1970 to oversee all levels and types of education at the central level until the restoration of the MOE in January 1975 (Yang, 2001). During the Cultural Revolution, all HEIs were closed from 1966 to 1969. When about 80 HEIs did reopen in July 1970 (Henze, 1984: 105), they admitted students on the basis of class background and working experience, instead of academic competence; and their instruction concentrated on politics and the connection between higher education and production, mirroring the preoccupation of the whole society with proletarian politics and class struggle during the Cultural Revolution. By the end of the Cultural Revolution, the central government reaffirmed the 1963 Decision on Unifying Management in the Higher Education System as correct and resumed the higher education administrative system. It was a unified central leadership by the MOE and shared administrative authorities between central and local governments in the administration of higher education from 1978 to 1985. The central government, especially the MOE, regained dominant authority in the planning and administration of higher education. Although the reconstructed administrative system of higher education introduced several important changes including a proposal for increasing the institutional autonomy of HEIs, it was still not adequate for HEIs to fulfill the demand of changing economic and social environments. There were constant calls by the academics and some government

3.2 The Administrative System

37

officials for further reforms in the entire higher education system in the direction of decentralizing the administration and increasing the institutional autonomy of HEIs.

3.2.2

Decentralization of Higher Education Administration After 1985

Since 1985, the trend in the administration of Chinese higher education has been one of gradual delegation of decision-making authority and responsibility from the central government to provincial governments. The decentralization of higher education administration was rooted in a series of important central policies and laws issued at that time. These landmark policies and laws include the Decision on the Reform of the Education System (1985), the Outlines of Educational Reform and Development (1993), and the Higher Education Law (1998, revised in 2015). Since then, the numbers of HEIs administered by the central agencies have been gradually but greatly reduced and those administered by the provincial governments increased tremendously (see Table 3.2). As part of the administrative decentralization that began in the 1980s, the government, especially the central government, withdrew from directly managing businesses and social institutions, including HEIs. The purpose was to change the government from being a service provider to being a service regulator and enable businesses and social institutions to operate independently and autonomously. The majority of central commissions and ministries other than the MOE have turned over the HEIs under their jurisdictions to the MOE or provincial governments. As a result, the authority of central commissions and ministries other than the MOE in planning and administering higher education has significantly diminished. The provincial governments have gained increasing authority in the planning and administration of the local economy. This has enabled them to assume greater powers and responsibilities for the administration of higher education since 1985. The current higher education system in China was originally established during the 1950s. Higher education was organized along the lines of China’s six large geographical regions and major industrial sectors that were managed by central line ministries (ministries in charge of a particular line of business such as railway, construction, or agriculture, etc.) (Ding, 2001: 179). There were barriers to communication and cooperation among the vertically divided central commissions and ministries (63 at the highest point). There were also barriers to communication between the central ministries and provincial governments. These structural challenges contributed to the fragmentation of the Chinese higher education system into many self-contained mini-systems. Each mini-system was accountable only to the authority that administered it (Ding, 2001). The fragmentation of the higher education system led to serious and widespread duplication of institutions and academic programs, which resulted in too many graduates in some fields of study in some years and too few at other times.

38

3 Higher Education Management CPC Central Committee & State Council NDRC & MOF

MOE

Public HEI

Dept. of Education in other Central Ministries Provincial Dept. of Education

Public HEI

Public HEI

Private HEI

Fig. 3.1 Structure of the higher education administrative system. The dotted lines indicate the flow of government planning and allocations for higher education. NDRC (The NDRC is a macroeconomic management agency under the State Council. It studies and formulates policies for economic and social development, maintains a balance of economic aggregates and guides the overall economic system restructuring. Its predecessor, the State Planning Commission (SPC) was founded in 1952, and was renamed as the State Development Planning Commission (SDPC) in 1998. After merging with the State Council Office for Restructuring the Economic System (SCORES) and part of the State Economic and Trade Commission (SETC) in 2003, the SDPC was restructured into the NDRC.) stands for the National Development and Reform Commission; MOF stands for the Ministry of Finance; Dept. stands for Department

The Outlines of Educational Reform and Development (1993) and the Higher Education Law (1998) sought to solve this problem by establishing a two-tier administrative system of higher education consisting of the central and provincial governments and enhancing provincial governments’ decision-making powers over the HEIs under their jurisdiction. A system of funding HEIs at three levels consisting of the central, provincial, and local governments, but administering them at two levels appeared in the 1990s. Public HEIs in China can be established and funded by the central government, including the MOE, and other central commissions and ministries, or by provincial governments, or by city-level governments. However, only the central government and provincial governments have the authority to supervise them. Public HEIs established and managed by city-level governments are subjected to administration by provincial governments. The administrative authority over private HEIs is vested in provincial governments. Figure 3.1 shows the administrative structure of regular higher education in China. In the administration of regular higher education, policies, regulations, and laws enacted after 1985 have given provincial governments increasing powers over HEIs under their jurisdictions. The State Council issued the Provisional Regulation on Responsibilities for Administrating Regular HEIs in 1986. It provided provincial governments the following powers (1) to establish, adjust, and close short-cycle academic programs; (2) to make annual and long-term admission plans for regular HEIs with the provincial planning department (with the approval of MOE) and

3.2 The Administrative System

39

assist in finding employment for graduates; (3) to organize collaboration and exchange among HEIs; (4) to appoint and remove the president and vice-presidents of provincial HEIs; (5) to carry out evaluation; and (6) to coordinate logistic services. The Higher Education Law granted provincial governments additional authority to establish, adjust, or close short-cycle colleges under their jurisdiction. Private HEIs, regular or adult, have been under the administration of provincial departments of education from the beginning. The Private Education Promotion Law in 2002 gave provincial governments the legal right to administer private HEIs. By 2014, the provincial governments were responsible for the administration of 2416 regular HEIs, approximately 96% of the total 2529 regular HEIs in China (see Table 3.2). The reform of the fiscal administration system in 1980 separated revenue and tax collection at two levels: the central and the provincial. Provincial governments have become responsible for government allocations for HEIs under their jurisdictions since 1985. They are also responsible for distributing national subsidies to HEIs under their jurisdictions and government financial assistance to students including national student loans. Due to enormous differences in the cost of living among different provinces, provincial governments have acquired the authority and responsibility to determine tuition and fees for all HEIs located in their provinces, including the centrally administered HEIs. The increase in the decision-making authority and control over most regular HEIs have made it possible for provincial departments of education to assume a principal role in the administration of regular HEIs, which has been an important objective of the education policies since the 1990s such as the Outlines of Educational Reform and Development and the Higher Education Law. The MOE continues to be responsible for the overall planning, policy guidance, organizational coordination, supervision and inspection, and service provision in the higher education system. The MOE has retained its authority in the establishment of universities, coordination and approval of admission plans for HEIs, in the supervision of special program funding, provision and management of information services, and in the control of finance, administration, and evaluation of the regular HEIs directly under its jurisdiction. Tables 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5 illustrate the increase of responsibilities for the MOE and provincial governments in the administration of regular HEIs and the corresponding decrease of responsibilities for other central commissions and ministries after the 1990s. At the central level, the authority of higher education administration has been gradually centralized in the MOE with the transfer of most HEIs under the jurisdiction of other central commissions and ministries to either the MOE or provincial governments. In 1990, there were a total of 318 HEIs administered by 63 central commissions and ministries other than the MOE. By 2014, only 40 HEIs still remained under the jurisdiction of other central commissions and ministries. These 40 HEIs are either HEIs for ethnic minorities or HEIs with strong industrial orientations. The HEIs previously administered by other central commissions and ministries were either abolished, or transferred to the MOE or provincial governments, or turned into training departments within those commissions and ministries.

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Table 3.3 Change in the numbers of regular HEIs administered by different authorities 1990

2000

2010

2014

% Change from 1990 to 2014 (%)

Other central ministriesa 318 44 38 40 −87 MOE 36 72 73 73 103 Provincial governments 721 925 2247 2416 235 Total 1075 1041 2358 2529 135 Note arefers to the central commissions and ministries other than the MOE Sources Educational Statistics Yearbook of China 1990, p. 22; 2000, p. 20; 2010, p. 20; 2014, p. 20

Table 3.4 The total enrollments of regular HEIs administered by different authorities 1990

2000

2010

2014

% Change from 1990 to 2014 (%)

Other 669,863 237,756 407,696 464,980 −31 Central Ministriesa MOE 232,432 868,009 1,341,955 1,358,254 484 Provincial 1,160,400 4,455,135 20,568,278 23,653,765 1938 governments Total 2,062,695 5,560,900 22,317,929 25,476,999 1135 Note arefers to the central commissions and ministries other than the MOE Sources Educational Statistics Yearbook of China 1990, p. 22; 2000, pp. 26–27; 2010, pp. 32–33; 2014, pp. 32–22

Table 3.5 The distribution of HEIs and total enrollment under different authorities in 2014

% of regular HEIs % of total enrollment

Other Central Ministries (%)

MOE (%)

Provincial governments (%)

1.6 1.8

2.9 5.3

95.5 92.8

Correspondingly, the total enrollment of the HEIs administered by other central commissions and ministries decreased 31% from 1990 to 2014, while the total enrollment of the HEIs administered by the MOE increased 484% and the total enrollment of provincial HEIs increased 1938% during the same period. The authority and importance of other central commissions and ministries in higher education planning and administration has declined significantly as a result of the sharp decrease in the number of HEIs and enrollment under their jurisdiction. At the same time, enrollment in the provincial HEIs as a percentage of the total enrollment in higher education has increased dramatically from 56.3% in 1990 to 92.8% in 2014 (see Table 3.5). The sheer percentage of the total number of students

3.2 The Administrative System

41

Table 3.6 Central and provincial government expenditures on higher education Year

Total government expenditure* (Billion Yuan)

Percentage of central government expenditure

1995 18.6 51.6 2000 51.3 47.1 2005 95.9 38.2 2010 296.5 37.6 2013 493.3 31.2 Source China Educational Finance Statistical Yearbook 1996–2014

Percentage of provincial government expenditure 48.4 52.9 61.8 62.4 68.8

enrolled in provincial HEIs gave provincial governments considerable leverage in the planning and administration of higher education. Correspondingly, the percentage of provincial governments’ expenditure on higher education has continued to increase, particularly since 1999, while the percentage of central government expenditure on higher education has continued to decrease, as indicated in Table 3.6. In the present administrative structure of higher education, the authority of both the MOE and provincial governments has increased, while the authority of other central commissions and ministries has diminished drastically. Despite the reform of the administrative system of higher education, the reporting system between the government and HEIs has not changed. The regular HEIs under the jurisdiction of the MOE report to the MOE, those under the jurisdiction of other central commissions and ministries report to the education departments of those central commissions and ministries, and those under the jurisdiction of provincial governments report to provincial departments of education. Since the adoption of decentralization policies in 1985, provincial governments have been given more autonomy to run the HEIs under their jurisdictions, while the MOE at the central level mainly provides overall planning, macro policy guidance, national legal frameworks, coordination, information and other services (Mok, 2001). Therefore, provincial governments can, and have begun to, exercise more discretion in deciding matters related to academic programs (short-cycle), curricula, appointment of faculty members, as well as administration and management (Mok, 2001). At the central level, the MOE has centralized the overall planning and administration of higher education by taking over the HEIs controlled by other commissions and ministries or handing them over to provincial governments. After the centralization, the MOE’s authority in the overall planning and administration of higher education has improved significantly over other line ministries. However, the improvement has not changed the fact that the MOE has to share planning and financial authority for higher education with the NDRC and the Ministry of Finance (MOF), which limits the MOE’s capacity to do the overall planning and administration of higher education effectively.

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3.2.3

3 Higher Education Management

Changes of Higher Education Coordination

Coordination is particularly important for the development of higher education in China because of the involvement of multiple agencies in the planning, funding, and administration and the ‘sharing of authority’ for planning and funding among the MOE, the MOF, the NDRC, and the provincial departments of education. Since the 1980s, changes in higher education coordination have mainly occurred in the coordinating authority of state agencies such as the MOE and provincial departments of education and the emergence of market coordination.

3.2.3.1

Coordinating Authority of the MOE

The education system is a sub-system of the whole national economic and social system. It functions in competition and collaboration with other sub-systems such as agricultural, industrial, labor, and medical systems. The administrative departments of education at all levels not only exercise the administrative authority within the higher education system, but also look after the coordination of the department of education with the other central commissions and ministries and consumers. The coordinating authority of the MOE was quite limited from the time of its restoration in 1975 to 1985. The MOE found it difficult to lead and coordinate higher education development and reforms (Du, 1992), because it was in competition with other ministries to obtain the scarce financial resources and official attention from the State Council (Paine, 1992: 184). Since other central ministries held the same administrative status and authority as the MOE, neither they nor their education departments were compelled to carry out the education policies promulgated by the MOE or to address the MOE’s calls for policy coordination (Su, 1991). Although the MOE held the overall administrative and coordinating authority over higher education affairs across the country, it only controlled the government allocations for the HEIs under its jurisdiction, which was a very small percentage of the total. In fact, it only directly administered about 40 HEIs before 1985. Government allocations for the HEIs under the jurisdiction of other central commissions and ministries and provincial governments were distributed by the MOF directly, while the MOE had little control over them. In order to strengthen the coordinating authority of the central administrative department of education, the Sixth NPC Standing Committee decided to replace the MOE with the State Education Commission (SEDC) in June 1985 (NAEA, 1999). The SEDC had several advantages over its predecessor. First, the SEDC had equal administrative status to that of the NDRC in the State Council, placing it above central line ministries. It could require line ministries to comply with its recommendations and calls for policy coordination. Second, it ‘had a much broader scope of power than its predecessor and thus a greater ability to oversee and facilitate the nation’s educational development’ (Du, 1992: 28). The leadership positions of the SEDC consisted of a chairman, a vice-chairmen, and full- and part-time committee

3.2 The Administrative System

43

Table 3.7 Changes in the central administrative department of education 1975–1985

1985–1998

1998–present

MOE

SEDC

MOE

members. In order to strengthen the coordinating authority and functions of the SEDC, leaders from other central commissions and ministries were included in the leadership positions of the SEDC. The first Chairman of the SEDC was the vice-primer of the State Council and the leaders of the NDRC, MOF, the Science and Technology Commission and the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) served as part-time committee members (Table 3.7). The establishment of the SEDC did increase the coordinating authority of the central administrative department of education over central line ministries because of its higher administrative status, especially when the vice primer of the State Council headed the SEDC from June 1985 to April 1988 (S. H. Tang, Interview, August 23, 2002; D. H. Wang, personal communication, October 18, 2001). It also improved the efficacy of the education policies and regulations issued by the SEDC. However, the SEDC’s coordinating authority was never fully realized. The leaders of other central commissions and ministries such as the NDRC and the MOF, all held full-time positions already and did not devote much attention and energy to their duties in the SEDC. After the vice primer of the State Council stepped down as the chairman, the SEDC’s coordinating authority over the comprehensive commissions and ministries such as the NDRC and the MOF was gone, though it still held better coordinating authority over central line ministries. Moreover, the coordinating authority that the SEDC had over central line ministries gradually lost its meaning as the reform of the central government organizations proceeded. In order to transform government functions from direct and detailed management to overall guidance and macro administration, the central line ministries gradually turned some of their enterprises, industries, and social organizations into independent entities. Most of the HEIs administered by central line ministries were gradually handed over to either the SEDC or provincial governments. After the reorganization of central commissions and ministries in 1998, the number of regular HEIs still under the jurisdiction of other central commissions and ministries was reduced from 318 in 1990 to 40 in 2014, making up only 2% of the total number of regular HEIs (see Table 3.3). Therefore, the SEDC’s advantage in coordinating central line ministries was seriously diminished. In 1998, the State Council changed the SEDC back to the MOE in order to facilitate the separation of the government and school administration as well as the decentralization of higher education administration (D. H. Wang, personal communication, October 18, 2001). No matter how the government restructures the MOE or the SEDC, it does not touch the fundamental problem of the administrative departments of education not having exclusive control over higher education administration and coordination.

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The MOE must share authority horizontally and vertically (Paine, 1992). The MOE has to share authority with other commissions and ministries, particularly the NDRC, the MOF, and the Ministry of Labor (MOL), in the planning and coordination of government allocations, admissions, and employment assistance of graduates of regular higher education. The MOE has gained greater authority in coordinating such national special program as the ‘211 Project’ funding, in addition to the funds allocated to the HEIs by the MOF under its jurisdiction. But it cannot coordinate all government allocations for education, which are still determined by the NDRC and the MOF. Moreover, provincial governments have gained increasing power and resources in coordinating higher education development in the provinces, which is a result of the MOE’s strategy of decentralizing higher education administration to make the government more responsive to HEIs and make HEIs more responsive to the local economy. The downside of decentralization is the increasing difficulty of the MOE to coordinate higher education development in terms of national goals. Reforms have strengthened the MOE’s administrative and coordinating authority within the higher education system, but it still has little power to coordinate other central commissions and ministries, which hampers its ability ‘to map out an overall plan for education as a whole’ as stated in the 1985 Decision on the Reform of the Education System.

3.2.3.2

Expansion of Coordinating Authority for Provincial Governments

The separation of higher education administration between the central and provincial governments made it difficult for provincial governments to have any input in the coordination of the centrally controlled HEIs. To counter this, the Outlines of Educational Reform and Development, issued in 1993, encouraged provincial governments to take on a greater role and responsibility for higher education development in their provinces, including the coordination of centrally administered HEIs. It is inevitable for the centrally administered HEIs to become an integral part of and contribute a great deal to the local economy. The fact that all centrally administered HEIs are located in major cities and often in the capital cities of the provinces determines that a good portion of their graduates will find employment in the province where they study. The centrally administered HEIs control most of the government research funds, research contracts with industries and enterprises, and enrolled most postgraduate students, which are crucial to local economic development. The Shanghai Municipal government provided 1.3 billion Yuan for the development of science and technology in 1993, of which 1 billion Yuan went to the centrally administered HEIs (Yu, 1993). The centrally administered HEIs played a key role in the construction of such important infrastructures as the Yangpu Bridge and subway in Shanghai. Research centers such as the Shanghai Applied Mathematic Consultation Center, the Shanghai Mathematic Economy and

3.2 The Administrative System

45

Operational Research Center, and the Shanghai Center for Disaster Prevention and Relief were all located in the centrally administered HEIs as well (Yu, 1993). In Jiangsu province, an average of 30–40% of the graduates of the centrally administered HEIs found jobs within the province after graduation in the early 1990s (Ge, 1993). In 1992, the total enrollment of the centrally administered HEIs in Jiangsu province reached 87,000, while the total enrollment of the provincial HEIs in Jiangsu province was only 71,000 (Ge, 1993). In the same year, the centrally administered HEIs enrolled 91% of Master’s degree students and 94% of Doctoral degree students in Jiangsu province (Ge, 1993). Provincial governments not only have the incentive to integrate the centrally controlled HEIs in their provinces more closely with the local economy, but also have the financial capacity to do so with the growing share of government revenue retained by them since 1980. Since the promulgation of the Outlines of Educational Reform and Development in 1993, provincial governments have gradually acquired greater authority to coordinate the overall enrollment, career services for students, and research for all HEIs located in their provinces. The ‘joint-development’ of the centrally administered HEIs by the central and provincial governments has assisted the expansion of the coordinating authority and functions of provincial governments since 1995. Joint-development refers to a situation in which, without fundamental change in the channels of funding and lines of administration in the centrally administered HEIs, there is a ‘dual leadership’, with the central government as one partner and the provincial government as the other; these two authorities join hands to build and manage the HEIs in question (Ji, 1998). Most of the provinces that have centrally administered HEIs have signed an agreement to jointly develop selected centrally administered HEIs for tapping their resources for the development of the local economy. Provincial governments have jointly constructed 32 centrally administered HEIs (29% of the total) with either the MOE or other central commissions and ministries by 2002 (Liu, 2002). The total investment in the joint-development program has reached 219.7 billion Yuan, of which the central government invested 104.05 billion Yuan and provincial governments invested 115.65 billion Yuan including infrastructure (Liu, 2002). The centrally administered HEIs tend to consult provincial governments more frequently before making their institutional enrollment plans and submitting them to their respective administrative department for review. However, provincial governments’ capability in coordinating the development of centrally administered HEIs is limited and largely supplementary to that of the MOE and other central commissions and ministries that actually administer these institutions (A. B. Xie, Interview, August 31, 2001). The coordinating authority and functions of the MOE at the national level are crucial to the achievement of national goals and priorities for higher education development and reforms in China. There has been improvement in the MOE’s coordinating authority, but more is needed for it to truly lead and coordinate the higher education development and reforms in the country. The main barrier has been the fact that the MOE does not fully control the government allocations to higher education. On the one hand, the growing role and responsibility of provincial

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governments in higher education coordination facilitates the decentralization of higher education administration and coordination; on the other hand, it aggravates the MOE’s already weak position in the coordination of national higher education.

3.2.3.3

Coordination of the Market

There are no concrete indicators of the market’s influence on higher education. The market is simply the freedom to choose among many existing or still-to-be-created possibilities in which decision-making processes are not deliberately structured (Neave & van Vught, 1994: 6). The influence of the market on the Chinese higher education system can be discerned through the growth of non-government funds in regular public HEIs and the influence of market on the admission and academic programs of regular public HEIs. Market coordination of Chinese higher education grew significantly and quickly as public HEIs actively engaged in income-generating activities. In 1995, 23.2% of the total expenditures for regular HEIs came from the self-generated revenues of HEIs (see Table 3.8). By 2013, the percentage of the HEIs’ self-generated revenues increased by 10%, reaching 33.92% of the total expenditures for regular HEIs. Market regulation has become increasingly important in determining the admission and academic programs in HEIs. The adjustment of admission quotas among departments and programs and the establishment and adaptation of academic programs have become increasingly contingent upon the ability of departments and programs in generating funds in addition to government allocations and the employment prospects of their graduates. Many provinces and municipalities such as Guangdong, Chongqing, and Liaoning decided to link the employment rate of graduates with the expansion of HEIs and government allocations to HEIs, with changes in academic programs, and with institutional evaluation in 2003 (Lin, 2003a; Lin, 2003b; Liu, 2003; Tian, 2003). In the Opinions on Improving Employment Works for College Graduates, issued in April 2003, the MOE affirmed the relation between employment of graduates and higher education development, including linking the employment rate of HEIs and academic programs with annual admission plans, with the adjustment of academic programs, and with evaluation (MOE, 2003b). The demand of students and the employment prospects of their graduates have been the principal factors affecting the success or failure of private HEIs from the beginning. Enjoying greater autonomy, private HEIs adapt their academic programs and courses more quickly in accordance with the needs of students and the market. Through interviews with university professors and school administrators from some private schools in Guangzhou, Mok and Wat (1998) learned that these schools and colleges would consciously identify newly emerging market needs and design courses to fill the gap (p. 259). Although market coordination of higher education development is gaining importance and attention, it is still secondary to state coordination.

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47

Table 3.8 Sources of the total expenditures for regular HEIs Year

Total (Billion Yuan)

Percent of government expenditures1 (%)

Percent of HEI-generated revenues2 Sub Income from Tuition total HEI-funded and (%) activities (%) fees (%)

Donations and others (%)

1995 26.2 70.90 23.20 9.60 13.60 5.90 1996 31.0 70.00 23.10 8.70 14.40 6.90 1997 37.6 67.60 24.50 8.80 15.70 7.90 1998 54.5 62.90 28.60 15.20 13.40 8.50 1999 70.4 61.00 31.70 14.50 17.20 7.30 2000 90.4 56.70 36.50 15.20 21.30 6.80 2001 114.5 53.60 39.40 14.70 24.70 7.00 2002 144.7 50.70 42.60 15.60 27.00 6.70 2003 168.3 48.60 44.00 14.00 30.00 7.40 2004 200.0 47.10 45.60 13.20 32.40 7.30 2005 234.2 45.20 47.30 13.50 33.80 7.50 2006 267.0 45.74 46.13 14.01 32.12 8.13 2007 363.4 44.34 47.26 13.60 33.66 8.40 2008 421.0 48.01 44.58 10.90 33.68 7.41 2009 464.5 49.12 43.81 10.65 33.16 7.07 2010 549.8 53.06 40.53 10.04 30.49 6.41 2011 688.0 58.70 35.16 8.82 26.34 6.14 2012 780.2 62.45 31.99 8.07 23.92 5.56 2013 797.6 60.34 33.92 8.84 25.08 5.74 Notes 1. Government expenditures includes government expenditures for the recurrent, capital, research, and other expenditures for education as well as urban & rural education surcharges before 1998 and local education surcharge after 1998 2. Income from HEI-funded activities includes mainly income from HEI-run enterprises, research and consultancy, and educational and other services to industries and communities Sources China Educational Finance Statistical Yearbook 1996–2014

The overall attitude of Chinese intellectuals towards the engagement of HEIs in commercial activities has been positive. They view it as a source of additional funding and thus a means of financial independence (Kwong, 1996; Wei, 1996; Mok & Wat, 1998). However, the growth of commercial activities on campus has inevitably raised issues about the proper management of these activities and their relations to public HEIs; they have also affected the distribution of rewards in HEIs. The growing importance of commercial activities on campus has also affected traditional academic values and culture. The ethos and management of traditional public HEIs differ significantly from the entrepreneurial ethos required for income-generating commercial activities. For instance, the entrepreneurial ethos stresses profit, competition, and nondisclosure, while traditional academic culture stresses open communication and sharing of knowledge (particularly in published

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form) and collegiality (Wood, 1992). Conflicts between the market and academic values will raise more administrative and ethical issues on campus as the market regulation of higher education increases. It is imperative for the government and HEIs to develop an appropriate framework and mechanisms for market coordination to function constructively in the higher education sector.

3.3 3.3.1

The Funding System Diversification of Higher Education Funding

Before the 1980s, the funds for Chinese higher education sector was provided entirely by the state, be it central or local governments. Since the 1978 reform, the funding system of higher education has changed from a sole state funding system towards a diversified funding system, in which state funds constitute the major part and revenues from other sources supplement the state funds. The Outlines of Educational Reform and Development, issued by the CPC Central Committee and the State Council in 1993, proposed to establish a system wherein government appropriations constitute the main body of the educational funds, supplemented by funds raised from a variety of other sources such as educational surcharges, tuition and fees, school-generated funds through school-run enterprises and other services, donations, and others. The proposal is confirmed by the Higher Education Law in 1998. The development of a diversified investment system in higher education has been driven by the gradual transformation from a centrally planned state economic system to a socialist market economic system in China. Before 1978, government expenditures accounted for more than 98% of the total expenditures on higher education (Zhong, Gong, & Lu, 1996: 29). In 2007, the percentage of government expenditures for regular HEIs reached a low of 44.34% (see Table 3.8). In 2013, the percentage of government expenditures for regular HEIs rebounded to 60.34% of the total, but still accounted for less than two thirds of the total expenditures for regular HEIs. In regular HEIs, non-government funds mainly come from self-generated revenues and from private donations and other sources. As indicated in Table 3.8, it is clear that the self-generated revenues of HEIs constitute the major portion of non-government funds. The self-generated revenues of HEIs include income from HEI-run enterprises, research and consultancy, educational and other services to industries and communities, as well as tuition and fees. As self-generated revenues became the main source of non-governmental funds for HEIs, tuition and fees grew faster than any other type of self-generated revenues. In 1995, tuition and fees made up 13.6% of the total expenditure for regular HEIs. In 2005, the percentage of tuition and fees in the total expenditure reached a record high of 33.8%, but gradually dropped to 25.08% in 2013. In the Provisional Regulation on the Management of Tuition and Fees in HEIs (1996), the MOE

3.3 The Funding System

49

considered it appropriate to maintain the proportion of tuition and fees at a maximum of 25% of the total expenditure per student for regular public HEIs (MOE, 1996b). The shift of some of the cost of higher education from the government or general taxpayer to parents, students, and other purchasers of university services is a typical feature of the cost-recovery policies in higher education (Johnstone, Arora, & Experton, 1998). The adoption of a cost-recovery policy was a remarkable departure from the public and free higher education policy the Chinese government practiced from 1952 to 1982. The introduction of the cost-recovery policy in China was a gradual process. Before the 1980s, college students enjoyed state-sponsored higher education with free tuition and fees as well as free rooms and board. The state also provided a stipend to students enrolled in disciplines of strategic importance to national development or who faced harsh working conditions upon graduation. In the early 1980s, the state began to experiment with a cost-recovery policy by allowing selected regular public HEIs to admit fee-paying students. The Decision on the Reform of the Education System, issued by the CPC Central Committee in 1985, officially approved the practice of admitting employer-sponsored students and self-financed students in addition to those admitted according to the state plan. Students enrolled under the state plan enjoyed free tuition and fees and were guaranteed a job assignment upon graduation by the state. Employer-sponsored students received education expenditures from their employing units, which could be government or non-government organizations. In return, these students, after their graduation, would work for these employing units. The self-financed students paid full tuition and fees and would find jobs by themselves after graduation. The differentiated treatment of students under the state plan and those outside the state plan was called the ‘dual-track’ system. It was an effort to reform the unified state planning of admission and graduate assignment, to expand the institutional autonomy of HEIs, and to ease the financial shortfalls of most HEIs. In 1989, the SEDC issued the Regulation on HEIs Charging Tuition and Fees, which allowed HEIs to charge tuition and fees to students under the state plan as well, (Li, 2001). However, the tuition and fees charged to students under the state plan at that time was less than 200 Yuan per year and was largely symbolic (Tang, 2001). In 1992 the MOE, the MOF, and the NDRC allowed provincial governments and other central ministries to raise the level of tuition and fees in HEIs under their jurisdictions in accordance with local circumstances. The Shanghai Municipality raised the tuition to 400 Yuan per year and the dormitory fees to 40–160 Yuan per year for students under the state plan (Zhang, 1998). By this time, the distinction between state plan students and the employer-sponsored and self-financed students became blurred. Debates on the fairness of the dual-track system became heated. The experiment of ‘merging the dual-track’ began in 37 HEIs in 1994 (MOE, 2002a), with all students paying the same 1000–1200 Yuan annual tuition and fees (Zhang, 1998). Approximately 200 HEIs joined the experiment in 1995; and the dual-track system was abolished in 1997, when all HEIs began to charge the same level of tuition and fees to all students (MOE, 2002a).

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At present, the state only allows public HEIs to collect tuition and dormitory fees. Dormitory fees are fixed at 800–1200 Yuan per student per year, while the level of tuition and fees for undergraduate programs and below increased rapidly from an average of 1620 Yuan in 1997 (Li & Min, 2001) to an average of 4000 Yuan in 2002. Since 2012, many provinces and HEIs again increased the level of tuition and fees. According to the MOE, the average tuition and fees for general programs at public HEIs were between 4000 and 6000 Yuan per year and those for high cost programs such as the Arts were between 7000 and 12,000 Yuan per year (MOE, 2014c). Tuition and fees in China are sensitive to the institution, academic program, future occupation, program cost, and location (ICHEFAP, 2002). Based on the rationale that higher quality deserves higher price, key HEIs at the central and provincial levels charge higher tuition than do other HEIs. Popular academic programs such as computer science, foreign language, and business management charge higher tuition than others such as agriculture, history, and math. ‘The tuition for medicine, fine art, performing art, and music is higher than that of other majors due to the higher costs of instruction’ (ICHEFAP, 2002). Tuition and fees in large cities with higher living expenses such as Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou are higher than those in medium cities and less developed regions. The above mentioned tuition and fees applied only to undergraduate programs and below at public HEIs. The research oriented postgraduate programs remained free of tuition and fees until 2014. Starting Fall 2014, the cap for the tuition of the full time master degree programs was set at 8000 Yuan per year, while that for the full time Ph.D. programs was set at 10,000 Yuan per year (MOE et al., 2013). The professional postgraduate degree programs such as the Executive Master of Business Administration (EMBA) and the Doctor of Education (Ed.D.) charged much higher levels of tuition and fees. The majority of professional postgraduate degree programs set tuition and fees over 10,000 Yuan per year. After the adoption of the cost-recovery system, the state abolished the unitary scholarship and gradually replaced it with six types of financial assistance: scholarships, tuition waiver and reduction, special subsidies to exceptionally disadvantaged students, work-study programs, and student loans (Li & Wei, 2001: 6). Beginning in 2000, the state established a national student loans system. The national student loans system provides state subsidized loans for college students, covering tuition and fees as well as living expenses. Since the 1985 Decision on the Reform of the Education System, all education policies and laws stressed the necessity and importance of providing financial assistance to economically disadvantaged students. The increase of non-government funds in the total regular higher education funds is accompanied by the growing discretionary authority of regular public HEIs in the distribution of internal funds. Regular public HEIs have gained considerable autonomy in generating as well as distributing the funds they raise and those allocated by the government, as stipulated in the Higher Education Law. Rather than directly managing the internal finances of HEIs, the central and provincial governments have decentralized the authority of internal financial management in HEIs and only supervise them through periodic audits.

3.3 The Funding System

3.3.2

51

Growth of Private Higher Education

Thirty years after the nationalization of all private schools in China in 1952, the first non-government university, Zhonghua Shehui University (renamed Beijing Professional Business Institute in 2002) opened in Beijing in 1982 (‘Introduction to Beijing Professional’). Since then, private higher education has grown rapidly. In 2006, the total number of private HEIs reached 1590, enrolling a total of 3.7 million students (MOE, 2007a). In 2013, there a total of 1520 private HEIs, enrolling a total of 5.6 million students (see Table 3.9). There are three types of private HEIs, differentiated by the type of programs they offer. The first type of private HEI is accredited by the MOE to offer academic degrees or diploma programs after they meet the rigorous standards of facilities, funds, faculty input, and quality instruction set by the MOE. The second type, termed as independent college (duli xueyuan), is a private HEI established and sponsored by regular HEI, alone or in collaboration with other organizations. These private HEIs are called independent colleges for they are established independently of the sponsoring HEIs, with separate administration, admission, funding and campus. The independent colleges listed in Table 3.9 were accredited, and their numbers and enrollments were counted as part of the total private HEIs and enrollment. The third type includes a variety of non-accredited private HEIs, which mainly offer non-degree and non-diploma short-term courses for specialized training that may lead to a certificate. Some offer courses for Self-study Examinations for regular higher education and organize Self-study Examinations on campus. Of the total revenue of individual private HEIs, tuition and fees accounted for anywhere from 30 to 100% in 2000, with the majority exceeding 70% (Wu, 2001). The amount of tuition private HEIs charged ranged from 2000 Yuan to over 15,000 Yuan per year, and the amount for dormitory fees ranged from 150 Yuan to 1, 500 Yuan per year in 2000 (Wu, 2001). Government policies, regulations, and laws for private higher education lagged behind the development of private higher education in China. It was not until 1997 that the State Council issued the Regulation for Social Force-Run Schools and the Ninth NPC passed the Private Education Promotion Law in December 28, 2002. The government support for private higher education consists of policy support, Table 3.9 The number and enrollments of private HEIs in 2013 Type Accredited private HEIs –among which Independent colleges Other private HEIs Total Source MOE (2014d)

Number

Total enrollment (million)

718 292 802 1520

5.6 2.8 – 5.6

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loan and credit support, facility and even land investment, and preferential tax policies for investment in private higher education. Most government support for private higher education came from provincial governments, because private HEIs are under the jurisdiction of provincial departments of education. The national student loans became available to students enrolled in private HEIs in 2002. Private HEIs have become a major force in the higher education market in China. Enrollment in private HEIs reached nearly 15.9% of the total enrollment in regular HEIs in 2006 (MOE, 2006b). Because of the variety in quality and the much higher tuition they charge, private HEIs have not yet been able to challenge regular public HEIs for students and prestige. However, their existence and flexible ways of operation have motivated regular public HEIs to become more innovative in programs and curricula as well as in institutional management.

3.3.3

Government Expenditures on Education

Although the central government accomplished a great deal by diversifying higher education revenue, the overall level of government expenditure on education was still far below the world average and even below the goals the government set forth in the Outlines of Educational Reform and Development, the Education Law and the Higher Education Law. The Outlines of Educational Reform and Development recommended gradually increasing government expenditure for education as a percentage of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) to 4% by the end of the 20th century. The recommendation was recognized by both the Education Law and the Higher Education Law. However, the goal had not been realized until 2012. As indicated in Table 3.10, the state budgetary expenditure on education as a percentage of the GDP had not even reached 3% until 2007 and only surpassed 4% in 2012. In 2000, public expenditure on education in China (2.6%) was significantly lower than the average public expenditure on education in lower-middle-income countries (4.7%), and even lower than that of low-income countries [excluding India] (3.5%). Public expenditure on education in China was also lower than most Asian countries with similar income level and population except Indonesia (Table 3.11). Table 3.10 State budgetary expenditure as a percentage of the GDP 1993 2.44 2004 2.78 Sources

1994

1995

1996

1997

2.42 2.31 2.34 2.34 2005 2006 2007 2008 2.78 2.92 3.09 3.30 NBSC. China Statistical Yearbook

1998

2000

2001

2002

2003

2.39 2.54 2.57 2009 2010 2011 3.54 3.59 3.84 2015, pp. 58 & 720

1999

2.77 2012 4.33

2.89 2013 4.16

2.82

3.4 Planning and Evaluation

53

Table 3.11 International comparison of public expenditure on education Region/Country

Public expenditure on education as a % of the GDP (2000)

Lower-middle income 4.7 Low Income (excl. China & 3.5 India) China 2.6 India (1999) 4.1 1.5 Indonesiaa Malaysia 5.9 Philippines (1999) 3.9 Thailand 4.9 Note aPublic subsidy to households not included in public expenditure Source World Bank. World Development Indicators. Available from website: http://devdata. worldbank.org/edstats/

3.4 3.4.1

Planning and Evaluation State Education Plans

Short-term annual state plans and mid- to long-term plans such as the five-year plans have been a dominant feature of the state planning of economic and social development in China since the 1950s. In formulating such plans, each central ministry and province assembles a development plan for its own area and submits it to the NDRC. The NDRC is responsible for the formulation of the macro socio-economic development plan for the whole country and for monitoring the implementation of the overall development plan (Min, 1994). Before the 1980s, annual state plans for national economic and social development used to be mandatory for each central ministry and provincial government. The sections of annual state plans relating to education specified the admission quotas and graduates’ assignment plan for every field of study, HEI, and region of the country, as well as levels of funding and other resources for HEIs. The mandatory plans for assigning graduates to specific job positions became more flexible when the government introduced a ‘two-way selection’ mechanism in the late 1980s, which allowed employers and some college graduates to meet and choose each other. The assignment of jobs by the government was a prerogative of college students; but it was also a duty for college students to obey government assignment unconditionally as an exchange for the free higher education they received. The graduate assignment system was abolished when all students began to pay tuition and fees in 1997. Instead, college students now have the right to choose their own employment opportunities after graduation. Admission quotas also became more flexible for individual HEIs and fields of study. Provincial governments and HEIs have the freedom to decide the distribution of admission quotas

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within their provinces or their institutions. State plans continue to influence higher education development, but they have become more flexible by giving lower levels of government and HEIs more discretion in implementation, in the light of their particular situation. The five-year plans are rolling plans that set goals and directions of development rather than offer detailed and concrete planning (Lieberthal & Oksenberg, 1998). They have become increasingly important in higher education planning as the MOE began to transform its functions to overall planning, policy guidance, and macro administration from direct management. Since the 1990s, the MOE and the State Council paid more and more attention to the formation of long-term plans for education. For instance, they made the Ten-Year National Education Development Plan in 1992, the Ninth Five-Year Plan for Educational Development and the Long Range Development Program toward the Year 2010 in 1996, the Action Plan for Vitalizing Education for the 21st Century in 1999, and the National Medium and Long-term Educational Reform and Development Plan (2010–2020) in 2010.

3.4.2

Evaluation of Higher Education

Alongside the decentralization movement in higher education around the world, there has been another trend—the emergence of an ‘evaluative state’ in countries where the government has undertaken systematic decentralization measures such as the UK, Australia, most European nations, and several states in the U.S. (van Vught & Westerheijden, 1992; Berdahl & McConnel, 1994; Luchaire & Massit-Follea, 1994; Maassen, 1997; Marginson, 1997; Harman, 1998; Meed & Wood, 1998; Rhoades & Sporn, 2002; Vidovich, 2002). The increasing institutional autonomy of the Chinese HEIs has also been accompanied by the development of a national system for the evaluation of higher education. Apart from the increase of institutional autonomy for HEIs, the Decision on the Reform of the Education System also suggested that: the educational administrative department should organize educational circles, intellectual circles, and employer organizations to make periodic appraisal of the performance of universities and colleges. Those with good achievements should be encouraged with honors and material awards, and those with poor management should be consolidated, or even closed down (CPC Central Committee, 1985).

The MOE conducted extensive research on the evaluation of higher education in the 1980s. In June 1985, the MOE convened a symposium on the evaluation of engineering programs in higher education and launched a pilot evaluation project in more than 80 HEIs of engineering. The pilot project included an examination of the overall performance, fields of study, and curricula of these HEIs from June 1987 to December 1989 (NAEA, 1999; Xu & Zhang, 1997). Other types of pilot evaluation projects were also carried out nationwide from 1985 to 1990 (NAEA, 1999). Based on these researches, the SEDC issued the Provisional Regulation for the Evaluation of Regular HEIs in October 1990 (Wang, 2001).

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55

Driven by persistently stringent public funding and sharp competition for scarce public resources, quality assessment systems for higher education have been established in the West to satisfy the taxpayers’ and consumers’ demand for greater transparency, efficiency, and accountability in public higher education. According to the provisional regulation, the principal goals of higher education evaluation in China are to encourage the society’s supervision of HEIs, to strengthen the HEIs’ ability to adapt to the society’s needs, to ensure the socialist direction of the HEIs, and to improve the overall performance of the HEIs for better serving the socialist construction (SEDC, 1990). Since the enactment of the Provisional Regulation for the Evaluation of Regular HEIs, a multi-layered national evaluation system for higher education has appeared in China in the early 21st century, though in a nascent stage. The evaluation of the postgraduate level of higher education is separate from that of the undergraduate level. According to the provisional regulation, the MOE, education departments of other central ministries, and provincial departments of education are in charge of evaluating the undergraduate institutions of higher education under their respective jurisdiction. The Academic Degrees Committee of the State Council is responsible for evaluating the postgraduate level of higher education. The evaluation of short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical education is carried out by the provincial departments of education, coordinated by the MOE. The evaluation of higher education in China has two major functions: accreditation and quality assessment for various purposes. The evaluation of undergraduate education has three main types: evaluation of HEI as a whole, evaluation of undergraduate teaching, and evaluation of individual activities such as specialties, curricula, or research centers. Figure 3.2 shows the major types of evaluation for undergraduate education in China.

3.4.2.1

Evaluation of Undergraduate HEIs as a Whole

At the institutional level, the provisional regulation stipulates four types of evaluation: accreditation, evaluation of the overall performance of an HEI, excellence evaluation, and self-evaluation. Accreditation is an evaluation for newly established HEIs on their basic operating conditions (financial conditions, facilities, and academic staff) and their quality of teaching, conducted when the first batch of students graduate. The operating conditions of newly established HEIs are to be assessed against the Provisional Regulation for the Establishment of Regular HEIs, while the quality of teaching is to be assessed in accordance with the Academic Degrees Decree, relevant government regulations, and the standards of various academic programs. The results of accreditation include pass, pass with condition, or fail. From 1993 to 2000, 161 newly established HEIs went through accreditation; and the first time pass rate was 78% (You, 2000). The evaluation of the HEIs’ overall performance is to be conducted every four or five years for the already established HEIs. It consists of the evaluation of three aspects: political and moral education, academic programs and curricula, and other

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Fig. 3.2 The national evaluation system for undergraduate education (DOE stands for Department of Education)

aspects such as research centers and libraries. The outcome of an individual evaluation report is a grade showing Excellent, Good, Qualified, or Fail. However, the evaluation grade is not compared among different types of HEIs. For example, comprehensive universities, polytechnics, and institutions of single disciplines such as teacher training and finance and economics are not compared against each other. The MOE, education departments of other commissions and ministries, and provincial departments of education are responsible for the evaluation of the overall performance of the HEIs under their jurisdiction. Since over 90% of HEIs are under the jurisdiction of the provincial departments of education, they carry most of the responsibility (see Table 3.5). In addition, the burden of the provincial departments of education varies enormously because of the uneven spread of HEIs among the provinces. For instance, in July 2003, there were 74 regular public HEIs in Jiangsu province, 67 in Shangdong province, and only 8 in Hainan province and 4 in Tibet. The ‘excellence evaluation’ is a competitive evaluation of the overall performance of HEIs, based on voluntary participation. In 2000, out of approximately 100 key HEIs, 80 participated in the excellence evaluation and 13 were rated as excellent (You, 2000). All three types of evaluation for the HEI as a whole have their own separate systems of performance indicators. Methods used in these evaluations include focus group interviews, round table discussion with faculty

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members, staff members, and students, survey questionnaires, observations, self-review reports, as well as reviews of school plans and rules, minutes of meetings, students’ work, and research output.

3.4.2.2

Evaluation of Undergraduate Teaching

The evaluation of undergraduate teaching consists of three types: accreditation, excellence evaluation, and random evaluation. Each type has its own assessment plan and set of performance indicators. The accreditation is conducted for newly established academic programs. The excellence evaluation is a voluntary and competitive evaluation of undergraduate teaching. The random evaluation is conducted at regular HEIs selected randomly from a pool of all regular HEIs each year. For the evaluation of undergraduate teaching, a review team of 11–13 experts, whose chair is appointed by the expert evaluation committee, visits the HEI for a week, between April and May or between October and November. The review team produces a formal written report based on their field review and they submit it directly to the MOE. An aggregated report of all individual evaluation reports will be distributed by the MOE. From 1995 to 2001, 222 public regular HEIs have undergone this type of evaluation (Lin, 2002). Of the 25 HEIs evaluated during the 2000–2001 school year, 8 were rated excellent, 16 good, and 1 qualified (Lin, 2002). The latest round of evaluation of undergraduate teaching was completed in 2007. A total of 198 HEIs participated in the 2007 evaluation, out of which 160 were rated excellent and 38 were rated good (MOE, 2008e). An important feature of the evaluation of higher education done by government administrative departments of education is the dominance of part-time experts of evaluation and education in the planning and implementation of the actual evaluation work. The government administrative departments of education chiefly perform the functions of organizing and coordinating the evaluation. An expert evaluation committee was established by the MOE in 1998 to coordinate the evaluation of undergraduate teaching at the national level. The expert evaluation committee consists of experts in education and evaluation from HEIs, government administrative departments of education, and other social organizations. Most members of the expert evaluation committee work part-time and serve a term of four years. The first expert evaluation committee was selected to serve from 1998 to 2002. It had one chairman, five vice-chairmen, and 27 members, making a total of 33, among which 29 were from HEIs and the remaining four were from the government administrative departments of education in Beijing Municipality, Jiangsu province, Zhejiang province, and Hunan province. In May 2004, the MOE set up a secretariat for the expert evaluation committee to assist its work. A database of education and evaluation experts has been created with members from all over the country. By 2000, the database contained over 800 members (You, 2000). In recent years mostly as a result of the rapid and tremendous expansion of enrollments, the quality of undergraduate education has attracted attentions and concerns from all major stakeholders including the government administrative

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departments, HEIs, students and their families, as well as the employers representing the end users. On the basis of the evaluation of undergraduate HEIs as a whole and undergraduate teaching in particular, a comprehensive evaluation system has gradually emerged targeting undergraduate teaching in China. The evaluation of undergraduate teaching is a comprehensive system encompassing five distinctive types of evaluation. The five types of evaluation are the self-evaluation of HEIs, the evaluation of HEIs by government agencies (as indicated in Sect. 3.4.2.1), the routine monitoring of undergraduate teaching conditions, the accreditation or certification of academic programs, and the international accreditation of academic programs. The routine monitoring of undergraduate teaching conditions is an annual exercise conducted by the HEIs and government administrative departments in addition to the first two types of full and thorough evaluation. The purpose is to provide a quick checklist type of survey of teaching conditions in addition to full scale evaluations. The accreditation and certification of academic programs, both domestic and international, has been the most recent development of evaluative activities in undergraduate education. After a few decades of market-oriented economic reforms, the professions of engineering, medicine and health, pharmacy, finance and accounting, education and etc. have quickly developed and blossomed in China. The accreditation of pre-service educational programs and the certification of entry into the profession have been the key foundations to professional careers. In response to the professionalization development in the economic sector, the HEIs in China gradually subjected undergraduate programs to various types of accreditation and certification home and abroad. The accreditation and certification of undergraduate programs have mostly been deliberate choices of the HEIs in order to maintain and prove the quality of their educational programs and enhance the employability of their graduates. With the increasing mobility and intensified competition of work forces word wide, China has also begun to join the international accreditation communities. For example, in June 2016, China became a formal member of the Washington Accord, an international agreement among bodies responsible for accrediting engineering degree programs.

3.4.2.3

Evaluation of Short-Cycle Colleges and Tertiary Vocational and Technical Colleges

The evaluation of short-cycle colleges and tertiary vocational and technical colleges are conducted by provincial departments of education. The MOE only provides national guidelines of reference and coordination (for instance, evaluation experts). In September 2003, the MOE set up an evaluation committee in charge of the evaluation of short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical education. The evaluation committee is to set national policies, regulations and measures, and provide consultation and recommendations to the MOE. In January 2005, the MOE established an evaluation expert group for short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical education, from which provincial departments of education could draw

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external evaluation experts. Each evaluation team is required to have at least 30% of its members from outside the province. In February 2005, the MOE issued a national evaluation plan for short-cycle colleges and tertiary vocational and technical colleges, stating the guiding principles, goals, basic requirements, performance indicators, and process and procedures of implementation. The evaluation is expected to take place every five years and the results will include only ‘Pass’ and ‘Fail’. Because of its vocational orientation, the short-cycle colleges and tertiary vocational and technical colleges took the lead in introducing the accreditation and certification to their academic programs on campus in China. The accreditation or certification has become a key symbol of the quality of academic programs.

3.4.2.4

Evaluation of Postgraduate and Graduate Education

The evaluation of the postgraduate level of higher education is conducted separately by the Academic Degrees Committee, which is responsible for the regulation of the postgraduate level of higher education in general. The Academic Degrees Committee established a quality assessment and information department in 1994 which carried out the accreditation of the institutions granting graduate degrees and graduate programs. In addition, it carried out the Graduate Degree Program Review in China. It is a periodic quality review activity that provides a quality profile of graduate degree programs in most subject areas, covering the four aspects of faculty and resources, research quality, teaching quality and reputation. At present, three rounds of the Graduate Degree Program Review have been conducted, as indicated in Table 3.12. The number of subject areas included in the review increased slightly from the second to the third round, and the number of graduate degree programs participated grew tremendously. Compared to the undergraduate evaluation, there are two unique features of the Graduate Degree Program Review. First, the participation in the review is not mandated by the government administrative departments. Graduate degree programs from the HEIs voluntarily chose to participate in the review activities. The other unique aspect of the postgraduate level evaluation is that most of the actual work has been carried out by an intermediary organization on behalf of the Academic Degrees Committee. The Academic Degrees Committee sets the

Table 3.12 Three rounds of the graduate degree program review in China Round

Period

Unit of Assessment

Participation

1st 2002–04 N/A 1366 from 229 HEIs 2nd 2006–08 81 subject areas 2369 from 331 HEIs 3rd 2012 95 subject areas 4235 from 391 HEIs Sources Author compiled from the Graduate Degree Program Review website, http://www.cdgdc. edu.cn/xwyyjsjyxx/xxsbdxz/276985.shtml

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evaluation policies and plans, the criteria of evaluation, and supervises the work of the intermediary organization (Y. Wu, interview, September 9, 2002). Established in 1994, the National Evaluation Institute of Degrees and Graduate Education, a non-government organization, implemented most of the postgraduate level evaluation work on behalf of the Academic Degrees Committee (‘National evaluation’). With regard to the evaluation of the HEIs, the Provisional Regulation for the Evaluation of Regular HEIs encouraged active self-evaluation and evaluation by non-government organizations to complement the efforts of the government. Most of the self-evaluation of HEIs has been conducted as part of the evaluation of the overall performance of HEIs by the government. Some HEIs have initiated self-evaluation as a strategy to improve the performance of their institutions as well as to prove and publicize the performance of their institutions. However, the self-evaluation initiated by HEIs themselves has not been widespread in China.

3.4.2.5

Ranking by Non-governmental Organizations

Evaluation of regular HEIs by non-governmental organizations has appeared in China since the late 1990s. For example, there are the annual ranking of the Chinese HEIs by categories, published by the Guangdong Management and Science Institute, the annual ranking of the Chinese HEIs published by the netbig.com, and, since 2003, the world renowned Academic Ranking of World Universities conducted by Shanghai Jiaotong University. Although the objectivity, accuracy, and validity of these rankings are disputed, they are popular in the society. The government’s attitude towards these rankings is ambiguous. While government officials have not endorsed any of these rankings of the HEIs and have voiced concerns over their accuracy and validity; however, they have not opposed them (M. S. Zhou, personal interview, August 5, 2002; Y. Wu, personal interview, September 9, 2002). Criticisms from the HEIs are plentiful, ranging from complaints about the validity and accuracy, to concerns about the fairness of these ranking. The participation of non-governmental organizations in the evaluation of the undergraduate level of higher education and the self-evaluation of HEIs has been minimal. Despite the government’s support for active participation of non-governmental organizations in the evaluation of higher education, government administrative departments of education continue to be the main evaluators. But the capacity, time, and resources of the government to carry out extensive and intensive evaluation of over 2000 regular public and private HEIs are limited. China is still at the initial stage of developing a national evaluation system for higher education. The evaluation of regular HIEs done by government administrative departments of education is neither systematic nor adequate. The government at all levels should assume a role of policymaking, criteria-setting, and macro regulation, and let non-government intermediary organizations carry out the actual evaluation work for them, as the Academic Degrees Committee has done. In China, the trend of higher education evaluation has been moving away from a centralized and government monopolized tradition to a more decentralized and

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shared system of evaluation with diversified actors including government agencies, non-government third-party organizations, HEIs, and even private companies. For accountability, it is critical to establish a multi-leveled quality assurance system made up of diverse types of evaluations and reviews and continued refinement of evaluation methods, criteria and results dissemination.

3.5 3.5.1

The Organizational Management of HEIs Organization and Structure of HEIs

HEIs in China are composed of academic units and functional organizations at different levels which are interconnected. The functional organizations, each with definite functions, include three levels: the university, the college, and the department. At the university level, the organizations are further divided into such divisions as the Office of the Party Committee, Office of the President, Development and Planning Division, Personnel Division, Graduate School, Academic Affairs Division, and Research Division, etc. At the college level, the organizations include the Office of Party Affairs, Personnel Division, Postgraduate Education Division, Undergraduate Education Division, and Research Division, etc. At the department level, the organizations include only part-time positions such as a secretary for teaching and a secretary for research, etc. The academic units are classified according to different disciplines (such as college of humanities, college of science, college of engineering, college of medical science, college of management, and college of education, etc.). There are also academic units established for various research needs, for example, various laboratories, research centers, research institutes, and project teams. The internal structure of HEIs differs as a result of their different tasks, scales, levels, and disciplines. Generally speaking, HEIs of the higher level, larger scale, and those with more disciplines, have more complicated structures and are more typical of their kind. The following is an introduction to the internal structure of HEIs in China, taking as an example a large top-rank research university with a full range of disciplines. First, there are 13 leaders at the university level, including 1 Party secretary, 4 vice Party secretaries, 1 president, and 7 vice presidents who are, respectively, in charge of postgraduate education, undergraduate education, scientific research, personnel, finance, foreign affairs, and logistics. Second, the functional organizations at the university level are divided into two systems: the system of the Party and the masses, and the administrative system. The system of the Party and the masses includes Party committee sections such as the Office of Party Committee, Organization Division, Publicity Division, Division of United Front, Security and Safeguard Division, Division of Students Affairs, and Division of Postgraduate Affairs, etc. It also includes the organizations such as the

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labor union and the League committee, etc. The administrative system includes the Office of the President, Development and Planning division, Personnel Division, Foreign Affairs Division, Academic Affairs Division, Graduate School, Laboratory and Facility Management Division, Finance Division, Capital Construction Division, and Supporting Facility Division, etc. In addition, there are several affiliated hospitals and special units directly under the administration of the university such as the library, network and information center, publishing house, archives, and the administrative committee of Science Parks. Third, the functional organizations at the college level are also divided, in a much simpler form, into two systems: the system of the Party and the masses and the administrative system. Generally speaking, at the college level, there are the Office of Party and Administration, Organization and Personnel Office, Scientific Research Office, Postgraduate Education Office, Undergraduate Education Office, and the League Committee, etc. The administrative work of departments and research institutes, the basic academic units in a college, are usually carried out by teachers as their administrative duty. Fourth, this HEI, which is a top-ranking research university, has 31 colleges and 50 departments. Due to its large scale and a full range of disciplines, it has rather finely divided colleges and departments. Taking the discipline of engineering as an example, it has 13 engineering-related colleges: the College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, the College of Mechanical Engineering, the College of Energy Engineering, the College of Materials Science and Engineering, the College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, the College of Electrical Engineering, the College of Information Science and Engineering, the College of Computer Science and Technology, the College of Optical Science and Engineering, the College of Biomedical Engineering and Instrument Science, the College of Ocean Science and Engineering, the College of Aeronautics and Astronautics, and the College of Control Science and Engineering. The relationships among the Party committees at all levels, the administrative divisions, and the academic units can be simplified as shown in the illustration in Fig. 3.3.

3.5.2

Leadership System of HEIs

The leadership system of a HEI defines the relationships among various leading forces within the HEI. After the founding of the PRC in 1949, HEIs in China were turned into public institutions run by the State. Under the political and economic influences, the leadership system of HEIs has, since then, been changed frequently, undergoing the following 7 stages: • The president taking overall responsibility (1950–1956); • The college affairs committee taking overall responsibility under the leadership of the CPC primary committee (1956–1961);

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University CPC Primary Committee

Party Secretary, President

Vice Party Secretary

Divisions

Committees

Vice President

of

University Administrative

University Party Committee

Departments Directly

the Masses

Colleges

Organizations

Subordinate Units

Divisions of College Party Committee

College Administrative Departments

Departments/Research Institutes

Teachers

Students

Fig. 3.3 The typical internal structure of a university

• The college affairs committee headed by the president taking overall responsibility under the leadership of the CPC primary committee (1961–1966); • The CPC primary committee taking overall responsibility (1971-1976); • The president under the leadership of the CPC primary committee sharing the responsibility (1978–1985); • The president taking overall responsibility (1985–1989); • The president taking overall responsibility under the leadership of the CPC primary committee (1989–till now) (Fig. 3.3). The Higher Education Law, adopted in 1998, has made a definite statement of the leadership system in HEIs: ‘In higher education institutions run by the State, the system shall be applied under which the presidents take over-all responsibility under the leadership of the primary committees of the Communist Party of China in higher education institutions’ (NPC, 1998). The leading role of the CPC primary committees is a key feature of the decision-making system of HEIs in China, which is different from either the decision-making system dominated by administrative forces or the decision-making system dominated by academic forces. This Chinese style leadership system has three important features (NPC, 1998).

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First, the collective leadership of CPC committees: In exercising leadership, the CPC committees shall chiefly perform the following duties—to adhere to the lines, principles and policies of the CPC; to keep to the socialist goal in running the institutions; to provide guidance to ideological and political work and moral education in the institutions; to discuss and decide on the internal structure and the appointment of internal organizational directors of the institutions, as well as on important matters such as the reform, development and basic management systems of the institutions; and to ensure the fulfillment of all the tasks centering on the education of students. Second, the responsibilities of the president: The president of a HEI is the legal representative of the institution. He or she undertakes overall responsibilities for the institution’s teaching, research and administrative affairs, and exercises the following duties: • To draw up development plans, formulate specific rules and regulations and annual work plans, and arrange for their implementation. • To arrange for teaching, research and ideological and moral education. • To draw up plans for internal structure, nominate candidates for vice-presidents, and appoint or remove directors of the departments of the institution. • To appoint and dismiss teachers and other staff members of the institution, administer the academic affairs of students, and give reward or punishment to students. • To draw up and implement the annual fiscal budget, protect and manage the property of the institution, and protect the lawful rights and interests of the institution. • Other duties provided for in the regulations of the institution. Moreover, the president of a HEI chairs the council mettings of presidents or presides over the administrative affairs meetings of the institution. Third, the democratic management and supervision: In a HEI an academic committee shall be set up as a consultative organization to be responsible for academic affairs such as deciding on the disciplines and specialties to be offered, educational and research plans, and evaluating teaching and research outcomes. HEIs shall, in accordance with law and through the conference of representatives of teachers and administrative staff members (with teachers as its main body) or through other forms, guarantee that teachers and staff members are involved in the democratic management and supervision of the institutions and safeguard their lawful rights and interests. Concerning the leadership system in HEIs, the regulations of the Higher Education Law make three points clear. First, it clearly defines the relationship between the leadership of the Party and the administrative leadership by stipulating the duties performed by the Communist Party committees in HEIs. Second, it reflects the combination of collective leadership and individual responsibility by making clear the duties of the president. Third, it emphasizes the role of academic power in the management of academic affairs by stipulating the establishment of academic committees.

3.5 The Organizational Management of HEIs

3.5.3

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Rules and Regulations of HEIs

The rules and regulations of HEIs are drawn up and promulgated by the HEI or by the functional organizations authorized by the HEI. Because of the complexity and diversity of its work, each HEI establishes a variety of comprehensive or specific rules and procedures for regulating the actions of both individual members and organizations within the HEI. According to the sphere of application, they can be classified into two types: the general rules that should be followed by all units within the HEI (The Implementation Measures for the Openness of the Administrative Affairs of xx University), and the specific rules that only apply to some organizations of a HEI (The Rules for Defining and Handling Teaching Accidents in Undergraduate Education of xx University). According to levels, there are university-level general rules and regulations, specific rules for particular matters (Provisions for the Management and Expenditure of Business Trip of xx University), and the implementation measures as conducting procedures (The Implementation Rules of Student Status Management for Foreign Undergraduate Students of xx University). The rights and duties of the members within a HEI, and the punishment for the violation of regulation are defined by the rules and regulations of HEIs to maintain the order of HEIs. At present, it is normally the responsibility of concerned functional organizations of HEIs to draw up the draft of rules and regulations. Then, the draft must be examined and approved by the administrative affairs meetings of the institution or the meetings of the CPC primary committees. Finally, the approved draft will be promulgated and implemented. Thus, the procedures of formulating a rule in a HEI include proposing a motion, drawing up a draft, reviewing the draft, approving the draft, and promulgating the rule.

Chapter 4

Admission and Graduate Employment

4.1

College Admission

In 1977, owing to the resumption of the National College Entrance Examination (NCEE) in China, 5,700,000 examinees took the national unified examination; 270,000 of them were admitted. Since the reform and opening-up policy of 1978, the total number of examinees of the NCEE had reached around 128 million, 53,860,000 of whom had been admitted over the thirty years from 1978 to 2008. Over the period of rapid growth of Chinese higher education between 1999 and 2008, there had been a total of about 40,100,000 newly admitted students. In terms of the total number of examinees of the NCEE, the total number between 1999 and 2008 accounted for 50% of the total number between 1978 and 2008. Moreover, in terms of the total number of newly admitted students of regular HEIs, the total number between 1999 and 2008 accounted for three quarters of the total number between 1978 and 2008. In 1978, 400,000 examinees were admitted and the rate of admission was nearly 7%. In contrast, in 2008, about 6,000,000 examinees were admitted and the rate of admission was 57%. Therefore, the number of newly admitted students in 2008 was fifteen times the number admitted in 1978 and the rate of admission has increased by 50% over the thirty years (MOE, 2008d). There were a total of 1022 regular HEIs in 1998 and ten years later the total was 2263 in 2008 (see Table 4.1). In the following years, the number of Chinese HEIs continued to grow gradually; until 2015, the number rose to 2560. Thus, over the years, more and more college students had been admitted to both undergraduate and specialized levels of program. With the transition to a universal higher education system from a mass higher education system in China, up to now, admissions at both undergraduate and specialized levels of program have been growing very rapidly. The admissions of regular HEIs reached 7,378,500 in 2015, which was nearly seven times the number in 1998 (1,083,600 entrants) (see Table 4.2). The state policy for reforming the current college admission system was announced in September, 2014. This new policy, which brought forward some © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Higher Education Press 2018 J. Gu et al., Higher Education in China, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0845-1_4

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Table 4.1 Number of HEIs in China (1998–2015) Regular HEIs Undergraduate

Adult HEIs Specialized

Total

Subtotal

1998 590 432 1022 962 2003 N* N 1552 558 2008 1079 1184 2263 400 2009 1090 1215 2305 384 2010 1112 1246 2358 365 2011 1129 1280 2409 353 2012 1145 1297 2442 348 2013 1170 1321 2491 297 2014 1202 1327 2529 295 2015 1219 1341 2560 292 Note *N stands for no figure Source MOE. 1998–2015 Statistical Bulletin on the Development of the National Enterprise. Retrieved August 25, 2016 from http://www.moe.edu.cn

1984 2110 2663 2689 2723 2762 2790 2788 2840 2850 Education

Table 4.2 Number of entrants in undergraduate and specialized education (1998–2015) Year

Regular HE

Adult HE

Total

1998 1,083,600 1,001,400 2,085,000 2003 3,821,700 N* N 2008 6,076,600 2,025,600 8,102,200 2009 6,394,900 2,014,800 8,409,700 2010 6,617,600 2,084,300 8,701,900 2011 6,815,000 2,185,100 9,000,100 2012 6,888,300 2,439,600 9,327,900 2013 6,998,300 2,564,900 9,563,200 2014 7,214,000 2,656,000 9,870,000 2015 7,378,500 2,367,500 9,746,000 Note *N stands for no figure Source MOE. 1998–2015 Statistical Bulletin on the Development of the National Education Enterprise. Retrieved August 25, 2016 from http://www.moe.edu.cn

basic requirements as well as a set of main goals and strategies, will inevitably cause far-reaching reforms of the national system of college admission. Actually, in the same month, two different new schemes for changing the college admission system were released by Shanghai and Zhejiang Province, which were the only two national pilot areas. In theory, the two new schemes are to be implemented in the two areas in 2017. In practice, the current system across China won’t change until 2017.

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Therefore, the following study of college admission system in Sects. 4.1.1 and 4.1.2, although it’s based on the data before 2009, can still reflect the reality of present system of college admission.

4.1.1

Reforms of Admission

Briefly speaking, the system of China’s National College Entrance Examination (NCEE) had changed three times over the past three decades from 1978 to 2008: the resumption of the NCEE in 1977, the reforms of examination subjects and the unification of admissions in the 1990s, and some major reforms between 1998 and 2008 that were of more significance. Looking back at the changing process of the NCEE between 1998 and 2008, two main reforms are quite significant. The first reform from 1998 to 2002 covered changes in terms of the content of the NCEE, the chosen subjects, and the methods of selection and the annual frequency of examination. After the first reform, the content of the NCEE put greater emphasis on testing the competence and comprehensive quality of examinees. In terms of the subjects included, the NCEE adopted a ‘3 + X’ structure, in which ‘3’ refered to the 3 basic subjects—Chinese, Math and one foreign language—and ‘X’ standard for an integrated competence test such as Integrated Arts, or Integrated Sciences, etc. The second reform between 2003 and 2008 aimed at integrating the unified college entrance examination and comprehensive assessment of senior high school students, linking the examination subjects with the senior high school curriculum, covering the establishment and improvement of the comprehensive students assessment system, the likelihood of adding certain new areas to the subjects structure of the NCEE besides the ‘3 + X’ in individual administrative divisions across China (namely, provinces, autonomous regions, and Municipalities that directly report to the State Council), and the reforms of selection modes and methods mainly in major universities and short-cycle colleges. In the course of the second reform, the following significant achievements were made: • In 2008, a couple of new programs of college entrance examination became pilot schemes in Shandong, Guangdong, Hainan, Ningxia, Jiangsu and other provinces, which were expected to build a diverse assessment system of college admission. • The content of college entrance examination was changed to not only keep up with the changes in the society and to link it with the examinees’ real lives but also emphasize the examinees’ abilities to analyze and solve problems. • Since 2003, more and more major universities had adopted the mode of independent admission, seeking to create different assessment systems of college admission. In 2008, 68 HEIs chose independent admission.

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• In 2007 and 2008, twenty national model tertiary vocational and technical colleges in eight provinces and some other vocational colleges tried out the mode of Separate Admission for improving the standards of admission and the quality of education. • From 2004 to 2006, the reform of independent examination in 16 administrative divisions across China was completed marking the formation of an integration of national and local examinations (namely the NCEE and independent examination). In the few years before 2008, great efforts had been made to ensure an open, transparent and fair college admission system and operating mechanism in China: • Since 2005, for the purpose of building a fair college admission system, the MOE had implemented the “Sunshine Project” of college admission, and issued policies or measures promoting the transparency of information, stronger supervision and better services for fair admission process. • From 2005 onwards, the state had regulated the college tuition and fees, tackled fraud admission practices by intermediate agencies, controlled admissions at independent colleges, put up a unified electronic system for freshmen registration (in 2007), and carried out some other administrative measures, thus eliminating a good deal of illegal or dubious admission activities. • In 2003, for the first time, the number of freshmen from rural areas equaled those from towns and cities, and in 2006, the former accounted for 52% of the total number of freshmen. • The admission rate of female examinees had grown year by year; in 2007, for example, though female examinees accounted for less than 48% of the total, nearly 50% of the entrants were from among them. • In the last five years from 2003 to 2008, the admission rate of examinees from minority groups had been higher than the average admission rate across China, ranging from 1 to 4% higher (MOE, 2008d). Since the State Council issued the Guidance on Implementing the Further Reform of the Examination and Admission System in September 2014, a wide range of implementation schemes of the reform of the college entrance examination have been released across the country. Until the beginning of 2017, 30 provinces/ municipal cities/autonomous regions have announced individual implementation schemes. However, Zhejiang Province and Shanghai City, as the only two participating administration areas for piloting their own implementation schemes, first published their own “New Gaokao” schemes as early as in September 2014. In practice, the third-year students in senior high schools in the two administration areas are scheduled to complete all of their examinations in all subjects at different times by July, 2017. In other administration areas like Beijing City, Tianjin City, Hunan Province, Hainan Province, Jiangxi Province and Shandong Province, similar “New Gaokao” implementation schemes won’t be started until September 2017 (The People’s Daily, 2017).

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The designing of “New Gaokao” schemes and some new ideas behind them have been highlighted all over the country in recent years. Looking at most implementation schemes, it is noticeable that the recruitment of freshmen will be based on a three-part assessment: Gaokao examination results, Xuekao examination results over the senior high school years, and a comprehensive evaluation; that the division of arts and sciences in senior high schools will be abandoned and a “3 + 3” Gaokao examination model will be universally adopted in most administration areas, in which the first “3” normally refers to such three core subjects as Chinese, math and foreign language while the second “3” refers to the three subjects chosen by students from a group of the other six or seven subjects (six subjects including politics, history, geography, physics, chemistry and biology available in most administration areas currently; seven subjects including another subject, i.e. technology, available only in Zhejiang Province now); and that the examination in one subject can be taken more than once by the same student, for example, in Zhejiang Province and Shanghai, the examination in foreign language can be taken once or twice by a certain student and thus his or her better examination result can be added up to his or her total scores in the college entrance examination.

4.1.2

Forms of Admission

There were three forms of college admissions around 2008: the NCEE, the institution’s independent admission and the ‘recommended freshmen’ without taking the NCEE. Firstly, the vast majority of examinees took the NCEE. Those who sat for the NCEE should meet the entry requirements: compliance with the constitution and laws of the PRC; senior high school graduates or equivalent qualification holders. Foreign immigrants who met the requirements could also take the NCEE. The MOE and the individual Provincial/Municipal/Autonomous Region’s Admission Committees jointly took the responsibility for determining the content and scope of the NCEE test papers as well as for the methods of grading them. Secondly, the institution’s independent admission was adopted by a number of Chinese HEIs, which had been given authorization by the MOE to hold independent entrance examinations and conduct their own selections. However, the examinees must take both the NCEE and the institution’s independent examination. In general, examinees performing very well in the latter had more chances to be admitted to colleges and universities even if their test scores in the former were lower than the required ones. In 2008 there were 68 HEIs authorized by the MOE to adopt independent admissions; in 2007 there were only 53. These institutions usually enjoyed the autonomy to select less than 5% of the total number of annual entrants. In October 2008, the MOE announced that those major institutions who had enrolled high quality students could independently select more than 5% of the total number of annual entrants in the next years. A month later, many of these HEIs released their new plans for the year 2009. For example, Peking University

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was to select 12% of its total number of freshmen by independent admission. Xi’an Jiaotong University was to select around 300 freshmen through independent admission (“Information on Five Famous Universities’ Independent Admissions”, 2008). Lastly, the ‘recommended freshmen’ were those recommended by certain high schools as eligible for college and university admission without having to take the NCEE. The standards for selecting the recommended candidates were very rigorous and they were determined by the MOE and not by individual institutions. In 2007, 17 foreign language high schools across China were eligible for recommending freshmen to colleges and universities (MOE, 2007c). In practice, there had been many different forms of NCEE across the various administrative divisions of China over the years. That was because the Provincial/ Municipal/Autonomous Region’s Admission Committees were authorized by the MOE to independently organize the examination and admission work in their respective administrative divisions. Tables 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5 show the basic groupings of college admission’s forms and the required minimum test scores for each grouping in three administrative divisions of Beijing, Shanghai, and Zhejiang Province in 2008. The MOE, the individual Provincial/Municipal/Autonomous Region’s Admission Committees, and individual HEIs took differing responsibilities in organizing the college examination and admission affairs. The MOE played a leading role in the college admission work throughout the country. The MOE was mainly responsible for: • Making national policies for the college admission and issuing regulations or requirements for the admission. • Determining the types of college entrance examination, approving the proposals of examination subjects submitted by individual provincial/municipal/autonomous region, and some possible reforming proposals of admissions. Table 4.3 The 2008 minimum test scores for college admission in regular HEIs in Beijing Social Sciences, the Humanities and Arts

Sciences

Undergraduate Group One 515 502 Undergraduate Group Two 472 455 Undergraduate Group Three 439 430 Advance Group for Specialized Education 330 330 Art at Undergraduate Level 283 273 Art at Specialized Level 231 231 Physical Education and Social Physical Training (the 320 320 test scores in Physical Education must be 60 or above) Source Beijing. The 2008 Minimum Test Scores for College Admission in Regular HEIs. Retrieved September 25, 2008 from http://www.neea.edu.cn/rxks/ptgk

4.1 College Admission

73

Table 4.4 The 2016 minimum test scores for college admission in regular HEIs in Shanghai 3 + integrated test + 1

3 + integrated test

Social Sciences, the Humanities and Arts

Undergraduate Group One 471 Undergraduate Group Two 428 Specialized Education Group for Public 276 Security as a Specialty (Physical Test and Interview) Sciences Undergraduate Group One 467 Undergraduate Group Two 399 Specialized Education Group for Public 240 Security as a Specialty (Physical Test and Interview) Source Shanghai. The 2008 Minimum Test Scores for Undergraduate Admission in Regular HEIs. Retrieved September 25, 2008 from http://www.neea.edu.cn/rxks/ptgk

Table 4.5 The 2008 minimum test scores for college admission in regular HEIs in Zhejiang Province Group One

Group Two

Group Three

Group Four

The lowest entry requirement

Social Sciences, the 550 516 468 370 355 Humanities and Arts Sciences 550 504 442 319 304 Source Zhejiang Province. The 2008 Minimum Test Scores for College Admission in Regular HEIs. Retrieved September 25, 2008 from http://www.neea.edu.cn/rxks/ptgk

• Giving authorization to the MOE Examination Center, individual Provincial/ Municipal/Autonomous Region’s Admission Committees, and individual HEIs to organize the examination affairs. • Guiding individual HEIs, individual provincial/municipal/autonomous region’s educational sectors and other sectors involved to make annual admission plans. • Directing and scrutinizing the admission work across administrative divisions of China. • Providing research and training concerning the college entrance examination. • Investigating cheating, malpractices and other illegal acts in the admission work. The individual Provincial/Municipal/Autonomous Region’s Admission Committees, through their Office of Admissions, were mainly responsible for: • Stipulating and issuing supplementary regulations or implementation specifications upon admission work in association with the region’s genuine needs. • Organizing the college entrance examination commissioned by the MOE. • Releasing admission regulations and the provincial/municipal/autonomous region’s admission scheme by category of specialties. • Guiding and scrutinizing the admission work of individual HEIs.

74

4 Admission and Graduate Employment

• Organizing examinees’ sitting for the examination, physical checkup, moral character review, data collection, and electronic record making, etc. The individual HEIs, through their Office of Admissions, were mainly responsible for: • Implementing the policies and regulations of admission work determined by the MOE and individual Provincial/Municipal/Autonomous Region’s Admission Committees. • Reporting and releasing their own annual admission plans both by administrative division of China and by category of specialties. • Stipulating and releasing their own annual admission rules. • Advertising and marketing for admission. • Selecting freshmen. • Reviewing the selected freshmen (MOE, 2008b). As mentioned above, the individual HEIs must release the anticipated number of entrants annually. For instance, the Peking University admission plan for the academic year 2008–2009 presented the number by both examinees’ administrative divisions and category of specialties (see Table 4.6).

4.2

Postgraduate Admission

In this section, the study of postgraduate admission system will also be based on the data mainly before 2009. In reality, there have been no big changes to the current system of postgraduate admission since 2009.

4.2.1

Master’s Admission

With the expansion of Chinese higher education, the size of postgraduate education in China has been growing rapidly since 1999. A total of 156,000 were admitted to postgraduate programs in 2001; 268,900 in 2003; 330,000 in 2004 and 400,000 in 2007. Compared to the total number of newly admitted postgraduates in 2001, there was an increase of 240,000 in 2007. In terms of the number of examinees, the total number increased from 450,000 in 2001 to 1,270,000 in 2006 (Sun & Zhao, 2007). In 2009, a total of 796 HEIs and research institutes were authorized to admit master’s students (hereafter referred to as master’s admission institutions) in China’s 31 administrative regions (see Table 4.7). According to the Circular on Making the 2009 National Postgraduate Admission Plan (No. 92 of 2008), the total number of new doctoral students in China would be controlled and was expected to increase by 1.7% in 2009. The number of new master’s students would grow moderately and was expected to increase by 5%.

5

4

Philosophy

Sociology

2

2

2

1

Japanese

Russian

Arabic

2

1

1

1

Korean

Mongolian

Thai

Farsi

Arabic (only for students preparing for military service)

2

Spanish

2

Writing and Directing for Radio and TV

German

5

Public Administration

4

5

Business Administration

2

6

Economics

French

8

Journalism and Communications

English

4

Information Management and Information System

20

5

History

Law

3

Archeology

10

5

Chinese

International Politics

4

Beijing

Experimental Class of Social Sciences and the Humanities

Category of Specialty

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

3

2

Tianjin

1

1

2

1

1

1

2

3

2

3

2

2

1

2

1

Hebei

2

2

4

2

3

3

2

Shanxi

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Neimenggu

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

3

2

2

3

2

Liaoning

2

2

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

Jilin

2

2

2

2

3

2

2

1

2

2

2

Heilongjiang

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

Shanghai

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

2

3

3

2

1

1

2

2

Jiangsu

2

2

2

1

1

2

2

2

3

3

3

2

3

2

Zhejiang

1

2

2

2

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

1

Anhui

2

2

1

1

3

2

2

3

2

2

2

Fujian

2

2

1

1

2

2

1

1

2

2

2

Jiangxi

1

2

1

2

2

1

2

2

2

1

2

3

2

2

Shandong

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

4

2

2

2

2

4

2

Hubei

2

2

2

2

2

2

3

3

1

2

2

2

(continued)

Henan

Table 4.6 The 2008 anticipated number of freshmen in Social Sciences, the Humanities and Arts by examinees’ administrative divisions and category of specialties at Peking University

4.2 Postgraduate Admission 75

2

2

2

Experimental Class of Social Sciences and the Humanities

Chinese

Arabic

Russian

Japanese

Spanish

German

1

1

English

French

1

2

Business Administration

1

2

Economics

Writing and Directing for Radio and TV

3

Journalism and Communications

Public Administration

2

2

1

3

2

1

2

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

2

2

1

Information Management and Information System

1

Law

1

2

International Politics

2

1

2

3

2

2

1

2

Sociology

2

2

Philosophy

1

1

3

2

Chongqing

History

2

Hainan

1

2

Guangxi

Archeology

2

Guangdong

Hunan

Category of Specialty

Table 4.6 (continued)

2

2

1

1

2

3

2

3

2

1

2

1

Sichuan

2

2

2

2

2

Guizhou

1

2

1

2

2

2

Yunnan

1

1

Tibet

2

2

2

2

3

2

2

2

2

Shaanxi

2

2

2

2

2

Gansu

1

1

1

2

1

2

Qinghai

1

1

1

2

2

1

1

1

Ningxia

1

2

2

2

3

Xinjiang

1

1 1

1

Special Class for Xinjiang

(continued)

Special Class for Tibet

76 4 Admission and Graduate Employment

Hunan

1

Guangdong

Guangxi

Hainan

Chongqing

Sichuan

Guizhou

Yunnan

Tibet

1

Shaanxi

Gansu

Qinghai

Ningxia

Xinjiang

Source Peking University. Admission Plan for Social Sciences, the Humanities and Arts 2008–2009. Retrieved September 25, 2008 from http://www.cunet.com.cn/gaozhao/HTML/17149.html

Farsi

Thai

Mongolian

Korean

Arabic (only for students preparing for military service)

Category of Specialty

Table 4.6 (continued) Special Class for Tibet

Special Class for Xinjiang

4.2 Postgraduate Admission 77

78

4 Admission and Graduate Employment

Table 4.7 Number of master’s admission institutions in 31 administrative divisions across Mainland China in 2009 Province/ Autonomous region/ Municipalitya

Number of institutions

Ranking

Province/ Autonomous region/ Municipality

Number of institutions

Ranking

Beijing 152 1 Hunan 17 17 Shanghai 53 2 Yunnan 17 17 Jiangsu 53 2 Gansu 17 17 Shaanxi 57 4 Chongqing 16 20 Hubei 51 5 Shanxi 13 21 Liaoning 47 6 Jiangxi 13 21 Sichuang 38 7 Guangxi 12 23 Shandong 33 8 Xinjiang 12 23 Guangdong 33 8 Fujian 11 25 Henan 26 10 Neimenggu 9 26 Tianjin 25 11 Guizhou 9 26 Hebei 25 11 Qinghai 5 28 Heilongjiang 25 11 Ningxia 3 29 Jilin 21 14 Tibet 3 29 Anhui 21 14 Hainan 2 31 Zhejiang 20 16 Note aAmong the 31 administrative divisions across Mainland China, the five autonomous regions are Guangxi, Neimenggu, Tibet, Ningxia and Xinjiang; the four municipalities are Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai and Chongqing; and the rest are provinces Source MOE (2008j)

China would put more effort into supporting the postgraduate admission in such specialties as energy, information, biology, oceanics, new material and advanced manufacturing. The number of new postgraduates in the specialties facing the problem of unemployment in the years ahead would be cut in 2009. More new postgraduates would be trained to meet the needs of special workforce in the army. The plans of offering M.Ed. programs for rural school teachers and supporting Tibet would be implemented (MOE & NDRC, 2008).

4.2.1.1

Master’s Program Admission—Preliminary Examination

The educative objective of the 2009 master’s programs, as stated by MOE, was to produce high quality master’s degree holders who had good moral character, good command of discipline-related basic theory and systematic specialized knowledge, innovative spirit, and the abilities to engage in research, teaching and administration or to take on special technical work independently.

4.2 Postgraduate Admission

79

In most years before 2009, there had been several forms of preliminary examinations for admission to master’s programs. Likewise, in 2009, there would be five forms of preliminary examinations (MOE, 2008c): a. the unified master’s programs admission examination organized by the state; b. the separate master’s programs admission examination organized by the master’s admission institutions, which are authorized by the MOE; c. the unified or separate master’s programs admission examination for M. Ed., i.e., the professional master’s degree in education (the courses for examination are set up within the category of education); d. the unified admission examination for JM, i.e., the professional master’s degree in jurisprudence; e. the unified admission examination for MBA, i.e., the professional master’s degree in business administration. The first form would be adopted for selecting the vast majority of master’s students, the second form merely for a small special group of examinees, while the last three forms for selecting professional master’s students (M.Ed., JM and MBA). In terms of the examinees’ requirements for the 2009 unified master’s admission examination by the state, one of the following requirements stipulated by MOE must be satisfied: a. the 2009 graduates who expected to obtain undergraduate qualifications recognized by the state; and those who had any undergraduate qualification recognized by the state; b. those who not only had qualifications of two- to three-year short-cycle or tertiary vocational and technical college recognized by the state but also had obtained undergraduate qualifications of equivalence before September 1, 2007, as well as had met the specific requirements upon core courses set down by particular admission institutions; c. the 2009 graduates who expected to obtain undergraduate qualifications recognized by the state in adult HEIs, or those who had obtained certificates of undergraduate courses recognized by the state; d. those who had master’s or doctoral degrees (they as employees could sit for the master’s admission examination again only on the track of commissioned training or self-supporting master’s students). In terms of the examinees’ requirements for the 2009 separate master’s admission examination by the institutions, one of the following requirements must be satisfied: a. the 2009 graduates who expected to obtain undergraduate qualifications recognized by the state; b. those who had any undergraduate qualification recognized by the state; c. the 2009 graduates who expected to obtain undergraduate qualifications recognized by the state in adult HEIs, or those who had obtained certificates of undergraduate courses recognized by the state;

80

4 Admission and Graduate Employment

d. those who not only had obtained master’s or doctoral degrees for at least two years but also had been recommended by two experts with senior academic titles (they as employees could sit for the master’s examination again only on the track of commissioned training master’s students); e. those who not only had obtained undergraduate qualification recognized by the state for at least four years, as well as had published research papers (professional reports) or had been regarded as key practicing professionals, but also had been recommended by two experts with senior academic titles (they as employees could sit for the master’s examination only on the track of oriented or commissioned training). In terms of the examinees’ requirements for the 2009 unified or separate admission examination for M.Ed., those who met the examinees’ requirements for either the 2009 unified master’s admission examination organized by the state or the 2009 separate master’s admission examination organized by the institutions were eligible. In 2009, 57 HEIs were authorized to admit M.Ed. students in China. In terms of the examinees’ requirements for the 2009 unified admission examination for JM, those who met the examinees’ requirements for the 2009 unified master’s admission examination organized by the state are eligible. However, those who had studied or were studying a particular specialty in the category of law listed in the catalog of undergraduate fields of study were ineligible. Thus, those who were eligible for sitting for the admission examination for JM must be non-law specialties’ graduates or learners. In 2009, 78 HEIs were authorized to admit JM students in China. In 2009, 127 HEIs were authorized to admit MBA students in China. As regards the examinees’ requirements for the 2009 unified admission examination for MBA, one of the following requirements must be satisfied: a. the 2009 graduates who expected to obtain undergraduate qualifications recognized by the state; b. those who had any undergraduate qualification recognized by the state; c. the 2009 graduates who expected to obtain undergraduate qualifications recognized by the state in adult HEIs, or those who had obtained certificates of undergraduate courses recognized by the state; d. master’s or doctoral degree holders with at least two years’ work experience; e. those who had obtained not only qualifications of two- to three-year short-cycle or tertiary vocational and technical college recognized by the state for five years, but also undergraduate qualifications of equivalence; f. those who had both undergraduate qualifications and at least three years’ work experience. In addition, in 2009, as in the previous years, a small proportion of excellent or extremely good undergraduate students would move on to the master’s level directly without taking any type of admission examination, who could be recommended by some authorized HEIs. Such HEIs and the number of selected excellent undergraduates were approved by the MOE annually. In those years, the selection

4.2 Postgraduate Admission

81

Table 4.8 Subjects of the unified master’s program preliminary examination (January 2009) Date

Morning hours

Afternoon hours

10/01/2009

Theory of Politics; Comprehensive Competence Test for MBA Math or Core Course I Integrated Foundation Course in Education/History/Medicine Common Foundation in Agriculture

Foreign Language

11/01/2009

Core Course II Integrated Foundation Course in Agriculture Integrated Foundation Course in Computer Science 12/01/2009 Others (for a certain subject examination which takes more than three hours) Source MOE (2008c)

of excellent undergraduates was emphasized. In 2009, selecting master’s students in this way for well developed disciplines and distinctive sub-disciplines would be prioritized; and more undergraduates with creative power, innovative spirit, innovative ability or scholarly talent would be selected (MOE, 2008f). To a degree, this special form of selection, which was not based on test scores, was considered to be a better approach to discover excellent master’s students in contrast to the preceding admission examinations. According to the requirements for the 2009 master’s admission by the MOE, the preliminary examination in education, history, medicine and agriculture for admission to the unified Master’s Program would be held again; the preliminary examination in computer science and technology would be adjusted; the master’s admission institutions should continue to not only improve their own admission examinations of the core courses (the specialized courses) and reduce the number of the core courses, but also set up the core courses within the first level disciplines (MOE, 2008f). Table 4.8 shows the types of subjects included in the preliminary examination in January, 2009.

4.2.1.2

Master’s Program Admission—Re-examination

According to the requirements for the 2009 master’s admission by the MOE, in the process of the master’s program re-examination, the master’s admission institutions should pay closer attention to the assessment of the examinees’ discipline-related abilities, innovative spirits and comprehensive merits; they should seek better ways to decide upon the content and the methods of re-examination as well as the percentage of the examinees on the basis of both the characteristics of individual disciplines and the total number of examinees; and the institutions having had more qualified examinees could get a moderate percentage rise of the examinees in the margin-based re-examination (MOE, 2008f). Both the MOE and a small number of HEIs determined the minimum preliminary examination scores for the master’s program re-examination every year.

82

4 Admission and Graduate Employment

First, the unified minimum preliminary scores for the master’s program re-examination determined by the MOE were adopted by most master’s admission institutions in China every year. Examinees sitting for re-examinations of master’s admission institutions in Division One, Division Two or Division Three must reach the minimum preliminary examination scores in individual divisions. Table 4.9 demonstrates the minimum preliminary examination scores of 2008 by category of disciplines and division of examinees. Second, a group of HEIs have the right to determine their own minimum preliminary examination scores for master’s program admission re-examination, which are authorized by the MOE every year. Since 2003, a total of 34 major HEIs like Peking University and Tsinghua University have been authorized by the MOE to start the pilot scheme called the minimum preliminary examination scores determined by individual institutions. Among these 34 HEIs of 2009, 33 HEIs, all except the University of Agriculture of China, belong to the first group of “985 Project” jointly sponsored key universities (see Tables 4.10 and 2.7).

4.2.2

Doctoral Admission

In 2009, there were four modes of selecting doctoral students in China, according to the basic admission policy made by the MOE. The first mode was called open admission. The doctoral admission institutions, on their own, organize individual entrance examination for doctoral students. The entrance examination included a preliminary examination and a re-examination. The great majority of doctoral students were annually selected through this mode. In terms of the examinees’ requirements for the preliminary examination, one of the following basic requirements must be met for sitting for the 2009 entrance examination for doctoral students: a master’s degree holder; a 2009 master’s degree candidate who expected to obtain the master’s degree before the entry into the doctorate program; or a bachelor’s degree holder who not only had been awarded the degree six or more years earlier (from the conferment date of the degree to the beginning date of the doctoral study) but also had a master’s degree qualification of equivalence. The second one was advance selection. The doctoral admission institutions selected some potential doctoral students from the excellent master’s degree students who had completed their master’s programs in advance within the same institutions having demonstrated their abilities to conduct research work. A potential doctoral student must not only pass the defense of the thesis but also obtain the master’s degree before enrolling for the doctoral degree. The institution’s entrance examination for doctoral degrees was not essential prerequisite for the doctoral study. The third one was a combination of master’s and doctoral studies. The doctoral admission institutions selected some potential doctoral students from the excellent master’s degree students who had completed their master’s programs within the

41 54 53 49

57 39 47 44

39 44

49 54

42 45 39 54 54

295 335 330 310

350 280 300 300

275 295

300 330

295 320 275 340 175

Philosophy Economics Law (excluding JM) Education (excluding Physical Education) Literature (excluding art) History Science Engineering (excluding Special Discipline) Agriculture Medicine (excluding Chinese Medicine) Military Science Administration (excluding MBA) Physical Education Art Chinese Medicine JM MBA 126 68 117 81 108

74 81

59 132

86 117 71 66

62 81 80 147

Examinee Type A (1) Total Course One Course Two score (full score is (full score is 100) over 100)

Category of Discipline/First Level Discipline/Second Level Discipline

285 310 265 330 165

290 320

265 285

340 270 290 290

285 325 320 300

38 41 35 50 49

45 50

35 40

53 35 43 40

37 50 49 45

114 62 105 75 98

68 75

53 120

80 105 65 60

56 75 74 135

Examinee Type B (2) Total Course One Course Two score (full score is (full score is 100) over 100)

Table 4.9 The 2008 minimum preliminary examination scores for National Master’s Program Re-examination

280 305 260 325 155

285 315

260 280

335 265 285 285

280 320 315 295

36 39 33 48 44

43 48

33 38

51 33 41 38

35 48 47 43

108 59 99 72 88

65 72

50 114

77 99 62 57

53 72 71 129

(continued)

Examinee Type C (3) Total Course One Course Two score (full score is (full score is 100) over 100)

4.2 Postgraduate Admission 83

Examinee Type A (1) Total Course One Course Two score (full score is (full score is 100) over 100)

Examinee Type B (2) Total Course One Course Two score (full score is (full score is 100) over 100)

Examinee Type C (3) Total Course One Course Two score (full score is (full score is 100) over 100)

Special Discipline (First 285 39 59 275 35 53 270 33 50 Level Discipline) (4) Minority Examinee (5) 260 33 50 260 33 50 260 33 50 Notes (1) Examinees sitting for the master’s admission institutions of Division One (2) Examinees sitting for the master’s admission institutions of Division Two (3) Examinees sitting for the master’s admission institutions of Division Three; or examinees working in Division Three but being offered the oriented or commissioned training for the current employing unit (Division One includes 11 such provinces and municipalities as Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, Shandong, Henan, Hubei, Hunan and Guangdong; Division Two includes such 10 provinces and municipalities as Hebei, Shanxi, Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang, Anhui, Jiangxi, Chongqing, Sichuan and Shaanxi; and Division Three includes 10 such provinces and autonomous regions as Neimenggu, Guangxi, Hainan, Guizhou, Yunnan, Tibet, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang) (4) Special disciplines cover mechanics (0801), metallurgical engineering (0806), dynamic engineering and engineering thermal physics (0807), water conservancy engineering (0815), geological resources and geological engineering (0818), mining engineering (0819), shipping and oceanic engineering (0824), science and technology of aviation aerospace (0825), science and technology of enginery (0826), science and technology of nuclear (0827), and agricultural engineering (0828) (5) Minority examinees include the 2008 graduates sitting for the master’s admission institutions of Division Two and Division Three who will expect to obtain undergraduate qualifications and will work in autonomous regions after earning their master’s degrees; and the minority employees in autonomous regions who will be returning to their current employing unit after the completion of master’s programs Source http://yz.chsi.com.cn

Category of Discipline/First Level Discipline/Second Level Discipline

Table 4.9 (continued)

84 4 Admission and Graduate Employment

4.2 Postgraduate Admission

85

Table 4.10 34 HEIs with the right to determine the minimum preliminary examination scores for master’s program re-examination Peking University Tsinghua University Beijing University of Technology Beijing Normal University Tianjin University Northeast University Harbin Institute of Technology Tongji University Nanjing University Zhejiang University Xiamen University Wuhan University Hunan University Zhongshan University Sichuan University University of Electronic Science and Technology of China Northwest Polytechnical University Source MOE (2008i)

Renmin University of China Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics University of Agriculture of China Nankai University Dalian University of Technology Jilin University of Science and Technology Fudan University Shanghai Jiaotong University Southeast University Shandong University Huazhong University of Science and Technology Central South University South China University of Technology Chongqing University Xi’an Jiaotong University Lanzhou University

same institutions during the required time having demonstrated their abilities to conduct research work. A potential doctoral student must not only win the support of a Ph.D. supervisor and gain the approval of the institution but also pass the institution’s entrance examination for doctoral degrees before enrolling for the doctoral study. In doing so, both a master’s thesis and a master’s degree were not prerequisite for the doctoral study. The final one was called direct track. The doctoral admission institutions selected some potential doctoral students directly from the excellent undergraduate students who were expected to graduate in 2009 and had been recommended for the doctoral programs without taking the institution’s entrance examination for doctoral degrees. This selection could be adopted merely by those doctoral admission institutions with graduate schools as well as in such categories of disciplines as engineering, science, agriculture and medicine. In principle, the number of selected students should account for not more than 10% of the total number of the enrollments for the doctoral study (MOE, 2008g).

86

4.3 4.3.1

4 Admission and Graduate Employment

Graduate Employment: Policy Changes and Current Situation Policy Changes

After China’s reform and opening-up policy at the end of 1970s, the employment system for higher education graduates has undergone two major reforms: the transformation of employment system in the early 1990s and the changes in the early twenty-first century. In the early 1990s, the transformation of employment system started in order to adapt to the transition of the whole state from the planned economy to the market economy. From then on, ‘the planned distribution of graduates based on the government’s orders’ was gradually replaced by the ‘market-oriented mutual choices between graduates and employers’. In the process of the transformation, the basic function of the market in resources allocation was heavily stressed, which brought about diverse positive impacts on graduates’ employment policies, students’ career guidance and counseling, and graduates’ personal employment decisions as well. This transformation is viewed as a successful and profound change. In the early twenty-first century, the function of governments at all levels in the process of facilitating graduates’ employment was highlighted, whilst the market was still functioning as a basic force. In order to make the graduates’ employment model further adapt to the needs of both mass higher education and the reform of the market economy system, a new system for higher education graduates was built in which ‘market-oriented, government-regulated, HEIs’ recommendations-based mutual choices between graduates and employers’ were forged. This new system had some characteristics of great importance. First, it was a system administrated by both central and local governments, in which the local governments were required to take more managerial responsibilities. Secondly, within the system, a national policy framework for the employment of higher education graduates took shape. The policy framework covered nearly one hundred specific measures like career guidance, employment at grass roots, unemployment registration, temporary subsidies to unemployed graduates, and so on. Thirdly, within the system, a service subsystem for graduates’ employment was built, in which not only HEIs played the main role but also educational administrative departments and other relevant departments provided the graduates with career guidance, counseling, recommendations and services. Fourthly, some special strategies and approaches to guide and encourage graduates to serve the western region of China had been adopted by the central government to further perfect the new system. For instance, one of the well-known programs was the Voluntary Program of Graduates Serving the West that was initiated in 2003. Lastly, the new system greatly contributed to the reform of teaching in HEIs, bringing it closer to the real needs of economic development (Zhou, 2008). With the rapid expansion of Chinese higher education and the further development of mass higher education in the past decades, the increasingly growing

4.3 Graduate Employment: Policy Changes and Current Situation

87

number of higher education graduates has been a great challenge to the MOE and other central ministries, provincial educational and non-educational administrative departments, individual HEIs, and the wider society. At the central level, there have been a number of special policies concerning the employment of higher education graduates for years: the Voluntary Program of Graduates Serving the West (since 2003), the program of graduates’ service at the grass roots (since 2005) and the internship system for higher education graduates (since 2006), to name but a few. The Voluntary Program of Graduates Serving the West was proposed by the MOE and other central departments in 2003 and thereafter it has been implemented for a couple of years. The aim of the program is to encourage higher education graduates to go to the western area of China, to work at the grass roots level, and to contribute to the regions where highly educated and skilled workforces are badly needed. Through this special program, a great number of graduates not only have helped improve the disadvantaged conditions of education, health, and agricultural technology in the underdeveloped areas, but also have sought ways to get employed and create their own businesses in the western areas, right after their graduation. A total of 43,763, 49,615, 51,994, 55,347 graduates joined this voluntary program in 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2006 respectively. In 2007, over 53% of the graduates who joined the program had academic qualifications at the undergraduate level or above; and 53% of those were from the Western areas (Li, 2007). A program of graduates’ service at the grass roots had been implemented from 2005 to 2008. Every year, 20,000 graduates were recruited to go to work in counties and towns across China to support the educational, agricultural and health services, and to assist the poor. They usually worked at the grass roots for two or three years during which time they could get some subsidies from the governmental departments. Having finished this special service, they could seek other jobs freely or obtain certain jobs at the grass roots where they had worked. According to relevant regulations, participants in this special program might enjoy some advantages when they sat for the State Examination for Public Servants or the National Entrance Examination for Postgraduate Students in the following years (MOE, 2005b). In 2008, there were a total of 118 programs being implemented by the central and local governments and a total of 140,000 higher education graduates working at the grass roots (Zhou, 2008). In February 2006, the probational system for higher education graduates was jointly initiated by the Ministry of Education (MOE), the Ministry of Personnel (MOP), the Ministry of Finance (MOF), the Ministry of Labor and Social Security and the like. In general, in the beginning, a group of businesses and public sectors were expected to be selected as probational units participating in the pilot scheme of the probational system. Later, some eligible employers might become formal probational bases for higher education graduates. Probational bases would be assessed every three years. The probational period of every probationer would be six to twelve months and the probationers could obtain some living assistance from both

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the probational bases and the local departments of finance. At the end of the probational period, every probationer would be assessed and those who having successfully completed the probation would be awarded certificates of probation (Ministry of Personnel, 2006).

4.3.2

Current Situation

In 2008, the employment rate of graduates in short-cycle or tertiary vocational and technical colleges increased significantly; in fact, it was higher than the employment rate of graduates in 4-year undergraduate institutions in more than half of the provinces all over the country. Between 2007 and 2008 there was nearly 5% increase in the initial employment rate of graduates in short-cycle or tertiary vocational and technical colleges. This was a result of several educational reforms carried out in these institutions. It was generally thought that the cooperation between institutions and industries, the target-oriented training, the more effective internship, the practice-based teaching, the extended labor market and the reinforced career guidance at these institutions were most likely to have improved the students’ abilities to get employed (Zhou, 2008). Over the years between 1998 and 2008, the number of graduates in Chinese regular higher education had grown dramatically. The number of 2008 was more than 6 times the total of 1998. In the following years, the total number continued to rise year by year. Until 2015, the total reached 7,360,460, with an increase of 1,222,600 graduates from 2010 to 2015 (see Table 4.11). Table 4.11 Number of graduates in Chinese HE (1998–2015) Regular HE Undergraduate and Specialized

Adult HE Postgraduate

Total

Subtotal

1998 829,800 47,077 876,877 N* N 2003 1,877,500 111,100 1,888,610 1,593,400 3,482,010 2008 5,119,500 344,800 5,464,300 1,690,900 7,155,200 2009 5,311,000 371,300 5,682,300 1,943,900 7,626,200 2010 5,754,200 383,600 6,137,800 1,972,900 8,110,700 2011 6,081,600 430,000 6,511,600 1,906,600 8,418,200 2012 6,247,300 486,500 6,733,800 1,954,400 8,688,200 2013 6,387,200 513,600 6,900,800 1,997,700 8,898,500 2014 6,593,700 535,900 7,129,600 2,212,300 9,341,900 2015 6,808,900 551,500 7,360,400 2,362,600 9,723,00 Note *N stands for no figure Source MOE. 1998–2015 Statistical Bulletin on the Development of the National Education Enterprise. Retrieved August 25, 2016 from http://www.moe.edu.cn

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According to a report made by MyCOS in 2008, the top ten specialties with high employment rate at the undergraduate level included mechanical and electronic engineering, medical test, certified accountant, logistic engineering, architecture, and information security, etc. Among them, even the lowest employment rate reached 96.8%. On the other hand, the ten specialties with the lowest employment rate only belonged to two categories: arts and life sciences. The former covered fine arts, music, and musical performance, and the latter covered medicine, biology, and agriculture. In the same report, the top ten specialties with high employment rate in short-cycle or tertiary vocational and technical colleges included energy resources, civil engineering, mechanics, chemical engineering, transportation, etc. Among the ten specialties with the lowest employment rate, many specialties belonged to the categories of education or policing (MyCOS Professional Survey, 2008). Compared to the 2008 report, a recent report by MyCOS in 2015 showed that the top seven specialties with high employment rate in 4-year undergraduate institutions were architecture, software engineering, network engineering, communication engineering, building environment and equipment engineering, vehicle engineering, and mineral processing engineering; and that the seven specialties with the lowest employment rate were biological engineering, fine arts, biological sciences, applied physics, applied psychology, law, and music performance. The 2015 report also showed that the top six specialties with high employment rate in short-cycle or tertiary vocational and technical colleges included railway engineering technology, electrified railway technology, petrochemical production technology, electric power system automation technology, power technology, intelligent building engineering technology; and that the six specialties with the lowest employment rate covered legal affairs, teaching of Chinese language, primary education, investment and financial management, applied Japanese, and international finance (MyCOS Research Institute, 2015). In order to improve the employment rate of higher education graduates, the MOE set up several platforms in 2006 and 2008 for creating more potential employment opportunities for graduates. The following were two typical examples. On November 20th, 2006, the National Employment Network Alliance for Higher Education Graduates was jointly founded by the MOE, the MOP, the NDRC, and the like. The network alliance operated on the basis of a group of portal websites like the National Employment Service Information Network for Higher Education Graduates (http://www.myjob.edu.cn), the MOP Public Information Network for Manpower (http://www.chrm.gov.cn), the National Labor Market Network (http://www.lm.gov.cn), and the National Information Network for Medium-Sized and Small Businesses (http://www.sme.gov.cn) (MOE, 2006a). The network alliance’s main functions included offering employment information and hosting recruitment events for graduates. On April 25th, 2008, the National Public Service Platform for Higher Education Graduates was formally initiated at the MOE of the PRC. It was aimed at addressing the problem of asymmetric information on the supply and demand of graduates, utilizing the network technology, information technology and the resources of national system for students’ employment. It would center upon the

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real needs of both graduates and employers, taking full advantage of the educational sectors and other relevant sectors to carry out a wide range of services to improve the quality of career counseling for individual provinces, cities, businesses, and HEIs (MOE, 2008h). Owing to the potential negative impacts of recent international financial crisis upon the employment of China’s higher education graduates, several major measures was ever introduced by the MOE to promote employment prospects of the graduates of 2009. The following three measures reflected a continuity of the MOE’s employment policies for higher education graduates. First, all educational administrative departments were required to take active and effective measures to help every graduate to find a job. At the central level, the MOE had already established a Steering Group for the Employment of higher education graduates, whose four group leaders were from several relevant departments of the MOE in charge of coordinating and facilitating the employment of higher education graduates. At the local level, both local educational administrative departments and individual HEIs were called upon to pay closer attention to track the current changing employment information so as to quickly respond to the employment need of each graduate. Actually, since 2003, it has already required by the MOE that each institution embark on releasing an Annual Report on Graduates’ Employment Quality. More and more universities have published such report in recent years. Second, all educational sectors were required to do everything possible to collect information about graduate employment needs of all sorts, in particular for the graduates in subjects that were negatively impacted by the economic situation. Employment information from medium-sized and small businesses would still be considered as the main source of employment for higher education graduates. Third, the level of employment information services would be elevated through opening more employment channels. In order to enhance the quality of employment services, reduce the cost of job-seekers, and strengthen the interaction of graduates’ supply and demand, the MOE’s National Public Service Platform for Higher Education Graduates would hold fifteen large-scale national online campaigns for the graduates of 2009 with the aid of the Ministry of Commerce, Ministry of Industry and Information, Ministry of Health and the like. At the same time, both the national platform and individual provincial employment information networks would launch monthly joint recruitment activities for graduates (MOE, 2008l).

Chapter 5

Specialized Higher Education

5.1

Summary

Specialized higher education in China is equivalent to the Level 4 post-secondary non-tertiary education in accordance with the revised 1997 International Standard Classification of Education (hereafter referred as the ISCED 1997). It includes two types of programs: short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical program. The mission of specialized higher education has been to prepare students with basic knowledge and skills and initial capabilities for practical work in a specific field or occupation. Over the past thirty years, specialized higher education has seen tremendous changes and development in their missions and programs, curricula, and particularly the modes of education. Before the introduction of specialized higher education, the following section gives a brief description about the levels and programs of tertiary education, which are the two basic axes underpinning the classification of higher education structure in Chaps. 5, 6 and 7.

5.1.1

Levels of Tertiary Education

In general, post-secondary education in China can be classified into three hierarchical levels: post-secondary non-tertiary education, first stage of tertiary education, and second stage of tertiary education, in accordance with the ISCED 1997. In November 1997, the General Conference of United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) adopted a revised version of the 1978 International Standard Classification of Education. The ISCED 1997 classified the hierarchy of a nation’s regular educational system into 7 levels, among which the postsecondary stages include Level 4: post-secondary non-tertiary education, Level 5: first stage of tertiary education, and Level 6: second stage of tertiary education (UNESCO, 1997). © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Higher Education Press 2018 J. Gu et al., Higher Education in China, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0845-1_5

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‘The notion of “levels” of education is taken to be broadly related to gradations of learning experiences and the competences which the contents of an educational program require of participants if they are to have a reasonable expectation of acquiring the knowledge, skills and capabilities that the program is designed to impart’ (UNESCO, 1997: 15). Levels of education represent broad steps of educational progression from very elementary to more complex experiences, so that the more complex the program, the higher will be the level of education. The notion is based on the assumption that educational programs can be grouped into an ordered series of categories broadly corresponding to the overall knowledge, skills and capabilities required of participants if they are to have a reasonable expectation of successfully completing the programs in these categories. In China, the equivalent of the ISCED 1997 Level 4 is specialized higher education, which consists of two main types of program: short-cycle program and tertiary vocational and technical program. Both types of programs require two to three years of full-time study. Specialized higher education is provided in a variety of HEIs. Most short-cycle programs are delivered at short-cycle colleges (gaodeng zhuanke xuexiao), but some can also be found in universities and be provided through non-regular or non-formal education venues such as adult or continuing education. Tertiary vocational and technical programs are mostly offered through tertiary vocational and technical colleges (gaodeng zhiye jishu xueyuan), though some are also available in short-cycle colleges and universities. For data reporting purpose, enrollments in short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical programs are combined into one category: short-cycle enrollments. A balanced proportion of short-cycle and undergraduate enrollments would be advantageous for a nation’s socioeconomic development, even though it is contingent upon the particular stages of socioeconomic and higher education development. In reality, it varies widely across nations and economic development levels (Xie, 2007). In China, short-cycle enrollments had consistently been smaller than undergraduate (first-stage of tertiary education in China) enrollments. The slow growth of short-cycle enrollments could be attributed to many reasons. Ruth Hayhoe observed that the graduation qualifications offered by short-cycle programs were lower than those of undergraduate programs, and lower qualification held far less promise for political influence and prestige (Hayhoe, 1989: 36). Therefore, short-cycle programs were less attractive to students, higher education leaders, and ministries, all of whom wanted to see their particular knowledge area gain greater prominence. Others have attributed the lack of attractiveness of short-cycle programs to students and higher education leaders to the lower first-time employment rate (usually reported by HEIs in September) and lower starting salaries of graduates in comparison to those of undergraduate programs. Since 1985, central policies have indicated a consistent desire of the central government to alter the enrollment structure between undergraduate and short-cycle programs by considerably increasing the enrollment scale of short-cycle programs. The Decision on the Reform of the Education System, issued by the CPC Central Committee in 1985, required HEIs to ‘change the irrational ratio of enrollments

5.1 Summary

Fig. 5.1 Undergraduate and short-cycle enrollments in regular HEIs. statistics yearbook of China (1995–2010)

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between regular and short-cycle programs, and accelerating the expansion of short-cycle programs’ (CPC Central Committee, 1985). The Outlines of Educational Reform and Development, issued by the CPC Central Committee and State Council in 1993, stated that ‘the enrollment of short-cycle programs should considerably increase; the focus of regular program should be on improving quality’ (CPC Central Committee & State Council, 1993). Issued by the State Council in 1994, the Opinions on the Implementation of the Outlines gave a specific instruction to balance the total enrollment ratio of regular and short-cycle programs to 1:2.5 (State Council, 1994). The purpose was to greatly increase the number of middle-level professional personnel with vocational and technical skills, which was in high demand driven by the growth and restructuring of the Chinese economy. Since the late 1990s, China has gradually achieved a relatively balanced proportion of regular and short-cycle programs of graduates, though still far from the desired ratio indicated in the above mentioned policies (see Fig. 5.1). The impetus for the rapid growth of short-cycle enrollment came from the expansion of higher education after 1999 and the creation of tertiary vocational and technical programs in the late 1990s.

5.1.2

Programs of Tertiary Education

According to ISCED 1997, ‘educational programs are defined on the basis of their educational content as an array or sequence of educational activities which are organized to accomplish a pre-determined objective or a specified set of educational tasks’ (UNESCO, 1997: 11). Objectives can, for example, be preparation for more advanced study, qualification for an occupation or range of occupations, or simply

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an increase of knowledge and understanding. Educational programs are not only distinguished by levels, but also organized around specialties, namely, the subfield of disciplines or broad fields of study. For data reporting purpose, there were eleven fields of study for higher education before 1994. They were engineering, teacher training, medicine/pharmacy, natural sciences, social sciences, agriculture, finance and economics, politics and law, forestry, physical education, and fine arts. In 1994, the fields of study in higher education were re-structured into the following ten categories: philosophy, economics, law, education, literature (including foreign Language and arts), history, science, engineering, agriculture, and medicine. In 2001, a new field of study, administration, was added. Therefore, there are currently eleven broad fields of study in higher education. Each field of study is further differentiated into a number of specialties, and each specialty includes a number of particular educational programs, which are also called majors or concentrations. For example, the field of engineering breaks down into 21 subfields of study or specialties: applied geology, materials science, mechanical engineering, instrument and meter, thermal and nuclear energy, electronics and information, civil engineering and architecture, hydraulics, survey and measure, environment and safety, chemical engineering and pharmaceutics, transportation, oceanic engineering, light industry, textile and food, aeronautics and astronautics, weaponry, engineering mechanics, biotechnology, agriculture engineering, forestry engineering, and public security technology (MOE, 2006b). Each specialty breaks down into a number of majors.

5.2

Mission and Programs

The Higher Education Law, enacted in 1998, defines the task of higher education thus: to train advanced specialized personnel with innovative spirit and practical capability, to develop science, technology and culture, and to promote socialist modernization (NPC, 1998: Article 5). The Higher Education Law divides higher education into three categories: specialized higher education, undergraduate education and postgraduate education. It defines the mission of specialized higher education as enabling ‘students to master the basic theory and basic knowledge essential for the respective specialty and acquire the basic skills and initial capability for the practical work of the respective specialty’ (NPC, 1998: Article 16). It is obvious that the primary function of specialized higher education is to train middle-level technical manpower with minimum requisite theoretical foundation, basic technical skills and initial practical capability required for employment in a specific specialization. The mission and functions for specialized higher education has been consistent since the state restructured the higher education system based on that of the former Soviet Union. The Provisional Regulation on Short-cycle Colleges, approved by the State Council in 1950, stated that short-cycle colleges should adopt the educational methods of unifying theory and practice, train specialized technicians (technical manpower) with a grasp of modern scientific and

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technological achievements. The duration of study should be two to three years (CESRI, 1983: 26). Comparing to the four-year undergraduate education, specialized higher education is shorter in terms of the duration of study, and hence, quicker in terms of producing graduates for taking up bottom-to-mid level positions in their line of specialization. Specialized higher education exhibits a greater emphasis on technical knowledge and skills and practical capability, and less emphasis on theoretical foundation. Currently, specialized higher education in China includes two main types of programs, namely, the two- to three-year short cycle program and the two- to three-year tertiary vocational and technical program. The two types of programs are quite similar in terms of their mission and function. However they exhibited rather different experiences of growth. Since the founding of the PRC, short-cycle programs had been established together with undergraduate programs to form the two-level structure of higher education at that time. Short-cycle programs are offered through short-cycle colleges designed for these type of programs and often at universities as well. In contrast, short-term vocational colleges only appeared in the 1980s, and their development gained momentum after 1999, which was the year higher education in China entered a super rapid period of expansion. In January 2000, the MOE issued an “Opinion on Strengthening Higher Vocational and Specialized Education” (MOE, 2000b), in which the tertiary vocational and technical program gained its formal title and recognition. Since then, tertiary vocational and technical programs rapidly expanded in terms of the number of HEIs offering these programs and enrollments. A special type of vocational and technical schools appeared in recent years. They admit graduates of junior high school and offer students a five-year program. Upon graduation, students are awarded diploma or certificate of tertiary vocational and technical program. However, vocational and technical schools of this type are still small in number and scale. In 2000, there were a total of 1041 public regular HEIs; among them, 599 universities offered undergraduate programs, 258 short-cycle colleges primarily offered short-cycle programs, and 184 tertiary vocational and technical colleges (MOE, 2000a). By 2014, the total number of HEIs reached 2529 (including 727 private HEIs), among which 1202 universities (including 420 private) mainly offered undergraduate programs, 141 short-cycle colleges (including 7 private) primarily offered short-cycle programs, and 1186 (including 300 private) tertiary vocational and technical colleges (see Table 5.1). These figures showed a sharp growth in the numbers of universities and tertiary vocational and technical colleges, but a steep decline in the number of short-cycle colleges. The sharp decrease in the number of short-cycle colleges could be attributed to two main reasons. The first is poor articulation of their mission and goals and their implementation. In spite of its long history, the articulation of the mission and goals of the short-cycle programs has been less clear than those of the recently developed tertiary vocational and technical programs. Even though their mission and goals are defined as clearly as that of the specialized higher education in the Higher Education Law, their implementation has been less clear and straightforward. The

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Table 5.1 Number of regular HEIs by type and fields of study in 2014 Total

Universities

Short-cycle colleges

Total 2529 1202 141 Comprehensive 603 291 2 Natural sciences and technology 895 352 14 Agriculture 82 42 0 Forestry 19 6 0 Medicine/pharmacy 188 103 45 Teacher training 218 151 62 Language and literature 54 30 1 Finance and economics 258 122 11 Political science and law 71 33 5 Sports culture 32 16 1 Art 91 42 0 Ethnic nationality 18 14 0 Of total: private 727 420 7 Source MOE. Educational statistics yearbook of China (2014, p. 20)

Tertiary vocational and technical colleges 1186 310 529 40 13 40 5 23 125 33 15 49 4 300

mission and goals of many short-cycle programs broadened to include that of preparation of graduates for further study and research. The short-cycle programs offered at many HEIs and in a number of fields have been criticized for adopting a shortened version of undergraduate programs, putting too much emphasis on theoretical foundation, and neglecting their core function of transmitting practical application knowledge and skills. On the other hand, the recently developed tertiary vocational and technical program articulates that it is employment-oriented with service as its principle and the unity of production and teaching as its development strategy, and it will actively adapt to the demands of local economic and social development (MOE, 2004b). Tertiary vocational and technical colleges adopt employment-orientation as their objective, identify their position in the development of local economy and profession, and focus on producing advanced technical manpower (gaojineng rencai) with strong practical capabilities, technology application capabilities, and excellent professional moral values, in view of manufacturing, construction, management and service industries. In practice, tertiary vocational and technical programs seemed to fulfill their mission and goals. The articulation and fulfillment of the emphasis on employment-orientation is highly attractive to students and parents and higher education leaders in an increasingly competitive labor market. Second, since the late 1990s, the central government policies have demonstrated strong preferences for the development of tertiary vocational and technical colleges over that of short-cycle colleges. Such preferences are indicative through the sharp increase of tertiary vocational and technical colleges in Table 5.1. Moreover, the MOE, in conjunction with other central ministries, has issued several influential

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policies supporting the development of tertiary vocational and technical education. Most importantly, the MOE has earmarked funding for the development of approximately 100 model tertiary vocational and technical colleges by 2010. Strong government policy preferences and earmarked funding have significantly stimulated the growth of tertiary vocational and technical programs. Structural elements of an educational program mainly include, but are not limited to, entrance requirements, required education, formal stages within a course program, possibilities of transfer, sequences of assessment, graduation requirements, types of diplomas or degrees conferred, and subsequent education or destination. Entrance requirements: For both types of programs of specialized higher education, the minimum academic entrance requirements are the same, including qualifications and benchmark scores of the national college entrance examination. Typical entrance qualifications include the Senior High School Graduation Diploma, the Senior Secondary Vocational School Graduation Diploma, or their equivalents. All types of qualifications require the completion of 12 years of full-time basic education. Since children normally start formal schooling at the age of six, the minimum age requirement for entrance is normally 18 years of age. Before the 1980s, the state also placed a limit on the maximum age for entry into regular HEIs, which was 29 years of age. Those who were older than 29 years of age could only enter adult HEIs. After the 1980s, the maximum age limit was lifted in an effort to break down the rigid wall separating regular and adult higher education, as well as to promote life long learning. Required education: Both types of programs require a specified number of courses on theoretical, technical, practical knowledge and skills (see curricula), and a substantive and structured period of practical training or internship. In general, both types of programs require full-time matriculation of students and discourage part-time study. Part-time programs are often offered through continuing education departments and non-formal educational venues such as distance education or self-study examination. Formal stages within a course program: Partly due to their shorter time frame, the sequence and progression of courses, internship and other activities are quite structured in the short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical programs. Depending on the design of the program, theoretical and technical courses may either proceed to or intertwine with practical training oriented courses and activities such as observation, laboratory class, and internship. However, it is entirely up to the institution to decide whether there should be formal arrangement and requirements among different stages of a program, which varies tremendously among different programs and HEIs. Sequences of assessment: It is arranged in concurrence with the stages of progression of the program. Courses are arranged in terms of two or three semesters per school year, and each semester includes a specified number of courses. The promotion from first year to second year depends on successful completion of a specified number or percentage of the first year’s courses by assessment. If a student failed in the final examination of a course, he or she is usually offered a

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second chance of taking a supplementary final exam. If the failed courses reached a designated cumulated number or percentage, the student will be denied a diploma or certificate of graduation, receiving only a proof of study (yiye zhengshu). Possibilities of transfer: There is little possibility of transfer between short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical programs, mainly due to the similarity in the mission and features of the two types of programs. There is a rare possibility of transfer between tertiary vocational and technical programs and undergraduate programs. The mission and goals of tertiary vocational and technical programs are crystal clear, namely, the preparation of graduates for employment in a given occupation, often with an entry qualification certificate into that occupation in hand. The primary function of both short-cycle programs and tertiary vocational and technical programs are to train mid-level manpower for immediate employment in a specific specialization or occupation. In other words, they are not designed to prepare graduates for further study or education. The next higher level of educational program, undergraduate program, does not require a completion of short-cycle or tertiary vocational and technical program for entry. In fact the three types of programs have the same entrance requirements, except that the entrants admitted into undergraduate programs requiring a much higher score in the national college entrance examination. The mission and goals of short-cycle programs have been less clearly defined. In the past, a transfer between short-cycle programs and undergraduate programs was prohibited. However, in recent years, many short-cycle programs incorporated a mechanism of providing an opportunity for a small percentage of their graduates to progress into the higher level of education, namely, undergraduate education, in order to broaden its mission or to attract the academically more ambitious students. Such mechanism is negotiated by the two concerned short-cycle and undergraduate programs depending on the percentage (numbers) of graduates allowed for transfer and the credits recognized, etc. Such a transfer is usually between two similar, if not the same programs. The negotiated mechanism of transfer is subject to change for many reasons on the part of both parties. Moreover, the number of short-cycle program students who could transfer to undergraduate programs is very small. For example, the percentage of short-cycle program graduates transferred to undergraduate programs was less than 2% in Zhejiang province in 2004 (Zhang, 2007: 36). Graduation requirements and certification: For both types of program, graduation requires only satisfactory completion of all course works and practical training; a few require a thesis. Some program may require a graduation project or design. After the completion of the program and satisfaction of all graduation requirements, students receive a diploma or certificate of graduation. Graduates of tertiary vocational and technical colleges may also leave with one or more qualification certificates for a certain occupation. Subsequent education or destination: The program orientation of specialized higher education in China is technical or vocational. Graduates of specialized higher education are prepared for specific types of labor market positions rather than further education at the next higher level. The program orientation refers to the

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degree to which the program is specifically oriented, towards a specific class of occupations or trades. By orientation, the ISCED 1997 subdivides educational programs into the following three categories (UNESCO, 1997: 25–26): • General education is mainly designed to lead participants to a deeper understanding of a subject or group of subjects, especially, but not necessarily, with a view to preparing participants for further (additional) education at the same or a higher level. Successful completion of these programs may or may not provide the participants with a labor-market relevant qualification at this level. These programs are typically school-based; • Pre-vocational or pre-technical education is mainly designed to introduce participants to the world of work and to prepare them for entry into vocational or technical education programs. Successful completion of such programs does not yet lead to a labor-market relevant vocational or technical qualification. For a program to be considered as pre-vocational or pre-technical education, at least 25% of its content has to be vocational or technical; • Vocational or technical education is mainly designed to lead participants to acquire the practical skills, know-how and understanding necessary for employment in a particular occupation or trade or class of occupations or trades. Successful completion of such programs leads to a labor-market relevant vocational qualification recognized by the competent authorities in the country in which it is obtained (e.g. MOE, employers’ associations, etc.).

5.3 5.3.1

Curriculum Structure of the Curriculum

The curricular structure and content of specialized higher education is characterized by its emphasis on the acquisition of specialized knowledge and skills and the development of technology application capabilities and practical capabilities. The teaching of theoretical foundation knowledge is auxiliary, primarily for the purpose of facilitating the acquisition of specialized knowledge and skills. The Opinion on Strengthening Higher Vocational and Specialized Education, enacted in January 2000, stated that the curricular structure and content of specialized higher education should follow the fundamental principle of practice-orientation (MOE, 2000b). The primary purpose of practical instruction is to develop the students’ technology application capability, and practical instruction should constitute a significant proportion in the total amount of instruction. It further pointed out that for specialized higher education, curricula and instruction should emphasize applicability and practicality, as well as the unity of humanities and social sciences with technical education. Instruction should highlight the application of theoretical foundation knowledge and the training of practical

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capability. The teaching of theoretical foundation knowledge is targeted towards application, and the amount of theoretical foundation knowledge should follow the principle of necessity and sufficiency. The instruction of specialized knowledge should heighten practicality and focus. In specialized higher education, practical instruction is expected to constitute a significant proportion of the total instruction. The Opinion on the Principle for Formulating Educational Plan of Short-cycle and Tertiary Vocational and Technical Programs specifically sets out that (MOE, 2000c): For three-year programs, the total hours of course instruction should be between 1600 and 1800 hours; for two-year programs, the total hours of course instruction should be between 1100 and 1200 hours. For three-year programs, the hours of practical instruction should not be less than 40% of the total course instruction hours; while the hours of practical instruction in two-year programs should not be less than 30% of the total.

The following table presents a breakdown of the curricula of two three-year short-cycle programs in two HEIs, which provides an illustration of the structure of the curricula of short-cycle programs. Drawing from the same specialization of business management, one program focuses on accounting computerization (A) in Jiangsu Teachers University of Technology (2005), while the other is about financial management (F) in Liaoning University of International Business and Economics (2008). The table indicates that the curriculum of a short-cycle program generally consists of four categories of courses: common, specialization foundation/core, specialization elective and practical training/internship. It is clear from Table 5.2 that common courses make up about one third of the total credits required for graduation. Common courses generally include political theories, morality and ethics, employment guidance, physical education and basic skills such as language, math and computer application. The central part of both programs is made up of compulsory specialization foundation/core course and electives. In program A, these courses make up 46% of the total credits, while in program F, they make up from 39 to 49% of the total credit. In program F, students are free to choose 8 out of 16 elective courses, which include both specialization and common courses. Practical training or internship makes up 15–21% of the total credits. However, many common and specialization courses incorporate practical training and laboratory components. The total instructional hours of practical nature make up 40– 42% in the total instructional hours, which is consistent with the requirement of the ‘Opinion on the Principle for Formulating Educational Plan of Short-cycle and Tertiary vocational and technical programs’. The structure of the curriculum in these two programs reveal an emphasis on technical knowledge and skills, application of technology and practical capability in a specialization. It strongly reflects the objective of short-cycle programs, which is to train mid-level specialized technical manpower for a particular specialty. In both curricula, the percentage of elective courses is quite small, taking up only 11 or 12% of the total credits. It is indicative of the highly structured nature of the short-cycle program. Students have little control over course selection.

Compulsory

A

Common Specialization foundation Practical training/internship Specialization Common

Category of courses 13 17 5 4 1

No. of course

Credits No.

59 61 23 Electives 10 1 Total 154 F Compulsory Common 9 40 Specialization foundation and core 15 50 Practical training/internship 7 29 Electives Electives (specialization and common) 8 16 Total 135 Note aOriginally, practical training/internship was only counted in terms of week. The hours are calculated average number of hour per credit in that college

Type of courses

School

Table 5.2 Sample curricula of two three-year short-cycle programs Instructional hours Total Theory

Practical

952 808 144 976 768 208 368 368a 160 160 330 16 16 2472 1752 1050 30 714 330 384 37 812 756 56 21 464 464a 12 256 256 2246 1342 904 by multiplying the number of credits with the

38 40 15 6 1

%

5.3 Curriculum 101

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Table 5.3 Sample courses of specialized higher education School

Type

Course titles

A

Common courses

Morality and basics of law, Marxist principles, Marxist theories in China, employment and entrepreneurial guidance, military theory, calculus, linear algebra, college English, college Chinese, computer application basics, probability and statistics, physical education, calligraphy Macro economics, micro economics, database, computer networking, economics law, statistical principles, finance and tax, accounting basics, business accounting, advanced accounting, accounting for management control, auditing, cost accounting, financial management, accounting computerization, application of accounting software, accounting statement analysis Budget accounting, business management introduction, financial writing, e-commerce Open Social investigation, military training and orientation, accounting simulation internship, internship, graduation project (thesis) Morality and basics of law, political theories, political trends and policies, vocational ethics and employment guidance, college English, college English: oral and listening, computer basics, advanced math, physical education Accounting basics, marketing, management, currency and banking, cost accounting, tax laws, economics laws, statistics, financial accounting (I), financial accounting (II), financial management, accounting computerization, international finance, stock investment, financial analysis Health education, social psychology, communication and presentation, literature appreciation, public speech, expository composition, budget accounting, auditing, advanced accounting, bank accounting, foreign trade accounting, financial market, project management, international business Military training, volunteer activities, internship, graduation project (thesis), basic accounting simulation training, industrial accounting simulation training

Specialization foundation

Specialization electives Common electives Practical training/ internship F

Common courses

Specialization foundation and core

Electives (specialization and common)

Practical training/ internship

Curricula of specialized higher education revealed narrow specialization, and little integration or cross-fertilization between specialties. From the courses listed in Table 5.3, it is apparent that both programs are narrowly focused. There are strong boundaries among different specialties. Almost all courses offered in program A are confined within the specialty, with little interaction with other specialties and fields of study. In program F, students are allowed to take courses outside the specialty through common elective courses such as Social Psychology, Communication and

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Presentation, Literature Appreciation, and Public Speaking, etc. However, these elective courses made up a very small proportion of the total courses. The content of practical instruction is expected to incorporate the most recent outcomes and accomplishments of scientific, technological and societal development. The Opinion on Strengthening Higher Vocational and Specialized Education states: ‘The content of practical instruction should reduce the amount of exhibitory or confirmatory laboratory classes, increase the amount of operative, designing, and comprehensive laboratory classes, and gradually achieve the unity of basic practical capability and operative techniques, application capability of specialized technology and specialized techniques, and comprehensive practical capability and comprehensive techniques.’ (MOE, 2000b). The emphasis on specialized knowledge and skills, application and practical capabilities is congruent with the objective and function of specialized higher education, which is to produce practice-oriented specialized manpower good at applying advanced technology. Graduates are expected to master adequate amount of theoretical foundation knowledge, develop strong technology application capability, and acquire a broad knowledge base. In recent years, to increase the competitiveness of their graduates, several short-cycle colleges began to broaden the scope of specialty and incorporate features of tertiary vocational and technical programs in their curricula. For example, the three-year program of Tourism Management at Ningbo City College of Vocational Technology (2007) (see Table 5.4), has broadened the scope of specialty by providing two modules of specialization courses for students. The combined credits of specialization-free and other free electives accounted for 47.9% of the total credits. Second, the curriculum includes a module of occupational qualification certificate, from which students can choose to prepare for at least one of six occupational qualification certificates. The college organizes training and preparation courses for taking the certifying examination of these occupational qualification certificates. Therefore, graduates will have both a diploma of graduation and at least one occupational qualification certificate in hand upon graduation, which will enhance their competitiveness in the job market. The curricula of specialized higher education exhibited high-level instrumentality. From the beginning, short-cycle programs were established to produce mid-level technical manpower for specifically anticipated positions in the economy and society, as set out in the Five-Year Plan. Ever since the implementation of reform and opening-up policies in 1978, great emphasis has been laid upon short-cycle colleges and tertiary vocational and technical colleges to proactively and flexibly adapt to the society’s needs, particularly the needs of local economic and social development. Their specialties and programs are expected to fulfill the actual needs of technical and vocational positions.

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Table 5.4 Short-cycle program curriculum structure in tourism management Type of course Theoretical

Credit Compulsory

Elective

Total Compulsory

Practical

Elective

Total Grand total

5.3.2

Common courses Industry foundation Specialization foundation Sub total Specialization module Occupational qualification certificate module Specialization free elective Other free elective Sub total Common courses Industry foundation Specialization foundation Sub total Specialization module Occupational qualification certificate module Specialization free elective Other free elective Sub total

%

Hours

%

17 16 15

14.3 13.4 12.6

272 256 240

10.2 9.6 9.0

48 10 2

40.3 8.4 1.7

768 160 32

28.7 6.0 1.2

3

2.5

48

1.8

8 23 71 11.5 0 2.5

6.7 19.3 59.7 9.7 0.0 2.1

128 368 1136 368 0 80

4.8 13.8 42.5 13.8 0.0 3.0

14 31.5 1.5

11.8 26.5 1.3

448 1008 48

16.8 37.7 1.8

1

0.8

32

1.2

0 34 48 119

0.0 28.6 40.3 100.0

0 1088 1536 2672

0.0 40.7 57.5 100.0

Sequence of Courses in the Curriculum

In general, the sequence of courses in the curricula of short-cycle programs is arranged in such a way that common courses precede specialization courses, and practical training is spread across the entire period of study.

5.3.3

Degree of Control Over Curricular Content

Students. The curricula of the short-cycle programs show they are highly structured. There are limited numbers of elective courses available for students to select from,

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particularly free elective courses. Most of the elective courses were restricted ones. Therefore, students had little control over their curricular content. Colleges and programs. Before 1985, the establishment and adjustment of specialties and programs required the approval of the MOE. Since 1985, the decision-making power of establishing and adjusting specialties for short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical programs has been gradually delegated to provincial departments of education or its appropriate central administrative departments. Short-cycle colleges and tertiary vocational and technical colleges apply to the provincial departments of education for the review and approval of any new field of study or specialty. Short-cycle colleges and tertiary vocational and technical colleges have autonomy to establish programs under approved specialties and fields of study. Once a program, specialty or field of study gains approval, it is considered to be officially recognized and accredited. Within colleges, program directors hold control over curricula.

5.4

Establishment and Adjustment of Specialties

In order to standardize the set up of specialties and programs, the MOE drew up a general catalog of fields of study in 1963 for every HEI and level of program. Since then, the MOE carried out several major revisions of the catalog. A specific catalog for undergraduate programs was issued in the 1980s. However, specific catalogs for short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical programs were only issued in particular fields of study, for example engineering. It was not until October 2004 that the MOE published a catalog of fields of study for short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical programs. The catalog listed a total of 19 fields of study under which were a total of 78 specialties and 531 programs (see Table 5.5). By 2014, the total number of specialties and programs increased dramatically to 1115 and 47,951 respectively. Each program in the catalog is defined by a brief introduction (jianjie), which sets out the main objectives, required core capabilities, required core courses and practical training component, sub programs/concentrations allowed, targeted areas/ positions of employment, and others (such as the type of occupational qualification certificates available in the area). The catalog functions as a guideline, within which a HEI has the freedom to create its own curriculum, course outlines and to select the textbooks and teaching materials as it sees fit. The catalog of fields of study for short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical education in Table 5.5 reveals that they all belong to the fields of applied science, technological application, and services. Theoretical and research-oriented specialties in the fields of science, social science and humanities are absent in the catalog. For example, specialties of philosophy, history, pure chemistry or physics are not available in the catalog of fields of study for short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical education. The brief introduction of each program definition also shows that the objectives, core capabilities, core courses and practical

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Table 5.5 Catalog of fields of study for short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical education in 2004 and 2014 Fields of study

2004 Specialties

Programs

2014 Specialties

Programs

Agriculture, forestry, husbandry, fishery 5 38 87 1265 Communication and transportation 7 51 101 2026 Biochemistry and drugs 4 23 38 1443 Resource development, surveying and 6 45 62 877 mapping Materials and energy 3 21 62 856 Civil engineering 7 27 55 4446 Hydraulic 4 19 26 192 Manufacturing 4 32 96 6217 Electronic information 3 29 92 6453 Environment protection, meteorology 3 15 25 367 and safety Light industry and foods 4 25 70 1230 Finance and economics 5 36 66 7797 Medicine and health 5 27 45 2055 Tourism 2 8 22 2256 Public affairs 3 24 42 856 Culture and education 3 39 86 5176 Art design and media 3 30 92 3800 Public safety 4 29 21 142 Law 3 13 27 497 Total number 78 531 1115 47,951 Source 2004 data were from MOE (2004a), 2014 data were from MOE. Educational statistics yearbook of China (2014, p. 22)

training component are all geared towards applied and technical occupations and occupations in the service industry. The set up of these fields of study closely reflects the objectives of short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical education, namely to train mid-level technical manpower for immediate employment. Short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical programs are offered in all the 11 fields of study used for statistical reporting purposes. However, the distribution of enrollments among fields of study has seen dramatic changes between the early 1980s and the present. In terms of statistical reporting, enrollments in short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical programs are combined into one category, short-cycle enrollments. Even though the data reporting categories have changed since the 1994 as indicated in Table 5.6, the change in the enrollment patterns among broad fields of study still illustrate the changing focus and emphasis of specialized higher education. As noted earlier, specialized higher education has always been closely related to the needs of economic and social development. In 1982, the majority of students (62.2%) enrolled in teacher training, because they

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Table 5.6 Short-cycle enrollments by fields of study in 1982 and 2006 1982 Fields

Number

%

Teacher training Engineering Medicine and pharmacy Finance and economics Agriculture Humanities Natural sciences Political science and law Physical culture Art Forestry Total

139,916 35,451 19,771 10,639 9563 4014 1992 2073 630 552 452 225,053

62.2 15.8 8.8 4.7 4.2 1.8 0.9 0.9 0.3 0.2 0.2 100.0

2006 Fields

Number

%

Engineering 3,185,116 40.0 Administration 1,768,942 22.2 Literature 964,902 12.1 Education 690,192 8.7 Medicine 579,810 7.3 Economics 346,913 4.4 Law 269,083 3.4 Agriculture 143,539 1.8 Science 6549 0.1 Philosophy 0 0.0 History 0 0.0 Total 7,955,046 100.0 Of total: teacher training 663,926 8.3 Sources 1982 data were from Department of Planning, MOE (1984: 60–61), 2006 data were from MOE (2006b)

were the sole source for all primary school teachers and most secondary school teachers. However, the percentage of short-cycle enrollments in teacher training dropped significantly to a mere 8.3% in 2006, because of the growth of undergraduate programs in the field and a growing number of secondary and primary schools were staffed by undergraduates. Nowadays graduation from an undergraduate program has become one of the entry requirements for the majority of secondary and primary schools in urban areas. In 1982, enrollments in the fields of engineering, medicine, economics, and agriculture made up 33.5% of the total, which reflected the objective of short-cycle programs in training mid-level specialized technical personnel. In 2006, the fields of engineering, administration and literature saw a great increase in the number and percentage of short-cycle program enrollments. The percentage of their enrollments all exceeded 10%, the highest percentage reached was 40 (for engineering). Such a dramatic increase of enrollments is driven by the needs of economic and social development. With the growth of market economy and the expansion of secondary and tertiary industries, the demand for mid-level technical and managerial personnel trained in the fields of engineering, administration and literature increased tremendously. Changes in enrollments in the other fields are rather small. Although the new classification of short-cycle fields of study was published in 2004, the reports of short-cycle enrollments followed the classification of undergraduate fields of study as indicated in Table 5.6. It was not until 2011 that the MOE began to publish enrollments of short-cycle programs separately according to the new classification as indicated in Table 5.7. The top 6 largest categories of

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Table 5.7 Short-cycle enrollments by fields of study in 2014 Fields of study Agriculture, forestry, husbandry and fishing Transportation and communication Biochemistry and medicine Resources development and survey Material and energy Civil engineering Water resources Manufacturing Electronic information Environment protection, meteorology and safety Light, textile and food Finance Medical and health Tourism Public service Culture and education Artistic design and mass media Public security Law Total Of total: teacher training Source MOE (2014e)

Number

Percent (%)

170,247 507,136 211,106 138,748 120,998 1,200,394 44,497 1,291,512 906,667 44,671 155,289 2,138,322 1,085,522 325,576 100,812 1,012,786 467,176 33,930 110,957 10,066,346 525,662

1.7 5.0 2.1 1.4 1.2 11.9 0.4 12.8 9.0 0.4 1.5 21.2 10.8 3.2 1.0 10.1 4.6 0.3 1.1 100.0 5.2

short-cycle enrollments in 2014 concentrated in the fields of Finance (21.2%), Manufacturing (12.8%), Civil Engineering (11.9%), Medical and Health (10.8%), and Culture and Education (10.1%). Altogether, they accounted for two thirds of the total short-cycle enrollments (see Table 5.7). The percentage of short-cycle enrollments in teacher training decreased further to 5.2% in 2014.

5.5

Modes of Education

At the level of tertiary education, specialized higher education is where the most innovative and creative approaches or modes of education have emerged in the past three decades. The traditional mode of education for short-cycle programs follows that of the undergraduate program, in which common and foundation courses precede specialty courses and practical training or internship is arranged at the end of the program. It is the typical mode of ‘learning before doing’. The instruction of theory, knowledge, and technique comes before the application of theory and knowledge and the training of practical capability. The logic in the traditional mode

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109

of education follows the internal rule of education and logical progress of knowledge and skills within a specific specialty or discipline. Since the 1990s, with the rapid growth of specialized higher education, short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical programs demonstrated tremendous impetus in initiating new and innovative modes of education. Some of the innovative modes of education introduced in specialized higher education include the Alternative Work and Study Mode, College-Industry Collaborative Mode, Employment/Position-oriented or Made-to-Order Mode, Platform plus Module Mode, and Learning by Doing Mode.

5.5.1

Alternative Work and Study Mode

Modeled after the Cooperative Education in the U.S. and the Sandwich mode of education in the U.K., the Alternative Work and Study mode of education (also called the unity of work and study) has been one of the first innovations introduced in the mode of education for specialized higher education. Advocating the use of systematic field-based learning, the heart of the Alternative Work and Study mode is the alternation of periods of full-time study and full-time work. Instead of arranging one period of full-time internship at the end of a program, the Alternative Work and Study mode interweaves one or two periods of full-time work experience with the entire period of full-time course study. Due to the additional full-time work arrangement, a typical Alternative Work and Study program is usually longer than traditional program. For example, a tertiary vocational and technical program normally lasts two years. If it adopts the Alternative Work and Study mode, it becomes at least three years long. In such a program, the alternate arrangement of study and work usually follows the example in Table 5.8. In addition to the end of program internship, one or two periods of full-time work is interwoven with full-time study. For a three-year short-cycle program to adopt the Alternate Work and Study mode, the program usually extends its duration for one or two semesters to accommodate the increase in the amount of time on internship. The alternation between work and study is intended as a positive cyclical feedback mechanism for identifying inadequate or missing knowledge and abilities through work, enabling subsequent study to be more focused from such feedbacks, and enhancing the quality and productivity of future work experiences. A characteristic of work in the Alternate Work and Study mode is the requirement of substantive full-time work experience. By substantive, it usually requires a full semester—four months or longer, six months. The rationale is that the true Table 5.8 Two typical three-year alternate work and study arrangements 1st semester

2nd semester

3rd semester

4th semester

5th semester

6th semester

Study Study

Work Study

Study Work

Work Study

Study Study

Work Work

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5 Specialized Higher Education

understanding of real work environment can only be acquired through substantial involvement over a period of time. During the kind of short-period, sporadic or part-time works, students seldom have an opportunity to engage in the core activities or functions of the work place. Moreover, a lot of the Alternate Work and Study programs require the work place to provide a designated advisor for students, providing supervision, guidance and evaluation.

5.5.2

College-Industry Collaborative Mode

In this mode, a short-cycle or tertiary vocational and technical program involves the industry as a partner in the design of the program (such as the formulation of curricula) as well as in the execution of the program, including provision of practical training sites and facilities, internship opportunities, and even instructors on specialty or practical skills courses. For example, founded by the Geely automobile group in 2000, the Beijing Geely University was a private comprehensive university mainly providing full-time tertiary vocational and technical education. Taking advantage of its automobile industry background, the Beijing Geely University has created several unique specialty groupings such as automobile technology, business and trade, and cultural business, offering more than 100 specialties. ‘Since its founding, the university has been advocating a conceptual transformation, shifting the emphasis in education from fields of study to fields of technological and practical application. The project “311” has been such a product’ (Beijing Geeley University, 2007). It is the university’s brand-name project and the name of the project, ‘311’, means 3 compulsory foundation courses (practical Chinese, practical English, and practical computer application), 1 module of vocational ethics, and 1 module of specialty courses designed on the basis of positions or occupations (Shao, 2008). The university not only involves the Geely automobile group and other industries in its program design, either through consultation or participation, but also depends on these industries for providing practical training sites, facilities, and supervision.

5.5.3

Employment/Position-Oriented or Made-to-Order Mode

These two are highly specific or narrowly focused mode of education for short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical programs. In the employment/ position-oriented mode, the HEI first analyzes the employment requirements of a particular position or occupation, and then designs its program curriculum and practical training or internship in accordance with such particular requirements. In the made-to-order mode, the HEI designs its program and curricula in accordance

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111

with the type of graduates the employer ordered from the HEI. The made-to-order mode is even more specific in its objective and narrowly focused in the curriculum design. The two modes often incorporate the training and preparation for acquiring job-specific occupational qualification certificates as an integral component of the program. The strength of these programs has been the performance of their students in national or local occupational qualification exams. The passing rates of students in these programs are much higher than individual exam takers. For example, by integrating the course instruction with occupational qualification exam, 87 out of 98 students (88%) of the class 2004 from the Zhejiang Financial Professional College passed the national exam for International Commercial Documents in June 2006 (Zhang, 2007: 139). The program’s 88% passing rate was significantly higher than the national average of 62.8% in that year.

5.5.4

Platform Plus Module Mode

The Platform plus Module Mode divides an educational program into two parts. The platform part includes common and foundation courses, aimed at providing a broad and general foundation for all students in a specialty or program, while the module refers to the specialty module selected by each student, aimed at providing advanced specialty courses and practical training. There are often several modules available for students to choose from. This mode allows each student a certain degree of individuality and flexibility in the curriculum formation, while ensuring consistency of the program. In contrast to the emphasis on specificity of the employment-oriented mode, the platform plus module mode emphasizes the unity of general theory and knowledge and specialty knowledge and capabilities. They are at the two opposite ends of the continuum from specificity to generality. It represents an emphasis on individuality and flexibility as well as breadth. The platform plus module mode has several mutated versions. For examples, the business management program in Zhejiang Financial Professional College adopted a ‘1+1+1’ mode of education since 2004. The ‘1+1+1’ mode stands for 1 year of broad disciplinary foundation course, 1 year of specialty course instruction, and 1 year of practical training projects.

5.5.5

Learning by Doing Mode

In contrast to the learning before doing, the ‘learning by doing’ mode of education emphasizes learning knowledge and skills while actually doing the job. It is also referred to as on-the-job learning mode. The learning by doing mode often applies to specialties whose graduates tend to work in the tertiary industry areas such as financial, management, marketing, and other service areas. The knowledge bases in these areas are situation-specific and volatile, unlike the rather stable knowledge

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bases in the first and second industry. One of the core specialty and professional capabilities essential for employment in the tertiary industry is interpersonal competence, including communication, interaction, presentation and organization. These professional capabilities are more of an art than a technique that can be taught in class or through simulation. Therefore, these specialties often adopt a Learning by Doing mode of education. The mode emphasizes the training of social and interpersonal competence of students in real working environment. The social and interpersonal skills include skills of communication, interaction, coordination, and adaptation, which are essential skills for the organization, coordination, advertising and marketing activities in business management, for instance. The practical training emphasizes the authenticity of the task and working environment as well as the openness of the training system. The mode often adopts task-driven, fault-finding, and error-trial methods of instruction. It is important to note that the majority of short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical programs adopt more than one mode of education. For example, the above mentioned Ningbo City College of Vocational Technology combined the platform plus module mode and employment-oriented mode. The Alternate Work and Study mode often coexists with the College-Industry Collaborative mode. Each of these innovative modes of education has its unique features and is appropriate for use in specific specialties. However, these modes have one feature in common. It is the emphasis on practical training or internship by a variety of ways, which include in-school training facilities, simulation laboratories, or real working environment. The state encourages HEIs to establish model practical training or internship facilities or sites on their own, or in collaboration with other HEIs, industries and other entities.

5.6

The Management System of Teaching

In January 2000, the management system of teaching for short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical colleges received an official guideline as the MOE published the Keynote for the Management of Teaching in Short-cycle College, Tertiary Vocational and Technical College, and Adult HEIs as an appendix to the Opinion on Strengthening Tertiary Vocational and Specialized Education (MOE, 2000b). The document included regulations about the organizational structure of the management of teaching, the management of educational plans, operation of teaching, quality management and evaluation, instructor management, and others. The management of teaching at short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical colleges include the management of educational plans, operation process of teaching, assessment of instructional quality, instructor management, and the management of laboratories, practical training base/site and teaching materials. The organization structure of the management of teaching includes a leadership structure and an administrative structure. The leadership system for teaching is headed by the president of a college and assisted by a vice-president in charge of

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teaching. The guiding principles, long-term plans, major reform initiatives and important policies about teaching and its management are decided at the college working meetings (attended by the president, vice-presidents, and department chairs) under the unified leadership of the CPC committee in the college. Some colleges set up a teaching committee, made up of experienced teachers and administrators, for carrying out research on teaching and resolving major issues in the administration of teaching. Short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical colleges have a three-level administrative structure for teaching: teaching and research office (jiaoyanshi), department, and college. The teaching and research office is the basic unit for organizing teaching affairs. It is usually set up in accordance with educational programs, some even with curricula or courses. Since departments are commonly organized by specialties or disciplines, each department has several teaching and research offices. The main responsibilities and tasks of the teaching and research office are to implement teaching activities, carry out instructional research in accordance with educational plans, and enhance the quality of teaching and level of scholarship. It is up to the college to decide whether to establish a teaching and research office as the basic unit for organizing teaching or not. Individual colleges can authorize departments or other bodies to organize teaching as they see fit. The department chair is fully responsible for the administration of teaching in his or her department. Depending on the circumstances, a department often appoints teaching sectaries or officers to be in charge of the daily administration of teaching affairs. At the college level, teaching affairs are administered by the department of teaching administration (jiaowuchu). As the main functional department for teaching administration, the department of teaching administration is responsible for a variety of teaching activities, including, but not limited to, educational plans, instructional outlines, operation of teaching, and students’ academic status. Educational plans are overall designs for each program, essential documents for guaranteeing teaching quality, and the basis for organizing teaching process and arranging teaching tasks. A typical educational plan covers the program’s objectives, the educational requirements and structure of knowledge, capability, and quality, the duration of study, course arrangement, progress of teaching, assessment, and necessary explanations. Educational plans are autonomously created by individual departments or academic programs in accordance with guidelines and requirements issued by the college’s department of teaching administration. The draft educational plans are reviewed by the teaching committee or academic committee and then submitted to the president or the vice-president in charge of teaching for approval. Once an educational plan is approved, it is expected to be faithfully implemented. The department of teaching administration centrally regulates the implementation of educational plans including mapping out the course progress semester-wise, arranging classrooms and other facilities for course instruction or other teaching activities for each semester, and assessments at the end of each semester. In accordance with each program’s educational plan, at the end of a semester, the department of teaching administration draws up and publishes the academic schedule, class schedule, and examination schedule for the next semester,

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ensuring the smooth operation of teaching. Each department is responsible for carrying out the educational plans and assigning course instructors. The operational management of teaching refers to the management of course instruction and administration of regulations and requirements about course and laboratory instruction, practical instruction, course design, graduation design (thesis). Each course has a teaching outline, which is compiled by the course instructor and approved by administrative departments of teaching at the department or college level. A typical teaching outline includes course objectives, content, basic requirements, practical teaching component and its requirements, requirements for students, assessment, and other necessary explanations. In terms of the daily operation of teaching, each teaching and research office draws up a working plan at the beginning of a semester, organizing collective lesson preparation, open instruction, political study, teaching, and research activities, as well as inspecting and evaluating the instructional progress and conditions on a regular basis. Each department holds meetings with heads of teaching and research offices and course instructors on a regular basis to discuss the progress of teaching and issues that emerge. The department of teaching administration assists the vice-president in charge of teaching in organizing college-level meetings about teaching with department chairs, in order to learn, coordinate and resolve various issues that emerged during the implementation of educational plans. The evaluation of instruction includes college-level, department-level, program-level, and course-level evaluations. It also includes evaluation of the instructional quality of instructors and the assessment of students. The evaluation of instructional quality of instructors is linked to their promotion and compensation. The president, vice-presidents, the director of the department of teaching administration, department chairs, heads of teaching and research office are expected to sit in a number of classes (include laboratory and practical training classes) on a regular basis. The teaching and research offices are responsible for arranging instructors to sit in each other’s classes. The department of teaching administration maintains a record of the academic status for each student. The administration of academic status involves students’ admission qualification, academic standing, changes in their academic status, graduation qualification, and assessment results. Instructional files are administered accordingly by different levels of administrative units. Each level of organization is responsible for establishing a system for the reference and inspection of instructional files. Instructional files include: policies, guidelines and regulations issued by the college or the relevant state administrative department of education; educational and instructional plans; self-compiled teaching and reference materials, lab experiment instructions, collections of student exercises, test item bank, test analysis and various audio and video materials; each semester’s instructional working plan, academic schedule, class schedule, examination schedule, and instructional and practical training summaries; curricula, graduation project (thesis) designs, and excellent graduation projects (thesis); students academic scores, change in academic status, follow-up investigation of graduates’ quality, review materials of graduation qualification; records of

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115

instructional reform, instructional research plans and summaries, and instructional research periodicals; instructors’ files, awards and accomplishments; review materials of instructors and minutes of instructional meetings; other necessary instructional documents and materials.

Chapter 6

Undergraduate Education

6.1

Summary

Undergraduate education in China is equivalent to the ISCED 1997’s definition of Level 5—first stage of tertiary education, which has been a cornerstone of the higher education system in terms of its scale and importance. Undergraduate enrollments have consistently made up the bulk of higher education enrollments, and only very recently, they decreased to approximately half of the total higher education enrollments. Undergraduate programs have shouldered the immense responsibilities of producing advanced manpower for leadership and managerial positions in the government and business sectors, as well as technological experts, professional personnel, and researchers. In recent years, the rapid expansion of undergraduate education also provided advanced manpower for the growing sector of tertiary industry, particularly the high-tech service sector. Over nearly sixty years of development, undergraduate education in China has seen a great transformation in its missions and programs, curricula, modes of education, and management system of teaching.

6.2

Missions and Programs

In China, regular (in contrast to adult) programs of undergraduate education are equivalent to Level 5—first stage of tertiary education in the ISCED 1997. The Higher Education Law defines the mission of undergraduate education as enabling ‘students to systematically master the basic theory and basic knowledge necessary for the respective discipline and specialty, master the basic skills, techniques and related know-how necessary for the respective specialty, and acquire initial capability for the practical work and research work of the respective specialty’ (NPC, 1998: Article 16). The functions of undergraduate education are to produce © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Higher Education Press 2018 J. Gu et al., Higher Education in China, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0845-1_6

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advanced manpower with a grasp of sufficient basic theory and knowledge of a discipline and specialty, as well as a mastery of appropriate skills, techniques, know-how and initial practical capability for carrying out practical and research works. Undergraduate programs are primarily offered in universities or four-year colleges. Before the 1990s, the orientation of undergraduate programs was primarily general education in accordance with the ISCED 1997 definition of program orientation. A general undergraduate education is mainly designed to lead participants to a deeper understanding of a subject or group of subjects. Successful completion of undergraduate programs may or may not provide the participants with a labor-market-relevant qualification. However, in recent years, there have emerged a growing number of undergraduate programs that are practice-oriented, stressing the practical capability and employability of graduates of undergraduate programs. The following section breaks down the structural elements of undergraduate programs in terms of entrance requirements, required education, formal stages within a course program, possibilities of transfer, sequences of assessment, graduation requirements, types of diplomas or degrees conferred, and subsequent education or destination. Entrance requirements: The entrance requirements for undergraduate education are the same as those for specialized higher education, including mandatory qualifications, for instance, a high school graduation diploma or equivalent, and the benchmark scores of the national college entrance examination. It has the same minimum age (18 years of age) requirement and no maximum age limit. The only difference is that students admitted into undergraduate programs in a HEI must meet the minimum benchmark scores of college entrance examination required by that HEI, which are higher than the minimum bench mark scores set for short-cycle or tertiary vocational and technical programs. Each year, every HEI will autonomously set the minimum benchmark scores of the national college entrance examination required for admission, in accordance with the minimum admission scores the MOE or provincial department of education sets for undergraduate HEIs and short-cycle colleges under their respective authority. Required education: An undergraduate program normally requires four to five years of full time study. Most regular HEIs discourage part-time study for undergraduate education, and steer part-time students taking undergraduate programs through non-formal educational channels such as continuing education department or distance education. In 1952, the MOE approved “the Regulation of Educational Plans for Undergraduate and Specialized Engineering Programs in HEIs (draft)”, in which it stated that the standard duration of study for an undergraduate program should be four years, particular specialties or HEIs could extend it to five years maximum or shorten it to three years minimum upon approval by the MOE. It also required that courses of political education should make up at least 10% of the undergraduate curriculum (CESRI, 1983: 67). The regulation also stated that every week, lectures, laboratory courses, classroom discussions or activities with teachers’ participation such as internship and curricular design should add up to a minimum of 36 hours. Furthermore, the total amount of time spent on internship in

6.2 Missions and Programs

119

a four-year undergraduate program should be between 16 and 28 weeks. After the passage of the Higher Education Law in 1998, HEIs have gained substantial autonomy in internal management, including the decision-making authority over program requirements and curriculum design. Formal stages within a course program: Depending on the design of a program, theoretical and foundation courses may either proceed to or intertwine with specialty courses and practice-oriented courses and activities such as observation, laboratory class, and internship. However, it is entirely up to the institution to decide whether there should be formal arrangements and requirements among different stages of a program, which varies greatly among different programs and HEIs. Sequences of assessment: It is arranged in concurrence with the stages of progression of a program. Courses are arranged in terms of two semesters or four quarters per school year, and each semester or quarter includes a specified number of courses. The promotion depends on successful completion of a specified number or percentage of the previous school year’s courses by assessment. If a student failed in the final examination of a course, he or she is usually offered a second chance of taking a supplementary final exam. If the failed courses reached a pre-determined cumulated number or percentage, the student will be denied a diploma or certificate of graduation, receiving only a proof of study instead (yiye zhengshu). Possibilities of transfer: There is a rare possibility of transfer between undergraduate programs at two different HEIs. If a student wishes to change to another HEI, he or she has to drop out of the current HEI and then take the national college entrance examination again just as any senior high school graduate and receive a score higher than the minimum admission score required by the new HEI. Before the 1980s, undergraduate students decided programs before admission, and were prohibited from changing programs within the same HEI as well. After the 1980s, it is possible for a student to switch to a different undergraduate program in another department or school in the same HEI. The regulations and requirements for such transfers vary from HEI to HEI. In most HEIs, such a transfer is offered to a limited percentage (mostly less than 10%) of first or second year students with outstanding academic performance and the approval of the two departments or schools involved. In recent years, several HEIs experimented with open admission of undergraduate students, which meant students were admitted into a school or even a broad discipline such as humanities, sciences or social sciences rather than into a specific program. In an open admission system, undergraduate students are allowed to decide a specific program within a school or a discipline at the end of the first year or the beginning of the second year. It is adapted from the open admission system in the U.S., which allows undergraduate students some freedom and time to decide their desired program. Graduation requirements and certification: The graduation of undergraduate programs requires satisfactory completion of a specified number or percentage of course works and practical training, and a thesis. Some program may require a graduation project or design. After the completion of the program and satisfaction

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of all graduation requirements, students receive a diploma of graduation and a Bachelor’s degree of Arts or Sciences. Subsequent education or destination: Graduates of undergraduate programs have two options. First, they can enter the labor market and find a job within or outside the specialty they are prepared for. Second, they can continue studies for the next higher level, namely, postgraduate education.

6.3

Curriculum

The curriculum for undergraduate education has seen a significant transformation after 1985 in terms of the structure of knowledge and sequence of the curriculum, and the degree of control over the curriculum.

6.3.1

Curriculum for Undergraduate Education Before 1985

6.3.1.1

Structure of the Curriculum

In April 1980, the MOE issued the Guiding Educational Plans for the Undergraduate Programs of nine specialties in the field of science at comprehensive universities. At the end of 1981, the MOE collected and published information on the implementation of the guiding education plans from 12 comprehensive universities across the nation. In order to illustrate the structure of the curriculum of undergraduate programs in the early 1980s, Table 6.1 presents the undergraduate curricula of Computational Mathematics at 4 comprehensive universities in the light of the MOE’s guiding curriculum (LBHE & SNC, 1982: 183–185). The curricula of Computational Mathematics at the four universities were divided into three categories: compulsory common courses, compulsory specialty courses and elective and discussion courses. The compulsory common courses covered political theories, morality and ethics, foreign languages and physical education. They accounted for 22.9–29.1% of the total instruction hours, slightly below the 29.5% stipulated in the MOE’s guideline. These common courses aimed at teaching appropriate political and moral values, training physical fitness, and general skills (foreign languages), which were deemed essential foundations for educating advanced professional specialists and technological experts in a wholesome way. The bulk of the instructional hours comprised compulsory specialty courses, ranging from a low 48% to a high 62.7% around the 56.6% in the MOE’s guideline. Few elective courses were offered in Chinese universities before 1978. Elective courses were introduced in many universities after 1978, when the MOE

Compulsory courses

Specialty courses

Common courses

Analytical geometry High algebra Mathematical analysis General physics Theoretical mechanics Ordinary differential equation Partial differential equation Complex function Real function and functional analysis Numerical approximation Numerical algebra Numerical solution of differential equation Algorithmic language Computation practice Linear algebra Physics physical experiment

Total hours Political thought education report Political theories Foreign language Physical education Sub total (% of total)

2516 68 200 328 146 742 (29.5%) 108 144 364 148 72 72 76 72 76 76 90 108 72 53

MOE

153 170 102

102

68

51

51

391

204 272 136 612 (23.1–24.0%) 102

2550–2652

PKU*

Table 6.1 Undergraduate curricula of computational mathematics at four universities in 1981 (Unit: Hour) Nankai 2501 68 216 284 142 710 (28.4%) 153 225 388 185 76 76 76 72 72 72 95 114 61

Jilin

210 312 138 660 (29.1%) 72 136 344 149 72 72 72 72 90 72 90 108 68 54

2269

Fudan

(continued)

90 90 180 54

72

216 288 144 648 (22.9%) 54 180 288 180 90 72

2826

6.3 Curriculum 121

Real function theory Numerical analysis Optimization analysis Theory of probability Mathematic equation Continuum mechanics Functional analysis Sub total (% of total)

Instructional hours Experiment hours Note *PKU stands for Peking University

Elective and discussion courses (% of total)

Table 6.1 (continued)

1423 (56.6%) 243 (9.7%) 1204

MOE

1224 (48.0%) 612–714 (24–26.9%) 952 136

68 68

PKU*

1308 5

1569 (62.7%) 69 (2.8%)

57

Nankai

1399 (61.7%) 138 (6.1%) 1086

Jilin

72 72 90 90 1620 (57.3%) 504 (17.8%) 1278

Fudan

122 6 Undergraduate Education

6.3 Curriculum

123

encouraged universities to adopt the credit system in an attempt to increase the flexibility of curriculum. The details of elective and discussion courses were unavailable. When the MOE encouraged universities to devote 9.7% of total instructional hours to elective courses in 1980, only a few universities were capable of reforming its curriculum by adding a significant number of elective courses in the following year. Among the compulsory specialty courses, the bulk of instructional hours were spent on theoretical foundation courses; a few hours were given to experiments, practical and other courses. The MOE pointed out the problem of imbalance in the majority of curricula across the nine science specialties. It noted that in the majority of curricula, ‘there were more theoretical courses, less experiment courses; more traditional courses, less new and frontier courses; more courses within the specialty, less courses outside the specialty’ (LBHE & SNC, 1982: 181). An analysis of the curricular structure of undergraduate education in the early 1980s revealed that problems of overspecialization, a narrow focus on specialty education with little attention to general education, strong boundaries between specialties, little cross-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary efforts, over-emphasis on theory and foundation knowledge, and little attention to the application of theories and knowledge and practical capabilities and skills. Such problems resulted partially from the narrow objectives of undergraduate education and the restraint of a centrally planned economic system at that time.

6.3.1.2

Degree of Control Over Curricular Content

Before 1978, there were few elective courses available in the curricula of undergraduate programs; almost all courses were compulsory. In an attempt to increase the flexibility of the higher education curriculum, in 1978, the MOE issued the Provisional Regulation on the Work of National Key HEIs, in which it encouraged HEIs to gradually introduce a credit system and elective courses (LBHE & SNC, 1982: 10–23). The curricula for undergraduate programs in the early 1980s were mainly divided into two types of courses: compulsory and elective. In the early 1980s, the majority of HEIs in China still practiced a semester system and instructional hours rather than a credit system. From the division of instructional hours indicated in Table 6.1, compulsory courses accounted for 90.3% of the total courses in the MOE curriculum. Among the four universities, compulsory courses accounted for 73.1– 97.2%. Elective courses including discussion classes consisted of only 9.7% in the MOE curriculum and the lowest percentage was a mere 2.8% in one university. The percentage of compulsory and elective courses in the other eight science specialties was similar to that of Computational Mathematics. Therefore, the curriculum in the early 1980s was highly structured. Students had little freedom in the choice of courses and hence minimum control over the curriculum. Even though students had little control over the curriculum, universities had some freedom over the content of the curriculum for undergraduate education. As

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shown in Table 6.1, two universities followed the MOE’s guideline closely, while the other two opened several compulsory courses outside the MOE’s guideline. In Peking University, 28.9% of the compulsory courses were outside the MOE’s guideline. Several universities began to seriously exercise their rights in formulating curricula and educational plans. Between 1950 and 1957, the MOE held the decision-making power of establishing specialties and programs for all HEIs. With the help of expert panels, the MOE created uniform curricula, educational plans, teaching outlines and compiled textbooks and teaching materials for each specialty and program. These uniform curricula, educational plans, teaching outlines and textbooks were binding for every HEI. The ‘Decision on the Reform of HEI leadership Relations’, passed by the State Council in 1953, stated that all HEIs should implement the higher education development plan (including the establishment or closing down of HEIs, departments and specialties, admission and capital construction), the financial plan and system, the personnel system, educational plans, teaching outlines, productive internship regulation, and other regulations, guidelines and orders issued by the MOHE (SBHE & ENU, 1982: 56). As early as the Decision on Implementing Curricular Reform of HEIs, passed by the State Council in 1950, the compilation and review of textbooks and teaching materials were entrusted to the Textbook Review Committee of HEIs in the MOE (SBHE & ENU, 1982: 4–6). In the 1950s, a large number of educational plans, teaching outlines, and textbooks were translated from the former Soviet Union, while at the same time the MOE swiftly organized teachers and researchers to compile textbooks and teaching materials as well. Between 1952 and 1955, the MOE formulated and issued a total of 193 national uniform educational plans and 348 uniform teaching outlines for most fields of study (CESRI, 1983: 129). During the same period, HEIs had a total of 620 courses using textbooks from the former Soviet Union (CESRI, 1983: 129). In January 1956, the MOHE issued the Provisional Measure on the Creation and Compilation of Textbooks in HEIs, and affirmed that the MOE, MOHE, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Culture and other relevant central ministries were responsible for the creation and compilation of textbooks as well as their review for the HEIs under their respective authority (CESRI, 1983: 154). In June 1957, the MOHE informed HEIs that from the next semester onwards, the then existing uniform educational plans and teaching outlines in various fields of study should be changed from mandatory to documents for reference only (CESRI, 1983: 199). In the light of the principles outlined in these documents, HEIs were given the power to create their own educational plans and teaching outlines and submit them to the MOHE for record only. However, due to the limited decision-making authority in internal management, most HEIs still closely followed the national educational plans and teaching outlines issued by the MOHE before 1985.

6.3 Curriculum

6.3.1.3

125

Sequence of Courses in the Curriculum

Sequence of courses in the curriculum reflects the progression of knowledge. Before 1985, the sequence of courses in the undergraduate curriculum showed a high degree of conformity in following the internal logic of knowledge development of the particular specialty or discipline. In general, common courses and disciplinary or specialty foundation courses were mostly offered in the first and second years, while specialty core courses and practice-oriented courses often took place in the third and fourth years.

6.3.2

Curriculum of Undergraduate Education After 1985

A plural, multi-dimensional curricular structure consisting of compulsory and elective courses has emerged to replace the former one-dimensional compulsory curricula of the 1980s (Du, 1992: 50). Many HEIs set up interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary departments in order to pool the expertise of different disciplines. Interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary departments have greater advantage in offering a broader spectrum of courses and resources to students and an opportunity to undertake joint research projects.

6.3.2.1

Structure of the Curriculum

Since 1985, HEIs have started to reform the curriculum for undergraduate education along the axes of increasing the breadth of curriculum, weakening disciplinary boundaries and increasing cross-disciplinary fertilization, enhancing application and practical capabilities, and increasing the flexibility of curriculum and students’ degree of control over curriculum. Two curricula for the undergraduate program of Computational Science (similar to Computational Mathematics) from Peking University and Zhejiang University, two leading research and comprehensive universities in China, were analyzed to illustrate the changes in the curriculum for undergraduate education after 1985 (Fig. 6.1 and Tables 6.2, 6.3). Peking University’s curriculum includes four categories of courses: university common, general education, specialty, and free elective courses (see Table 6.2). Zhejiang University’s curriculum also includes four categories of courses: general education, broad disciplinary foundation, specialty, and individual courses (see Fig. 6.1 and Table 6.3). Comparing these two curricula with those of the early 1980s, the most conspicuous difference one notices in the new curricula is the incorporation of general education courses in the curriculum for undergraduate education. Increasing the breadth of the curriculum in order to produce broadly educated specialist has been one of the major themes of curriculum reform in comprehensive universities for

126

6 Undergraduate Education The Curriculum Structure of Zhejiang University (Total credits: 165)

2nd classroom Individual 5-20

Foundation

Specialty 54-60

Disciplinary 38-47

General Education 53

Free Elective University-wide

Graduation Thesis (Design)

Practical Instruction

Specialty Modular

Arts & Design

Engineering &Technology

Natural Sciences

Humanities & Social Sciences

Military & Physical Education 8.5

Computer Basics 5

Foreign Language 9

Science & Research 1.5

Technology & Design 1.5

Discipline Intro./Freshman Seminar 2

Ethics & Political Sciences 13.5

Communication & Leadership 3

Economics & Society 3

Literature & Arts 3

History & Culture 3

Fig. 6.1 The curriculum structure of Zhejiang University (Total credits: 165). Source Zhejiang University (2006)

undergraduate education since 1985. It borrows from the philosophy of general education in U.S. universities. In the increasingly complex and fast-paced knowledge economy of the 21st century, a graduate of an undergraduate program needs not only specific academic knowledge and skills of a particular specialty, but also general knowledge and understanding of nature, society, world and themselves, a grasp of analytical and communicating tools and skills, and the ability and skills for solving problems and critical thinking. The growing importance of tertiary industries and high-tech industries in the structure of the Chinese economy requires a growing number of highly skilled managerial and professional experts with a broad general education background. A background in general education has become essential for university students, particularly those enrolled in undergraduate programs, to cope with the rapidly changing economy and labor market. The specialized training for a particular profession can prepare students for specialized knowledge and skills, but it falls short in preparing them to quickly acquire new knowledge and skills on their own after graduation. The Decision on the Reform of the Education System says:

6.3 Curriculum

127

Table 6.2 The curriculum for the undergraduate computational science program at Peking University after 2000 Category

Title

University common

Ethics and political sciences Military and physical education English Computer sub total Social science Philosophy and psychology History Language, literature and arts Sub total Compulsory Electives R Graduation thesis Sub total

Credits

10 6 12 6 34 General education electives (Restricted) 2 2 2 10 16 Specialty 48 30 6 Free electives 14 Total 148 Source School of Mathematical Sciences, Peking University. (1999) Curriculum for the Undergraduate Computational Science Program. Retrieved August 26, 2008, from: http://www. math.pku.edu.cn:8000/html/education/bks/jh_info.html

while reforming the system of higher education, it is an extremely important and pressing task to reform the curricula, methods, and plans, and raise the quality of teaching…… It is necessary to actively try out various reforms, such as improving the situation of over-specialization in certain faculties, refining and updating the curricula, intensifying practical training, reducing the number of required subjects (courses), while adding more elective subjects (courses), instituting a credit and double-degree systems, increasing the hours for self- and after-school study, and unfolding of work-study programs in a guided manner (CPC Central Committee, 1985).

Every student entering Peking University after September 2000 is required to take at least 16 credits from General Education Elective courses. General Education Elective courses are divided into five areas as shown below (Peking University, 2008): A B C D E

Mathematics and natural science; Social science; Philosophy and psychology; History; Language, literature and arts.

All students are required to take at least two credits from each area. In area E, all students must take at least 4 credits and one course has to be in the arts. For students in the field of humanities and social sciences, they are required to take a minimum of 4 credits in area A. In the Computational Science program, the department

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Table 6.3 The 2008 curriculum for the undergraduate computational science program at Zhejiang University Category

Title

Credits

General education

Ethics and political sciences Military and physical education Foreign language Computer basics Freshman seminar/discipline Intro. History and culture Literature and arts Economics and society Technology and design Communication and leadership Science and research Sub total Natural science compulsory Natural science elective Engineering technology Sub total Compulsory Elective restricted Practice Graduation thesis Sub total Free electives university-wide

13.5 8.5 9 5 2 3 3 3 3 1.5 1.5 53 28.5 4 6 38.5 42.5 3 6 8 59.5 14 165

Broad disciplinary foundation

Specialty

Individual Total Source College of Science, Zhejiang University (2008)

decided to waive the required courses from area A for students who choose to increase the number of required electives in area E to a total of 10 credits. The program requires students to take 4 credits in college Chinese, 4 credits in humanities and 2 credits in the arts. In Peking University, General Education Elective courses for undergraduate education are created in order to (Peking University, 2008): • enable students to understand basic knowledge areas and mankind’s method of thinking; • strengthen students’ knowledge of humanities, creative ability and foundation knowledge; • promote exchange and permeation among different disciplines; • promote students’ critical thinking and reasoning ability; • guide students in learning cutting edge outcomes, trends and information in various disciplines;

6.3 Curriculum

129

• facilitate students in grasping the basic essence and inspiring ideas of classical works from a comprehensive perspective; • help students in choosing specialty courses by renowned scholars; • help students gain a basic understanding of the existing disciplines. When creating the General Education Elective courses, Peking University consulted extensively the Core Curriculum for undergraduate education at Harvard University, which included seven areas of Foreign Cultures, Historical Study, Literature and Arts, Moral Reasoning, Quantitative Reasoning, Science, and Social Analysis. The Core Curriculum makes up almost a quarter of an undergraduate student’s study. It is formed on the philosophy that “every Harvard graduate should be broadly educated, as well as trained in a particular academic specialty” (Harvard College). The Core Curriculum differs from other general education program in that “it does not define intellectual breadth as the mastery of a set of Great Books, or the digestion of a specific quantum of information, or the surveying of current knowledge in certain fields. Rather, the program seeks to introduce students to the major approaches to knowledge in areas that the faculty considers indispensable to undergraduate education. It aims to show what kinds of knowledge and what forms of inquiry exist in these areas, how different means of analysis are acquired, how they are used, and what their value is.” In Zhejiang University’s curriculum, the general education courses include six areas: History and Culture, Literature and Arts, Economics and Society, Technology and Design, Communication and Leadership, and Science and Research. The objectives in the creation of general education courses are to broaden the knowledge base of students, and to encourage and provide a platform for cross-fertilization and integration among various disciplines. General education courses make up approximately 10% of the undergraduate curriculum in both universities. In Peking University, the general education electives consist of at least 16 credits, which is 10.8% of the total credits. In Zhejiang University, the general education courses are approximately 17 credits, 10.3% of the total credits. In comparison to the Core Curriculum at Harvard, the amount of general education courses in the two universities is rather small, and hence the spread of such courses is a little too thin. In Zhejiang University’s curriculum, the general education courses have a sub total of 53 credits, of which more than two thirds are courses on political sciences, foreign language, physical education, and computer application. They made up 21.8% of the total credits. It is equivalent to the common courses in Peking University’s curriculum, which takes up 23.0% of the total credits. The ubiquity of these courses is a unique feature of the curricular structure in the Chinese higher education system. In the 1980s, they made up approximately a quarter of the total instructional hours. After twenty years of reform, they still account for over 20% of the total credits in the curriculum. In 1959, the MOE designated four courses—Socialism, Political Economy, Philosophy, and the History of the CPC—as the common compulsory courses on Marxism and Political Science for all HEIs (CESRI, 1983: 244). The MOE further

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specified the total number of instructional hours for these courses would be 500 hours for undergraduate philosophy and social sciences programs, 400 hours for the other undergraduate programs, and 200 hours for short-cycle programs. Physical education and foreign language have been two of the common compulsory courses for all HEIs since the beginning. In the 1950s and 1960s, the predominant foreign language taught to undergraduate students was Russian. However, English has become the most common foreign language course required of undergraduate students since the late 1970s. Since the development of computer science, computer basics and application courses have become the two new additions to common compulsory courses for all HEIs. Zhejiang University describes its curriculum for undergraduate education as ‘broad, specialized and interdisciplinary.’ Zhejiang University is quite creative in the innovation of its curricular structure by including a broad disciplinary foundation module. The disciplinary foundation courses are organized into four modules: Humanities and Social Sciences, Natural Sciences, Engineering and Technology, and Arts and Design. Each program requires students taking foundation or introductory courses in one or two disciplinary foundation modules close to its specialty. Disciplinary foundation course requirement ranges from 38 to 47 credits, which is 23.0–28.5% of the total credits. The scope of disciplinary foundation courses is wider than specialty foundation courses common in a lot of undergraduate programs, which only include foundation courses in one particular specialty. Taking the curriculum of a Natural Science program, Computation Science, as an example, it requires students taking disciplinary foundation courses in two areas: Natural Sciences and Engineering and Technology. The majority of courses are compulsory, with several restricted electives. They typically include specialty foundation courses such as Calculus, Linear Algebra, High Algebra or Mathematical Analysis, and non-specialty courses such as Physics, Chemistry, Earth Information Science Basics, Psychology Introduction, and any Engineering Technology courses.

6.3.2.2

Degree of Control Over Curricular Content

Students. The degree of control students possess over curricular content, namely the availability of elective courses, has increased since 1985. The availability of elective courses allows students some flexibility in creating their own unique curriculum. The amount of free elective courses allowed determines the degree of control students possess over the undergraduate curriculum. The curricula at Peking University and Zhejiang University demonstrate a tremendous increase of elective courses in terms of the number of courses and their percentage in the total credits. The curriculum at Peking University consists of a total of 148 credits, of which 88 (59.5%) credits are for compulsory courses, and 60 (40.5%) credits are for elective courses. The compulsory courses include 34 university-wide common courses and 48 specialty compulsory courses plus 6 credits of graduation thesis. The curriculum at Zhejiang University consists of a

6.3 Curriculum

131

total of 165 credits, among which 113 (68.5%) credits are for compulsory courses, and 52 (31.5%) credits are for elective courses. Elective courses at both universities are divided into restricted and free elective courses. At both universities, the number of restricted electives outnumbered that of free electives. Free elective courses at Peking University make up 23.3% of the total elective courses, and 9.5% of the total credits. Free elective courses at Zhejiang University make up 26.9% of the total elective courses, and 8.5% of the total credits. The percentage of free elective courses available at Peking University and Zhejiang University is quite low in comparison with similar programs in U.S. universities, which is usually more than 20%. Therefore, even though undergraduate students’ degree of control over the curricular content has significantly increased over the years, it is still rather limited in comparison to their counterparts in the U.S. HEIs. In terms of HEIs, they have gained autonomous rights in the creation and adjustment of disciplines and specialties, in accordance with the Higher Education Law (1998). The Law also granted HEIs autonomy in formulating educational plans (curricula), selecting and compiling textbooks and organizing educational activities in accordance with the teaching requirements. Since the 1980s, original textbooks and teaching materials in foreign languages were allowed on campus, particularly in leading research universities. Programs. Within the institution, the majority of HEIs delegated various degree of control over the curriculum to schools and departments, some even to particular programs. In both Peking University and Zhejiang University, program specific courses made up the majority of the curriculum. Besides the university-wide common courses and general education requirements, each program is allowed to determine specialty compulsory and elective courses, graduation thesis or project format, and free electives.

6.3.2.3

Sequence of Courses in the Curriculum

The sequence of courses in undergraduate curricula has not changed much. Common courses and disciplinary and specialty foundation courses are mostly offered in the first and second years, while specialty core courses and practice-oriented courses often take place in the third and fourth years. Zhejiang University adopted a modular structure for the undergraduate curriculum and a quarter system, which is conducive to a more flexible and individualized arrangement of course progression. However, even with a modular structure, students are encouraged to complete general education and disciplinary foundation courses in the first two years and concentrate on specialty courses in the third and fourth years.

132

6.4

6 Undergraduate Education

Establishment and Adjustment of Undergraduate Specialties

Together with the reform of the curriculum, the MOE has struggled to adjust and broaden the scope of undergraduate specialties and programs since the 1950s. Before the 1950s, modern HEIs in China only established schools and departments, but did not set up specialties or programs. Beginning in 1952, the MOE restructured the internal organization of HEI after the model of what existed in the former Soviet Union by abolishing the management structure of school and organizing teaching around department and specialty. In the early 1953, HEIs established a total of 215 specialties and by 1962, the number increased to a total of 627 specialties and 3748 programs among 11 fields of study (see Table 6.4). The set up of specialties and programs for undergraduate education has been under the control of central government. The SEDC issued the Provisional Regulation for the Establishment of Undergraduate Programs in Regular HEIs in 1989, which became a Regulation after some revisions in 1993. The Regulation was revised again in 1998 and 1999. According to the Regulation, regular HEIs have autonomy to set up and adjust educational programs of approved academic specialties. For instance, if a HEI is authorized to offer the specialty of mathematics, it has authority to establish and adjust programs within the specialty such as applied mathematics or computational mathematics. National key HEIs have greater autonomy to establish and adjust specialties within approved fields of study. For instance, if a national key HEI is authorized to offer programs in the discipline of science, it can establish and adjust academic specialties within that discipline, such as mathematics, physics and chemistry. Nevertheless, HEIs will need the approval of the MOE, if they want to add specialties and programs for the first time. Whenever an HEI autonomously establishes a program or specialty, it needs to report to the MOE for record. For establishing and adjusting the MOE-restricted programs, HEIs need to obtain a review by an appropriate administrative department and submit it to the MOE for approval. ‘Once a new academic program is approved by the MOE, it is officially recognized and accredited’ (Min, 1994: 122). The purpose of such strict government regulation of undergraduate programs is to

Table 6.4 Number of undergraduate specialties & programs by field of study in Regular HEIs, 1962 Total

E

AE

F

M

T

H

N

F&E

P&L

PE

A

Specialty

627

295

48

16

11

40

60

79

25

3

9

41

Program

3748

1426

367

85

176

696

294

373

106

9

28

188

E Engineering; AE Agriculture; F Forestry; M Medicine/Pharmacy; T Teacher Training; H Humanities; N Natural Sciences; F&E Finance & Economics; P&L Political Science & Law; PE Physical Culture; A Arts Source Educational Yearbook of China Editorial (1984: 239)

6.4 Establishment and Adjustment of Undergraduate Specialties

133

control the overall balance of the supply and demand for each discipline and specialty, as well as to ensure standard and quality. The Regulation also put forward the general principles, requirements and procedures, for the establishment and adjustment of undergraduate specialties and programs. The Regulation set out three general principles. First, the establishment and adjustment of undergraduate specialties must match the demands of economic construction, scientific and technological progress and social development; it must follow the convention of education, and properly handle the relations between demands and possibilities, quantity and quality, long term and short-term demands, part and whole, specialization and generalization. Second, the establishment and adjustment of undergraduate specialties should be conducive to enhancing the quality and efficiency of education at the HEI, to forming a reasonable structure and layout of specialties, avoid redundant repetition. Third, the establishment and adjustment of undergraduate specialties should be in accordance with the catalog of undergraduate fields of study and other relevant requirements. To establish and adjust undergraduate programs, the HEI should satisfy the following basic requirements. • Be consistent with the HEI’s development plan approved by its administrative department, complete with manpower demand analysis report, and should have a minimum of 60 persons for annual admission (except for special programs such as arts); • Have a complete program development plan and educational plan, consistent with the programs’ objectives, and other essential teaching documents; • Have the necessary teaching and supporting staff for carrying out the educational plan; • Have sufficient funding and basic infrastructure, including classroom, laboratory and equipment, library resources, practical training facilities, etc. Furthermore, the Regulation put a limit on the maximum number of specialties (three) a HEI can add each year. A HEI cannot add a new program or specialty if its basic educational conditions fail to meet the national standard, or the quality of its undergraduate education is rated unsatisfactory during evaluation. The influence of the market on higher education has become increasingly evident after the rapid expansion of higher education enrollments since 1999. The employment rate of graduates has become an important indicator of the overall performance of HEIs. In order to meet the demand of the rapidly changing market, or more specifically, to maintain and raise the employment rate of their graduates, the Chinese HEIs have been demanding greater autonomy in establishing and adjusting academic programs. In 2002, the MOE approved seven HEIs under its jurisdiction to set up and adjust academic programs autonomously. These were Beijing University, Qinghua University, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Beijing Normal University, Zhejiang University, Wuhan University, and China University of Political Science and Law (“How Beijing,” 2002). In July 2003, the Guangdong provincial department of

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education authorized the HEIs under its jurisdiction to establish and adjust academic programs starting in fall 2003 (Lin, 2003b). The Guangdong provincial department of education would only step into control the total number of academic programs in an HEI when the July employment rate of its graduates remained lower than the provincial average three years in a row. The push for greater institutional autonomy in the establishment and adjustment of academic programs came mainly from the rapid expansion of higher education enrollments and the fast changing economic and social demands, which required HEIs to respond as swiftly as possible. While demanding greater autonomy in the establishment and adjustment of academic programs, they also warned against the potential dangers of overemphasizing popular programs such as accounting, business management, computer science, and commercial English, to the detriment and negligence of programs such as history, anthropology, and geology. They argued that these unpopular programs are vital to social and cultural development in the long run, though they have limited economic returns and low employment rate. Two themes persisted in the cycles of reform of undergraduate specialties and programs. First, the adjustment of specialty and programs reflected a persistent struggle over the scope of specialty and program, namely the contradiction between extensiveness and specificity. From the beginning, the set up of specialty and program demonstrated an obvious problem of overspecialization. During a national conference on the adjustment of specialty in national HEIs in March 1961, the MOE put forward several principles, one of which was to ‘adequately broaden the scope of specialties, and adjust or merge overspecialized specialties or those that were too narrow’ (Educational Yearbook of China Editorial, 1984: 239). In order to standardize the set up of specialties and programs, the MOE drew up a general catalog of fields of study in 1963 for every HEI and level of program. The catalog has been significantly revised several times, and the most recent version is the 2014 catalog of undergraduate fields of study. The catalog is conceived as a reference document for HEIs. The catalog defines undergraduate specialties and programs and their classification, and regulates their title. The purposes of the catalog are to reflect the professional specification and future employment direction for undergraduate students, to provide a basis for establishing and adjusting programs, admission, awarding degree, guiding graduates’ employment, and carrying out works on educational statistics and manpower planning. The catalog provides a brief introduction for each program, which includes the objectives, required education (knowledge and capabilities), main fields of study it belongs to, core courses, main practical training components, duration of study, and the type of degree awarded. Since the 1980s, the MOE has tackled the problem of narrow specialization by merging over-specialized programs into more general ones, by defining traditional specializations in broader terms, and by introducing new cross-disciplinary fields (Hayhoe, 1991:115). Since the 1978, the MOE has initiated three rounds of adjustment to the catalog of undergraduate fields of study to broaden the scope of undergraduate programs and to increase the flexibility and adaptability of graduates

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Table 6.5 Catalog of undergraduate fields of study in 1993, 1998, and 2014 Field of study

1993 No. of specialties

No. of programs

1998 No. of specialties

No. of programs

2014 No. of specialties

No. of programs

Philosophy 2 9 1 3 5 97 Economics 2 31 1 4 21 2386 Law 4 19 5 12 37 1705 Education 3 13 2 9 19 1799 Literature 4 106 4 66 66 4992 History 2 13 1 5 7 329 Science 16 55 16 30 47 4801 Engineering 22 181 21 70 197 15,718 Agriculture 7 40 7 16 35 1059 Medicine 9 37 8 16 55 1885 Administration N/A N/A 5 18 94 13,959 71 2492 583 48,730 Total 71 5041 Notes 1. Among the 504 programs, 56 were interdisciplinary and 42 were restricted programs 2. Among the 249 programs, 62 are restricted programs. The 35 generally restricted programs need the approval of MOE for set up, while 27 highly restricted programs will not increase in principle Source SEDC (1993), MOE (1998b), MOE. Educational Statistics Yearbook of China (2014, p. 21)

for the dynamic market economy. Comparing the latest 1998 catalog with the 1993 one, it is obvious that the number of programs have been reduced by half, even though the number of specialties stayed the same. It showed the determination of the MOE to broaden the scope of programs by reducing their numbers. However, the numbers of specialties and programs expanded dramatically to 583 and 48,730 respectively by 2014 (Table 6.5). Second, the primary principle for the establishment and adjustment of specialty and programs has always been centered on the needs of economic and social development. In the Notice about the Adjustment of HEIs and Departments, between 1955 and 1957, the MOHE stated that ‘the development of higher education must fulfill the needs of socialist construction and national defense, must correspond to the national economic development plan’ (Educational Yearbook of China Editorial, 1984: 239). This primary principle has prevailed throughout the various cycles of specialty adjustment till today, and has been the primary driving force behind the dramatic changes in enrollments in certain specialties in different periods. Before the 1980s, Chinese higher education emphasized the training of specialized personnel for narrowly specified fields, as determined by the departmentalized structure of the Chinese economy and government administration. Furthermore, the emphasis of economic development before the 1980s had been on the first and second industries, particularly heavy industry at the expense of tertiary

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Table 6.6 Changes in the structure of Chinese economy Year 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2014 Source

Percent of first industry of GDP

Percent of secondary industry of GDP

29.9 47.9 28.1 42.6 26.7 40.9 19.7 46.7 14.7 45.4 11.7 46.9 9.6 46.2 9.2 42.7 NSBC. China Statistical Yearbook (2015, p. 60)

Percent of tertiary industry of GDP 22.2 29.3 32.4 33.7 39.8 41.4 44.2 48.1

industry. Such emphasis was obvious through the unbalanced distribution of enrollments among fields of study. The development of a market-oriented economy and growth of the tertiary industry in post-1978 China has greatly influenced the value of various disciplines of knowledge in the country. According to Table 6.6, the first industry as a percentage of the GDP decreased drastically from 29.9% in 1980 to 9.2% in 2014, the secondary industry as a percentage of the GDP decreased a little bit from 47.9% in 1980 to 42.7% in 2014, and the tertiary industry as a percentage of the GDP greatly increased from 22.2% in 1980 to 48.1% in 2014. The secondary and tertiary industries have made up over 80% of the GDP since 1995 and over 90% of the GDP since 2014. Consequently, the Chinese economy’s demand for middle- and high-level professional personnel grew, especially in the fields of humanities and social sciences. Responding to the economic demands as well as policy initiatives such as the Outlines of Educational Reform and Development for faster development of social sciences in China, undergraduate enrollments in the fields of social sciences and humanities have surged since the late 1980s. According to Table 6.7, the percentage of undergraduate students enrolled in the fields of social sciences such as Finance and Economics and Political science and Law consisted of only 6.3% of the total enrollment in 1982. By 1994, undergraduate enrollments in the fields of economics, law, and education made up 18.1 percent of the total. In 2001, a new field—administration—was added to the reporting category and the field of Art was reinstated as well. All administration related enrollments, including those of engineering management and chemistry management, are reported under this field. Therefore, undergraduate enrollments in the social science fields of economics, law, education and administration made up 22.1% of the total undergraduate enrollment in 2014. In 1982, 6.5% of undergraduate students enrolled in the fields of humanities and art. In 1994, undergraduate enrollments in the humanities’ fields of literature, history, and philosophy reached 10.8%. In 2014, the humanities’ fields of literature, history, philosophy, and Art increased to 28.66%.

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Table 6.7 Undergraduate enrollments by fields of study Fields of study

Engineering Medicine and pharmacy Natural sciences Finance and economics Agriculture Teacher training Humanities Political science and law Forestry Physical Culture Art – Total –

1982 Number

% of total

Fields of study

1994 Number

% of total

2014 Number

% of total

362,763 144,267

39.1 15.5

Engineering Medicine

689,427 158,668

45.5 10.5

5,119,977 1,111,699

33.2 7.2

79,140

8.5

Science

161,887

10.7

1,073,015

7.0

45,341

4.9

Economics

173,402

11.4

908,196

5.9

54,764 149,532

5.9 16.1

Agriculture Education

68,797 55,445

4.5 3.7

269,252 544,314

1.7 3.5

55,649 12,562

6.0 1.4

Literature Law

134,267 45,688

8.9 3.0

1,476,075 543,271

9.6 3.5

11,020 8875

1.2 1.0

History Philosophy

24,538 4752

1.6 0.3

72,078 9249

0.5 0.06

4988 – 928,901 –

0.5 – 100 –

Art N/A N/A 2,858,602 18.5 Administration N/A N/A 1,424,925 9.2 Total 1,516,871 100 15,410,653 100 Of total: N/A N/A 1,491,135 9.7 teacher training Source 1982 data from Department of Planning, MOE (1984: 60–61), 1994 and 2014 data from MOE. Educational Statistics Yearbook of China (1994, 2014)

The percentage of undergraduate students enrolled in the field of science remained stable in the past two decades. Undergraduate enrollment in the field of engineering increased to 45.5% in 1994 from 39.1% in 1982, but gradually dropped to 33.2% in 2014. The percentage of undergraduate students enrolled in the fields of medicine, agriculture, and teacher training decreased continuously from 1982 to 2014. In general, the structure of the Chinese higher education has been moving towards a more balanced development with regard to various fields of study: science and engineering, humanities and social sciences, medicine and agriculture, which corresponds to the structural change of the Chinese economy in the past two decades.

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Modes of Education

Before the 1980s, almost every undergraduate education program adopted a unified systematic mode of academic education, which follows the inner logic of the progress of a discipline or specialty and the natural structure or organization of disciplinary knowledge. The systematic mode of education adopted the semester system, measuring progress of study by school semester or year rather than credit. In 1950, the MOE decided to abolish the credit system inherited from universities and colleges of the Republic era (1912–1948), and replace it with an hour system beginning in 1952 (CESRI, 1983: 27). In terms of curriculum, the systematic mode of education emphasized the disciplinary knowledge and skills as well as academic theories. Practice was emphasized in rhetoric, but neglected in all except a few specialties such as teacher training and medicine that incorporated substantive internship. After the 1980s, a number of HEIs experimented with the modular mode of education based on the experiences of Western universities. The main objective was to increase the creativity and flexibility of undergraduate education program. It is congruent with the increasing autonomy of HEIs and the growing freedom and control students have over their own educational experiences. The modular mode of education adopted by Zhejiang University’s undergraduate education sets an example in this direction. In order to realize its educational principles of student-centered education and in pursuit of excellence, Zhejiang University has adopted a mode of education that emphasizes broad and deep foundation, free choice of specialty, interdisciplinary exchange and exploration, in order to provide a more open environment for students’ individualized development. First, students are admitted into schools or even disciplines rather than specific programs. Instead of requiring students to determine a specialty or program before entering the university, they were admitted into the school of science rather than a specific program such as Applied Mathematics. Since fall 2007, students have been admitted into four broad disciplines: natural sciences, social sciences, engineering and technology, and arts and design. Students are allowed to decide a specific specialty at the end of the first year or the beginning of second year. The rationale is that students are better informed of the options and resources available in the university and know more about their academic interests after one year of exploration. Therefore, students are better prepared for choosing a program that suits their personality, interests, and career goals. Zhejiang University is not alone in this reform initiative. Since fall 2002, Shangdong University and Lanzhou University have begun to enroll students in broad specialties during their freshman and sophomore years and allow students to decide specific programs in their junior year (‘Undergraduate students’, 2002). Fudan University went a step further. Since fall 2003, it has begun to offer all freshmen a general education in one of three categories: humanity and social sciences, sciences, or comprehensive medical science (‘Fudan Freshmen,’ 2002).

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Second, the curriculum structure for Zhejiang University’s undergraduate program includes four modules: general education, disciplinary foundation, specialty and individual. The general education module provides a broad knowledge base for students and a chance for them to survey all the major areas of learning. The disciplinary foundation module has four areas, among which students are required to concentrate in one or two areas, in order to gain a broad disciplinary foundation for their specialty. Specialty module consists of compulsory and elective (restricted) specialty courses. Individual modules include free elective courses, which enable students to build up on their individual interests. Such a curriculum structure intends to provide a broad, interdisciplinary, and individualized educational experience for each undergraduate student. After 1985, most HEIs brought back the credit system, replacing the hour and semester system. More than 200 HEIs adopted the credit system in 1986; and approximately one third of the HEIs adopted the credit system by 1996 (Li, 2001). At present, the majority of HEIs have adopted the credit system. The development of the credit system differs a great deal among the Chinese HEIs due in part to the tremendous differences among the types of institutions and the levels of program they offer. Some HEIs, for example, Yanshan University in Shangdong province, adopts a semester system for freshmen and sophomores and a credit system for juniors and seniors (Li, 2001). Jiangsu University adopted a complete credit system in fall 2003. It allows students the freedom to choose courses within a specified range and to arrange their own pace of study, while also charging tuition fees by credits rather than semesters (Gao & Zhang, 2003). It was estimated that over one-third of the Chinese HEIs would move toward charging tuition fees by credits rather than semesters by 2004 (CCTV, 2004). By adopting the credit system, Chinese HEIs expected to increase the flexibility of teaching and learning and to facilitate the cross selection of courses among different disciplines. It was also seen as a way to fundamentally broaden the knowledge base of higher education students and enhance their comprehensive problem-solving skills and their ability to adapt to the rapidly changing economy and society. However, both the semester and credit systems have their advantages and disadvantages. Each system is compatible with a different style of teaching and learning as well as with a particular policy environment. The adoption of the credit system itself will not guarantee the achievement of a flexible and effective system of teaching and learning. Many world-renowned universities including Columbia University, Harvard University, and Princeton University practice the semester system at present (Li, 2001). Zhejiang University implemented the credit system fully, enabling students to accelerate their study and graduate earlier by taking more credits each term. It also enables students to extend their undergraduate study for a maximum of two more years, allowing them plenty of time to explore interdisciplinary and creative learning experiences before graduation. Furthermore, Zhejiang University adopts a ‘quarter system’, where a school year is divided into four quarters. In each quarter, a course normally has two or three credits and runs for nine weeks. In the quarter

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system, students have opportunity to choose more courses, explore a variety of different subjects, and expand the horizon of their learning experiences. Another reform in the mode of education has been the introduction of double-major and minor in undergraduate education. In addition to one major, a lot of undergraduate programs allow students to take up a second major or a minor within or outside their departments, given that they meet all the requirements and conditions. Students are encouraged to decide on a second major or a minor early in the program, for instance, the first or second year. For every second major and minor, each program set specific requirements and conditions such as pre-requisites, designated courses and credits, minimum performance (GPA), and others. Student Research Training Program (SRTP) has been a prominent reform of the mode of education adopted primarily at research universities. SRTP is designed as an individualized project-based research training program ranging from 1 to 2 years, targeting second and third year undergraduate students who are interested in research. SRTP could be initiated by students individually or as a team and seeking faculty members as advisors for the project or initiated by faculty members inviting students to join their research projects. After successful completion of SRTP projects, participating students would receive academic credits equivalent to one or two regular courses and counted towards their degree qualification. SRTP projects have three unique features of being research focused, project-based and individualized. The research focus of SRTP projects attracted both faculty members and students with research interests. The project-based form of organization allows SRTP more flexibility than regular courses. Most importantly, SRTP projects are individualized in terms of contents, methods, criteria and organization. Advances in information and technology have transformed the mode of education at every level. The Mass Open Online Courses (MOOCs) are changing higher education everywhere, including China. Originally, MOOCs are designed as online e-learning platforms for providing quality but traditional courses with specified syllabus of recorded lectures and self-test problems. At Chinese HEIs, students are allowed to take domestic and international MOOCs for credits subjecting to various institutional and program rules. Several Chinese HEIs have launched their own MOOCs platforms. However, a new form of MOOCs based on the connectivist philosophy, called cMOOCs, brought more fundamental reform to the mode of education. cMOOCs are based on principles from connectivist pedagogy emphasizing that course materials should be aggregated rather than pre-selected, re-mixable, and feeding forward (i.e. evolving materials should be targeted at future learning) (Bell, 2011; Downes, 2011; Kop, 2011). cMOOCs highlight the learner-centered philosophy with the instructor as the facilitator, and emphasize collaborative development connecting learners to each other to answer questions and or collaborate on joint projects (Ravenscroft, 2011). This new version of MOOCs that emphasized learner-centeredness and collaborative development has been promoted widely in many Chinese HEIs as a major reform to the mode of education. E-Blackboards, forums and social media such as blogs, QQ and WeChat became routine communication and learning tools employed widely by instructors and students.

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141

Internationalization has also impacted the change in the mode of education. With the rising degree of internationalization, students have increasingly more opportunities and options to study abroad and do practical training or internships abroad. Study abroad programs available to undergraduate students range from short-term international exchange programs to long-term international joint-degree programs. Students are also encouraged to take internship opportunities in another country or region. Some HEIs with the means and collaborative partners offered regular foreign internships to students as a special feature of their academic programs. Study abroad programs and foreign internships are considered as an important option to help students develop greater cultural sensitivity and global perspective. Graduates of undergraduate programs are facing increasing challenges and difficulties in finding satisfactory positions in the job market after the rapid expansion of higher education enrollments since 1999. In response to the employment challenge, many HEIs began to experiment with the practice-oriented mode of education, typical in the specialized higher education sector. Universities, particularly those focused on teaching, began to adopt the Alternative Work and Study mode, the HEI-Industry Collaborative mode and the Learning by Doing mode of education. In general, the modes of education for undergraduate program have becoming increasingly more flexible and diversified.

6.6

The Management System of Teaching

The management system of teaching in undergraduate HEI is regulated through three major documents. In September 1961, the MOE issued the Provisional Regulation on the Work of National Key HEIs (draft), which provided regulations on teaching, postgraduate education, teachers and students, thought and political work, leadership system and administrative organization, the Party’s organization and work, as well as materials, equipment and logistics. This important policy was later referred to as the Sixty Articles of higher education. After the disruption of the Cultural Revolution, the Sixty Articles were revived with minor revisions in 1978. In 1998, the MOE issued the Key Points on the Management of Teaching in HEIs, which provided specific regulations on the work of teaching in terms of the general principle, educational plans, operation of teaching, teaching quality management and evaluation, basic construction of teaching, and the leadership and administrative system (MOE, 1998c). Overall, the management system of teaching has seen a tremendous trend of diversification since HEIs gained increasing degree of autonomy in internal management, especially after the passage of the Higher Education Law in 1998. However, there is still a high degree of similarity in the structure and function of management system for teaching in most HEIs. The leadership system for teaching in a university is headed by the president and assisted by a vice-president in charge of the daily operation of teaching. The guidelines, policies, regulations, and major reform strategies about teaching and its management are decided at the meetings of university affairs (xiaowu huiyi), which

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is attended by the president, vice-presidents, deans or department chairs, and other leaders of the HEIs. The administrative structure of the teaching management includes three levels: the university-level, school and department level, and basic level. At the university-level, the department of teaching management (jiaowu chu) takes charge of teaching management for the entire institution, overseeing the formulation and implementation of educational plans, arrangement of courses, progress and operation of teaching, records of student status, teaching evaluation, and others. The department of teaching management is assisted by the department of student affairs, which is either a subdivision of the department of teaching management or an independent department. Under the department of teaching management, there are often consulting committees on particular areas of teaching, for example, teaching materials committee, foreign language teaching committee, and computer basics teaching committee, etc. Members of these committees are often experts in the particular areas within the HEI, while some are invited from outside the HEI. The members are either elected by teachers or appointed by the department of teaching management on teachers’ recommendation. In general, colleges or schools are the mid-level administrative organization in a HEI and they include one or more departments. However, in some HEIs, there are standalone departments that co-exist with schools and report directly to the president. In schools or standalone departments, deans or department chairs are fully responsible for the management of teaching, assisted by associate deans or duty chairs in charge of daily operation of teaching. School or department business meetings are where major decisions on teaching and its management are taken. At the school or department level, teaching work committees (jiaoxue gongzuo weiyuanhui) are established as a consulting or research organization for providing advices on teaching. The basic organization for teaching and its management is the teaching and research office (jiaoyanshi), which is organized in accordance with a program or curriculum. Recently, curriculum groups (kechengzu) or disciplinary groups (xuekezu) emerged in some HEIs, replacing the teaching and research office. The functions of these groups are the same; their difference is the scale and scope. A teaching and research office is usually established at the department level and is responsible for the teaching and its management in one program or several programs, some even for a specialty. Depending on its scale, a department may include one or several teaching and research offices. A curriculum group is often specifically organized around one program, and hence may be smaller in scale and narrower in scope. A disciplinary group is typically organized around a discipline that includes several specialties, and hence larger in scale and broad in scope. The functions of these basic organizations are to draw up educational plans for programs and teaching outlines for each course, carry out course instruction and other teaching tasks in accordance with the educational plans, conduct research on teaching, organize scholarly activities and professional development programs for teachers.

6.6 The Management System of Teaching

143

As in specialized higher education, the management of teaching in undergraduate HEIs includes the management of educational plans, operation of teaching, teaching quality management and evaluation, and basic construction of teaching. Educational plans are comprehensive curriculum guidelines for each academic program, covering objectives, length of studies, course arrangements (including course types, credits and hours, methods of instruction, time of offering, and practical training component), teaching and studying requirements, teaching schedule, and examinations, and necessary explanations (such as the proportion of various types of courses, compulsory and elective courses, and credit system or semester system (Min, 1994; Wang, 2003). The decision-making authority for the formulation of educational plans is delegated to each HEI in accordance with the Higher Education Law (1998). The department of teaching management in each HEI is responsible for making guidelines and basic requirements for formulating educational plans in the HEI. The teaching and research offices are responsible for formulating educational plans, which are reviewed by the department or school, and then submitted to the university for approval. Once an educational plan is approved, it is up to the department of teaching management to arrange the schedule of implementation by semester, to decide the courses for each semester, its classroom and assessment. Once an educational plan is approved, it is expected to be implemented faithfully. Any alteration requires approval from the department of teaching management. Besides the formulation and implementation of educational plans, the operation of teaching also includes daily operation, maintaining records of student status, managing teachers’ workload, teaching resources and teaching files. The daily operation of teaching is required to faithfully follow the academic calendar, course schedule and assessment schedule, which are centrally prepared and administered by the department of teaching management. Management of student status refers to the verification of a student’s admission qualification, academic standing and progress, and graduation qualification. The department of teaching management makes rules governing the management of student status and establishes a record of academic status for each student. The department of teaching management determines the minimum and maximum workload for teachers teaching different types of courses. Therefore the workload for teachers varies between compulsory and elective courses, between foundation and specialty courses, and between theoretical and practical courses. Each school year or term, teachers are evaluated for their teaching workload, attitudes and quality. The management of teaching resources refers to the rational development, deployment and utilization of classrooms, laboratories and other teaching facilities and equipments. The management of teaching resources is often decentralized to departments or schools, while the department of teaching management coordinates it centrally. Each HEI is required to establish the necessary organization and rules for the management of teaching files, determine the type and content of teaching files, and the length of time they are to be kept in storage. In general, teaching files include teaching documents, business files, files about instructors, and learning records of student, etc.

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The quality management and evaluation of teaching include the overall evaluation of teaching at the school, department or university level, of program and curriculum development, and of instructors’ teaching quality and students’ learning. Corresponding to the national evaluation of undergraduate teaching, most HEIs established their own performance indicators for teaching and learning. The evaluation is often conducted by the department of teaching management at the university level, and by the departments or the schools. The evaluation results of teaching quality are a crucial component of teachers’ performance, usually linked with the meritorious promotion and compensation systems adopted by most HEIs. Students and teaching are at the center of every HEI, where there are a variety of supporting systems ensuring the smooth operation of teaching; for example, library information system, logistic service system, and in-school healthcare system. Every HEI must ensure that expenditure on teaching makes up a reasonable proportion of the total expenditure.

Chapter 7

Postgraduate Education

7.1

Overview

The earliest graduate education in modern China appeared in the late Qing Dynasty, but no specific measures were taken to develop graduate education. An Academic degree system was established in the RC in 1935. However, there were only over 200 master’s degrees (no doctorate degree) awarded by some academic institutions throughout China until 1949. In April 1935, the central government of the RC issued an Academic Degrees Conferment Act and the MOE of the RC announced Specific Rules on Academic Degrees Classification. The former stipulated that the bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral degrees constituted a three-tier academic degrees system and in some special disciplines only the bachelor’s or master’s degrees could be granted. Two months later, Specific Rules on Master’s Degrees Examination were released. In 1940, both Doctoral Degrees Organizing Act and Specific Rules on Doctoral Degrees were published. Since the beginning of the 1950s, graduate education in the PRC has been provided by HEIs and separately established research institutes. At present, from the perspective of the administration of Chinese higher education, the MOE of the PRC and other central ministries and agencies at the central level control a number of institutions offering graduate programs; meanwhile, educational departments, non-educational departments, local enterprises and non-governmental institutions at the local level administrate their own institutions providing graduate programs. Table 7.1 shows the number of institutions offering graduate programs at two levels in 2014, with only a few of local enterprises and non-governmental institutions providing graduate education. Local enterprises are totally new providers of graduate education. Over the past decades, primarily at specialized education level, non-governmental institutions in China have been focusing on vocational education in various market-driven, “hot” subjects. It has been very hard for these relatively new institutions to gain the authorization for any form of graduate education by the SCCAD. © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Higher Education Press 2018 J. Gu et al., Higher Education in China, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0845-1_7

145

HEIs 571 Research 217 institutes Total 788 Source (MOE, 2014f)

Subtotal

73 0 73

107 177

284

211

34 177

Central ministries and agencies Subtotal MOE Other central agencies

504

464 40 433

432 1

Local authorities Subtotal Edu. dept.

Table 7.1 Number of institutions offering postgraduate programs across China in 2014

65

27 38

Non-edu. dept.

1

0 1

Local enterprises

5

5 0

Non-gov. institutions

146 7 Postgraduate Education

7.1 Overview Table 7.2 Number of institutions offering postgraduate programs across China between 2000 and 2015

147 HEIs

Research Institutes

Total

2000 415 323 738 2005 450 316 766 2010 481 316 797 2011 481 274 755 2012 534 277 811 2013 548 282 830 2014 571 217 788 2015 575 217 792 Source MOE. 2000–2015 Statistical Bulletin on the Development of the National Education Enterprise. Retrieved August 25, 2016 from http://www.moe.edu.cn

As indicated in Table 7.2, there were a total of 738 institutions offering graduate programs in 2000, but the total of these institutions reached 830 in 2013. Nevertheless, as far as the size of Chinese graduate education is concerned, it is noteworthy that more than 2 million advanced degrees had been awarded in China over thirty years between 1978 and 2008. Since the restart of recruiting graduate students in 1978, more than 240,000 doctorates and more than 1,800,000 master’s degrees had been granted during the same period (MOE, 2008k). Moreover, the current size of Chinese graduate education is amazingly huge. This can be proven by the number of entrants, enrollments and graduates earning advanced degrees in recent years. In 2015, there were a total of 792 institutions offering graduate programs, of which 575 were HEIs and 217 were research institutes. The entrants of all graduate programs were 645,100 in total, of whom 74,400 were doctoral students and 570,600 were master’s degree students. The total enrollments were 1,911,400, of whom 326,700 were doctoral students and 1,584,700 were master’s degree students. A total of 551,500 graduate students completed their graduate studies and earned their advanced degrees, among whom 53,800 earned doctoral degrees and 497,700 obtained master’s degrees (MOE, 2015a).

7.2 7.2.1

Academic Degrees System Establishment of Academic Degrees Ordinance of the PRC

After the founding of the PRC in 1949, the central government managed to establish a brand new academic degrees system. In 1956, an Academic Degrees Ordinance was drafted and it provided that academic degrees should be awarded in 23 categories of disciplines. Seven years later, an Academic Degrees Conferment Ordinance was drafted and it suggested that both the doctoral degree and the

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associate doctoral degree (a special doctoral degree adopted from the former Soviet Union at that time) should be granted. In 1965, a pilot scheme for conferring academic degrees to foreign students was issued, too. Unfortunately, all these early efforts of the PRC failed to make an academic degrees’ conferment act officially pass and come into effect across the country. Between February 1979 and February 1980, the reestablishment of an academic degrees system started in the context of the reform and opening up of China. In February 1979, a task force on academic degrees led by Nanxiang Jiang, the Minister of Education at that time, carried the responsibility for drafting an academic degrees ordinance. A new Academic Degrees Ordinance was then drafted. In December 1979, the draft was amended by the NPC’s Standing Committee. The amended draft was later discussed and finally approved by the State Council in February 1980. The Academic Degrees Ordinance formally came into effect on January 1, 1981. The ordinance contains 20 articles covering a three-tier academic degrees system: the bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral degrees. It specifies not only the standards for awarding academic degrees but also the methods of awarding them. The ordinance stipulates the different responsibilities of the SCCAD, the academic degrees awarding institutions as well as the academic degrees review committees. The ordinance provides that the SCCAD should direct the academic degrees review and conferment; the master’s and doctoral degrees should be awarded by the HEIs and research institutes having been formally authorized by the SCCAD. The academic degrees awarding institutions are required by the ordinance to set up the committees on the defense of the thesis or dissertation and the academic degrees review committees. Foreign scholars and international students could obtain academic degrees in China in accordance with the ordinance. The SCCAD was established on December 1, 1980, having 44 committee members including some major leaders from the State Council, MOE and other ministries, the CAS, and some key universities. In December 1980, the SCCAD approved a Provisional Regulation on Implementing Academic Degrees Ordinance as well as Principles and Methods of Examining the Academic Degree Awarding Institutions. It also made a decision on setting up 10 discipline review groups including science, engineering, agriculture, medicine, literature, history, philosophy, economics, law and education (Dong, 2007: 448). On the first meeting of the Discipline Review Group of the SCCAD in 1981, the first group of master’s and doctoral degree awarding institutions and a list of disciplines and specialties for graduate programs were examined. On November 3, 1981, the State Council formally approved the institutions as well as the disciplines and specialties. There were a total of 151 doctoral degree awarding institutions and 812 discipline/specialty-based doctoral programs, and 358 master’s degree awarding institutions and 3185 discipline/specialty-based master’s degrees’ programs. Of all the doctoral programs, the HEIs accounted for 75% and the research institutes accounted for 25%. Of 1155 supervisors of doctoral programs, the HEIs accounted for 69.9% and the research institutes accounted for 30.1%. As regards mater’s degree education, of all the master’s programs, the HEIs accounted for 84.2% and the research institutes accounted for 15.8%. On November 23, 1981, the MOE

7.2 Academic Degrees System

149

announced that China had decided to recruit the first group of doctoral students. Those who would like to apply for a doctoral degree program should meet several requirements, for example, a 1980 or 1981 master’s degree holder, and under the age of 40, etc. (CIES, 1983: 633). The academic degrees system as an influential product of educational reform at the beginning of the 1980s virtually set the pace for the development of Chinese graduate education in the next three decades.

7.2.2

Basic Characteristics of the Academic Degrees System

There are at least three basic characteristics in the Chinese academic degrees system. First, the academic degrees at graduate education level in China are classified into two levels, two types and two forms of education. The academic degrees are awarded at the master’s and doctoral levels. Particularly, the master’s degree as a separate one leads to the doctorate unlike many other countries across the globe. The two types involve the traditional academic degree (the research-oriented or theory-focused degree) and the new professional degree (the profession-oriented or practice-focused degree). With the diversification of academic degrees system in China, the professional degree has been introduced and developed in a great number of disciplines and specialties at the master’s level (but just in a few disciplines and specialties at the doctoral level) since the 1990s. In addition, like many other countries, the forms of education at graduate education level include the full-time and the part-time modes of learning. More and more graduate students are choosing the part-time mode to pursue their degrees. Second, the catalog of disciplines for conferring academic degrees at graduate education level has been regarded as the footing stone of China’s graduate education. Between 1997 and 2011, academic degrees were awarded in 12 categories of disciplines: philosophy, economics, law, education, literature, history, science, engineering, agriculture, medicine, military science, and administration. In 1997, the SCCAD and MOE jointly released the Catalog of Disciplines and Specialties for Conferring Master’s and Doctoral Degrees and Educating Postgraduates. Within the 12 categories of disciplines of the 1997 Catalog, there were 81 first level disciplines and hundreds of second level disciplines. Each category of discipline split into certain first level disciplines and then each first level discipline broke down into certain secondary level disciplines. For instance, science, as one of the 12 categories of disciplines, covered 12 first level disciplines: mathematics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, geography, atmospheric science, marine science, geophysics, geology, biology, systems science, as well as history of science and technology. Chemistry, one of the 12 first level disciplines in science, included another 5 secondary level disciplines: inorganic chemistry, analytical chemistry, organic chemistry, physical chemistry, as well as macromolecule chemistry and physics. On the basis of each secondary level discipline, the academic standards for master’s and doctoral degrees’ qualifications were set.

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In 2011, the Catalog of Disciplines for Degree Awarding and Educational Programs was issued by the SCCAD and MOE. The updated 2011 Catalog listed 13 categories of disciplines, in which two categories, military science and art, were new. These 13 categories of discipline split into 110 first level disciplines. The following sample is taken from the latest 2011 Catalog (SCCAD & MOE, 2011): 01 philosophy 0101 philosophy 02 economics 0201 economic theory 0202 applied economics 03 law… 04 education… 05 literature… 06 history… 07 science… 08 engineering… 09 agriculture… 10 medicine… 11 military science… 12 administration 1201 management science and engineering 1202 business administration 1203 economics and administration of agriculture and forestry 1204 public administration 1205 libraries, information and archives administration 13 art 1301 artistic theory 1302 music and dance 1303 drama and film and television studies 1304 fine arts 1305 design Third, there are rigorous systems of administrating academic degrees and approving academic degrees conferment. China has a three-level system of administrating academic degrees: the SCCAD, the provincial committee on academic degrees and the degree awarding institution’s committee on academic degrees. The SCCAD at the top level is responsible for making the state policy and guidelines of academic degree conferment, approving not only the academic degree awarding institutions but also the disciplines and specialties for master’s and doctoral programs, steering the academic degree conferment at all levels, as well as assessing and scrutinizing the quality of academic degrees. It has a permanent body called the Office of the SCCAD and has set up a wide range of discipline review groups consisting of experts in various disciplines. At the middle level, the provincial committee on academic degrees takes charge of approving new master’s programs in some disciplines and specialties, planning and administrating the academic degree conferment at the provincial level, as well as assessing, scrutinizing and monitoring the quality of academic degrees at the provincial level. At the bottom level, the degree awarding institution’s committee on academic degrees takes the responsibility of recruiting and educating graduate students as well as awarding academic degrees.

7.3 Master’s Degree Education

7.3 7.3.1

151

Master’s Degree Education Recent Developments

A master’s degree is a separate academic degree at graduate education level in China. It commonly takes a student 2–3 years to complete a master’s degree program. In general, in a master’s program a wide range of courses with a total of 32–36 credits are offered, and a master’s thesis, as well as the defense of the master’s thesis are also required. According to the 1981 Academic Degrees Ordinance, a master’s degree student in a certain HEI or research institute or a person who holds the equivalent qualification can be awarded a master’s degree after he or she successfully passes the coursework for the master’s degree and passes the defense of the master’s thesis. The academic standard for the master’s degree is judged by the acquirement of knowledge and capacity such as the complete mastery of basic theory and systematic specialized knowledge in a particular discipline; and the capacity to conduct research or undertake special technical work independently (MOE, 1981). With the transition to universal higher education from mass higher education in China in the past decade, the master’s degree education has grown rapidly. The number of master’s degrees granted in 2015 was more than three times the number in 2005, which exceeded the increase rate of the total of master’s and doctoral degrees over the same period. As to the total enrollments, the number of students enrolling for master’s degrees in 2015 was more than twice the number in 2005. Overall, the number of master’s degrees over the years constituted the vast majority of the total of master’s and doctoral degrees all together (see Table 7.3).

Table 7.3 Number of master’s degrees across China between 2000 and 2015 Year

Graduates Master’s and doctoral degrees

Master’s degrees

Entrants Master’s and doctoral degrees

Master’s degrees

128,500 103,400 2000 58,800 N* 2005 189,700 162,000 364,800 310,000 2010 383,600 334,600 538,200 474,400 2011 430,000 379,700 560,200 494,600 2012 486,500 434,700 589,700 521,300 2013 513,600 460,500 611,400 540,900 2014 535,900 482,200 621,300 548,700 2015 551,500 497,700 645,100 570,600 Note *N stands for no figure Source MOE. 2000–2015 Statistical Bulletin on the Development Enterprise. Retrieved August 25, 2016 from http://www.moe.edu.cn

Enrollments Master’s and doctoral degrees

Master’s degrees

301,200 978,600 1,538,400 1,645,800 1,719,800 1,794,000 1,847,700 1,911,400

233,900 787,300 1,279,500 1,374,600 1,436,000 1,495,700 1,535,000 1,584,700

of the National Education

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From the perspective of category of discipline, among the thirteen categories of disciplines, master’s degree students in four categories of disciplines accounted for a great proportion of the total in 2014 (see Table 7.4). These four categories of disciplines were engineering, administration, science and medicine. Out of a total of 482,210 graduates earning master’s degrees, the numbers of graduates in engineering, administration, medicine and science were 166,110, 66,206, 52,735 and 38,080 respectively, of which graduates in engineering accounted for the highest proportion. The numbers of entrants for master’s degrees in engineering, administration, medicine and science were 189,895, 77,152, 60,891 and 47,159 respectively, of which entrants in engineering accounted for over one third of the total and the latter three accounted for 14, 11 and 8.6% respectively of the total. Out of a total of 1,535,013 students enrolling for master’s degrees, the numbers of total enrollments in engineering, administration, medicine and science were 540,542, 222,870, 170,674 and 133,418 respectively, of which engineering students also accounted for the highest proportion. Table 7.4 Number of master’s degree students by disciplines in HEIs and research institutes in 2014 Graduates Master’s & doctoral degrees Total 535,863 Of total: 272,956 females Academic 362,950 degree Professional 172,913 degree Philosophy 4,354 Economics 26,283 Law 39,390 Education 29,063 Literature 31,741 History 5339 Science 49,002 Engineering 184,647 Agriculture 19,443 Medicine 61,192 Military 229 science Administration 69,672 Art 15,508 Source (MOE, 2014g)

Master’s degrees

Entrants Master’s & doctoral degrees

Master’s degrees

Enrollments Master’s & doctoral degrees

Master’s degrees

482,210 252,368

621,323 316,438

548,689 288,058

1,847,689 908,287

1,535,013 792,828

311,275

380,561

309,942

1,234,835

929,872

170,935

240,762

238,747

612,854

605,141

3,674 24,021 36,587 28,092 29,854 4540 38,080 166,110 17,061 52,735 206

4,415 28,064 41,907 34,694 31,967 5765 62,014 217,500 23,383 70,466 209

3,555 25,147 38,205 33,330 29,529 4781 47,159 189,895 20,202 60,891 183

14,604 78,909 122,541 88,615 92,627 17,999 189,830 669,703 66,068 204,148 717

10,652 65,900 106,465 82,745 82,013 13,548 133,418 540,542 53,055 170,674 553

66,206 15,044

81,641 19,298

77,152 18,660

246,846 55,082

222,870 52,578

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153

In terms of the age of supervisors of master’s programs in 2014 (see Table 7.5), a total of 254,889 supervisors belonged to the age group of 35–54 years old, which accounted for nearly 80% of the supervisors of all ages. As regards the age of supervisors of doctoral and master’s programs (those who supervised both master’s and doctoral students at the same time), 32,338 supervisors belonged to the age group of 45–54 years old, which accounted for more than 50% of the supervisors of all ages.

7.3.2

New Directions

There is a tendency that graduate education has moved and will continue to move toward diversification. First, there have been diverse forms of learning in master’s degree education over the past years and there will be more and more part-time master’s degree students in the years ahead. The master’s degree is provided in two forms of learning: the full-time and the part-time. In recent years, more and more master’s degree students have chosen the second form to pursue their degrees. The master’s degree for in-service practitioners in China is classified into three categories: the professional master’s degrees for practitioners from such professional fields as law, education, physical education, engineering, business administration, public administration, etc.; the master’s degrees solely for faculty and staff members in HEIs; and the master’s degrees specially designed for teachers in vocational schools at secondary education level. In 2006, there were a total of over 50,000 graduates who finished their part-time graduate studies and were awarded master’s degrees; and there were over 100,000 part-time entrants and nearly 300,000 part-time enrollments in total at the master’s level. From the perspective of category of discipline, among the twelve categories of disciplines, the number of part-time master’s degree students in engineering, administration, education and law accounted for the vast majority in 2006 (see Table 7.6). As indicated in Table 7.7, overall, the students pursuing professional master’s degrees constituted the main part of the total number of part-time master’s degree students in 2014. Evidently, the dramatic growth of professional master’s degrees resulted in the increased numbers of part-timers. Compared to the numbers in 2006 shown in Table 7.6, in 2014, among the thirteen (instead of twelve) categories of disciplines, the number of part-time master’s degree students in engineering, administration, education and agriculture (instead of law) accounted for the vast majority of part-timers. In addition, the part-timers in science and economics had decreased rapidly from 2006 to 2014. Second, due to the more diverse types of master’s degrees over the past three decades, more professional master’s degrees will be introduced and a larger size of these degrees will appear in the years to come.

Total Supervisors of master’s programs Of which: females Supervisors of doctoral & master’s degree programs Of which: females Source (MOE, 2014h)

1144 1123

372 21 3

84,468 64,321

11,234

29 years old and under

321,111 256,790

Subtotal

271

7355 1638

23,903 22,265

30– 34 years old

1075

17,681 5533

54,589 49,056

35 – 39 years old

2146

21,465 9638

67,308 57,670

40– 44 years old

2937

18,453 15,025

70,048 55,023

45 – 49 years old

Table 7.5 Number of supervisors of master’s programs in regular HEIs and research institutes in 2014

2780

13,192 17,313

62,944 45,631

50– 54 years old

1308

4735 9168

29,033 19,865

55– 59 years old

463

933 3267

7780 4513

60– 64 years old

251

282 2718

4362 1644

65 years old and over

154 7 Postgraduate Education

7.3 Master’s Degree Education

155

Table 7.6 Number of master’s degree students without leaving their jobs by disciplines in 2006 Degrees awarded Master’s & Master’s doctoral degrees degrees Total 56,184 Of total: 16,017 females Philosophy 364 Economics 1397 Law 4825 Education 5705 Literature 1227 History 218 Science 1725 Engineering 21,080 Agriculture 2456 Medicine 3378 Military 1 Science Administration 13,808 Source (MOE, 2006b)

Entrants Master’s & doctoral degrees

Master’s degrees

Enrollments Master’s & doctoral degrees

Master’s degrees

55,022 15,701

109,245 33,043

106,877 32,509

299,100 88,449

291,051 86,627

357 1376 4806 5673 1202 208 1620 20,717 2401 2960 1

831 3987 8338 12,855 4665 506 2981 43,250 5242 5680 30

792 3970 8230 12,836 4555 478 2820 42,419 5125 4930 30

1859 11,546 21,162 32,724 9605 1993 8097 128,654 14,046 16,399 44

1777 11,388 20,850 32,670 9314 1857 7616 125,355 13,662 14,316 44

13,701

20,880

20,692

52,971

52,202

Table 7.7 Number of on-the-job students studying for master’s degree by discipline in 2014 Total Of total: females Academic degrees Professional degrees Philosophy Economics Law Education Literature History Science Engineering Agriculture Medicine Military Science Administration Art Note *N stands for no figure Source (MOE, 2014h)

Degrees awarded

Entrants

Enrollments

108,176 40,303 5654 102,522 19 476 5189 9917 421 5 193 60,789 8899 3474 N* 17,322 1472

162,374 60,477 4700 157,674 6 242 6614 20,704 195 2 107 97,437 12,775 3487 N 18,553 2252

596,086 214,335 26,812 569,274 324 808 22,634 69,339 17,996 32 716 362,202 44,565 1494 N 70,236 5740

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With the gradual improvement of the Chinese academic degrees system and the rapid change of market needs for the high-level manpower, producing different types of master’s degree graduates to meet the demands for not only the theory-oriented researchers but also the practice-oriented professionals has become more important in the past three decades. As a result, the professional degrees stressing the application of knowledge instead of the mastery of pure theory have developed dramatically since 1990. In 1990, the SCCAD approved the first six professional master’s degrees in six disciplines: law, education, engineering, business administration, etc. Later on, a diverse system of professional master’s degrees appeared. By the end of 2001, there had been a total of 3026 MBA degrees awarded and 13,890 MBA students enrolling in 56 HEIs, 3628 J. M. students enrolling in 28 HEIs, 1700 MEd students enrolling in 29 HEIs, 5690 MEng students enrolling in 70 HEIs, 1, 678 students of Master of Clinical Medicine enrolling in 43 HEIs, and 200 degrees of Master of Architecture awarded in 12 HEIs as well (Office of SCCAD, 2006). In the next decade, the types of professional degrees (mainly the professional master’s degrees) had increased rapidly. At the end of the Catalog of Disciplines for Degree Awarding and Educational Programs by the SCCAD and MOE in 2011, there was a separate Catalog for Professional Degrees Awarding and Educational Programs. In this specific catalog, 39 types of professional master’s degrees were listed, among which there were only 5 types of professional doctorates (see the underlined types) (SCCAD & MOE, 2011): 0251 banking 0252 applied statistics 0253 tax administration 0254 international business 0255 insurance 0256 capital rating 0257 auditing 0351 law 0352 social work 0353 policing work 0451 education 0452 physical education 0453 international education of Chinese language 0454 applied psychology 0551 translation 0552 journalism and dissemination 0553 publishing 0651 historical relics and museums 0851 architecture 0852 engineering 0853 city planning 0951 agricultural extension 0952 veterinary medicine 0953 landscape architecture 0954 forestry 1051 clinical medicine 1052 stomatological medicine 1053 public health 1054 nursing 1055 pharmacy 1056 Chinese medicine 1151 military affairs 1251 business administration 1252 public adminstration 1253 accounting 1254 tourism management 1255 library and information 1256 engineering management 1351 art Recent statistics has shown that there has been a sizable population of professional master’s degree students at both the national level and the institutional level. At the national level, as shown in Table 7.4, there were 605,141 students enrolling for professional master’s degrees in 2014, which was nearly 40% of the total number of enrollments of master’s degree students. At the institutional level, if

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157

Table 7.8 Recruitment plan for master’s degree students in the C9 universities in 2016 C9 Universities

Master’s degree students Academic degree Professional degree

Total

Peking University 2640 2820 5460 Tsinghua University 1710 2040 3750 Fudan University 1850 2160 4010 Shanghai Jiaotong University 2510 2682 5192 Nanjing University 2230 1800 4030 University of Science & Technology 1935 2148 4083 of China Zhejiang University 3070 2490 5560 Xi’an Jiaotong University 2230 1860 4090 Harbin Institute of Technology 2927 1967 4894 Source 2016 Recruitment Plan for Postgraduates in China. Retrieved August 25, 2016 from http:// yz.chsi.com.cn/zsgs/jhk/search.action

just taken as an example the 2016 recruitment plan for master’s degree students within the C9 universities (referring to 9 major universities in China in recent years), the institutional size of professional master’s degrees would be fairly large. Among the nine universities, there would be five universities recruiting more professional master’s degree students than traditional academic master’s degree students (see Table 7.8). A number of national steering committees on education of professional degrees jointly established by the SCCAD and MOE are composed of not only experts and scholars from professional degrees awarding institutions but also educational leaders from various related departments. These steering committees like the National Steering Committee on MEng and National Steering Committee on MBA play a greater and more significant role in the process of designing programs of professional master’s degrees, training professional supervisors, and assessing the quality of education of professional degrees, etc. According to the Provisional Measures for Establishing and Approving Professional Degrees, released by the MOE in 1996, the purpose of the establishment of the professional degree is to ‘educate high-level practice-based professionals at a rapid pace adapting to the needs of economic and societal development’. An official definition in this document is that ‘the professional degree as a degree with a particular professional background is established for educating the high-level talent in the professions’. The professional degree at that time was thought of as a degree only offered at the master’s level in most cases, although at present there are a few professional doctorates like Doctor of Clinical Medicine and Doctor of Stomatological Medicine (S.M.D) in China. The document provides that the professional degree must be entitled ‘Master of…’ or ‘Doctor of…’ It stresses that within the academic degrees system as a whole a professional degree must have the same academic status as a traditional academic degree in the

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same category of discipline. This implies that the MEng should be equally treated as the M. Sc. in engineering (MOE, 1996a). In the past decades, the MOE has been boosted the development of professional degrees education in China. For example, in the Proposals for Strengthening and Improving Professional Degrees Education (2002) issued by the MOE, several proposals were put forward: (1) understanding fully the importance of professional degrees education; (2) planning professional degrees education as a whole, with an attempt to actively adapt to the needs of economic and societal development; (3) deepening the reform of the system of professional degrees education to improve the quality of education; (4) strengthening the function of steering committees of professional degrees education; (5) establishing and perfecting the assessment system of professional degrees education; and (6) reinforcing the international cooperation and exchange (MOE, 2002b). Another recent example was the Basic Requirements for Professional Doctorates and Professional Master’s Degrees released by the SCCAD and MOE in 2015. It stressed the purpose of making the basic requirements: strengthening the quality control of professional degrees as opposed to academic degrees, enhancing the quality of professional degree education in degree granting institutions, and advising the work of professional degree supervisors (SCCAD & MOE, 2015).

7.4 7.4.1

Doctoral Education Recent Developments

A doctoral degree normally takes a student at least 3 years to complete in China. A doctoral student is supervised by one professor or a supervising team. In the doctoral program, there is a wide range of courses, a doctoral dissertation, a defense of the doctoral dissertation, and the independent research work or the participation in the research project. According to the 1981 Academic Degrees Ordinance, a doctoral student in a HEI or research institute, or a person who holds the equivalent qualification can be awarded a doctoral degree after he or she successfully passes the coursework for the doctoral degree and pass the defense of the doctoral dissertation. The academic standard for the doctoral degree is judged by the acquirement of knowledge, capacity and original achievements such as the complete mastery of not only the broad basic theory but also the systematic, in-depth specialized knowledge in a particular discipline; the capacity to undertake research work independently; and the original contribution made to science or special technology (MOE, 1981). Likewise, among the educating objectives for doctoral students stated by the Provisional Regulations on Educating Doctoral Students (1992), the same requirements concerning knowledge, capacity and original achievements were reaffirmed (Office of SCCAD & Office of MOE Graduate Students Affairs, 1999: 251).

7.4 Doctoral Education

159

Table 7.9 Number of Doctoral Degrees across China between 2000 and 2015 Year

Graduates Master’s & doctoral degrees

Doctoral degrees

Entrants Master’s & doctoral degrees

Doctoral degrees

128,500 25,100 2000 58,800 N* 2005 189,700 27,700 364,800 54,800 2010 383,600 49,000 538,200 63,800 2011 430,000 50,300 560,200 65,600 2012 486,500 51,700 589,700 68,400 2013 513,600 53,100 611,400 70,500 2014 535,900 53,700 621,300 72,600 2015 551,500 53,800 645,100 74,400 Note * N stands for no figure Source MOE. 2000–2015 Statistical Bulletin on the Development Enterprise. Retrieved August 25, 2016 from http://www.moe.edu.cn

Enrollments Master’s & doctoral degrees

Doctoral degrees

301,200 978,600 1538,400 1,645,800 1,719,800 1,794,000 1,847,700 1,911,400

67,300 191,300 258,900 271,300 283,800 298,300 312,700 326,700

of the National Education

In the context of China’s fast-growing higher education, the size of doctoral education has been on the increase over the past decade (see Table 7.9). The number of doctoral degrees granted in 2015 was nearly twice the number in 2005. In terms of entrants and enrollments, the numbers of doctoral students in 2005 doubled the numbers in 2000 respectively, and then every year in the next decade there were a gradual increase in the numbers of both entrants and enrollments. However, on the whole, even in 2015, the number of graduates, entrants and enrollments at the doctoral level merely accounted for 9.8, 12% and nearly 17% respectively of the total numbers at master’s and doctoral levels. As regards category of discipline, among the thirteen categories of disciplines, the numbers of doctoral students in four categories (engineering, science, medicine and administration) accounted for a great proportion of the total in 2014 (see Table 7.10). Comparing this with the analysis of master’s degrees above (see Table 7.4), it is worth noting that the number of students studying administration at the doctoral level ranked only fourth while it ranked second at the master’s level, and that the number of students doing engineering both at master’s and doctoral levels ranked first in the same year. In terms of the age of the supervisors of doctoral programs in 2014 (see Table 7.11), a total of 39,576 supervisors belonged to the age group of 45–54 years old, which accounted for nearly 50% of the supervisors of all ages.

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Table 7.10 Number of doctoral students by disciplines in HEIs and research institutes in 2014 Graduates Master’s & doctoral degrees Total 535,863 Of total: 272,956 females Academic 362,950 degree Professional 172,913 degree Philosophy 4354 Economics 26,283 Law 39,390 Education 29,063 Literature 31,741 History 5339 Science 49,002 Engineering 184,647 Agriculture 19,443 Medicine 61,192 229 Military science Administration 69,672 Art 15,508 Source (MOE, 2014h)

7.4.2

Doctoral degrees

Entrants Master’s & doctoral degrees

Doctoral degrees

Enrollments Master’s & doctoral degrees

Doctoral degrees

53,653 20,588

621,323 316,438

72,634 28,380

1,847,689 908,287

312,676 115,459

51,675

380,561

70,619

1,234,835

304,963

1978

240,762

2015

612,854

7713

680 2262 2803 971 1887 799 10,922 18,537 2382 8457 23

4415 28,064 41,907 34,694 31,967 5765 62,014 217,500 23,383 70,466 209

860 2917 3702 1364 2438 984 14,855 27,605 3181 9575 26

14,604 78,909 122,541 88,615 92,627 17,999 189,830 669,703 66,068 204,148 717

3952 13,009 16,076 5870 10,614 4451 56,412 129,161 13,013 33,474 164

3466 464

81,641 19,298

4489 638

246,846 55,082

23,976 2504

New Directions

First, some new types of professional doctorates may be introduced in the future. Since 2011, only five types of professional doctorates have been approved by the SCCAD and tried out in certain HEIs: • • • • •

Doctor Doctor Doctor Doctor Doctor

of of of of of

Education Engineering Veterinary Clinical Medicine Stomatological Medicine

Until 2014, the number of professional doctorate students was too small (e.g., 7713 enrollments), which was not comparable to that of professional master’s degree students (e.g., 605,141 enrollments), as indicated in Tables 7.4 and 7.10.

Total Supervisors of doctoral programs Of which: females Supervisors of doctoral & master’s degree programs Of which: females Source (MOE, 2014h)

26 5

1 21

3

2365 64,321

11,234

29 years old and under

80,349 16,028

Subtotal

271

31 1638

1847 209

30– 34 years old

1075

131 5533

6443 910

35– 39 years old

2146

397 9638

11,445 1807

40– 44 years old

2937

551 15,025

18,247 3222

45– 49 years old

2780

562 17,313

21,329 4016

50– 54 years old

Table 7.11 Number of supervisors of doctoral programs in regular HEIs and Research Institutes in 2014

1308

320 9168

11,608 2440

55– 59 years old

463

173 3267

4585 1318

60– 64 years old

251

199 2718

4820 2102

65 years old and over

7.4 Doctoral Education 161

162

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Second, the form of learning at the doctoral level will become more diverse in the future. There were a number of part-time doctoral students even a decade ago, though, unfortunately, no recent comparable data released by the MOE can be found. In 2006, there were 1162 part-time doctoral degrees awarded, 2368 part-time entrants and 8049 part-time enrollments at the doctoral level. From the perspective of category of discipline, among the twelve categories, the numbers of part-time doctoral students in both engineering and medicine accounted for more than 50% of the total (see Table 7.12). Compared to the number of part-timers at the master’s level in the same year (see Table 7.6), that of part-timers in medicine at the doctoral level, instead of administration at the master’s level, was the second largest. Third, several significant aspects of doctoral education will be more emphasized in the future: quality, doctoral dissertation appraisal, and innovation. As far as the quality of doctoral education is concerned, although the improvement of quality has been stressed in the process of educating doctoral students in China, there will be more specific measures taken to focus on quality. Greater importance will be attached to the refinement and restructuring of doctoral programs in the doctoral degree awarding institutions as well as in the disciplines and specialties at doctoral level. Both the curriculum for doctoral students and the content of learning will be renewed; and more internationally recognized textbooks

Table 7.12 Number of Doctoral Students without Leaving Their Jobs by Disciplines in 2006 Degrees awarded Master’s & Doctoral doctoral degrees degrees Total 56,184 Of total: 16,017 females Philosophy 364 Economics 1397 Law 4825 Education 5705 Literature 1227 History 218 Science 1725 Engineering 21,080 Agriculture 2456 Medicine 3378 Military 1 science Administration 13,808 Note *N stands for no figure Source (MOE, 2006b)

Entrants Master’s & doctoral degrees

Doctoral degrees

Enrollments Master’s & doctoral degrees

Doctoral degrees

1162 316

109,245 33,043

2368 534

299,100 88,449

8049 1822

7 21 19 32 25 10 105 363 55 418 N*

831 3987 8338 12,855 4665 506 2981 43,250 5242 5680 30

39 17 108 19 110 28 161 831 117 750 N

1859 11,546 21,162 32,724 9605 1993 8097 128,654 14,046 16,399 44

82 158 312 54 291 136 481 3299 384 2083 N

107

20,880

188

52,971

769

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Table 7.13 Statistics for national awards for excellent doctoral dissertations by institution over the years Ranking

Institutions

Total

1999 to 2004

2005

117 institutions in total across China 687 591 96 1 Chinese Academy of Sciences 107 93 14 2 Peking University 53 45 8 Tsinghua University 53 48 5 4 Fudan University 36 33 3 5 Zhejiang University 23 20 3 6 Nanjing University 22 19 3 7 Renmin University of China 18 16 2 8 University of Science & Technology of China 17 14 3 9 Shanghai Jiaotong University 14 13 1 Xi’an Jiaotong University 14 12 2 Source (MOE, 2006c) Statistics for National Awards for Excellent Doctoral Dissertations by Institution over the Years. Retrieved September 25, 2008 from http://www.moe.edu.cn

from abroad as well as more bilingual teaching will be introduced to strengthen the internationalization of doctoral education. Actually, in order to improve the quality of graduate education particularly doctoral education, the SCCAD and MOE initiated a program of selecting excellent doctoral dissertations nationwide through specialist appraisal in 1998. They issued Methods of Selecting the National Excellent Doctoral Dissertations and announced the first National Awards for Excellent Doctoral Dissertations in 1999. Nearly 100 awards had been given annually from 1999 to 2013 (the program has been ended since 2014). Statistics show that in the first seven years, between 1999 and 2005, most of the awardees were from the ten top doctoral degree awarding institutions (see Table 7.13). Peking University and Tsinghua University, the top two universities, had won more awards than any other university in China. In addition, more than one-seventh of the total awards had been given to doctors from various research institutes or centers at the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Because the annual awards were of great value to the doctoral degree awarding institutions, the selection inevitably did play a key role in the quality assessment of Chinese doctoral education. In terms of the doctoral dissertation appraisal at the doctoral degree awarding institutions, more and more institutions will establish and develop the doctoral dissertation appraisal system. Shanghai Jiaotong University is one of the typical institutions which build a monitoring mechanism for doctoral dissertations. The eight policies it made years ago for controlling the quality of doctoral dissertations have been highly praised and may be welcomed by more and more doctoral degree awarding institutions throughout China. These eight policies regulate the review of selecting a research topic, the interim appraisal of the dissertation, the preparatory defense of the dissertation, the rejection of the dissertation for lack of originality,

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the publication of high quality dissertations, the selection of excellent dissertations, the random check of dissertations, and the rejection of granting a doctoral degree to the doctoral candidate graded last in the scholarly evaluation (Chen & Zheng, 2004). Another significant aspect of doctoral education in China is innovation, which has been and will be pushed by the MOE and the doctoral degree awarding institutions. The Chinese graduate education has already shifted from quantity-focused development to quality-focused development. At the doctoral level, a transformation from coursework-based education to research-led training has been made in recent years, in particular in the major doctoral degree awarding institutions. Hence doctoral students’ research training, research projects and innovative endeavors in their fields of study will be highlighted more than ever before. At the state level, the MOE initiated a Program of Innovation in Graduate Education in 2003 with the core objectives of establishing an incentive mechanism to encourage innovation in graduate students’ research work, creating a lasting ethos of innovation, as well as intensifying the innovative awareness, the innovative capacity and the innovative spirit in the students. According to an early report by the MOE, before 2008, the Program had sponsored not only the National Academic Forum for Doctoral Students but also the National Academic Conference for Doctoral Students. At the institutional level, a great number of doctoral degree awarding institutions had held numerous academic forums for doctoral students within institutions and between institutions. These academic activities did help enrich doctoral students’ knowledge, stimulate their innovative thinking and generate their enthusiasm for innovation in the future (MOE, 2008k).

Chapter 8

Research in HEIs

Research is one of the major functions of HEIs. In spite of the uneven development of research in the HEIs in China, the HEIs have already become the primary undertakers of basic research, a not-to-be-ignored force in applied research, and a vital new force in the transformation of high-tech achievements. The development of research in HEIs is of vital importance for fulfilling the national strategy of rejuvenating China through science and education and for improving the quality of higher education.

8.1

Present State of Research in HEIs

During the early period after the establishment of the PRC, the science and education systems in China underwent a radical change based on the former Soviet model. During the change, the former comprehensive universities were adjusted into two kinds of institutions: the comprehensive universities, providing only education in liberal arts and science (Peking University is typical of this kind), and the specialized universities, providing education in applied science (Tsinghua University is typical of this kind). Meanwhile, a number of independent research institutes were set up outside the HEIs, among which the Chinese Academy of Sciences is a good case in point. Under such a centralized planning system, research was on the periphery of the HEIs’ work and activities, because research in HEIs was not part of the state plan and did not have funding and personnel. The situation had improved for a while after 1963, but was halted completely during the ten years of the Cultural Revolution. After China’s economic reform and opening-up to the outside world, the Chinese government has come to realize that research is one of the major functions of HEIs and that HEIs, especially the key universities, should be education centers as well as research centers. This remarkable change in people’s thoughts has since then brought great vigor into the research work in HEIs. Then, guided by the policy © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Higher Education Press 2018 J. Gu et al., Higher Education in China, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0845-1_8

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that economic development should be based on science and technology while science and technology serve economic development, HEIs opened up to the society and sought out ways of uniting production, teaching, and research, and reforming the research system in HEIs. With the implementation of the strategy of rejuvenating China through education, science and technology, the reform of the research system in HEIs has made great progress. The creative ability of HEIs in science and technology and their capacity for social services have been greatly improved by establishing platforms for scientific and technological innovations within HEIs and by carrying out the training programs for research personnel since the end of 1980s. These reform programs include ‘the State High-Tech Development Plan’ (‘863 Program’), ‘the National Basic Research Program’ (‘973 Program’), ‘the High-level Creative Talent Program’ in HEIs, ‘211 Project’, ‘985 Project’, and ‘2011 Program’, etc.

8.1.1

The Research System in HEIs

At present, the chief research institutions and bases of scientific and technological achievements and transformation in Chinese HEIs include national laboratories, national key laboratories, national engineering research centers, national engineering and technology research centers, the key laboratories of the MOE, the engineering research centers of the MOE, the key research bases of humanities and social sciences of the MOE, national university science and technology parks, national technology transformation centers, and collaborative innovation centers. In addition, similar research bases have been set up in local HEIs by the provincial governments. Thus, within the national research system, there has emerged a university research structure of ‘three pyramids plus one platform’. The three pyramids of university research refer to ‘the knowledge innovation system’ consisting of the national laboratories, the national key laboratories, and the provincial or ministerial key laboratories; ‘the engineering and technology innovation system’ consisting of the national engineering (and technology) research centers and the provincial or ministerial engineering (and technology) centers; ‘the innovation bases of humanities and social sciences of the MOE’. The platform refers to ‘the platform of achievements, transformation and social services’ consisting of the national university’s science and technology parks and the national technology transformation centers.

8.1.2

Personnel Engaged in Research at HEIs

In the past, the research force in HEIs was rather weak. In 1985, there were only 89,000 full-time R&D personnel in HEIs, nationwide. With the rapid development of higher education, the increased input into science and technology, and the reform

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of personnel system in HEIs, teachers’ enthusiasm in conducting research has been gradually aroused. Thus, research personnel increased rapidly. Since 2000, the number of R&D personnel in HEIs has shown a consistently increasing trend. In 2014, the number of full-time R&D personnel in HEIs reached 295,575 (MOE, 2015b). Meanwhile, the quality and academic level of the research personnel in HEIs continue to improve. In 2012, HEIs had 662 academicians of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Chinese Academy of Engineering, accounting for 45.4% of the total. According to the statistics, 38.81% of the academicians elected between 1955 and 2007 were from HEIs and the number tended to increase every year. In 1998, the MOE and Li Jiacheng Foundation jointly launched ‘the Cheung Kong Scholars Program’. Up to the year 2016, 2151 awarded professors and 590 chair professors had been employed by HEIs (MOE, 2016a). With the support and encouragement of this program, a group of the awarded scholars have registered a series of important achievements and become the leading force in their disciplines. From 1994 to 2016, the State Excellence Youth Science Foundation supported 3604 young researchers, among whom more than 60% came from HEIs (NSFC, 2016a, 2016b).

8.1.3

Research Capacity of HEIs

First of all, the funds spent by HEIs on R&D have been steadily rising, from nearly 100 million RMB yuan at the beginning of China’s economic reform in 1978 to 590 million in 1985, 1.4 billion in 1990, 4.2 billion in 1995, 7.7 billion in 2000, 18.1 billion in 2005, 47.5 billion in 2010, and 67 billion in 2014 (MOE, 2015b). Meanwhile, the sources of research funding have become diversified. The percentage of governmental funds in the total university research funds has decreased from nearly 100% at the beginning to 79.3% in 1985, 66.6% in 1990, 51.96% in 2005, 63.69% in 2010, and 62.58% in 2014 (MOE, 2015b). At the same time, research funds from enterprises and other sources have been increasing continuously, which promoted the cooperation between scientific technology and the economy. As to the research funds from the government, the methods of allocation have changed from unified allocation to allocation based on competition by projects in most cases. What is more, the research programs and institutions which serve national goals tend to be concentrated in a few high level HEIs. In 2000, there were 16 HEIs whose research funds exceeded 200 million yuan and 39 HEIs whose research funds exceeded 100 million yuan. In 2005, there were 47 HEIs whose research funds exceeded 200 million yuan and 29 other HEIs whose research funds exceeded 100 million yuan. In 2010, there were 37 HEIs of the MOE whose research funds exceeded 500 million yuan and 19 other HEIs of the MOE whose research funds exceeded 200 million yuan. And in 2014, there were 6 HEIs of the MOE whose research funds exceeded two billion yuan, 13 other HEIs of the MOE whose research funds exceeded one billion yuan and 22 other HEIs of the MOE whose research funds exceeded 500 million yuan (MOE, 2015b).

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Second, as far as the distribution of R&D funds is concerned, the ratio among basic research, applied research, and trial development in HEIs in 2005 and in 2014 was 23.4:51.6:25.0 and 36.0:51.9:12.1 respectively, which was in sharp contrast to that of the whole country: 5.4:17.7:76.9 and 4.7:10.8:84.5 (MOST, 2016a). These indicate that the focus of research in HEIs is basic research and applied research. While enterprises have gradually appeared to play a key role in technological innovation, HEIs tend to focus on basic research and applied research. From 2003 to 2006, the funds spent on basic research annually in HEIs accounted for 37.7, 40.9, 43.2, and 45.8% of the total national basic research funds, which shows a growing tendency every year. In 2014, it was 53.6% of the total national basic research funds. At present, it has been more than half of the total national basic research funds (MOST, 2016a). Third, during the Ninth Five-Year Plan, HEIs won two-thirds of the total national research projects in philosophy and social sciences, as well as two-thirds of national philosophy and social sciences research funds and the achievements winning awards. In the first four years of the Tenth Five-Year Plan, HEIs carried out 77.9% of the projects from the National Foundation of Natural Science, 56.2% of the national key projects, and 63.3% of State Excellence Youth Science Foundation projects. During the Tenth Five-Year Plan, HEIs carried out 85 projects from the ‘973 Program’, constituting 54.5% of the total projects, as the chief conducting unit and serving as the chief scientist at the same time. During the Tenth Five-Year Plan, HEIs conducted 40% of the total research projects from ‘863 Program’, and won 40% of the total amount of the research funds. From 2005 to 2013, the number of scientific research projects carried out by HEIs doubled, and exceeded those carried out by institutions of scientific research and development (Xiamen University, 2015).

8.1.4

Social Contribution of Researches Conducted by HEIs

In the field of science and technology, in 1991, there were only 13,542 articles written by Chinese scholars and published in SCI, EI, and ISTP. In 2006, the number reached 172,000 among which 143,700 were from HEIs, accounting for 83.7% of the total in the whole country. In 2014, 195,000 SCI articles from HEIs accounted for 83.0% of the total in the whole country (MOST, 2016b). In 1991, there were only 94,435 articles published in domestic Chinese journals, while in 2006, 243,500 articles from HEIs were published in domestic Chinese journals, accounting for 60.1% of the total in the whole country. In 2014, the latter number reached 392,900, accounting for 67.1% of the total in the whole country (MOST, 2016a). From 2005 to 2013, the sci-tech articles from HEIs had been more than 70% of the total in the whole country (Xiamen University, 2015). During the Tenth Five-Year Plan, 75 national awards for natural science were won by HEIs, accounting for 55.07% of the total. HEIs also won 64 awards for technological invention, accounting for 64.4% of the total (announced), and won

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433 awards for scientific and technological advances, accounting for 53.57% of the total (announced). In 2006, among the national awards for science and technology, Nanjing University, Harbin Institute of Technology, and the University of Hong Kong won all the first prizes for natural science and technology invention. From 2010 to 2014, HEIs won 583 national awards for natural science, 1328 awards for technological invention and 3577 awards for scientific and technological advances, which accounted for about 70% of the national achievements awards in S&T (Xiamen University, 2015). In addition, during the Tenth Five-Year Plan, the MOE, as the department in charge of the national program for tackling the key problems of scientific technology in the agricultural and social fields, made a breakthrough, winning 250 projects from National Foundation for Transformation of Agricultural Technology and 170 million yuan in research funds; over 500 achievements were distributed and transferred benefiting several millions mu of agricultural fields, which resulted in social and economic benefits worth of billions. In 2006, HEIs exported to the society a total of 18,401 technological projects with a trade volume of 6.5 billion, while in 2014, HEIs exported to the society a total of 54,000 technological projects with a trade volume of 31.5 billion (MOST, 2016a). The above data indicate that HEIs have played a key role in the public scientific research in China.

8.2

Features of Research in HEIs

Teaching, research, and social services are the three main functions of HEIs. Knowledge is created by research, distributed by teaching, and applied by social services. These three functions make up the whole process of knowledge production in HEIs. Therefore, compared with the research conducted by the Chinese Academy of Sciences or by the research institutions of line ministries or industries, the research conducted by HEIs has its unique features. First of all, HEIs carry out the twin tasks of producing research achievements and training qualified personnel, among which nurturing qualified personnel is of fundamental importance while scientific research is one of the major measures used to cultivate qualified personnel. Thus, a HEI, with the twin tasks of research and teaching, is both a research institution and a teaching institution. HEIs have to keep a balance between the two tasks and at the same time combine them by including students, especially the postgraduates, in the process of research and embodying the research achievements in teaching to update the teaching contents and improve teaching quality. At present, postgraduate students have become a new force in researches carried out by HEIs. In some HEIs, one-third of the research works are now conducted by postgraduates. Second, HEIs mainly conduct basic research and applied research. The goal of basic and applied research is to enrich scientific and technological knowledge while development research aims at developing new applications of knowledge. Development research is research on substantial improvements of knowledge in

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order to acquire new materials, new products, new technology, new systems, and new services, which are directly related to production. With the advantage of having comprehensive disciplines, qualified personnel in multi-disciplinary fields, and favorable academic environment, HEIs have already become the primary force in conducting basic research and the major force in conducting applied research. It is to be noted that because of the powerful capacity of administrative coordination, it is easier for HEIs to organize research teams to carry out major scientific research projects and establish national research bases. Furthermore, Chinese enterprises have not yet played a key role in technological innovation, unlike in western countries. HEIs in China contributed to the transfer and commercialization of scientific and technological innovation not only through technology transfer and teachers’ taking part-time jobs in enterprises, but also by purchasing shares in enterprises and even directly running high-tech enterprises. This indicates that HEIs in China engage more directly in transferring scientific and technological achievements, and contributing to the economic construction of the country and the development of higher education. Third, HEIs have more flexibility in the deployment of resources. Except some full-time research personnel, the majority of teachers in HEIs carry out both teaching and research, which is favorable for improving the efficiency of the employed qualified personnel, the academic level of teachers, and the quality of teaching. With the increase of research work in HEIs, some part-time research personnel outside HEIs are employed. In addition, most research organizations in HEIs are not considered as distinct legal entities apart from HEI. Therefore, they can avoid a lot of administrative tasks, reduce supporting staff, and focus on research work.

8.3

Organizational Structure of Research in HEIs

The traditional structure of HEIs in China is the three-level structure of ‘university —department—teaching and research office’. A department is an academic unit based on disciplines. Teaching and research office is the subdivision under a department based on specialties to which teachers belong. This traditional structure of HEIs was designed to serve the need of teaching, which could fit the system of nurturing qualified personnel according to the unified state planning and specific specialty. It was the result of the centrally planned economy. At the end of the 1980s, in order to strengthen scientific research, a few HEIs established research institutes at the specialty level and divided up the work between departments and research institutes: departments were in charge of teaching while research institutes were in charge of scientific research. The division of work later changed, making departments responsible for undergraduate education and research institutes responsible for postgraduate education and research. However, whether they were set up in a department or directly affiliated to the university, most research institutes were established within a single discipline,

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171

usually at the level of specialty, which could not meet the needs of big research projects for interdisciplinary and multi-disciplinary joint efforts. The organization of research in HEIs suffered from problems such as the segmentation of research resources, dispersion of research personnel, narrow disciplinary scope covered by research institutes, difficulty in integrating different research teams, and hence inability to carry out major and large research projects. To deal with these problems, a few HEIs have recently been trying to establish research academies across colleges, departments, or disciplines. By doing so, the research resources of HEIs can be combined and the advantage of HEIs, having a full range of disciplines, can be brought into full play. And it is hoped that by doing so, a platform consisting of education, research, and production may be established, which will enable HEIs to carry out major research projects and become the national key bases of science and technology innovation and the open research institutions full of qualified personnel and vitality. Currently, the research organization of Chinese HEIs mostly adopts a four-level vertically administrative structure: university—college—department—research group. 1. University. At the level of the university, there is usually one (sometimes two) vice president who is responsible for research and postgraduate education. The president or one vice president presides over academic review organizations such as the Academic Committee and the Academic Degrees Committee, to handle such academic affairs as disciplinary development, scientific research, and postgraduate education, etc. The Research Division (usually divided into the Research Division of Science and Technology and the Research Division of Humanities and Social Sciences in a large comprehensive university), as the administrative department in charge of research, carries out the following duties: planning the development of science and technology, evaluating research policies, managing research projects, applying for research achievements awards, filing patent applications, protecting intellectual property rights, handling academic exchanges, establishing research bases, and cooperating with enterprises, etc. 2. College. At the level of the college, there is one vice dean in charge of research work, playing the part of communication and coordination. And there is one full-time research secretary who is responsible for the regular administrative affairs of research. 3. Department/Institute. Two types of relationship exist between the department and the research institute. In one type of relationship, the two are parallel units established within a college. The research institute is only responsible for research and postgraduate education. In the other type of relationship, the research institute is established under the department with the department responsible for undergraduate education and administration and the research institute responsible for research and postgraduate education. In the second type of relationship, the research institute is under the direct leadership of the department, and at the same time it is under the supervision of both the college

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and the university. In the second type of relationship, there usually exists one vice director in the department who is in charge of the research work. 4. Research Group. The research group is the basic research unit and one of the most active units in a research organization. With the focus on attaining and fulfilling research projects, the research group has great flexibility. The group leader is responsible for organizing the research staff to carry out the research work. In addition, there exist many other types of research organizations in HEIs, under the direct management of the university; for instance, the national labs, the national key labs, national engineering research centers, national engineering and technology research centers, etc. There are also research organizations with the aim of strengthening the collaboration among different disciplines; for instance, research academies, and interdisciplinary research centers, etc.

8.4

Operation Mechanism of Research in HEIs

After the policy of economic reform and opening-up to the outside world was adopted in China, the operation mechanism of research in HEIs has improved continuously to arouse the enthusiasm and creativity of members and promote the rapid development of research in HEIs. Currently, the research tasks in Chinese HEIs are mainly carried out by individuals, unlike in the past when it was done by collectives. The management system of research too has changed—from being a system of ‘responsibility of every administrative level’ to the system of ‘responsibility of individuals or research groups’. Although it is a collective, a research group, composed of individuals on a voluntary basis, is completely different from the research office of the past. The research funding comes from many sources and not from the government only, as in the past. The ratio of government funding to non-government funding is around 0.6:0.4. The focus of funding has changed from disciplinary development to problem-based or need-based researches. Meanwhile, a competitive funding system has been established, based on performance. 1. Management of Research Staff. Personnel management has been reformed to change the traditional system of ownership in which qualified personnel were permanent employees of a unit and individual teachers were directly managed by the personnel department at the level of the university. A new system of management has been established in which research staff comprises both full-time and part-time employees. 2. Management of Research Organization. The old mode of unit-centered management of research has been replaced by the new mode of project-centered management of research with the research group as the basic research unit. In the new mode, research is managed by the relevant administrative department and supported by the relevant unit. The research project leader in charge of a

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173

research project has abundant autonomy within the approved tasks and budget. He or she can choose group members from different departments and units, and at the same time, has to shoulder the legal responsibility for the progress of research and the use of funds. 3. Management of Research Funding. Currently, the funding sources of research in HEIs include operating expenses from the central government and the local government; expenses for the three items of science and technology (that is, the expense for experimental production of new products, the expense for mid-term experiments, and the subsidy for major research projects); special research expenses from the central government, the local government, or the relevant department; self-generated income (including income from research contracts, from technology services, and from other businesses); loans from banks, and funds from various research foundations established by governments, groups, or individuals. Meanwhile, a competitive funding system based on performance and reflecting the needs of the country has been established in which even the national key projects should be evaluated through application and examination. The aim of this system is to guide researches conducted by HEIs in line with the needs of the country, to avoid self-allocation of resources, self-satisfaction type of assessment, and self-recycling of production, and to provide more support to the HEIs and departments with higher efficiency of research input and output. By doing all the above, it is hoped that research in HEIs can improve its guidance, its aims and its effectiveness. 4. Management of Research Achievements. Management of research achievements includes the following activities: publication, evaluation, registration, classification, counting, applying for awards, distribution, and application of the achievements. The emphasis in the management of research achievements is the registration and counting of the achievements, while the difficulty is the transformation of the achievements in which the potential productivity in the form of knowledge is transformed into productivity in reality. On the one hand, governments have encouraged HEIs to extend their research forces and activities into enterprises, and supported applied research groups, in collaboration with enterprises or by themselves, to found scientific and technological companies. At the same time, governments have formulated policies encouraging the application and dissemination of research outcomes. For instance, it is clearly stated in the policies that research achievements of HEIs belong to the university and the researchers, and that the income from transferring the achievements is shared by the university and the researchers. On the other hand, the evaluation of the professional titles in HEIs has taken the dissemination of technology into consideration with corresponding evaluation standards laid down.

Chapter 9

Teaching Staff in HEIs

Since the reform, higher education in China has made great progress. The rapid expansion of higher education led to a dramatic increase in the teaching staff of HEIs, with an increase of 386,916 full-time teachers from 2006 to 2014 (MOE, 2015a). Meanwhile, advocated and organized by the MOE and the local administrative departments of education, HEIs have introduced many changes in their personnel and allocation systems and have carried out ‘the Plan of Advanced Creative Talents’ in order to improve the distribution of personnel resources, perfect the incentive mechanism of competition, and promote the professional development of the teaching staff.

9.1

Composition of Teaching Staff in HEIs

In 2006, the number of employees in HEIs was 2,058,461, among whom were 1,179,168 full-time teachers, 306,407 administrative personnel, 209,487 supporting staff, 196,247 workers, 33,349 personnel in affiliated research organizations, 52,404 employees in university-run factories and farms, and 81,399 personnel in other subsidiary units (MOE, 2006d). In 2014, HEIs had 2,388,644 employees, consisting of 1,566,048 full-time teachers, 328,409 administrative members, 213,070 supporting staff, 163,557 workers, 29,933 personnel in affiliated research organizations, 30,193 employees in university-run factories and farms, and 57,434 personnel in other subsidiary units (MOE, 2016b). Comparatively speaking, the number of the first three categories of employees increased greatly while the number of other employees decreased significantly since 2006. Three types of HEIs exist in China: regular HEIs, adult HEIs, and other HEIs, whose number of employees in 2006 were 1,872,601, 139,994, and 45,866 respectively; it is to be noted that employees in regular HEIs accounted for 90.97% of the total. In 2014, the employees in three types of HEIs were 2,335,723, 52,921, and 26,290 © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Higher Education Press 2018 J. Gu et al., Higher Education in China, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0845-1_9

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respectively, and the number of the employees in regular HEIs increased greatly, accounting for 96.71% of the total (MOE, 2016b). The following section is an introduction and analysis on the composition of teaching staff in regular HEIs in 2014 (not including the data classified by full-time teacher’s disciplines). The details can be found in Tables 9.1, 9.2, and 9.3. (1) Type. There were 1,534,510 full-time teachers and 424,011 part-time teachers with a ratio of 78.35:21.65. Among the part-time teachers, 74.22% of them taught specialty courses and 0.36% were international faculty members, with a number of 15,432. (2) Gender. Among the full-time teachers, 795,815 were males and 738,695 were females with a ratio of 51.86:48.14. Among the part-time teachers, 262,954 were males and 161,057 were females with a ratio of 62.02:37.88. The above figures show that male teachers were dominant among part-time teachers. (3) Academic Qualification. More than half of full-time teachers in HEIs had a doctor’s degree or master’s degree, making up respectively 20.41% and 36.03% of the total. Part-time teachers having a doctor’s degree or master’s degree in HEIs made up 15.20% and 33.64% of the total, respectively, which was a little lower than that of full-time teachers. The above figures indicate that Table 9.1 Genders, academic qualifications, and professional ranks of the teaching staff in regular HEIs in 2014 (Unit: in Person) Total

Doctor’s degrees

Master’s degrees

Regular program

Short-cycle program

1. Full-time 1,534,510 313,136 552,854 648,230 20,290 teachers Of which: 738,695 107,892 306,501 317,104 7198 female Senior 189,136 92,384 34,636 60,695 1421 Sub-senior 448,625 119,615 110,102 213,896 5012 Middle 613,729 88,700 274,713 242,980 7336 Junior 195,763 1611 90,671 99,860 3621 No rank 87,257 10,826 42,732 30,799 2900 2. Part-time 424,011 64,434 142,618 193,277 23,682 teachers Of which: 161,057 16,327 60,158 77,014 7558 female Senior 79,842 33,469 22,345 22,893 1135 Sub-senior 128,724 18,969 41,604 63,442 4709 Middle 129,631 8501 48,987 63,513 8630 Junior 36,427 576 14,086 18,985 2780 No rank 49,387 2919 15,596 24,444 6428 Foreign 15,432 6269 4510 4596 57 teachers Source http://www.moe.edu.cn/s78/A03/moe_560/jytjsj_2014/2014_qg/index.html. 2016-09-30

29 and under

30–34

35–39

40–44

45–49

Total 1,534,510 221,992 357,844 292,771 226,865 186,599 Senior 189,136 36 1388 8546 27,046 49,651 Sub-senior 448,625 946 29,731 93,920 114,329 97,432 Middle 613,729 55,605 245,018 170,126 77,349 35,753 Junior 195,763 105,697 63,307 15,663 6051 2670 No rank 87,257 59,708 18,400 4516 2090 1093 Source http://www.moe.edu.cn/s78/A03/moe_560/jytjsj_2014/2014_qg/index.html. 2016-09-30

Total

Table 9.2 Ages of full-time teachers in regular HEIs in 2014 (Unit: in Person) 50–54 149,982 54,894 71,694 21,037 1597 760

55–59 69,700 31,673 29,489 7278 705 555

60–64 18,309 10,103 6854 1205 68 79

65 and over 10,448 5799 4230 358 5 56

9.1 Composition of Teaching Staff in HEIs 177

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Table 9.3 Full-time teachers of regular HEIs in different disciplines in 2007 (Unit: in Person) Total

Senior

Sub-senior

Middle

Junior

No rank

Total 1,168,300 119,651 326,300 394,449 256,962 70,938 Philosophy 37,200 4073 11,875 12,651 6614 1987 Economics 70,554 6902 19,878 24,934 14,314 4526 Law 51,518 4764 13,623 18,683 11,314 3134 Education (including 97,511 6054 26,950 33,838 24,511 6158 physical education) Literature (including 247,986 16,589 57,760 85,476 69,643 18,518 foreign language and arts) History 13,320 2274 4082 4295 2021 648 Science 141,527 18,575 45,716 44,841 25,489 6906 Engineering (including 318,014 35,370 91,624 107,495 65,736 17,789 computer science) Agriculture (including 30,966 4535 9776 9917 5039 1699 forestry) Medicine 80,921 13,119 24,080 24,660 15,158 3904 Administration 78,783 7396 20,936 27,659 17,123 5669 Source http://www.moe.edu.cn/s78/A03/moe_560/moe_2896/moe_2904/201001/t20100129_ 50586.html. 2016-09-01

in recent years, with the rapid development of postgraduate education, the full-time teachers with high academic qualifications in HEIs are increasing continuously, but there is still room for further increase. (4) Professional Rank. The composition of professional ranks among full-time teachers in HEIs resembles an olive in shape—a big mid-section with two small ends. Among full-time teachers, those with senior rank, those with sub-senior rank, those with middle rank, those with junior rank, and those with no rank constitute respectively 12.20%, 29.20%, 40.00%, 12.80% and 5.70% of the total. Those with sub-senior rank and those with middle rank make up more than 69% of the total. There is an obvious connection between professional ranks and academic qualifications: those with senior rank and doctor’s degree accounted for 48.85% of the total, which is evidently higher than that of those with sub-senior rank (26.66%) and those with middle rank (14.45%). In addition, different types of HEIs differ in the composition of their full-time teachers’ professional rank. As a whole, HEIs offering undergraduate education had more teachers with senior or sub-senior rank. As far as the administrative relationship is concerned, in HEIs administered by the departments of central government, teachers with senior or sub-senior rank accounted for more than half of the total teaching staff, while in HEIs administered by local governments, the figure was less than 40%. The above differences are associated with the different missions and tasks shouldered by different HEIs.

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(5) Age. The composition of full-time teachers’ age in HEIs was as follows: 29 years and under made up 14.47% of the total, while 30–34, 35–39, 40–44, 45–49, 50–54, 55–59, 60–64, and over 65 years, made up 23.27%, 15.05%, 14.82%, 12.22%, 9.80%, 4.55%, 1.17%, 0.67% of the total, respectively. The full-time teachers under the age of 45 made up 67.61% of the total, which indicates that the majority of full-time teachers are either young or middle-aged. (6) Discipline. Classified by their disciplines, full-time teachers of HEIs in the fields of engineering, literature, sciences, education, medicine, administration, and economics, accounted for 27.22%, 21.23%, 12.11%, 8.35%, 6.93%, 6.74%, 6.04% of the total respectively in 2007. This composition was in accordance with the composition of disciplines in higher education, reflecting the needs of industrialization, urbanization, and economic and social development in China (MOE, 2007e). (7) Advisors. As in western countries, only a few HEIs provide postgraduate education in China. However, different from western countries, only a part of the full-time teachers are qualified for supervising postgraduate students in those Chinese HEIs that offer postgraduate education. There are special requirements for the qualification of postgraduate advisors in Chinese HEIs. Generally speaking, doctoral students’ advisors should have senior professional rank, while master’s students’ advisors should have sub-senior or higher professional rank, both of whom have to pass special assessments before they are qualified for recruiting postgraduate students. In 2014, there were 322,173 senior teachers who had the qualification of postgraduate advisors in HEIs, among whom 154,808 teachers had senior rank and 150,854 teachers had sub-senior rank, accounting for 47.93% of all the full-time teachers with senior or sub-senior rank. Among the 648,916 senior teachers, 75,452 were advisors for doctoral candidates and 246,721 were advisors for students of master’s program. (8) Student-Teacher Ratio. When higher education in China was only for nurturing the elites of the society, the student-teacher ratio in Chinese HEIs was very low. It was 6.83:1 in 1992 and 11.62:1 in 1998. Since 1999, the enrollments of HEIs in China have increased considerably, which speeds up the massification of higher education. In 2014, the student-teacher ratio in Chinese HEIs reached 17.68:1 (17.73:1 in four-year institutions and 17.57:1 in three-year institutions), which has exceeded the general international level of 14:1.

9.2

Recruitment of Teaching Staff in HEIs

After the founding of the PRC, a highly centralized management system was adopted both in the economy and in education, which gave the personnel system in Chinese HEIs characteristics of a planning economy. As the state cadres, teachers in HEIs, once recruited, were permanently employed. They had to accept jobs assigned by the state and submit to the unified management of the government.

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Since the implementation of reform and opening-up, especially after the goal of constructing a socialist market economy was defined in 1992, the Chinese HEIs have begun to reform their personnel recruiting policy following a recruitment system based on positions, that is, positions established according to needs and management based on labor contracts. According to this system, the university designs teaching and research positions in line with the needs of disciplinary development and the tasks of teaching and research; it defines clearly the qualifications, duties and rights of the personnel holding the positions; and, following prescribed procedures, employs personnel for the positions on the basis of openness, excellence, and equal competition. Then, on an equal and voluntary basis, the university and the teaching staff set up a relationship protected by the law by signing contracts. The goal of this recruitment system is the reasonable allocation of qualified personnel by establishing a personnel system based on the combination of responsibilities, rights, and benefits. The core of the position-based recruitment system is that positions are set up in accordance with needs, recruitment is based on excellence, and management done according to labor contracts. With positions set up in accordance with needs, the management of the teaching staff is changed from the management of identity to the management of positions, which strengthens the awareness of the position. With the recruitment based on excellence, the internal promotion of the teaching staff is changed into open recruitment of both domestic and overseas qualified personnel in order to bring the mechanism of competition and optimization into the recruitment of teaching staff. With management according to labor contracts, the life-long employment is changed into employment for a certain period of time defined by the contract in order to establish a personnel system based on the combination of responsibilities, rights, and benefits. 1. Establishment of positions Reasonable allocation of personnel and the implementation of the recruitment system based on positions require that the positions are set up systematically and scientifically. The fundamental aim of establishing the positions is to connect teachers with specific tasks defined by the positions. Because of different tasks, the establishment of teaching positions can be carried out in three ways (Yang, 2006a, 270–272). First, the task-centered way emphasizes the tasks of teaching and research. That is, the positions are set up according to the general task of a university and various specific tasks of different levels and responsibilities. Second, the discipline-centered way emphasizes disciplinary development. That is, the positions are set up according to the different roles played by different disciplines in the development of a university. Much emphasis is placed on the positions concerning the national key disciplines, the disciplines with doctoral programs and master’s programs, disciplines needed urgently by the country, and the new or intercrossed disciplines.

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Third, in setting up positions, the comprehensive way tries to keep a balance between the needs of disciplinary development and the tasks of teaching and research. That is, the positions in ordinary (non-prioritized) disciplines are set up based on the quantum of teaching and research while more emphasis is placed on setting up the positions in the key disciplines and the disciplines in need of immediate development. Some HEIs have also set up flexible positions to meet the needs of practical work. The comprehensive way of establishing the teaching positions combines the previous two methods, maximizing the favorable factors and minimizing the unfavorable factors of the two methods. The comprehensive method has different practices whose key point is that all the teaching positions are grouped into three types, each type further divided into ten levels. The three types of positions are the teaching dominated, research dominated, and discipline dominated.1 For each type, the positions are ranked from high to low into ten levels, in the shape of a pyramid: the higher the position, the lesser the number of positions. In the practice of establishing the positions, the comprehensive method is adopted by most HEIs while task-centered method is often adopted by HEIs focusing on teaching. 2. Procedures of recruitment The recruitment of teaching staff in HEIs usually goes according to the following procedures: (1) Setting up the positions, releasing recruitment advertisement, receiving application materials; (2) Primary selection in basic units such as colleges, departments, etc., according to the predetermined requirements for the positions; (3) Evaluating representative work of the candidates who have passed the primary selection through external anonymous peer-reviews; (4) Face-to-face assessment by interview or trial teaching; (5) Collective assessment by the academic committee of the college or the department with a recommendation made according to the result of voting; (6) Collective assessment by the academic committee of the university or relevant functional department with the final decision made according to the result of voting. The entire process of recruitment and appointment often involves the review of files or application materials, interview, trial teaching, and achievements evaluation.

1

Some HEIs classify the professional positions into 3 types: positions of teaching, positions of research, and positions of both teaching and research. Generally speaking, teaching staff in HEIs should combine the work of teaching and the work of research which have different status in different positions: positions of teaching focusing on the work of teaching, positions of research focusing on research work, and positions of both teaching and research with teaching and research kept in balance.

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The methods of selection and procedures of recruitment and appointment show that the recruitment system of teaching staff in Chinese HEIs is getting close to international practice. 3. Personnel management based on labor contracts With the implementation of position-based recruitment system, the university and the teaching staff, as the employer and the employees, are taken as independent and equal civil subjects whose actions constitute legal actions. The employment based on the contract has a binding force on both the employer and the employee which can make the two sides fulfill their duties and rights conscientiously. And the employment based on the contract is favorable for a rational flow of trained personnel, the abolition of life employment in HEIs, and the optimization of teaching staff in HEIs. The employment contract differs from HEI to HEI and from one teaching position to another in practice, but usually includes the following contents: the rights and duties of teachers, the rights and duties of the university, the tasks of teachers defined by their positions, compensation and welfare conditions of teachers, time limit of the contract, penalties for contract violation, settlement of contract disputes, and commitments made by teachers and the university.

9.3

Assessment of Teaching Staff in HEIs

The term achievement is generally used to indicate the effective actions taken and the goals fulfilled by employees at work within a certain period of time and under certain conditions in order to attain the predetermined goals. Accordingly, the assessment of teachers’ achievements at work mainly refers to the evaluation, through qualitative and quantitative methods, of the teachers’ abilities, working performance, fulfillment of duties, contributions to the university, etc., according to working goals and achievement standards. The aim of the assessment is to let teachers have an idea about their working performance by disclosing to them the results of the assessment, and thus to encourage them to improve their performance. Meanwhile, the results of the assessment form an important basis for teachers’ recruitment, promotion, and position allocation. 1. Principles of assessment (1) Fairness. Generally speaking, the methods and standards of assessment, and the items to be assessed are decided in advance through the process of centralism and then announced in advance. The assessment should be based on facts to avoid subjective judgment or individual bias. What is more, the results of the assessment should be announced and the subject allowed to argue or appeal.

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183

(2) Differences. Uniformity is necessary in various assessments, which means the high quality and high level of scholarship should be the key values guiding all sorts of assessments. However, in practice, the differences in universities, disciplines, types and levels of positions should also be taken into consideration; this would mean having different assessment standards for different subjects to be assessed. (3) Effectiveness. It must be realized that although high quality of teaching staff is the ultimate goal of the assessment, the development and improvement of teaching staff take time. Therefore, it is very important to take into consideration the practical conditions while carrying out the assessment and gradually improve the assessment over the years. (4) Reasonableness. The items to be assessed should be based on the duties defined by a position. During the assessment, several relationships have to be examined reasonably: the relationship between quantity and quality, between uniformity and variety, and between quantitative analysis and qualitative analysis. It would be favorable to adopt qualitative analysis as the main approach, with quantitative analysis as a supplement. 2. Content of assessment The assessment examines whether the duties defined by a position have been fulfilled, whether the annual tasks set out at the beginning of the school year have been achieved, and whether the goals of a position for the term have been attained. Specifically, the main content of the assessment have four aspects: morality, ability, attitude, and achievement. Morality: assessing the political qualities and professional ethics of teachers. Ability: assessing the level of scholarship and working capacity of teachers, which focuses on “doing what” and “how to do it”, including the ability to acquire and apply knowledge, the ability to analyze and solve problems, and the ability to organize and manage. Attitude: assessing teachers’ working ethic, including the sense of responsibility, initiative, enthusiasm about teaching and research, and implementation of rules. Achievement: assessing the working effects of teachers with a focus on the contributions made by teachers: the quantity and quality of the job, the effects of education, academic influence, and social benefits. The assessment often takes the form of qualitative analysis which includes three aspects: teaching, research, and service. For teaching, the assessment is focused on teaching materials, teaching methods, and teaching effects. For research, the assessment is focused on research projects, published works, the awards for achievements, and the dissemination of achievements. For service, the assessment is focused on social services outside the university and the public services at the university. 3. Procedures of assessment The procedures of assessing the working achievements of teaching staff in HEIs normally include the following steps:

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(1) Organization arrangement. A leading group for the assessment is set up by the university, which decides on ways of assessment. Then an assessment committee is set up on the levels of college and department with the persons in charge and the representatives of teachers as the members. The committee is responsible for drawing up specific standards according to the ways of assessment made by the university and then announcing the standards. (2) Self-assessment of teachers. According to the goals for the term of a position, the duties defined by a position, the items to be assessed, and the assessment standards, a teacher should summarize his or her work and make a general comment on his or her own work performance. (3) Collective assessment. First, every teacher gives a report in his or her working unit on his or her own work performance to get some idea about each other’s work performance, and then make a comment on each other’s work. Then the relevant assessment committee draws a conclusion on the assessment after discussion. Generally speaking, the work of teachers in sub-senior positions or below is evaluated by the assessment committee of the department and supervised by the college, while the work of teachers in senior positions is evaluated by the assessment committee of the college and supervised by the university. (4) Handling of result. The result of the assessment is communicated to the teacher after assessment by the leaders of the college or the department. The working effects, weak points, improvements to be done will be pointed out to the teacher to assist the improvement of his or her performance. Meanwhile, the result of the assessment will be taken as an important basis for the recruitment, punishment, and award of the teacher.

9.4

Compensation of Teaching Staff in HEIs

Rational compensation is of great significance in attracting qualified personnel of high level scholarship and enhancing their enthusiasm for the jobs. In a broad sense, the compensation of teachers includes political status, social status, and economic status. The Chinese have the tradition of respecting teachers and valuing education since ancient times. As the professionals conducting teaching and education, teachers in China enjoy a high level of respect in society. As for the economic status, it is stated in the 25th article of Teachers’ Law of the People’s Republic of China that the average pay of teachers should not be lower than or should be higher than that of civil servants, and should be increased gradually. Although teachers in Chinese HEIs are not very rich financially, their income, in general, is at the upper-middle level and they can lead a stable and secure life. 1. Composition of the compensation Compensation is the reward given by the employer to employees for the labor or service they have provided to the organization. At present, the compensation level

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185

and its distribution pattern in Chinese HEIs are generally consistent with the development of the Chinese society and economy, and with the process of personnel system reform in the HEIs. A teacher’s compensation includes salary from the state, subsidy from the university, subsidy from the local government, and welfare income. According to an investigation, in the compensation of teachers in HEIs, salary from the State, subsidy from the university, subsidy from the local government, and welfare income, accounts for 30%, 35%, 25%, 10% of the total amount, respectively. The salary from the state makes up less than one third of the total amount, which has lost its dominant status in the composition (Investigation Team of Allocation Condition of Pay in HEIs, 2004). And the composition of compensation differs greatly among different HEIs. In some HEIs, the subsidy from the university accounts for 70% of the total amount, while it only accounts for less than 1% in others. It is the same case with the salary from the state and the welfare income. The salary from the state in some HEIs can run as high as 70%, while in others as low as 20%; the welfare income in some HEIs can run as high as 44%, while in others as low as 2%. Besides, there are obvious differences of compensation among employees in HEIs. 2. Factors affecting compensation External factors affecting the compensation of teachers in HEIs mainly include laws and policies, the type and character of a university, and the development strategy of a university. (1) Laws and policies. This is the most influential factor. The influence of central and local policies on the compensation of teachers in HEIs has been obvious. The reason why the State policies and the local policies have great influence on the pay of Chinese teachers in HEIs can be analyzed from the composition of the pay. First, the salary from the state for each teacher is calculated according to the compensation policy of the state. Therefore, the compensation policy of the state has a direct influence on the income of teachers in HEIs. Second, the subsidy from the local government is influenced by the local government’s policies of the place where the university is located. Third, the welfare income consists of the housing accumulation fund, old-age insurance, medical insurance, unemployment insurance, etc., whose ratios in the composition of the compensation have to strictly follow the policies of the central and local governments. Fourth, although the subsidy from the university comes from the university’s self-generated funds, the percentage of it that is distributed as compensation for teachers is under the supervision of the administrative departments of education (in the central or local government) and the MOF. (2) Type and character of a university. This is also an important external factor affecting the compensation of teachers in HEIs. Chinese HEIs are divided into public HEIs and private ones because of their different investors. According to their different administrative systems, some public HEIs are administered by the MOE, some by other central ministries, some by provincial departments of education, and some are affiliated to city-level governments. Generally

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speaking, a significant proportion of funding of public HEIs comes from the fiscal allocations of the government. Under the different administrative systems, public HEIs receive their government allocations from the different levels of government that administer them. In China, there are huge differences in the fiscal resources and capabilities among different levels of government, and especially among different provincial governments. The huge difference in the fiscal resources and capabilities of different levels of governments result in sharp differences in the government allocations to public HEIs. Therefore, HEIs under different administrative systems differ greatly in the structure of their funding, which leads to the different expenditure structures of HEIs, which, in turn, affect the compensation of the teachers in different HEIs. (3) Development strategy of a university. The development strategy of a university consists, first of all, in setting the goals of a university and then directing the development in line with the goals. Because of the scarcity of resources, a rational allocation of available resources is of great significance for a university to ensure the fulfillment of its key goals. In other words, the allocation of personnel, material, and money should first meet the needs of the disciplines of strategic importance for the development of a university. What is more, the compensation of the teachers in the disciplines of strategic importance should also be given priority. Internal factors affecting the compensation of teachers in Chinese HEIs mainly include professional ranks, working achievements, and other private factors. (1) Professional Ranks. The value of a professional rank is determined by means of working analysis and working assessment. The value of a professional rank is the important basis for determining the amount of compensation. (2) Working Achievements. This means that the compensation of a teacher is partly decided by the assessment of the teacher’s achievements in order to distinguish excellent working performance from poor working performance and thus encourage the teaching staff to pursue excellence. (3) Private Factors. The skills, education, working experiences, etc., are also the key factors affecting the compensation of the teaching staff in HEIs. It can be said that the yearly-salary system based on negotiations between the institution and the talents has been widely adopted with the deepening of the reform of the employment system, which has greatly promoted the construction of the teaching staff.

Appendix A Higher Education Law of the People’s Republic of China

(Adopted at the 4th Meeting of the Standing Committee of the Ninth People’s Congress on August 29, 1998)

A.1

Chapter I: General Provisions

Article 1. This Law is enacted in accordance with the Constitution and the Education Law with a view to developing higher education, implementing the strategy of developing the country by relying on science and education, and promoting socialist material and ethical progress. Article 2. This Law shall be applicable to higher education conducted within the territory of the People’s Republic of China. For purposes of this Law, higher education means education conducted on the basis of completion of senior middle-school education. Article 3. In developing socialist higher education, the State adheres to Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought and Deng Xiaoping Theory as its guide and follows the basic principles laid down in the Constitution. Article 4. Higher education shall be conducted in adherence with the educational principles of the State, in the service of the socialist modernization drive and in combination with productive labor, in order that the educated become builders and supporters of the socialist cause, and are formed in an all-round way– morally, intellectually and physically. Article 5. The task of higher education is to train people to become senior specialists imbued with the spirit of creativity and practical ability to develop science, technology and culture and to promote the socialist modernization drive. Article 6. In view of the need for economic and social development, the State formulates plans for the development of higher education, runs higher education institutions and promotes higher education in various ways.

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Higher Education Press 2018 J. Gu et al., Higher Education in China, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0845-1

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The State encourages all sectors of society, including enterprises, institutions, public organizations or groups as well as individual citizens, to run higher education institutions in accordance with law and to participate in and support the reform and development of higher education. Article 7. In view of the needs of socialist modernization drive and of the development of a socialist market economy, the State, on the basis of the different types and levels of the existing higher education institutions, advances the restructuring of higher education and the reform of teaching in higher education institutions, and optimizes the structure of higher education and the distribution of resources, in order to improve the quality and increase the efficiency of higher education. Article 8. The State, in view of the characteristics and needs of the ethnic groups, assists and supports the development of higher education in regions inhabited by ethnic peoples for the purpose of training senior specialists among them. Article 9. Citizens shall, in accordance with law, enjoy the right to receive higher education. The State takes measures to enable students who come from ethnic groups and students who have financial difficulties to receive higher education. Higher education institutions shall enroll disabled students who have the admission qualifications prescribed by the State; they may not refuse to enroll them on account of their disability. Article 10. The State, in accordance with law, ensures the freedoms of scientific research, literary and artistic creation and other cultural activities conducted in higher education institutions. Research, literary and artistic creation and other cultural activities in higher education institutions shall be conducted in compliance with law. Article 11. Higher education institutions shall be oriented to the needs of society and shall run the schools on their own and in accordance with law and follow democratic management. Article 12. The State encourages collaboration among higher education institutions, research institutes, enterprises and institutions in order that they all can draw on each other’s strengths and increase the efficiency of educational resources. The State encourages and supports international exchange and cooperation in higher education. Article 13. The State Council shall provide unified guidance and administration for higher education throughout the country. The people’s governments of provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the Central Government shall undertake overall coordination of higher education in their own administrative regions and administer the higher education institutions that mainly train local people and the higher education institutions that are authorized by the State Council. Article 14. The administrative department for education under the State Council shall be in charge of the work of higher education throughout the country and administer the affairs of the higher education institutions designated by the State Council as schools that mainly train people for the country as a whole. Other

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administrative departments concerned under the State Council shall be responsible for the work related to higher education within the limits of their duties defined by the State Council.

A.2

Chapter II: Basic Systems of Higher Education

Article 15. Higher Education includes education for academic qualifications and education for non-academic qualifications. Higher Education takes the forms of full-time schooling and part-time schooling. The State supports higher education conducted through radio, television, correspondence and other long-distance means. Article 16. Higher education for academic qualifications includes special course education, regular course education and graduate program. The following academic levels shall be attained through higher education for academic qualifications: (1) Special course education shall enable students to grasp the basic theories and special knowledge which the course shall offer; it shall also enable them to acquire the basic skills and practical abilities to work in the fields of their specialized subjects. (2) Regular course education shall enable students to grasp more systematically the basic theories and knowledge required by the branches of learning or specialized subjects offered, to grasp the basic skills, methods and relevant knowledge of their specialized subjects, and to acquire the practical abilities to work and do research in the fields of their specialized subjects. (3) The graduate program for candidates working for MA shall enable candidates to grasp firmly the basic theories in their branches of learning and acquire a systematic knowledge of their specialized subjects, to grasp the skills and methods of the relevant discipline, and to acquire the practical ability to work and do research in the fields of their specialized subjects. The graduate program for candidates working for Ph.D. shall enable them to grasp firmly the breadth of the basic theories and the systematic and profound knowledge of the specialized subjects and grasp the skills and methods required by the discipline, and to acquire the skills for doing creative research on their own and of carrying out practical work in their specific fields. Article 17. The basic length of schooling for special course education is from two to three years; for regular course education it is from four to five years; for graduate program for candidates working for MA it is from two to three years; and for candidates working for Ph.D. it is from three to four years. The length of schooling for non-full-time higher education for academic qualifications shall be prolonged properly. Higher education institutions may, in the light of actual needs and with the approval of the competent administrative department for education, readjust the length of schooling in their institutions.

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Article 18. Higher education shall be conducted by higher education institutions and other higher education organizations. Universities and independent colleges shall mainly conduct regular course education and education at higher levels. Specialized higher education schools shall conduct special course education. With the approval of the administrative department for education under the State Council, research institutes may undertake graduate programs. Other higher education organizations shall conduct higher education for non-academic qualifications. Article 19. Graduates from senior middle schools and others having the same educational level, who have passed the entrance examinations, shall be enrolled by higher education institutions that offer the necessary education for academic qualifications and shall acquire the status of special course students or undergraduates. Graduates from universities and people having the same educational level, who have passed the entrance examinations, shall be enrolled by higher education institutions that offer the necessary education for academic qualifications or by research institutes that have obtained approval for undertaking the graduate program, and shall acquire the status of candidates working for MA. People who have completed the graduate program and others who have the same educational level, having passed the entrance examinations, shall be enrolled by higher education institutions that offer the necessary education for academic qualifications or research institutes that have obtained approval for undertaking the graduate program, and shall acquire the status of candidates working for Ph.D. Specific measures for allowing graduates of special branches of learning or specialized subjects directly to acquire the status of candidates working for Ph.D. shall be formulated by the administrative department for education under the State Council. Article 20. Students receiving higher education for academic qualifications shall be issued appropriate academic qualification certificates or other education certificates by their respective higher education institutions or research institutes that have obtained approval of undertaking the graduate program, on the basis of their length of study, academic records and so on and in accordance with the relevant regulations of the State. Students receiving higher education for non-academic qualifications shall be granted appropriate diplomas by their respective higher education institutions or other higher education organizations. In the diplomas shall be recorded the length of study and the subjects studied. Article 21. The State applies a system of higher education examinations for self-taught people, under which those who have passed the examinations shall be issued appropriate academic qualification certificates or other education certificates. Article 22. The State applies a system of academic degrees. The academic degrees include the bachelor’s, the master’s and the doctor’s degrees.

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Citizens who receive higher education through institutions or through self-education and have met the qualifications for academic degrees in terms of their educational level as prescribed by the State, may apply to degree-conferring bodies for the issue of appropriate degrees. Article 23. Higher education institutions and other higher education organizations shall undertake continuing education in the light of social needs and their own conditions for offering such education.

A.3

Chapter III: Establishment of Higher Education Institutions

Article 24. Higher education institutions shall be established in accordance with State plans for the development of higher education and in keeping with the interests of the State and the public; they may not be established for purposes of making profits. Article 25. The basic conditions as provided for in the Education Law shall be fulfilled for establishment of a higher education institution. Universities and independent colleges shall, in addition, have a stronger staff for teaching and research, a higher level of teaching and research, as well as a necessary size of the student body, in order that they can offer regular course education and education at a higher level. Moreover, universities shall offer at least three branches of learning designated by the State as the main courses. The specific requirements for establishment of higher education institutions shall be formulated by the State Council. The specific requirements for establishing other higher education organizations shall be drawn up by the relevant departments authorized by the State Council or by the people’s governments of provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the Central Government in accordance with the principles laid down by the State Council. Article 26. The name to be adopted by a higher education institution shall be consistent with its administrative level, the category it belongs to, the subjects it offers, the size of its student body and its level of teaching and research. Article 27. For the establishment of a higher education institution, the following materials shall be submitted to the approving authority: (1) (2) (3) (4)

an application; feasibility study materials; regulations; and other materials required by the approving authority in accordance with the provisions of this Law.

Article 28. The regulations of a higher education institution shall include the following:

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(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)

Appendix A: Higher Education Law of the People’s Republic of China

name and address of the institution; aims of the institution; size of the student body; branches of learning and subjects offered; forms of education; internal administration system; sources of funds, property, and fiscal system; the rights and obligations of sponsors and the institution; procedure for amendment of the regulations; and other items that must be included in the regulations.

Article 29. The establishment of higher education institutions shall be subject to examination and approval by the administrative department for education under the State Council; the ones for special course education shall be subject to examination and approval by the people’s governments of provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the Central Government that are authorized by the State Council. The establishment of other higher education organizations shall be subject to examination and approval by the relevant departments authorized by the State Council or by the people’s governments of provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the Central Government. The administrative department for education under the State Council shall have the right to abolish the higher education institutions and other higher education organizations, the establishment of which is not examined and approved in accordance with the requirements laid down. For examination and approval of the establishment of higher education institutions, specialists shall be invited to form a panel for appraisal. The division, amalgamation, termination, and alteration of the names, categories or other important matters of higher education institutions and other higher education organizations shall be subject to examination and approval by the original authority that examined and approved their establishment; amendment of regulations shall be subject to verification by the said authority.

A.4

Chapter IV: Organization and Activities of Higher Education Institutions

Article 30. A higher education institution shall acquire the status of a legal person from the date on which its establishment is approved. The president of the higher education institution shall be the legal representative of the institution. A higher education institution shall, in accordance with law, enjoy civil rights and bear civil liabilities in civil affairs. Article 31. Higher education institutions shall concentrate on training students, carry out teaching and research and provide services for the society, and ensure that the quality of education and teaching meet the requirements laid down by the State.

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Article 32. Higher education institutions shall draw up enrollment plans in the light of social needs, the conditions of the institutions, and the size of the student body verified by the State, and readjust on their own the proportions of enrollment for different faculties and subjects. Article 33. Higher education institutions shall, in accordance with law, act on their own in offering and readjusting the branches of learning and specialized subjects. Article 34. Higher education institutions shall, on the basis of the needs of teaching, act on their own in drawing up their teaching programs, compiling teaching materials and making arrangements for their teaching activities. Article 35. Higher education institutions shall, on the basis of their own conditions, act on their own in conducting research, developing technology and providing services for the society. The State encourages higher education institutions to collaborate in various ways with enterprises, institutions, public organizations or groups in research and in development and extensive use of technologies. The State encourages qualified higher education institutions to become research bases of the State. Article 36. Higher education institutions shall, in accordance with the relevant regulations of the State, act on their own in conducting exchange and co-operation with higher education institutions outside of the territory of China in the fields of science, technology and culture. Article 37. Higher education institutions shall, in the light of actual needs and on the principle of simple and efficient administration, act on their own in deciding on the internal structure of the departments for teaching, research and executive function and on the number of staff for different departments. They shall, in accordance with relevant State regulations, assess the performance of teachers and other professional workers and technicians, make appointment to such posts, and readjust the payment of subsidies and salaries. Article 38. Higher education institutions shall, in accordance with law, act on their own in managing and using the property provided by sponsors, the fiscal funds allocated by the State and the contributions and donations received. Education institutions may no longer misappropriate the funds earmarked for teaching and research. Article 39. In higher education institutions run by the State, the system shall be applied under which the presidents take over-all responsibility under the leadership of the primary committees of the Communist Party of China in higher education institutions. Such committees shall, in accordance with the Constitution of the Chinese Communist Party and relevant regulations, exercise unified leadership over the work of the institutions and support the presidents in exercising their functions and powers independently and responsibly. In exercising leadership, the committees shall chiefly perform the following duties: to adhere to the lines, principles and policies of the Chinese Communist Party, to keep to the socialist orientation in

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running the schools, to provide guidance to ideological and political work and moral education in the institutions, to discuss and decide on the internal structure and directors of departments of the institutions, reform, development and basic management systems of the institutions and other important matters, and to ensure fulfillment of all the tasks centering on the training of students. The internal management systems of higher education institutions run by different sectors of society shall be established by such sectors in accordance with the regulations of the State governing such institutions. Article 40. The post of the president of a higher education institution shall be held by a citizen who meets the qualifications for the post as provided for in the Education Law. Presidents and vice-presidents of higher education institutions shall be appointed and removed according to the relevant regulations of the State. Article 41. The president of a higher education institution undertakes overall responsibility for the institution’s teaching, research and administrative affairs, and exercises the following duties: (1) to draw up development plans, formulate specific rules and regulations and annual work plans, and arrange for their implementation; (2) to arrange for teaching, research and ideological and moral education; (3) to draw up plans for internal structure, nominate candidates for vice-presidents, and appoint and remove directors of departments of the institution; (4) to appoint and dismiss teachers and other workers of the institution, keep control of the school roll, and give reward and punishment to students; (5) to draw up and implement annual fiscal budget, protect and manage the property of the institution, and protect the lawful rights and interests of the institution; and (6) other duties provided for in the regulations of the institution. The president of a higher education institution chairs the council of presidents or presides over the administrative affairs meetings of the institution, and handles the affairs prescribed in the preceding paragraph. Article 42. In a higher education institution an academic committee shall be set up to deliberate on the disciplines and specialties to be offered, the teaching and research plans, and the evaluation of the achievements in teaching and research. Article 43. Higher education institutions shall, in accordance with law and through the conference of representatives of teachers and administrative staff with teachers as its main body, or through other forms, guarantee that teachers and staff workers are involved in the democratic management and supervision of the institutions and safeguard their lawful rights and interests. Article 44. The manner of running the higher education institutions and the quality of teaching in higher education institutions shall be subject to the supervision of administrative departments for education and to evaluation organized by them.

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A.5

195

Chapter V: Teachers and Other Educational Workers of Higher Education Institutions

Article 45. Teachers and other educational workers of higher education institutions shall enjoy the rights prescribed by law, fulfill the obligations prescribed by law, and devote themselves to the cause of the people’s education. Article 46. A qualification system shall be instituted among teachers in higher education institutions. Chinese citizens, who abide by the Constitution and laws, love education as a cause, have sound ideology and moral character, have completed undergraduate or graduate programs, have the necessary competence in education and teaching, and are considered qualified, may serve as teachers in higher education institutions. Citizens, who have not completed undergraduate or graduate programs but have acquired a specialty through study, have passed national examinations for qualifications of teachers, and are considered qualified, may likewise serve as teachers in such institutions. Article 47. A system of professional titles shall be instituted among teachers in higher education institutions. The number of such titles shall be determined on the basis of the need of teaching, research and other tasks which are shouldered by the institutions. The professional titles of teachers include Teaching Assistant, Lecturer, Associate Professor and Professor. To acquire any of the professional titles prescribed in the preceding paragraph, a teacher shall meet the following basic requirements: (1) be qualified as a teacher in a higher education institution; (2) have a systematic mastery of the basic theories of his branch of learning; (3) have the necessary competence in education, teaching and research as required by the title he is to hold; and (4) should handle the curriculum commensurate with the title and the teaching assignments in required class hours. Professors and associate professors, in addition to the basic requirements as mentioned above, shall possess systematic and sound basic theories of their branches of learning, have comparatively rich experience in teaching and research, have achieved remarkable successes in teaching, and have produced comparatively high level of thesis or works or achieved outstanding results in teaching and research. The specific requirements for professional titles in higher education institutions shall be formulated by the State Council. Article 48. A system of appointment shall be instituted among teachers in higher education institutions. A person, after being evaluated as qualified for holding a teaching post, shall be appointed by a higher education institution according to the duties, requirements and tenure of office for the post. Appointment of teachers in higher education institutions shall be based on the principle of equality and voluntariness on both sides and contracts of appointment shall be signed by presidents of higher education institutions and the teachers appointed.

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Article 49. A system of educational administrators shall be instituted among administrative and managerial personnel in higher education institutions. A system of appointment for professional workers and technicians shall be instituted for auxiliary teaching staff and other professional workers and technicians in higher education institutions. Article 50. The State protects the lawful rights and interests of teachers and other educational workers of higher education institutions and takes measures to improve their working and living conditions. Article 51. Higher education institutions shall create conditions and provide convenience for teachers to undergo training, conduct research and take part in academic exchange. Higher education institutions shall assess the ideology, political performance, professional ethics, professional skill and actual achievements of teachers, administrative and managerial personnel, auxiliary teaching staff and other professional workers and technicians, and the results of the assessment shall serve as the basis for appointment, dismissal, promotion, reward and punishment. Article 52. Teachers, administrative and managerial personnel, auxiliary teaching staff and other professional workers and technicians in higher education institutions shall do their own work well, concentrating on teaching and training students.

A.6

Chapter VI: Students of Higher Education Institutions

Article 53. Students of higher education institutions shall abide by the laws and regulations, observe the norms of conduct for students and the management systems of the schools, respect teachers, work hard in their studies, build up their physiques and the concepts of patriotism, collectivism and socialism, diligently study Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought and Deng Xiaoping Theory, have sound ideology and moral character, grasp a comparatively high level of scientific and cultural knowledge and specialized skills. The lawful rights and interests of students of higher education institutions shall be protected by law. Article 54. Students of higher education institutions shall pay the tuition fees according to the regulations of the State. Students from families with financial difficulties may apply for subsidies or reduction of or exemption from such fees. Article 55. The State establishes scholarships and encourages higher education institutions, enterprises, public organizations or groups and individuals to establish scholarships in a variety of ways in accordance with the relevant regulations of the State to be awarded to students of good character and academic achievements, students in specialties specified by the State and students going to work in State-assigned areas.

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The State establishes work-study fund and student loans for students of higher education institutions and encourages higher education institutions, other institutions, enterprises, public organizations or groups and individuals to establish stipends in a variety of ways to provide assistance for students who come from families with financial difficulties. Students receiving student loans or stipends shall fulfill the corresponding obligations. Article 56. Students of higher education institutions may take part in community services and work-study activities during their spare time, provided that this does not prevent them from completing their studies. Higher education institutions shall encourage and support students to take part in community services and work-study activities, and provide guidance and exercise control in this respect. Article 57. Students of a higher education institution may form their own organizations. In school, student organizations shall conduct their activities within the limits defined by laws and regulations and obey leadership and accept the control of the school authorities. Article 58. Students of higher education institutions shall be permitted to graduate, if they are qualified in their ideology and moral character, have completed the study of the courses required during the required length of schooling, and have passed the examinations or got all the credits required. Article 59. Higher education institutions shall provide guidance and services with respect to job opportunities for graduates and students who have completed certain courses. The State encourages graduates of higher education institutions to go and work in outlying areas and places where conditions are hard.

A.7

Chapter VII: Input to Higher Education and Guarantee of Conditions

Article 60. The State institutes a system wherein government appropriations constitute the bulk of the funds for higher education, to be supplemented by funds raised through various avenues, so as to ensure that the development of higher education is suited to the level of economic and social development. The State Council and the people’s governments of provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the Central Government shall, in accordance with the provisions in Article 55 of the Education Law, ensure that funds for State-run higher education institutions gradually increase. The State encourages enterprises, institutions, public organizations or groups and individuals to invest in higher education. Article 61. Sponsors of higher education institutions shall ensure stable sources of funding for education, and they may not draw back the funds they put in education.

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Article 62. The administrative department for education under the State Council shall, in conjunction with other relevant departments under the State Council, and on the basis of the annual cost of education per enrolled student, formulate the annual norms of expenditure for higher education institutions and the basic principles for raising educational funds. The administrative departments for education of the people’s governments of provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the Central Government shall, in conjunction with other relevant departments, work out the annual norms of expenditure for higher education institutions in their respective administrative areas and measures for raising educational funds, which shall serve as the basis for sponsors and higher education institutions in raising funds for education. Article 63. The State adopts preferential policies with regard to the books and other materials and equipment for teaching and research imported by higher education institutions and to the industrial undertakings run by such institutions. Earnings from industrial undertakings run by higher education institutions or from transfer of their intellectual property rights or other scientific and technological achievements shall be used for the running of such institutions. Article 64. The tuition fees collected by higher education institutions shall be controlled and used in accordance with the relevant regulations of the State, no other institutions or individuals may use them for other purposes. Article 65. Higher education institutions shall, according to law, establish and improve the fiscal management system, properly use and strictly control educational funds, and make the best of the investment in education. Fiscal activities of higher education institutions shall be subject to the supervision according to law.

A.8

Chapter VIII: Supplementary Provisions

Article 66. Anyone who violates the provisions of the Education Law in conducting higher education shall be punished according to the relevant provisions of the Education Law. Article 67. Individuals from outside the territory of China who meet the conditions prescribed by the State and who have completed the necessary formalities may enter higher education institutions in China to pursue their studies and research, to conduct academic exchange or to teach, and their lawful rights and interest shall be protected by the State. Article 68. For purposes of this Law, higher education institutions are universities, independent colleges, and specialized higher education schools, including higher vocational schools and higher education schools for adults. Other higher education organizations referred to in this Law are organizations engaged in higher education other than the higher education institutions and the research institutes approved to provide graduate program.

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199

The provisions of this Law regarding higher education institutions are applicable to other higher education organizations and research institutes approved to provide graduate program, except the provisions that are applicable especially to higher education institutions. Article 69. This Law shall go into effect as of January 1, 1999.

Appendix B Regulations on Academic Degrees of the People’s Republic of China

(Adopted at the 13th meeting of the Standing Committee of the Fifth National People’s Congress on February 12, 1980, and revised according to the “Decision on the Revision of the Regulations on Academic Degrees of the People’s Republic of China” made at the 11th meeting of the Standing Committee of the 10th National People’s Congress on August 28, 2004.) Article 1. These Regulations are formulated for the purpose of promoting the growth of specialized personnel, enhancing the academic scholarship of various disciplines, promoting the development of education and science, and meeting the needs of the socialist modernization drive in our country. Article 2. Citizens who support the leadership of the Communist Party of China and the socialist system, and have attained certain academic levels may apply for corresponding academic degrees in accordance with the provisions of these Regulations. Article 3. Academic degrees shall be of three grades: the bachelor's degree, the master's degree, and the doctor's degree. Article 4. The bachelor's degree shall be conferred on graduates from higher education institutions who have good academic records and have attained the following academic levels: (1) having a relatively good grasp of basic theories, specialized knowledge and basic skills in the discipline concerned; and (2) having initially acquired the ability to undertake scientific research or to engage in specialized technical work. Article 5. The master's degree shall be conferred on postgraduates from higher education institutions or scientific research institutes or on persons with qualifications equivalent to postgraduates on graduation, who have passed examinations in the required courses for the master's degree, successfully defended their theses, and have attained the following academic levels:

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Higher Education Press 2018 J. Gu et al., Higher Education in China, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0845-1

201

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(1) having a firm grasp of basic theories and systematic, specialized knowledge in the discipline concerned; and (2) having the ability to undertake scientific research or to independently engage in specialized technical work. Article 6. The doctor's degree shall be conferred on postgraduates from higher education institutions or scientific research institutes or on persons with qualifications equivalent to postgraduates on graduation, who have passed examinations in the required courses for the doctor's degree, successfully defended their dissertations, and have attained the following academic levels: (1) having a firm grasp of broad basic theories, and systematic and in-depth specialized knowledge in the discipline concerned; and (2) having the ability to undertake independent scientific research; and (3) having made creative achievements in science or specialized technologies. Article 7. The State Council shall establish an Academic Degrees Committee to direct the work of conferring academic degrees throughout the country. The Academic Degrees Committee shall consist of one chairman, and several vice-chairmen and other committee members. The chairman, vice-chairmen and other committee members shall be appointed and removed by the State Council. Article 8. The bachelor's degree shall be conferred by the higher education institutions authorized by the State Council. The master's degree and the doctor's degree shall be conferred by the higher education institutions and scientific research institutes authorized by the State Council. A list of the higher education institutions and scientific research institutes that may confer academic degrees (hereinafter referred to as “degree-conferring units”) and the disciplines in which academic degrees may be conferred shall be submitted to the State Council by the Academic Degrees Committee for approval and promulgation. Article 9. Each degree-conferring unit shall establish an academic degree evaluation committee, and form dissertation defense committees for the disciplines concerned. A dissertation defense committee must include relevant specialists from other units, and the committee members shall be selected and determined by the degree-conferring unit concerned. A list of the members of the academic degree evaluation committee shall be submitted to the degree-conferring unit for approval, and then shall be presented by the degree-conferring unit to the relevant department of the State Council and the Academic Degrees Committee of the State Council for record. Article l0. The dissertation defense committee shall be responsible for examining master's degrees theses or doctor's degrees dissertations, organizing their oral defense, and adopting resolutions on whether or not to confer the master's or doctor's degrees. Each resolution shall be adopted by a secret ballot and with a two-thirds majority of the committee members supporting it, and then submitted to the academic degree evaluation committee.

Appendix B: Regulations on Academic Degrees ...

203

The academic degree evaluation committee shall be responsible for examining and approving the list of conferees of the bachelor's degree and for making decisions on whether or not to approve each resolution on the conferment of a master's or doctor's degree submitted by the dissertation defense committee. Each decision shall be adopted by a secret ballot and with a fifty percent majority of the committee members supporting it. The list of persons to be conferred a master's or doctor's degree shall be submitted to the Academic Degrees Committee of the State Council for record. Article 11. After a resolution to confer an academic degree has been adopted by the academic degree evaluation committee, the degree-conferring unit shall issue a corresponding diploma to the conferee of the academic degree. Article 12. Postgraduates who have completed their studies in units that are not authorized to confer academic degrees may, upon the recommendation of their respective units, apply to nearby degree-conferring units for academic degrees. They shall be conferred corresponding degrees after their applications have been examined and approved by the degree-conferring units and have successfully defended their dissertations and attained the academic levels stipulated in these Regulations. Article 13. Upon the recommendation of relevant specialists and with the approval of the degree-conferring units, those who have published important works or made inventions, discoveries or other contributions to the development of science or specialized technologies may be exempt from examinations in the required courses for the doctor's degree and may directly participate in the oral defense of their doctoral dissertations. Those who have successfully defended their dissertations shall be conferred the doctor's degree. Article 14. Distinguished scholars and well-known social activists, both Chinese and foreigners, may be conferred an honorary doctor's degree, upon the nomination of a degree-conferring unit and with the approval of the Academic Degrees Committee of the State Council. Article 15. Foreign students studying in China and foreign scholars engaged in research work in China may apply to a degree-conferring unit for academic degrees. Those who have attained the academic levels stipulated in these Regulations shall be conferred corresponding degrees. Article 16. If an academic group or a unit not authorized to confer academic degrees does not concur with a resolution or decision on the conferment of an academic degree, it may address its objection to the degree-conferring unit or the Academic Degrees Committee of the State Council, which shall study and deal with the objection thus addressed. Article 17. If irregularities, fraudulent practices or other situations in serious violation of the provisions of these Regulations are discovered, the degree-conferring unit concerned may revoke the degrees already conferred, after reconsideration by its academic degree evaluation committee.

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Article 18. If it is definitely established that a unit authorized to confer academic degrees has not been able to maintain the academic levels of the academic degrees conferred, the State Council may suspend or revoke its status as a degree-conferring unit. Article 19. Measures for the implementation of these Regulations shall be formulated by the Academic Degrees Committee of the State Council and submitted to the State Council for approval. Article 20. These Regulations shall come into effect as of January 1, 1981.

Appendix C ‘211 Project’ and ‘985 Project’

C.1

“211 Project”

On February 13th 1993, the Outlines of Education Reform and Development in China was formulated by the CPC Central Committee and the State Council. It says that in order to meet the challenges of new technology reform in the 21st century, around 100 higher education institutions and a group of key disciplines and majors will be given, in batches, the support both from the central government and the local governments. It is done with the hope that a great improvement will be made in the teaching quality, research work, management and operation effectiveness of these higher education institutions. The ultimate goal of the Outlines is to promote a group of higher education institutions, disciplines and majors to approach or meet world class standards by the beginning of the 21st century. Thus, the name of this project ‘211 Project’ came into being. In other words, in the 21st century, major support will be given to about 100 higher education institutions and a group of key disciplines. Since the establishment of ‘211 Project’ during the Ninth Five-year Plan period, both the central government and the local governments have inputted a great amount of funds to a group of higher education institutions and key disciplines. The teaching and research conditions of these higher education institutions have been greatly improved, and the key disciplines have become the major bases for national technological innovation and high-level personnel training.

C.2

‘985 Project’

On May 4th 1998, the then General Secretary of CPC Central Committee Jiang, Zemin solemnly declared at the celebration of the 100th founding anniversary of Peking University that our country needs world class universities in order to achieve the goal of modernization. To implement the strategy of rejuvenating China through science and education and the spirit of the remarks of Jiang, Zemin, the © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Higher Education Press 2018 J. Gu et al., Higher Education in China, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0845-1

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206

MOE has, since 1999, carried out the Plan of Education Promotion in the 21st Century in which much support has been given in batches to a group of higher education institutions such as Peking University and Tsinghua University to help them become world class universities and first-rate research institutes. This is what is briefly called ‘985 Project’.

List of the universities of ‘211 Project’ and ‘985 Project’ No.

Title

Website

Location (City)

1

Peking University*

Beijing

2

Renmin University of China*

3

Tsinghua University*

4

Beijing Jiaotong University

5

Beijing University of Technology

6

Beijing University of Aeronautics & Astronautics*

7

Beijing Institute of Technology*

8

University of Science and Technology Beijing*

9

Beijing University of Chemical Technology

10 11

Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications China Agricultural University*

12

Beijing Forestry University

13

Beijing University of Chinese Medicine

14

Beijing Normal University*

15

Beijing Foreign Studies University

16

Communication University of China

17

University of International Business and Economics Minzu University of China*

http://www.pku. edu.cn/ http://www.ruc. edu.cn/ http://www. tsinghua.edu.cn/ http://www.njtu. edu.cn/ http://www.bjpu. edu.cn/ http://www.buaa. edu.cn/ http://www.bit.edu. cn/ http://www.ustb. edu.cn/ http://www.buct. edu.cn/ http://www.bupt. edu.cn/ http://www.cau. edu.cn/ http://www.bjfu. edu.cn/ http://www.bucm. edu.cn/ http://www.bnu. edu.cn/ http://www.bfsu. edu.cn/ http://www.bbi. edu.cn/ http://www.uibe. edu.cn/ http://www.cun. edu.cn/

18

Beijing Beijing Beijing Beijing Beijing Beijing Beijing Beijing Beijing Beijing Beijing Beijing Beijing Beijing Beijing Beijing Beijing (continued)

Appendix C: ‘211 Project’ and ‘985 Project’

207

(continued) No.

Title

Website

Location (City)

19

Central Conservatory of Music

Beijing

20

China University of Mining & Technology, Beijing

21

Central University of Finance and Economics

22

China University of Political Science and Law

23

China University of Petroleum, Beijing*

24

Beijing Sport University

25

North China Electric Power University(Beijing)

26

China University of Geosciences (Beijing)

27

Nankai University*

28

Tianjin University*

29

Tianjin Medical University

30

Hebei University of Technology

31

North China Electric Power University

32

Taiyuan University of Technology

33

Inner Mongolia University

34

Liaoning University

35

Dalian University of Technology*

36

Dalian Maritime University

37

Northeastern University*

38

Jilin University*

39

Yanbian University

40

Northeast Normal University

http://www.ccom. edu.cn/ http://www.cumtb. edu.cn/ http://www.cufe. edu.cn/ http://www.cupl. edu.cn/ http://www.bjpeu. edu.cn/ http://www.bsu. edu.cn/ http://www.ncepu. edu.cn/ http://www.cugb. edu.cn/ http://www.nankai. edu.cn/ http://www.tju.edu. cn/ http://www.tijmu. edu.cn/ http://www.hebut. edu.cn/ http://www.ncepu. edu.cn/ http://www.tyut. edu.cn/ http://www.imu. edu.cn/ http://www.lnu. edu.cn/ http://www.dlut. edu.cn/ http://www.dlmu. edu.cn/ http://www.neu. edu.cn/ http://www.jlu.edu. cn/ http://www.ybu. edu.cn/ http://www.nenu. edu.cn/

Beijing Beijing Beijing Beijing Beijing Beijing Beijing Tianjin Tianjin Tianjin Tianjin Baoding Taiyuan Huhhot Shenyang Dalian Dalian Shenyang Changchun Yanji Changchun (continued)

Appendix C: ‘211 Project’ and ‘985 Project’

208 (continued) No.

Title

Website

Location (City)

41

Northeast Forestry University

Harbin

42

Harbin Institute of Technology*

43

Harbin Engineering University

44

Northeast Agricultural University

45

Fudan University*

46

Tongji University*

47

Shanghai Jiao Tong University*

48

East China University of Science and Technology

49

Donghua University

50

Shanghai Second Medical University

51

East China Normal University*

52

Shanghai International Studies University

http://www.nefu. edu.cn/ http://www.hit.edu. cn/ http://www.hrbeu. edu.cn/ http://www.neau. edu.cn/ http://www.fudan. edu.cn/ http://www.tongji. edu.cn/ http://www.sjtu. edu.cn/ http://www.ecust. edu.cn/ http://www.dhu. edu.cn/ http://www.shsmu. edu.cn/ http://www.ecnu. edu.cn/ http://www.shisu. edu.cn/ http://www.shufe. edu.cn/ http://www.shu. edu.cn/ http://www.nju. edu.cn/ http://www.suda. edu.cn/ http://www.seu. edu.cn/ http://www.nuaa. edu.cn/ http://www.njust. edu.cn/ http://www.cumt. edu.cn/ http://www.hhu. edu.cn/

Shanghai University of Finance and Economics 53

Shanghai University

54

Nanjing University*

55

Suzhou University

56

Southeast University*

57

Nanjing University of Aeronautics & Astronautics

58

Nanjing University of Science and Technology

59

China University of Mining and Technology*

60

Hohai University

Harbin Harbin Harbin shanghai shanghai shanghai shanghai shanghai shanghai shanghai shanghai shanghai shanghai Nanjing Suzhou Nanjing Nanjing Nanjing Xuzhou Nanjing (continued)

Appendix C: ‘211 Project’ and ‘985 Project’

209

(continued) No.

Title

Website

Location (City)

61

Jiangnan University

Wuxi

62

Nanjing Normal University

63

Nanjing Agricultural University

64

China Pharmaceutical University

65

Zhejiang University*

66

Anhui University

67

University of Science and Technology of China*

68

Hefei University of Technology

69

Xiamen University*

70

Fuzhou University

71

Nanchang University

72

Shandong University*

73

Ocean University of China*

74

China University of Petroleum (East China)

75

Zhengzhou University

76

Wuhan University*

77

Huazhong University of Science and Technology*

78

China University of Geosciences

79

Wuhan University of Technology

80

Central China Normal University

81

Huazhong Agricultural University

http://www. jiangnan.edu.cn/ http://www.njnu. edu.cn/ http://www.njau. edu.cn/ http://www.cpu. edu.cn/ http://www.zju. edu.cn/ http://www.ahu. edu.cn/ http://www.ustc. edu.cn/ http://www.hfut. edu.cn/ch/ http://www.xmu. edu.cn/ http://www.fzu. edu.cn/ http://www.ncu. edu.cn/ http://www.sdu. edu.cn/ http://www.ouc. edu.cn/ http://www.hdpu. edu.cn/ http://www.zzu. edu.cn/ http://www.whu. edu.cn/ http://www.hust. edu.cn/ http://www.cug. edu.cn/ http://www.whut. edu.cn/ http://www.ccnu. edu.cn/ http://www.hzau. edu.cn/

Nanjing Nanjing Nanjing Hangzhou Hefei Hefei Hefei Xiamen Fuzhou Nanchang Jinan Qingdao Dongying zhengzhou Wuhan Wuhan Wuhan Wuhan Wuhan Wuhan (continued)

Appendix C: ‘211 Project’ and ‘985 Project’

210 (continued) No.

Title

Website

Location (City)

82

Zhongnan University of Economics and Law

Wuhan

83 84

Hunan University* Central South University*

85

Hunan Normal University

86

Sun Yat-sen University*

87

Jinan University

88

South China University of Technology*

89

South China Normal University

90

Guangxi University

91

Chongqing University*

92

Southwest University

93

Sichuan University*

94

Southwest Jiaotong University*

95

Sichuan Agricultural University

96

Southwest University of Finance and Economics

97 98

University of Electronic Science and Technology of China* Guizhou University

99

Yunnan University

101

Northwest University

102

Xian Jiaotong University*

103

Northwestern Polytechnic University*

104

Xidian University

http://www.znufe. edu.cn/ http://www.hnu.cn/ http://www.csu. edu.cn/ http://www.hunnu. edu.cn/ http://www.sysu. edu.cn/ http://www.jnu. edu.cn/ http://www.scut. edu.cn/ http://www.scnu. edu.cn/ http://www.gxu. edu.cn/ http://www.cqu. edu.cn/ http://www.swnu. edu.cn/ http://www.scu. edu.cn/ http://www.swjtu. edu.cn/ http://www.sicau. edu.cn/ http://www.swufe. edu.cn/ http://www.uestc. edu.cn/ http://www.gzu. edu.cn/ http://www.ynu. edu.cn/ http://www.nwu. edu.cn/ http://www.xjtu. edu.cn/ http://www.nwpu. edu.cn/ http://www.xidian. edu.cn/

Changsha Changsha Changsha Guangzhou Guangzhou Guangzhou Guangzhou Nanning Chongqing Chongqing Chengdu Chengdu Yaan Chengdu Chengdu Guiyang Kunming Xian Xian Xian Xian (continued)

Appendix C: ‘211 Project’ and ‘985 Project’

211

(continued) No.

Title

105

Chang’an University

106 107 108 109 110 111 113 114 Note

Website

http://www.xahu. edu.cn/ Shaanxi Normal University http://www.snnu. edu.cn/ Northwest A&F University* http://www. nwsuaf.edu.cn/ Lanzhou University* http://www.lzu. edu.cn/ Xinjiang University http://www.xju. edu.cn/ Shihezi University http://www.shzu. edu.cn/ The Second Military Medical University http://www.smmu. edu.cn/ The Fourth Military Medical University http://www.fmmu. edu.cn/ National University of Defense Technology* http://www.nudt. edu.cn/ Those with the asterisk “*” are also the universities of ‘985 Project’

Location (City) Xian Xian Yangling Lanzhou Urumqi Shihezi Shanghai Xian Changsha

Appendix D National Model Tertiary Vocational and Technical Colleges

D.1

The Plan of Setting up National Model

D.1.1

Tertiary Vocational and Technical Colleges

According to the requirements of the Decision on Promoting Vocational Education made by the State Council in 2005, the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Finance are responsible for carrying out the Plan of Setting up National Model Tertiary Vocational and Technical Colleges from 2006 to 2010. A gradual approach to the implementation of the plan is adopted in which approximately 100 tertiary vocational and technical colleges with clear objectives and orientation, close connection between production and teaching and with prominent achievements in reform will be selected from different areas annually and given major support. The goal is to strengthen the comprehensive capacity, establish the key specialties, and enlarge the social service functions of the chosen tertiary vocational and technical colleges, which can set good examples for the rest of the tertiary vocational and technical colleges throughout China and help them develop their own unique features and improve their quality. List of national model tertiary vocational and technical colleges No.

Title

Website

Location (City)

1

Beijing Vocational College of Agriculture

http://www.bvca.edu.cn/

Beijing

2

Beijing Vocational College of Electronic Science

http://211.103.139.205/

Beijing

3

Beijing Polytechnic College

http://www.bgy.org.cn/

Beijing

4

Beijing Vocational College of Finance and Commerce

http://www.bjczy.edu.cn/

Beijing

(continued)

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Higher Education Press 2018 J. Gu et al., Higher Education in China, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0845-1

213

214

Appendix D: National Model Tertiary Vocational ...

(continued) 5

Tianjin Vocational Institute

http://www.tjtc.edu.cn/

Tianjin

6

Sino- German Vocational Training Centre

http://www.zdtj.cn/

Tianjin

7

Tianjin Medical College

http://www.tjyzh.cn/

Tianjin

8

Tianjin Vocational College of Electronic Information

http://www.tjdz.net/

Tianjin

9

Xingtai Vocational and Technical College

http://www.xpc.edu.cn/

Xingtai

10

Chengde Petroleum College

http://www.cdpc.edu.cn/

Chengde

11

Shijiazhuang Institute of Railway Technology

http://www.sirt.edu.cn/

Shijiazhuang

12

Hebei College of Industry and Technology

http://www.hbcit.edu.cn

Shijiazhuang

13

Shanxi Finance & Taxation College

http://www.sxftc.edu.cn/

Taiyuan

14

Shanxi Engineering Vocational College

http://www.sxgy.cn/

Taiyuan

15

Inner Mongolia Technical College of Construction

http://www.imaa.edu.cn/

Huhhot

16

Baotou Vocational & Technical College

http://btzy.nm.edu.cn/

Baotou

17

Liaoning Provincial College of Communications

http://www.lncc.edu.cn/

Shenyang

18

Shenyang Polytechnic College

http://www.vtcsy.com/

Shenyang

19

Dalian Vocational Technical College

http://www.dlvtc.edu.cn/

Dalian

20

Liaoning Agricultural Vocation-Technical College

http://www.lnnzy.ln.cn/

Yingkou

21

Changchen Automobile Industry Institute

http://www.caii.edu.cn/

Changchen

22

Changchen Vocational Institute of Technology

http://www.cvit.com.cn/

Changchen

23

Jilin Vocational College of Industry and Technology

http://www.jvcit.edu.cn/

Jilin

24

Heilongjiang Vocational College of Agricultural Engineering

http://www.hngzy.com/

Harbin

25

Daqing Vocational College

http://www.dqzyxy.net/

Daqing

26

Hei Long Jiang Agricultural Economy Vocational College

http://www.nyjj.net.cn/

Mudanjiang

27

Wuxi Institute of Technology

http://www.wxit.edu.cn/

Wuxi

28

Wuhu Institute of Technology

http://www.whptu.ah.cn/

Wuhu

29

Suzhou Industrial Park Institute of Vocational Technology

http://www.sipivt.edu.cn/

Suzhou

30

Changzhou College of Information Technology

http://www.ccit.js.cn/

Changzhou

31

Jiangsu Polytechnic College of Agriculture and Forestry

http://www.jsafc.net/

Jurong

32

Nantong Textile Vocational Technology college

http://www.nttec.edu.cn/

Nantong

33

Xuzhou Institute of Architectural Technology

http://www.xzcat.edu.cn/

Xuzhou

34

Anhui Vocational and Technical College

http://www.ahtu.ah.cn/

Hefei

35

Anhui Technical College of Water Resources and Hydroelectric Power

http://www.ahsdxy.edu.cn/

Hefei

36

Weihai Vocational College

http://www.weihaicollege. com/

Weihai

(continued)

Appendix D: National Model Tertiary Vocational ...

215

(continued) 37

Qingdao Technical College

http://www.qtc.edu.cn/

38

Zibo Vocational Institute

http://www.zbvc.cn/

Zibo

39

Shandong Institute of Commerce and Technology

http://www.sict.edu.cn/

Jinan

40

Rizhao Polytechnic

http://www.rzpt.cn/

Rizhao

41

Shandong Vocational College of Science & Technology

http://www.sdzy.com.cn/

Weifang

42

Shanghai Institute of Health Science

http://www.sihs.cn/

Shanghai

43

Shanghai Arts & Crafts Vocational College

http://gymy.shedu.net/

Shanghai

44

Shanghai Police College

http://www.shpc.edu.cn/

Shanghai

45

Shanghai Institute of Tourism

http://sit.shnu.edu.cn/

Shanghai

46

Zhejiang Financial College

http://www.zjfc.com.cn

Hangzhou

47

Ningbo Polytechnic

http://www.nbptweb.net/

Ningbo

48

Jinhua College of Profession and Technology

http://www.jhc.cn/

Jinhua

49

Wenzhou Vocational & Technical College

http://www.wzvtc.cn/

Wenzhou

50

Zhejiang Institute of Mechanical & Electrical Engineering

http://www.zime.edu.cn/

Hangzhou

51

Zhejiang Police Vocational Academy

http://www.zjjy.com.cn/

Hangzhou

52

Jiujiang Vocational & Technical College

http://www.jvtc.jx.cn/

Jiujiang

53

Fujian Communications Technology College

http://www.fjcpc.edu.cn/

Fuzhou

54

Zhangzhou Institute of Technology

http://www.fjzzy.org/

Zhangzhou

55

Wuhai Institute of Technology

http://www.wtc.edu.cn/

Wuhai

56

Wuhai Institute of Shipbuilding Technology

http://net.wspc.edu.cn/

Wuhai

57

Hubei Polytechnic Institute

http://www.hbvtc.edu.cn/

Xiaogan

58

Wuhai Railway Vocational College of Technology

http://www.wru.com.cn/

Wuhai

59

Changsha Social Work College

http://www.csmzxy.com/

Shangsha

60

Hunan Railway Professional Technology College

http://www.hnrpc.com/

Zhuzhou

61

Hunan Communication Polytechnic

http://www.hnjtzy.com.cn/

Shangsha

62

Yong Zhou Vocational-Technical College

http://www.hnyzzy.com/

Yongzhou

63

Hunan Engineering Polytechnic

http://www.hngcjx.com.cn/

Shangsha

64

Yellow River Conservancy Technical Institute

http://www.yrcti.edu.cn/

Kaifeng

65

Pingdingshan Engineering Polytechnic

http://www.pzxy.edu.cn/

Pingdingshan

66

Shangqiu Institute of Technology

http://www.sqzy.com.cn/

Shangqiu

67

Henan Polytechnic

http://www.hnzj.ha.cn/

Zhengzhou

68

Shenzhen Polytechnic

http://www.szpt.edu.cn/

Shenzhen

69

Guangzhou Panyu Polytechnic

http://www.pyp.edu.cn/

Guangzhou

70

Guangzhou Civil Aviation College

http://www.caac.net/

Guangzhou

71

Guangdong Industry Technical College

http://www.gdqy.edu.cn/

Guangzhou

http://www.ncvt.net/

Nanning

http://www.lzzy.net/

Liuzhou

72 73

Nanning College for Vocational Technology Liuzhou Vocational & Technical College

Qingdao

(continued)

216

Appendix D: National Model Tertiary Vocational ...

(continued) 74

Hainan College of Vocation and Technique

http://www.hcvt.cn/

Haikou

75

Chongqing Vocational Institute of Engineering

http://www.cqvie.com/

Chongqing

76

Chongqing Industry Polytechnic College

http://www.cqipc.net/

Chongqing

77

Chongqing College of Electronic Engineering

http://www.cqcet.com/

Chongqing

78

Sichuan Engineering Technical College

http://www.scetc.net/

Deyang

79

Chengdu Aeronautic Vocational and Technical College

http://www.cavtc.net/

Chengdu

80

Sichuan Vocational and Technical College of Communications

http://www.svtcc.net/

Chengdu

81

Sichuan College of Architectural Technology

http://www.scac.edu.cn/

Deyang

82

Mian Yang Vocational and Technical College

http://www.myvtc.edu.cn/

Mianyang

83

Sichuan Electric Vocational and Technical College

http://www.scdyabc.net/

Chengdu

84

Guizhou Communications Polytechnic

http://www.gzctc.edu.cn/

Guiyang

85

Yunnan Jiaotong College

http://www.yncs.edu.cn/

Kunming

86

Kunming Metallurgy College

http://www.kmyz.edu.cn/

Kunming

87

Tibet Technical College

http://www.xzgzy.cn/

Lasa

88

Yangling Vocational & Technical College

http://61.185.210.186/

Yangling

89

Xi’an Aeronautical Polytechnic Institute

http://www.xihang.com.cn/

Xian

90

Shaanxi Polytechnic Institute

http://www.sxpi.com.cn/

Xianyang

91

Gansu Forestry Technical College

http://www.gsfc.edu.cn/

Tianshui

92

Ningxia Technical College

http://www.nxtc.edu.cn/

Yinchuan

93

Ningxia Vocational and Technical College of Finance

http://www.nxcy.edu.cn/

Yinchuan

94

Qinghai Vocational and Technical Institute of Animal Husbandry and Vet

http://www.qhxmzy.com. cn/

Xining

95

Xinjiang Vocational and Technical College of Agriculture

http://www.xjnzy.edu.cn/

Changji

96

Karamay Vocational & Technical College

http://www.kzjsxy.net/

Karamay

97

Xinjiang Shihezi Vocational Technical College

http://www.xjshzzy.com/

Shihezi

Appendix E The Websites for the Related Data on Chinese Higher Education

1. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China http://www.moe.edu.cn/ 2. Ministry of Science and Technology of the People’s Republic of China http://www.most.gov.cn/ 3. Higher Education Evaluation Center of the Ministry of Education http://www.heec.edu.cn/en/index.jsp 4. China Academic Degrees & Graduates Education Information http://www.cdgdc.edu.cn/ 5. China Education http://www.chinaedu.edu.cn/ 6. China Education and Research Network http://www.edu.cn/ 7. Chinese Higher Education Reform and Development Network http://www.hie.edu.cn/ 8. Academic Ranking of World Universities http://www.arwu.org/ 9. Ranking of Chinese Universities http://edu.people.com.cn/GB/kejiao/230/6034/ 10. Chinese University Rankings http://www.netbig.com/

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Higher Education Press 2018 J. Gu et al., Higher Education in China, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0845-1

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Index

Numbers ‘2011 Program’, 166 ‘211 Project’, 13, 14, 44, 166 ‘863 Program’, 166, 168 ‘973 Program’, 166, 168 ‘985 Project’, 13, 14, 32, 166 ‘985 Project’ jointly sponsored key universities, 31, 82 1911 Xinhai Revolution, 5 34 major HEIs, 82 4-year Western-style university, 4 A Academic committee, 64, 113, 171, 181 Academic degrees awarding institutions, 148 Academic Degrees Committee, 55, 59, 60, 171 Academic Degrees Ordinance, 147, 148, 151, 158 Academic degrees review and conferment, 148 Academic degrees review committee, 148 Academic degree system, 145 Academic qualification, 176 Academic review, 171 Academic status, 113, 114, 143, 157 Academic unit, 170 Action Plan for Vitalizing Education for the 21st Century, 14, 54 Adjustment of HEIs and departments,, 135 Administrative authority of higher education, 34 Administrative divisions of China, 72, 73 Adult HEI, 17, 18, 21, 22, 68, 79, 80, 97, 112, 175 Advanced degrees, 20, 27, 147 Advanced knowledge, 2, 3

Advisor, 110 Alternative Work and Study Mode of education, 109 Autonomous institutional operation, 13 B Beiyang University (beiyang daxuetang), 7 C Catalog of disciplines and specialties, 149 Catalog of field of study, 23, 80, 134, 135 Categories of HEIs, 27, 28 Central line ministries, 37, 42, 43 ‘Cheung Kong Scholars Program’, 167 China’s 31 administrative regions, 74 China’s Eleventh Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development, 14 Chinese Academy of Engineering, 167 Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32, 43, 163, 165, 167, 169 Classification of disciplines, 23, 24 College-Industry Collaborative Mode of Education, 112 Colleges of higher education (gaodeng xuetang), 5 Colleges of politics and law (fazheng xuetang), 5 Combination of master’s and doctoral studies, 82 Communist Party of China, 9, 63 Compensation, 114, 144, 182, 184–186 Comprehensive universities, 28–30, 35, 56, 120, 125, 165 Compulsory courses, 121, 123, 124, 129–131 Confucian classics, 1, 3

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Higher Education Press 2018 J. Gu et al., Higher Education in China, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0845-1

229

230 Confucianism, 2 Confucius, 1, 2 Coordinating authority of higher education, 34 Cost-recovery, 49, 50 CPC Central Committee, 11, 12, 14, 16, 30, 36, 48, 49, 54, 92, 93, 127 Credit system, 123, 138, 139, 143 Cultural Revolution, 12, 35, 36, 141, 165 D Daxue, 1, 3 Decision on School System Reform, 11 Decision on the Reform of the Education System, 12, 37, 44, 49, 50, 54, 92, 126 Degree awarding institution’s committee on academic degrees, 150 Department of teaching administration, 113, 114 Development research, 169 Diplomas or degrees, 97, 118 Direct track, 85 Disciple of doctor, 2 Discipline coverage-based categories, 28 Discipline/specialty-based doctoral programs, 148 Discipline/specialty-based master’s degrees’ programs, 20, 23, 28–30, 62, 78, 81, 83, 84, 109, 117–119, 125, 128, 132, 133, 138, 142, 148–153, 158, 159, 162, 170, 179–181 Discipline Review Group, 148, 150 Distinctive teaching, 58, 81 Division of examinees, 82 Doctoral admission, 82 Doctoral admission institutions, 82, 85 Doctoral degree awarding institutions, 148, 162–164 Doctorates, 147 ‘Dual-tracks’ system, 49 E Educating “shi”, 2 Educational program, 25, 92, 97, 98, 111 Eight subjects, 7 Elective courses, 100, 102–105, 120, 123, 125, 127–131, 139, 143 Elite higher education system, 2, 29 Employer-sponsored students, 49 Employment policies, 86, 90 Employment rate of graduates, 46, 88, 133 Employment system for higher education graduates, 86

Index Entrance requirement, 97, 98, 118 Equivalent qualification, 71, 151, 158 Examination subjects, 69, 72 Examinees’ requirements, 79, 80, 82 Examinees, 67, 69–71, 74, 75, 79, 81, 82, 84 Excellent undergraduate students, 85 Expansion of Chinese higher education, 74 F Field of study/discipline, 25–27, 53, 94, 105, 132, 135 Financial assistance, 39, 50 First-class universities, 14, 16 First level disciplines, 81, 149, 150 Five Classics, 3 Five schools, 3 ‘Five-Year Plan’, 14, 54, 103, 168, 169 ‘Follower of Russia’, 11 Foreign teacher, 176 Formal and non-formal learning, 17 Formal higher education, 18 Form of education, 2, 17 Form of ownership of higher education, 18 Forms of admission, 71 Forms of learning, 153 Forms of preliminary examinations for master’s programs’ admission, 79 ‘Four great shuyuan on earth’, 4 Four-year system, 7 Fudan University, 29, 31, 85, 138, 157, 163 Full-time and part-time modes of learning, 149 Full-time teacher, 176 Functional organization, 61, 62, 65 Functions-based categories, 30 G General Catalog of Specialties in HEIs, 23 General Catalog of Undergraduate Fields of Study in HEIs, 23 General education, 99, 118, 123, 125–129, 131, 138, 139 General knowledge, 2, 126 Governmental intervention, 19 Governmental monopoly of education, 18 Government expenditure on education, 52 Government expenditure on higher education, 41 Government-owned education, 2 Government-regulated, 86 Graduates in regular HEIs, 17, 37 Graduation requirement, 97, 98, 118, 119 Gross enrollment rate of higher education, 14

Index H HEIs’ recommendations-based mutual choices between graduates and employers, 86 Higher education enterprise, 11, 12, 17, 19 Higher education expansion, 74, 87, 133, 134 Higher Education Law, 14, 20, 27, 37–39, 48, 50, 52, 63, 64, 94, 95, 117, 119, 131, 141, 143 Higher education system, 11, 13, 17, 34, 36, 37, 39, 42, 44, 46, 67, 94, 117, 129 ‘High-level Creative Talent Program’, 166 High-level professional training, 2 Hongdumen Academy (hongdumenxue), 3 I Imperial College (jingshi tongwenguan), 5 Imperial University (jingshi daxuetang), 5, 7 Independent admission, 69, 71, 72 Independent college, 51 Independent research institute, 165 Individual Provincial/Municipal/Autonomous Region’s Admission Committees, 14, 44, 70–74, 90 Industrial colleges (gaodeng shiye xuetang), 5 Institutional autonomy, 12, 13, 19, 36, 37, 49, 54, 134 Institution of the Sons of the Emperor (guozixue), 3 Institutions of higher learning, 1–3 International Standard Classification of Education, 91 Internship system for higher education graduates, 87 J Jiang, Zhemin, 13 Joint-development, 45 K Kuomintang, 8 L Learning by Doing Mode of Education, 112, 141 Level of education, 92, 98 Level of higher education, 55, 59, 60 Li Jiacheng Foundation, 167 M Made-to-order Mode of Education, 109, 110 Market coordination, 42, 46, 48 Market forces, 13, 34 Market-oriented, 19, 58, 86, 136

231 Market regulation, 19, 46, 48 Mass higher education, 67, 86, 151 Master’s admission, 79–81 Master’s admission institutions, 74, 78, 79, 81, 82, 84 Master’s degrees, 19, 22, 84, 145, 147, 151–153, 155, 159 Master’s program admission reexamination, 78 Master Plan of 211 Project, 13 Mentor, 2 Methods of Selecting the National Excellent Doctoral Dissertations, 163 Military colleges, 5, 6 Minimum preliminary examination scores, 81–83, 85 Ministry of Commerce, 90 Ministry of Education, 8, 32, 87 Ministry of Health, 35, 90, 124 Ministry of Higher Education, 34, 35 Ministry of Industry and Informationization, 90 Ministry of Personnel, 87, 88 Missionary colleges, 5 Model of administration, 34 Modern college (yangwu xuetang), 4 Modern higher education, 4, 5, 8 ‘Modern industries’, 4 Modernization Movement (Yangwu Movement), 4 Modern military education, 5 Modern or new type of higher education institution, 4 Modern subjects, 5 Modern transformation of higher education, 110, 164 Modern university (daxuetang), 4 Modular mode of education, 138 MOE Examination Center, 73 Multidisciplinary institutions, 28–30 MyCOS, 89 N Nanyang College (nanyang gongxue), 7 Nanyang Industrial College (nanyang gaodeng shiye xuetang), 7 Nanyang University (nanyang daxuetang), 7 National Academic Conference for Doctoral Students, 164 National Academic Forum for Doctoral Students, 164 National Awards for Excellent Doctoral Dissertations, 163 National College Entrance Examination, 67, 69, 97, 98, 118, 119

232 National Development and Reform Commission, 38 National Employment Network Alliance for Higher Education Graduates, 89 National Entrance Examination for Postgraduate Students, 87 National People’s Congress, 14 National Public Service Platform for Higher Education Graduates, 89, 90 National Self-Study Examination of Higher Education, 17 ‘New education’, 4 New, government-owned type of specialized HEI, 4, 5, 18 Newly admitted postgraduates, 74 Newly admitted students, 67 Newly established, non-state HEIs, 55 Non-formal higher education, 17, 18 Non-government forces, 18 Non-government funds, 46, 48, 50 Non-government organization, 60 NPC’s Standing Committee, 148 O Office of Admissions, 73, 74 Open admission, 82, 119 Operate with more autonomy, 13 Outlines of Educational Reform and Development, 13, 21, 30, 37–39, 44, 45, 48, 52, 93, 136 P Part-time doctoral students, 162 Part-time master’s degree students, 153 Part-time teacher, 176 Party committee, 61 Party secretary, 61 Peking University, 5, 7, 13, 29, 71, 74, 75, 77, 82, 85, 122, 124, 125, 127–131, 157, 163, 165 People’s Republic of China, 11, 14, 184 Personnel management, 172, 182 PhD supervisor, 148, 153, 154, 161 Piyong, 1 Planned forces, 13 Platform Plus Module Mode of Education, 111 Postgraduate education, 20, 21, 27, 61, 62, 74, 94, 120, 141, 170, 171, 178, 179 Postgraduate programs, 50, 74 Practical Instruction, 99, 100, 103, 114

Index Practical occupational training, 2 Practice-orientation, 99 Private academe, 1, 2 Private colleges and universities, 18, 19 Private education, 2, 18, 19 Private Education Promotion Law, 19, 39, 51 Private HEIs, 11, 18, 19, 33, 38, 39, 46, 51, 52, 60, 95 Private higher education, 18, 19, 51, 52 Procedures of recruitment, 181, 182 Professional degree, 149, 152, 157, 158, 160 Professional doctorates, 156–158, 160 Professional master’s degrees, 153, 156–158 Professional rank, 178, 179, 186 Program of graduates’ service at the grass roots, 87 Program of Innovation in Graduate Education, 164 Program orientation, 98, 118 Project-centered management, 172 Provincial committee on academic degrees, 150 Provincial shuyuan, 5 Provisional Regulations on the Establishment of Private Colleges and Universities, 18 Public HEIs, 8, 18, 20, 33, 38, 46, 47, 49, 50, 52, 56, 185, 186 Q Qualification certificate, 98, 103, 104 Quality-focused development., 164 Quality management, 112, 141, 143, 144 Quality of doctoral dissertations, 163 Quality of doctoral education, 162 Quantity-focused development, 164 R Rapid expansion of Chinese higher education, 86 Ratio of student to teacher, 179 R&D, 166–168 Recommended freshmen without taking the NCEE, 71, 72 Recruitment system based on positions, 180 Reform and opening up, 12, 148 Regular HEI, 51 Renxu School System, 8 Renyin School System, 5 Renzi Guizi School System, 8 Republic of China, 8, 33

Index Required education, 97, 118, 134 Research institutes, 8, 61, 62, 74, 146–148, 163, 165, 170 Research-oriented or theory-focused degree, 149 Research universities, 30, 32, 131, 140 S School of the CPC Central Committee, 9 Second level disciplines, 149 Self-financed students, 49 Self-generated revenues of HEIs, 46, 48 Self-study examination, 17, 97 Semester system, 123, 138, 139, 143 Senior High School Graduation Diploma, 97 Senior normal colleges (youji shifan xuetang), 5 Senior Secondary Vocational School Graduation Diploma, 97 Separately-established colleges, 27 Separately established research institutes, 145 Separate master’s admission examination by the institutions, 79 Shanghai Jiaotong University, 7, 60, 85, 133, 157, 163 Shanxi University, 8 Short-cycle colleges, 19, 27, 28, 36, 39, 58, 59, 69, 92, 94–96, 103, 105, 118 Shuyuan, 1–4 Single discipline institutions, 28 Sino-Western College (zhongxi xuetang), 7 Six schools, 3 Social or non-collective forces, 18 Specialized academic disciplines, 4 Specialized colleges, 8–10, 20, 27–29 Specialized education, 10, 19–21, 27, 68, 72, 73, 95, 99, 103, 112, 145 Specialized HEI, 5 Specialized level of program, 67, 72 Specialized, modern subjects (disciplines), 5 Specialty, 18, 25, 73, 75, 76, 80, 94, 100, 102, 103, 105, 108–112, 117–121, 123–135, 138, 139, 142, 143, 170, 171, 176 State/central government forces, 13 State Council, 11, 13, 14, 16, 30, 33–36, 38, 42, 43, 48, 51, 54, 55, 69, 70, 93, 94, 124, 148 State Council Committee on Academic Degrees, 24 State Education Commission, 13, 18, 42 State education plan, 53 State Examination for Public Servants, 87 State Excellence Youth Science Foundation, 167, 168

233 Supervise at macro level, 13 Supervision Hall of the Sons of the Emperor (guozijian), 3 Supervisor, 85 T Taixue, 1–3 Teaching and research office, 113, 114, 142, 170 Teaching institutions, 28, 30 Teaching outline, 114 Teaching-research institutions, 30 Temple of the Sons of the Emperor (guozishi), 3 Tertiary vocational and technical colleges, 19, 58, 59, 70, 88, 89, 92, 95–98, 103, 105, 112, 113 Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC, 12 Three-level system of administrating academic degrees, 150 Three-tier administrative system, 12 Tianjin University, 7, 31, 85 Traditional higher education, 4 Training objectives, 9 Transfer, 39, 97, 98, 118, 119, 170 Transformation of employment system, 86 Tsinghua University, 13, 29, 82, 85, 157, 163, 165 Tuition and fees, 39, 48–51, 53, 70 Type of colleges, 143 Types of master’s degrees, 153 Types of modern HEIs, 4 Types of specialties within disciplines, 23 U Undergraduate education, 20, 21, 27, 55–58, 61, 62, 65, 94, 95, 98, 117, 118, 120, 123, 125, 126, 128–130, 132, 133, 138, 140, 170, 171, 178 Undergraduate level of program, 105, 134 Unification of admissions, 69 Unified admission examination for JM, 79, 80 Unified admission examination for MBA, 79, 80 Unified master’s admission examination by the state, 79 Unified National College Entrance Examination, 12 Unified or separate admission examination for MEd, 80 Unit-centered management, 172 University of Zhejiang (Zhejiang daxuetang), 5

234 V Vocational education, 145 Voluntary Program of Graduates’ Serving the West, 86, 87 W Western languages (xiwen), 5 ‘Western learning’, 4, 5 Western technical knowledge (xiyi), 5 West of China, 5 World class universities, 13

Index Y Youxue, 1 Z Zhejiang College of Higher Education (Zhejiang gaodeng xuetang), 5 Zhejiang University, 29, 31, 85, 125, 126, 128–131, 133, 138, 139, 157, 163 Zouding School System, 5, 7