British Policy in Palestine

BRITISH POLICY IN PALESTINE, 1917-1922 John J. McTague

UNIVERSITY PRESS OF AMERICA

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LANHAM • NEW YORK • LONDON

Copyright © 1983 by University Press of America1,MIne. 4720 Boston Way Lanham, MD 20706 3 Henrietta Street London WC2E 8LU England

All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America

Lib ra ry of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

McTague, John J., 1944British policy in Palestine, 1917-1922. Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Palestine-H istory-1917-1948. 2. Mandates-Palestine. 3. Samuel, Herbert Louis Samuel, Viscount. 1870-1963. 4. Jewish-Arab relations-1917-1949. 1. Title. DS 126.M38 1983 956.94’04 83-12410 ISBN 0-8191-2933-X (alk. paper) ISBN 0-8191-2934-8 (pbk. : alk. paper)

TO MY PARENTS

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PREFACE This book began as a graduate siminar paper on the British mandate in Palestine back in the spring of 1970. My first detailed examination of any aspect of the ArabIsraeli problem, it 1 eft me fascinated by the complexity of the issues and appalled by the lack of awareness that most Americans had of t h e m . I made up my mind to change the situation and a a result, I chose to pursue that topic in my dissertation. But upon completion, I real ized that the extremely narrow exposure which a d i s s e r ­ tation receives would do 1 i1 11e to accomplish my o b j e c ­ tives, and so I embarked upon further research with an eye toward pub!i c a t io n of the manuscript. The following pages constitute the fruits of my labor. While the British mandate in Palesti ne has been the subject of a number of scholarly works in the past d e c ­ ade, most of these books have been aimed at a narrow academic audience. But the general pub1 ic needs to be informed about this problem as well, and it is this group that I would like to reach in these pages. Hope­ fully, a wide range of readers will be able to c o m p r e ­ hend this work and emerge from it with a c 1earer unde rstandina of how the Middle East em b ro g 1 i o b e g a n . Natural 1y , one could not complete a work such as this without incurring numerous debts of gratitude along the w a y . In researching the topic I worked in a number of archives, and I would like to thank the staffs of the Public Records Office, the Beaverbrook Library and the British Museum in L o n d o n , the Middle East Centre in O x ­ ford , and the Central Zionist Archives and Israel State Archives in Jerusalem for their generous assistance. I am also grateful to them for permission to quote from material in their archives, as well as to The Times of London, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, Harper and Row Pub!ishers, and Yale Uni vers i ty Press for similar a p ­ proval . Professors Norman Baker, Georg Iggers and George H o u r a n i of the State University of New York at Buffa 1o all read the manuscript at various stages of completion and I greatly appreciate their helpful comments. I am also indebted to Drs. Thomas Southard and Robert Gould of Saint Leo College for their efforts in helping me to publish this manuscript, which I could not have done otherwise. And finally, my deepest gratitude goes out to Professor John Naylor, who has been my mentor t h r o u g h ­

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out this project, first in the dissertation stage and later as I endeavored to convert it into a publishable manuscript. His assistance was absolutely invaluable, first in directing me to the various sources of research material, then in helping me to evaluate that material, and finally in reading the successive drafts of the man­ uscript and assisting me in giving it a modicum of lit­ erary style. At all times, his gentle encouragement and guidance have helped to smooth the path of an under­ taking which at times appeared interminable. As is customary, I must warn the reader that any errors found in this work are my responsibility alone. I hope that such errors will be borne with tolerance, trusting that my efforts will on balance shed some his­ torical light upon a conflict which history has yet to resolve.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I The Thrice-Promi sed Land.........................

1

CHAPTER II The Great War's Last Year..................... .

31

CHAPTER III The Period of Post-war Decisions.................

65

CHAPTER IV King Samuel:

the First Year......................

125

CHAPTER V The Year of Negotiations..........................

177

CHAPTER VI Conclusions........................................

231

Bib! iogra phy.......................................

263

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Thrice-Promised

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P r i o r to 1914, P a l e s t i n e had r e c e i v e d sc an t a t t e n ­ tion from E u r o p e a n d i p l o m a t s . C o n q u e r e d and p o p u l a t e d by A r a b s in the m i d - s e v e n t h century, it had fa l l e n to the S e l j u k Tu rk s, al on g with m u c h of the A r a b Empire, in the e l e v e n t h cent ur y. Af te r the ar ri va l of the O t t o m a n T u r k s (c. 1520), the s i t u a t i o n r e m a i n e d u n ­ ch anged: a sm al l elite, the T u r k i s h r u l i n g class, he ld sw ay ov e r the m a s s of the A r a b p o p u l a t i o n for the n e x t several centuries. The T u rk s we re st il l in c o n t r o l w h e n the Fi rs t W o r l d Wa r br ok e out, in the su m m e r of 1914. At th at time, P a l e s t i n e had an e s t i m a t e d p o p u l a ­ ti on of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 600,000 p e o p l e .^ Its e c o n o m y was p r e - m o d e r n , w i t h the m a j o r i t y of the i n h a b i t a n t s m a k i n g a li vi ng f r om ag ri c u l t u r e , wh il e so me sm a l l scale i n d u s t r y and trade was c a r r i e d on in the towns. Only three c i t i e s — Je ru s a l e m , J affa and Haifa--had p o p u l a t i o n s e x c e e d i n g 20,000. The c o u n t r y 1s i n h a b i t ­ ants w e re q u i t e h e t e r o g e n e o u s in origin, and they generally t h o u g h t of themselves in terms of th ei r r e l i g ious aff iliation. By this s t a n d a r d , P a l e s t i n i a n s fell into one of th re e m a j o r g r o u p i n g s — M u s l i m s , C h r i s tians and J e w s . We can e s t i m a t e that M u s l i m s fo rm ed r o u g h l y 75% of the p o p u l a t i o n in 1914, wi th J e w s m a k i n g up a l i t t l e under 15% and C h r i s t i a n s about 10%. E v e n w i t h i n th es e g r o u p s , there was 1 ittle h o m o g e n e i t y . In s o c i o - e c o n o m ­ ic t e r m s , the M u s l i m s fell into three loose c a t e g o r i e s : no ma ds , peasants and urban dw el le rs . The nomads (Bedouin) were h e r d s m e n wh o w a n d e r e d ov er a large a r e a e a ch y e ar in s e a r c h of g r a z i n g land for their flocks. Si n c e th ey were not a s e t t l e d people, their n u m b e r s in P a l e s t i n e at any one time are d i f f i c u l t to e s t i m a t e , but a r o u g h gu es s w o u l d c r e d i t t h e m w i t h c o m p r i s i n g 15% of the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n just b e f o r e the war. They we re g e n e r a l l y o r g a n i z e d into tribes, e a ch h e ad ed by a she i k , and th ey o f t e n f o ug ht a m o n g s t t h e m s e l v e s and c o n d u c t e d r a i d s on a g r i c u l t u r a l se tt l e m e n t s . As m i g h t be e x pe ct ed , their g e n e r a l st a n d a r d of living was q u i t e low.

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The l a rg es t cl as s of M u s l i m s were the p e a s a n t s (f e l l a h i n ) , who m a d e up r o u g h l y 65% of the Islamic populace. Some ow ne d th ei r own land but the large m a ­ j o r i t y were te na nt f a r m e r s , w o r k i n g for a l a n d l o r d . T h e i r wa y of life had re ma in ed the same for m a n y centur i e s and the p r a c t i c e of m o d e r n a g r i c u l t u r e has m a de li tt le , if a n y , h e a d w a y among them. In g e n e r a l , they s c r a t c h e d out a p o o r living, b a r e l y ab ov e s u b s i s t e n c e l e v e 1. R o u g h l y 20% of the M u sl im s lived in the ci t i e s and towns. Th ey can be d iv ided into the c a t e g o r i e s of u p p e r , m i d d l e and wo rk in g class. The up p e r class (e f f e n d i ) we re g e n e r a l l y d e s c e n d e d fr om e a rl y A r a b or T u r k i s h c o n q u e r o r s wh o s e fa mi li es had r e t a i n e d a p o s i ­ t i o n of i m p o r t a n c e d o w n t h r o u g h the y e a r s . Th ei r s o u r c e of w e a l t h o f t e n came fr om ru ra l l a n d h o l d i n g s , an d thus m a n y of them were a b s e n t e e l a n d l o r d s ; t h e r e ­ fore , they stood at the peak of b o t h the ur b a n and r u r a l cl as s s t r u c t u r e . Ot h e r M u s i i m e f t e n d is we re m e m ­ b e r s of the prof e s s i o n s ( d o c t o r s , l a w y e r s , e t c . ) or h e l d r e l i g i o u s off i c e s . Mo st M u s l i m s of the up pe r c l a s s w e re m e m b e r s of a few large c l a n s , the best kn ow n of w h i c h were the H u s s e i n i s and the N a s h a s h i b i s . T h e r e was o n l y an e m b r y o n i c m i d d l e class in P a l e s ­ tine at this t i m e , and few M u s i i m s co ul d be c l a s s i f i e d as s u c h . The bu lk of the urban p o p u l a t i o n c o n s i s t e d of w o r k e r s , rang in g f rom a r t i s a n s to u n s k i l l e d l a b o r e r s . T h e i r living s t a n d a r d s va r i e d f rom a d e q u a t e among the a r t i s a n s to p o v e r t y - l e v e l for the u n s k i l l e d . Th e C h r i s t i a n p o p u l a c e , th ou gh r e l a t i v e l y small in n u m b e r , e x er te d a g r e a t in fl ue nc e on the c o u n t r y . Some were descended from the Christian Crusaders wh il e o t h e r s had m i g r a t e d from Sy ri a and the L e b a n o n . T h o u g h c o n s i d e r e d as one relig ious g r o u p , they were r e al ly quite diverse in af f i l i a t i o n , w i t h G r e e k O r t h o d o x , R o m a n Ca th ol ic , and G r e e k Un ia t c o m p r i s i n g the l a rg es t denominations. In c o n t r a s t to the M u s i i m s , C h r i s t i a n s w e r e g e n e r a l l y u r b a n d w e l l e r s (75%), w i t h a large p r o ­ portion belonging to the ef fend i and m i d d l e c l a s s . M a n y we re p r o f e s s i o n a l s , some e n g a g e d in c o m m e r c e , and others held g o v e r n m e n t posts. They us u a l l y spoke A r a b i c and were c o n s i d e r e d , along wi t h the M u s l i m s , as Arabs. The third m a j o r relig ious g r o u p i n g were the Jews, w h o m a d e up al m o s t 15% of the p o p u l a t i o n in 1 9 1 4 . 2

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Of t h e s e , al m o s t 85% 1 ived in u r b a n a r e a s , w i th the r e ­ m a i n d e r e n g a g e d in a g r i c u l t u r e . Jewish agricultural s e t t l e m e n t s , in c o n t r a s t to the M u s i i m r e l a t i o n s h i p of 1 an d l o r d and t e n a n t , w e r e us u a l l y o r g a n i z e d on a m o r e or less c o l l e c t i v e b a s i s . Th ey were c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e p r o s p e r o u s than the A r a b f a r m l a n d s . In the c i t i e s , th e r e w e re Je w s in the p r o f e s s i o n s , in c o m m e r c e , and in the l a bo ri ng c l a s s e s , but in g e n e r a l , Jews at all le v e l s e n j o y e d a h i g h e r st a n d a r d of 1 iving than did the Mus 1 i m s . In m a n y c a s e s , this d i f f e r e n c e was due to subs id ies sent fr om J e w s in E u ro pe to keep the Y i s h u v (J e w i s h P a l e s t i n e commun it y) v i a b l e . The Yi s h u v had g rown r a p i d l y in r e c e n t y e a r s , f rom 3 4,000 p e o p l e in 1880 to 8 5,000 in 1914, and this g r o w t h had been the r e s u l t of the Zi on is t m o v e m e n t . T h u s , the Y i s h u v co ul d be d ivided into pre-Z ionist J e w s , wh o had 1 ived in P a l ­ e s t i n e for m a n y y e a r s , and Z i on is t J e w s , wh o had a r ­ ri ve d si nc e 1880. The p r e - Z i o n i s t s we re la rg el y u r b a n w i t h their g r e a t e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n in Jeru sa le m. They w e r e for the m o s t p a rt v e ry rel ig iously o r i e n t e d but c o m p l e t e l y u n i n t e r e s t e d in p o l i t i c s or w o r l d l y a f f a i r s in g e n e r a l . C o n s e q u e n t l y , they 1 ived in p o v e r t y , l a r ­ g e l y s u p p o r t e d by a J e w i s h d o le kn ow n as the h a l u k a h . Z io ni st Je w s we re far m o re p o l i t i c a l and p r a g m a t i c , i n ­ tent on bu iI d ing up the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y in P a l e s t i n e . W h i l e m o s t of them a l so 1 iven in c i ti es and t o w n s , t h e y m a d e up the o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y of that 15% of J e w r y w h i c h did 1 ive in rural a r e a s . Th e three c o m m u n i t i e s - - M u s l i m , C h r i s t i a n and J e w i s h - - w e r e d i s t i n c t l y s e p a r a t e but 1 ived in r e l a t i v e h a r m o n y w i t h ea ch o t h e r . Re 1 igious c o n s c i o u s n e s s was by far the s t r o n g e s t e m o t i o n in this p r e - m o d e r n c o u n ­ try ; p o l i t i c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s (n a t i o n a l i s m ) and so c i a l cl a s s c o n s c i o u s n e s s we re only in e m b r y o n i c s t a g e s . Th e T u r k s g o v e r n e d the c o u n t r y w i t h the c o o p e r a t i o n of the M u s l i m and C h r i s t i a n ef f e n d i , w i t h o u t r e s i s t a n c e from the m a s s e s of the p e o p l e . W h at p o l i t i c a l life th e r e wa s la r g e l y c o n s i s t e d of s t r u g g l e s b e t w e e n p o w e r f u l c l a n s for fa vo rs from the T u r k s ; the Hus se inis and N a s h a s h i b i s were the two ch ie f ri v a l s in this regard. S o me m e m b e r s of the ef f e n d i had b e en imbued w i t h A r ab n a t i o n a l i s m , but p a r t i c u l a r i s t P a l e s t i n i a n n a t i o n a l i s m wa s n o n e x i s t e n t , si nc e the A r ab s c o n s i d e r e d t h e m s e l v e s to be 1 iving in the s o u t h e r n pa rt of S y r i a . However, the first s t i r r i n g s of an a n t i - Z i o n i s t m o v e m e n t c o u l d be d e t e c t e d in the last f ive ye a r s b e f o r e W o r l d Wa r I , in three m a j o r c i t i e s of P a l e s t i n e as well as Be ir ut , C a i r o and C o n s t a n t i n o p l e . Th e s e soc ieties r e f l e c t e d g r o w i n g A r a b a w a r e n e s s of the Zi o n i s t m o v e m e n t and the

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p o t e n t i a l d a n g e r it p o s e d for t h e i n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a tion. B e f o r e t h e w a r h o w e v e r , a n t i-Z i o n i s t s e n t i m e n t w a s m a n i f e s t e d by onl y a m i n u t e s e g m e n t of the p o p u l a t ion.^ Modern class consciousness was largely nonexist­ ent. A l t h o u g h the f e l l a h i n w e r e c l e a r l y being e x p l o i t ­ e d b y t h e e f f e n d i , t h e r e is l i t t l e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e y w e r e a w a r e of t h i s f a c t ; n o r w e r e t h e u r b a n w o r k e r s at a l l r e a d y to p r o t e s t t h e i r c o n d i t i o n . H e r e a g a i n the Z i o n i s t J e w s f o r m e d a n e x c e p t i o n , as m a n y o f t h e m w e r e s o c i a l i s t in p h i l o s o p h y ; t h e y m a d e e f f o r t s e a r l y o n to o r g a n i z e their workers in u n i o n s a n d p o l i t i c a l p a r t ies. S u c h m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of p o l i t i c a l a n d s o c i a l c o n ­ s c i o u s n e s s m a d e t h e Z i o n i s t J e w s u n i q u e in P a l e s t i n e a n d , as a c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e y w e r e c o n s i d e r e d t r o u b l e s o m e by the M u s l i m a n d C h r i s t i a n effendi, who got along q u i t e well wi t h the n o n - Z i o n i s t Jews. Y e t as l o n g as t h e T u r k s r u l e d th e c o u n t r y t h e t h r e a t f r o m Z i o n i s m s e e m e d m i n i m a l , for the S u l t a n had r e f u s e d p e r m i s s i o n f o r a l a r g e b u i l d u p o f t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y in P a l e s ­ tine. B u t the F i r s t W o r l d W a r w a s to c h a n g e t h a t s i t ­ u a t i o n d r a s t i c a l l y , b r i n g i n g a n e n d to t h e p l a c i d r e ­ l a t i o n s among the P a l e s t i n i a n commun i t i e s . In o r d e r to a p p r e c i a t e t h e r e a s o n s w h y t h e Z i o n ­ i s t s d i d s t a n d o u t as a s e p a r a t e g r o u p in P a l e s t i n e , an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e Z i o n i s t m o v e m e n t is n e c e s s a r y .^ Z i o n i s m w a s , in its m o s t b a s i c s e n s e , J e w i s h n a t i o n a l ­ ism. It d i f f e r e d f r o m m o s t o t h e r f o r m s of n a t i o n a l i s m in t h a t th e o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y o f J e w s w e r e l i v i n g outside the g e o g r a p h i c t e r r i t o r y to w h i c h t h e y f e l t a t t a c h m e n t — Palestine. Therefore, while most national g r o u p s faced p r o b l e m s of f reeing t h eir t e r r i t o r y from f o r e i g n c o n t r o l o r e x t e n d i n g t h e i r o w n c o n t r o l to o t h e r r e g i o n s d e e m e d p a r t o f the nation, the J e w s wer e forced to create a nation by e migrating from their c o untries o f r e s i d e n c e to t h e c o u n t r y o f t h e i r d r e a m s . There­ fore, Zionism br o u g h t about some unique problems, p a r t ­ icularly since Palestine was already occupied by a n o t h e r p e o p l e , th e A r a b s . B u t l e t u s f i r s t t r a c e its orig ins. Z i o n i s m d e v e l o p e d in the s e c o n d h a l f of the n i n e It w a s a t e e n t h c e n t u r y in E a s t e r n E u r o p e a n d R u s s i a . n a t u r a l r e s p o n s e to t h e c u r r e n t o f n a t i o n a l i sm w h i c h i n f l u e n c e d e v ery E u r o p e a n ethnic g r o u p d u r i n g that century. T h e J e w s h a d l i v e d in P a l e s t i n e f o r m a n y y e a r s

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b e fo re C h r i s t , but in the f irst c e n t u r y A.D. their r e ­ fusal to su bm it to R o m a n rule had ca u s e d the Ro m a n s to d isperse them throuy hou t the Emp ire. From this time on, Jews spread to the four co r n e r s of the world, w i t h th e i r largest n u m b e r s e v e n t u a l l y se t t l i n g in E a s t e r n E u r o p e and Russia. In ce r t a i n c o u n t r i e s , such as B r i ­ ta in and the U n i t e d States, m o s t of them had b e en s u c ­ c e s s f u l l y a s s i m i l a t e d , but e l s e w h e r e they had been r e ­ g a r d e d as o u t s i d e r s in their c o u n t r i e s of res i d e n c e . T h e r e f o r e , they were u s u a 1ly s u b j e c t e d to d i s c r i m i n a t ion and of te n p e r s e c u t i o n , w h i c h s e rv ed to e m p h a s i z e th ei r sense of J e w i s h n e s s . At first, Z i on is m took a c u l t u r a l form, e m p h a s i z ­ ing the revival of the H e b r e w la n g u a g e and J e w i s h l i t ­ e r a t u r e w i t h i n R u s s i a and P o l a n d . But the a n t i - J e w i s h p o g r o m s in R u s s i a in the 1880's d e a l t a fatal blow to the th e o r y of a s s i m i l a t i o n , w h i c h had been the goal of m o s t Je ws up to that time. Th es e p o g r o m s se em ed to bring home the fact that a s s i m i l a t i o n could never be a c c o m p l i s h e d , and Z i o n i s m b e ga n to ex pa nd to wa rd the c o n c e p t of e s t a b l i s h i n g a J e w i s h h o m e l a n d s i m i l a r to ot h e r n a ti on al te rr it o r i e s . Such an idea was d e v e l o p e d by a J e w i s h j o u r n a l i s t living V i e n n a , T h e o d o r H e r z l , in a p a m p h l e t c a ll ed The J e w i s h S_ta.tpe w h i c h he w r o t e in L896 . His plan was to ca rr y on negot iat ions to win i n ­ ternational a p p r o v a 1 tor the c r e a t i o n of a Jewish state; P a l e s t i n e , th o u y h not m e n t i o n e d in his p a m p h l e t , was the implied l o c a t i o n tor this state. This s c h e m e b e c a m e known as "p ol i t i c a l Zionism" and it q u i c k l y g a i n e d gr e a t p o p u l a r i t y . Herzl c a p i t a l i z e d on the s u c ­ cess of his work by c a ll in g a m e e t i n g of Z i o n i s t s t h r o u y h o u t the w o r l d , the First Z i on is t C o n g r e s s , held in Basle, S w i t z e r l a n d in 18 9 7. The Cony ress d e c l a r e d that "the aim of Z i o n i s m is to c r ea te for the J e w i s h p e o p l e a Zi on is t O r g a n i z a t i o n to c a rr y out this goal, w i t h an e x e c u t i v e (Inner Ac ti on s C o m m i t t e e ) and a legi s la ture (a bi e n n i a l C o n g r e s s ) . Herzl r e m a i n e d the d o m i n a n t figure in the m o v e m e n t un ti l his d e a t h in 1 904 . However, his t h e o r y of " p o l i t i c a l Zionism" was s t r o n g l y c h a 1 lenged ri gh t from the beg innig by those w h o ur ge d that Je ws sh ou ld first st ar t to bu iId the Yi s h u v into a s t ro ng force be fore se ek in g i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n of their aims (" p ra ct ic al Zionism"). The f irst steps in this re ga rd had a l r e a d y b e gu n in the 1880's, w h e n a large nu mb er of R u s s i a n J e ws had m o v e d to P a l e s t i n e to e s c a p e the p o g r o m s . Th is first wave of immig ra ti on was known as the First Al i y a h , and it was 5

followed in 1 9 05 -1 0 by a second, stimulated by f u r t h e r u p h e a v a l s in Ru s s i a (e .g . , the 1905 R e v o l u ­ tion) . By the time of H e r z l 's d e a t h , p r a c t i c a l Zi on is m h a d g a i n e d the u p p e r hand for s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . First th e h a l u t z i m , as these early i m m i g r a n t s w e r e c a l l e d , h a d m o r e than d o u b l e d the size of the Y i s h u v since 1880 a n d had p r o v e n r e a s o n a b l y s u c c e s s f u l in b u i l d i n g up b o t h u r b a n and rural a r e a s . But p e r h a p s m o r e im po rt an t h a s b e e n H e r z l 's f a il ur e to se c u r e the i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n he had s o u g h t . He had b e e n r e b u f f e d in two a t t e m p t s to g a i n the S u l t a n 's a p p r o v a l for a J e w i s h h o m e in P a l e s t i n e , and he had f a il ed to ga i n the Z i o n ­ ist O r g a n i z a t i o n 1s a s se nt to build the home e l s e w h e r e . S t r a n g e as it m a y seem, He rz l had a c t u a l l y been c o n s i d e r i n g the p o s s i b i l i t y of d e v e l o p i n g the J e w i s h h o m e in B r i t i s h East Africa. A r o u n d the turn of the c e n t u r y , Z i on is m c a u g h t the i m a g i n a t i o n of J o s e p h C h a m ­ b e r l a i n f a f a s c i n a t i n g c h a r a c t e r in B r i t i s h p o l i t i c s w h o at the time wa s S e c r e t a r y of S t at e for the C o l o ­ ni es . Si nc e P a l e s t i n e was in the ha n d s of the Turks, C h a m b e r l a i n o f f e r e d to al l o w the J e w s to se t t l e in the a r e a w h i c h today c o m p r i s e s p a rt of K e n y a and U g a n d a . N e g o t i a t i o n s b e g a n in 1902 and w e re c a r r i e d on for s e v ­ e r a l y e a r s , w i t h Herzl s u p p o r t i n g the p l a n . To m o s t of h i s f o l l o w e r s h o w e v e r , it was u n t h i n k a b l e to ha ve Zioni sm w i t h o u t Zion, so the sc h e m e was abandoned in 1905.5 In a d d i t i o n to the split b e t w e e n the p o l i t i c a l and p r a c t i c a l Z i o n i s t s , s e ve ra l o t h e r g r o u p s e m e r g e d in the p e r i o d b e f o r e the First Wo r l d W a r . T h o s e Zi o n i s t s who w i s h e d J e w i s h relig ious tr a d i t i o n to p l a y a la rg e role in the g r o w t h of the N a t i o n a l Ho me o r g a n i z e d a p a r t y k n o w n as M i z r a h i , w h il e those w h o w a n t e d a Y i s h u v b u i l t a long s o c i a l i s t 1 ines formed the P o a l e Zion (Zi on is t S o c i a l i s t ) Party. T h e s e two g r o u p s r e p r e s e n t e d the r i g h t and left wi n g s r e s p e c t i v e l y in the Zi on is t Cong r e s s e s , but both were m i n o r i t i e s un ti l well af t e r the e n d of W o r l d W a r I . O c c u p y i n g the p o l i t i c a l c e n t e r was a h e t e r o g e n e o u s g r o u p kn ow n as the G e n e r a l Zionists, w h o lacked any d e f i n i t e i d e o l o g y . T h e y were the d o m i ­ n a n t force in the C o n g r e s s e s d u r i n g th es e y e a r s . T h u s , as the wa r br ok e out in the su m m e r of 1914, t h e Z i on is ts had m a d e g r e a t st ri de s but were still v e r y fa r from their o b j e c t i v e s : they had b u i l t an o r g a n i z a t i o n ; t h ey had g r e a t l y s t r e n g t h e n e d the J e w i s h co m m u n i ty in Pa le s t i n e ; they had a t t r a c t e d a m e a s u r e of in­ t e r n a t i o n a l a t t e n t i o n to t h e m s e l v e s . But Z i o n i s m had

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not yet won any of the G r e a t P o w e r s to its c a u s e , a s tep w h i c h wo ul d be n e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e it lacked a d i p l o m a t i c base of its own. The G r e a t War was to g ive Z ionism the o p p o r t u n i t y to a c c o m p l i s h that step. After th e E a s t A f r i c a s c h e m e w a s a b a n d o n e d , t h e Br i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t c o n t i n u e d to m a n i f e s t s o m e i n t e r e s t in Zionism,6 b u t t h i s interest was outwe ighed by Br i t a i n 's o v e r a l l p o l i c y in t he N e a r a n d M i d d l e E a s t . T h a t p o l i c y e n t a i l e d s u p p o r t o f t he O t t o m a n E m p i r e in o r d e r to k e e p it i n d e p e n d e n t of R u s s i a . Despite per­ iod ic b u r s t s of o u t r a g e o v e r T u r k i s h m a s s a c r e s o f t h e i r C h r i s t i a n s u b j e c t s , t h e Br i t i s h b e l i e v e d t h a t t he c o n ­ tinued existence of the C o n s t a n t i n o p l e regime would p r e s e r v e s t a b i l i t y in t h e N e a r Eas t . To a t t e m p t to wrest Palestine from Turkish control would only undermine that stability.

Th is p o l i c y , w h i c h had g u id ed Br itish d i p l o ma cy in the N e a r E a st since the early n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , lo st its r a t i o n a l e in 1914, w h en the T u r k s joined the C e n ­ tral P o w e r s in the ir fight a g ai ns t Br itain, Fran ce and Russia. The O t t o m a n E m pi re was now the enemy and her larg e h o l d i n g s , m o s t of whic h we re A r a b in p o p u l a t i o n r a t h e r t h an T u r k i s h , seemed c e r t a i n to be s u r r e n d e r e d if the A l l i e s we re vi ct or io us . T h e r e f o r e , the p e r i o d 1 9 14 -1 8 w i t n e s s e d a c o m p l e x seri es of m a n e u v e r s on the p a r t of the B r i t i s h , F r e n c h , A r a b s and Z i o n i s t s , all in a n t i c i p a t i o n of a T u r k i s h d e f e a t and a c o n s e q u e n t d i v i s ion of her empire. Th es e m a n e u v e r s were h i g h l y s i g ­ n i f i c a n t , for th ey formed the f r a m e w o r k w i t h i n w h i c h the p o s t - w a r s e t t l e m e n t in the Mi d d l e East was d e t e r ­ m i n e d . T h e r e f o r e , it is n e c e s s a r y to e x a m i n e the Br it­ ish n e g o t i a t i o n s w i th the ot he r p a r t i e s in orde r to d e t e r m i n e the e x t e n t of w a r t i m e c o m m i t m e n t s . B r i t i s h n e g o t i a t i o n s wi th the A r a b s were ba se d on the f a mo us M c M a h o n - H u s s e i n l e tt er s of 1915-16. It was not s u r p r i s i n g that the G o v e r n m e n t a p p r o a c h e d the A r a b s for aid in the war a g a i n s t the Turks, since the A r a b w o r l d had b e en under O t t o m a n d o m i n a t i o n for c e n t u r i e s and would, it seemed, be eage r for an o p p o r t u n i t y to t h r o w off the T u r k i s h yoke. F r om the B r i t i s h po i n t of view, the T u r k s wo ul d have fewer r e s o u r c e s for i n t e r ­ n a t i o n a l war if they we re faced wi t h an in ternal r e ­ volt. Also, since B r i t a i n had a v i r t u a l p r o t e c t o r a t e in E g y p t , she could e a s i l y p r o v i d e a d v i s e r s and m a t e r i ­ al to her allies. The Ar ab to w h o m they looked for a s s i s t a n c e was S h a r i f H u s s e i n of Mecca, who wh il e n o m ­ inal ly a va ss al of the Sultan, was the de fa c t o r u l e r

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of w e s t e r n Arabia. His vi rt ua l in de pe nd en ce , his fam­ ily l i n e a y e - - w h i c h s u p p o s e d l y d a t e d back to the da ys of the A r a b Emp ir e--and his co nt ro l of the holy citi es of M e c c a and M e d i n a c o m b i n e d to gi v e him a p r e s t i g e seco nd o n l y to that of the Su lt an h i m s e l f in Musi im e y e s . W h i l e he m a y not have been the m o s t p o w e r f u l Arab at the time (and he was in fact d e f e a t e d and sent into e x ­ ile ten ye ar s later by ibn S a u d , the ruler of c e nt ra l A r a b i a ) , he se emed the mo s t lo gical ch o i c e in the c i r ­ cumstances . T h e r e f o r e , in the summ er of 1915 the B r i t i s h G o v ­ e r n m e n t i n st ru ct ed Sir He n r y M c M a h o n , their H i g h C o m ­ m i s s i o n e r in E g y p t , to op en n e g o t i a t i o n s wi t h H u s s e i n for the p u r p o s e of i n i t ia ti ng an A r a b r e vo lt ag a i n s t the Turks. In his first l e t t e r , da te d Ju l y 14, 1 9 1 5 , 7 H u s s e i n as ke d for B r i t i s h a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t of A r a b i n d e p e n d e n c e for the e n ti re Ar a b reg ion b o u n d e d by T u r k e y , Persia, the I n di an O c e a n and the Red S e a . McMahon at first demurred from a discussion of boundar ies, but the S h a r i f 's se co nd l e tt er was insistent, T h e r e f o r e , on O c t o b e r 24, 1915, the Hi gh Commissioner responded: Th e two districts of Me rs ina and Alexandretta and portions of Syria lying to the we st of the d i s t r i c t s of Dama sc us , Homs, Hama and A l e p p o c a n ­ not be said to be p u r e l y A r a b , and sh ou ld be e x c l u d e d from the 1 imi ts demanded. With the abov e mod i f i c a t i o n , and without prejudice to our ex i s t i n g t r e a t i e s w i t h A r a b c h i e f s , we a c ce pt those limits. As for th os e re g i o n s lying within those f r o n t i e r s w h e r e i n G r e a t Br ita i n is free to act w i t h o u t d e t r i m e n t to the in t e r e s t s of her ally F r a n c e , I am e m p o w e r e d in the name of the G o v ­ e r n m e n t of G r e a t B r i t a i n to g ive the following assurances and make the f o ll ow in g re pl y to yo u r le tt er -Subj ect to the abov e mo d i f icat i o n s , G r e a t B r i t a i n is p r e p a r e d to r e c o g ­ ni ze and s u p p o r t the i n d e p e n d e n c e of the A r a b s in all the reg ions w i t h i n the 1 imits d e m a n d e d by the Shar i f of Mecca.

Hussein's reply agreed to the exclusion of the d i s t r i c t s of M e r s i n a a n d A l e x a n d r e t t a b u t n o t to t h e area west of the four Syrian towns. But McMahon a n s w e r e d t h a t the i n t e r e s t s of F r a n c e w e r e i n v o l v e d in t h i s reg ion an d t h a t H i s M a j e s t y ' s G o v e r n m e n t c o u I d n o t sign the la nd away. Finally, on J a n u a r y i , 1 916, Hussein ag r e e d , in the interests of Anglo-French harmony, but he a d d e d "...at the first o p p o r t u n i ty after t h i s w a r is f i n i s h e d , w e s h a 11 a s k y o u (w h a t w e a vert o u r e y e s f r o m t o d a y ) f o r w h a t we n o w l e a v e to F r a n c e a n d its c o a s t s ." T h is s e r i e s of l e t t e r s is s i g n i f i c a n t b e c a u s e in the p o s t - B a I f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n period, th e B r i t i s h G o v e rrrmen t a r g u e d t h a t P a l e s t i n e h a d b e e n e x c l u d e d from t he a r e a of A r a b i n d e p e n d e n c e , a n d t h a t t h e r e f o r e it could j u s t i f i a b l y be p r o m i s e d to t h e Z i o n i s t s . T h is a r g u m e n t was b a s e d o n the p h r a s e " p o r t i o n s of S y r i a l y i n g to the w e s t of t he d i s t r i c t s o f D a m a s c u s , H o m s , H a m a a n d A l e p p o " , w h i c h w e r e n o t to be g i v e n to t h e Arabs. A v a s t a m o u n t of I i t e r a t u r e h a s b e e n p r o d u c e d b y e a c h s i d e in the d i s p u t e , w i t h o u t d e v e l o p i n g a n y c o n s e n s u s of o p i n i o n . ^ Th is a u t h o r is n o t su f f ic i e n tl y a u d a c ious to b e l i e v e t h a t he c a n s h e d a n y n e w 1 i g h t o n the c o n t r o v e r s y , b u t he d o e s f e e l t h a t hi s o p i n i o n is h e r e in o r d e r , s i n c e it b e a r s d i r e c t l y o n the c o n c l u s ions of this w o r k . Mr. I s a i a h Fr i e d m a n a r g u e s v i g ­ o r o u s l y t h a t B r i t i s h s ta t e s m e n of t h e p e r i o d d id n o t i n t e n d to t u r n P a l e s t i n e o v e r to the A r a b s , a n d he r e l i e s h e a v i l y o n M c M a h o n 's o w n d i s c l a i m e r , w r i t t e n in 19 2 2, of a n y s u c h i n tent i o n .^ R e g a r d i ng h i s f a m o u s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h t h e S h a r i f , S i r H e n r y c l a i m e d : "It w a s as f u l l y m y i n t e n t i o n to e x c l u d e P a l e s t i n e as it was to e x c l u d e the m o r e northern coastal tracts of Syria." He g o e s on to e x p l a i n t h a t he i n t e r p r e t e d t h e w o r d " d i s t r i c t " to m e a n the O t t o m a n v i l a y e t of D a m a s ­ c u s , an a r e a w h i c h e x t e n d e d s o u t h i n t o T r a n s - J o r d a n i a , d i r ec tly eas t of P a l e s t i n e . H o w e v e r , there were no v i l a y e ts of H a m a a n d H o m s , and t h a t of A l e p p o e x t e n d e d c l e a r to the M e d i t e r r a n e a n , so the w o r d " v i l a y e t " w a s obviously no t meant in reference to those cities. T h e r e f o r e , it s e e m s r e a s o n a b l e to a s s u m e t h a t the w o r d " d i s t r i c t " r e f e r r e d to the i m m e d i a t e s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a o f the fo u r S y r i a n t o w n s , a n d P a l e s t i n e d o e s no t lie d u e w e s t of the D a m a s c u s a r e a . Even a c o m m i t t e e of British officials, f o r m e d to i n v e s t i g a t e the M c M a h o n 11u s s e i n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e in 19 3 9 , a d m i t t e d t h a t the t e r m s o f the l e t t e r w e r e "... n o t so s p e c i f ic a n d u n m i s t a k e a b l e as it was t h o u g h t to be at t h e t i m e ", a n d t h e y c o n c e d e d t h a t " A r a b c o n t e n t i o n s r e g a r d ing the m e a n i n g

9

of the d i s p u t e d p h r a s e have g r e a t e r force than has appeared hitherto"; nevertheless they u p he ld the G o v e r n m e n t 's c o n c l u s i o n that P a l e s t i n e was excluded f ro m the area pledged to the Arabs. In this a u t h o r 's o p i n i o n , the in te n t i o n s of M c M a h o n and ot he r o f f icials (or w h at they later c l ai me d we re their i n t e n t i o n s ) are not the m o s t sal ient factors in the de ba te . Re ga rd less of what he a s p i r e d to write, Sir Henry in re a l i t y pe n n e d a h i g h l y a m b i g u o u s letter, w h i c h c l e a r l y led m a n y A r a b s to bel ieve that the Ho ly L a n d wo ul d be the i rs a f t e r the w a r . And it is not d if f icul t to understand why they came to this c o n c l u s i o n , g iven the text of the l e t t e r . Th i s c o n t r o v e r s y wo u l d be s t r i c t l y a c a d e m i c had it no t been for o t h e r a g r e e m e n t s w h i c h the B r i t i s h later m a d e r e g a r d i n g the M i d d l e E a s t . W h i l e the n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h the Sh ar if were still in p r o g r e s s , the Fo r e i g n Of f ice be ga n d i scuss ions with the Fr e n c h c o n c e r n i n g O t t o m a n p o s s e s s i o n s . As to the re a s o n s for these m e e t ­ in gs , David Ll oy d G e o r g e , wh o was M i n i s t e r of Mu ni t ions a t the t ime un d e r H e r b e r t A s q u i t h ' s Coal it ion G o v e r n ­ m e n t , c l a i m e d that they were u n d e r t a k e n to as s u r e the F r e n c h that the a g r e e m e n t s with H u s s e i n would not lead t o p r e p o n d e r a n t B r i t i s h i n fl ue nc e in the M i d d l e East a f t e r the war. ^ Ea rl y in 1916, Sir Mark Sy ke s and F r a n c o i s G e o r g e s - P i c o t were a p p o i n t e d by th ei r re sp ec t ive g o v e r n m e n t s to d r a w up a fo r m u l a for g o v e r n i n g the A r a b reg ions a f te r host i 1 i ties had c e a s e d . In May of t h at y e a r , the two g o v e r n m e n t s a g r e e d that they were " p r e p a r e d to r e c o g n i z e and p r o t e c t an i n d e p e n d e n t A r a b S t a t e or a C o n f e d e r a t i o n of A r a b St at es " ov er m o st of th e F e r t i l e C r e s c e n t e x c l u d i n g the M e d i t e r r a n e a n co as t a nd the Ti gr is Euphrates valley south of Ba gh dad. A r a b i a p r o p e r was to be c o m p l e t e l y indepen­ d e n t , but the r e m a i n i n g t e r r i t o r y wa s to be d i v i d e d i n to F r e n c h (the n o r t h e r n s e c t i o n ) and B r i t i s h (t he s o u t h e r n ) s p h e r e s of i n f l u e n c e , w i t h e a c h c o u n t r y h o l d ­ ing rights of e n t e r p r i s e and s u p p l y i n g advisers in t h e i r reg i o n . F r a n c e was to have d i r e c t cont.ro 1 ov er the L e b a n o n , the S y r i a n coast and s o u t h e a s t e r n As ia M i n o r , wh i l e B r i t a i n re c e i v e d the s o u t h e r n TigrisE u p h r a t e s v a ll ey (B a s r a ). P a l e s t i n e was to be g o v e r n e d b y "an in ternat ional a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , the form of w h ic h is to be d e c i d e d upon af te r co ns ul tat ion w i t h the ot h e r Allies, and the representatives of the Sharif of M e c c a ." Th is a g r e e m e n t was to b e c o m e a so ur ce of g r e a t d is pute among the Br it is h, the F r e n c h and the A r a b s . 10

First, the A r a b s we re not informed of the d o c u m e n t , though it obv iously compromised the terms of the M c M a h o n - H u s s e in l e t t e r s . Wh il e m o s t of the M i d d l e Ea st was still to be g i v e n ov er to an Arab State or States, the introduction of B r i t i s h and Fr en ch sp he re s of in f l u e n c e over these states was a cond it ion ne ve r merit ioned in the correspondence between the High Co m m i ss ioner and the Sharif; yet it could hard ly ha ve be en cons idered a tr iv ia l m a t t e r u n w o r t h y of m e n t i o n . I n d e e d , wh en the terms of the a g r e e m e n t were ma de kn ow n in ear ly 1917, the r e v e l a t i o n c a us ed H u s s e i n and his f ol lowers a g r e a t deal of c o n c e r n , and he asked the B r i t i s h for a d d i t i o n a l r e a s s u r a n c e s that their p r o m i s e s to him wo ul d be r e d e e m e d . S e c o n d l y , the a g r e e m e n t was the cause of c o n s t a n t a r g u m e n t b e t w e e n B r i t a i n and Fran ce after the w a r , u n t i l the m a n d a t e s we re f inally s e t t l e d in 1922. In m i d - 1 9 1 6 , the B r i t i s h c a m p a i g n in Pa lestine and S y r i a had not yet b e g u n , and the e n ti re reg ion still lay w i t h i n the O t t o m a n domain. But by the end of 1918, the fact that the Br i t ish-~w ith some Ar ab but li ttle F r e n c h ass i s t a n c e - - h a d c o n q u e r e d most of the A r ab lands led W h i t e h a l l to be 1 ieve that B r i t a i n sh ou ld gain a la r g e r sh ar e of the M i d d l e East than Sy kes-P i cot had al loted her. After all, B r i t i s h blood had not been shed in M e s o p o t a m i a , Sy ri a and Palestine to e n la rg e French im pe ri al hold i n g s . The F r e n c h , of c o u r s e , saw it d i f ­ fere nt ly . To t h e m , the carnpaign in the Mi ddle East was o n l y one front in the o v e r a l 1 war a g a i n s t the C e n t r a 1 P o w e r s , to w h i c h all had c o n t r i b u t e d f u i l y . No al l y h a d the r i g h t to t a k e a d v a n t a g e of F r a n c e 's i n a b i 1 ity to s p a r e a n y s o l d ier s f r o m the h o m e f r o n t for i m p e r i a l adventure. A l s o , th e F r e n c h c o n s i d e r e d S y k e s - P i c o t a f o r m a l i zed a g r e e m e n t , one which was still binding b e t w e e n the tw o n a t i o n s . C o m p r o m i s e b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o p o i n t s of v i e w p r o v e d extremely difficult. The fact that British troops o c c u p i e d m o s t of the d i s p u t e d t e r r i t o r y g a v e W h i t e h a l L t h e u p p e r h a n d in the b a r g a i n i n g , a s t a t e of a f f a i r s w h i c h w a s r e c o g n i z e d , t h o u g h g r u d g i n g l y , by the F r e n c h . T h u s the B r i t i s h d i d e v e n t u a l l y g a i n a m a n d a t e for P a l ­ estine (o r g i n a l l y slated f or i n t e r n a t iona l control) , a n d for an e n l a r g e d I r a q , i n c l u d ing M o s u l ( o r i g i n a l l y in the F r e n c h s p h e r e of i n f l u e n c e ). France gained c on­ t r o l of the L e b a n o n a n d a m a n d a t e for S y r i a , w h i c h w a s f a r less t h a n sh e h a d e x p e c t e d . As a r e s u l t , s h e c l u n g to these gains d e s p e r a t e l y and r e f u s e d to c o o p e r a t e w i t h Emi r F e i s a l , H u s s e i n ' s son wh o was s u p p o s e d to

11

a r t | D $ : n O ) r t n H - H ^ a ) t i i D ' r t i C ( t 3

g o v e r n Sy ri a in her n a m e . The Fr e n c h e x p u l s i o n of F e i s a l from D a m a s c u s in 1920 can be traced to their a n g e r o v er the r e v i s i o n s of the S y k e s - P i c o t A g r e e m e n t , an d the loss of S y ri a to the F r e n c h b e c a m e a d e f i n i t e f ac to r in the in c r e a s e d Ar a b i n t e r e s t in P a l e s t i n e . H a d S y r i a become an A r a b s t a t e , the Is l a m i c wo rl d wo ul d h a v e been far m o r e content, and p e r h a p s P a l e s t i n e m i g h t no t have become such a ce n t e r of c o n t r o v e r s y . S u c h , of c o u r s e , is only s p e c u l a t i o n . Th e third c o m m i t m e n t made by His M a j e s t y ' s G o v e r n ent in the M i dd le East was the fa mo us B a l f o u r D e c l a r a ion to the Z i o n is ts in N o v e m b e r 1917. The war had iven the Z i on is ts new hope of w i n n i n g P a l e s t i n e , since he Tu rk s stood to f o r f e 1 t all th ei r Mi dd le E a s t e r n o l d i n g s if they lost on the b a t t l e f i e l d . Th e m a t t e r irst came to the a t t e n t i o n of the B r i t i s h C a b i n e t in ar ly 1915 due to the e f f o r t s of H e r b e r t S a m u e l , the irst J e w ever to sit in that b o d y . A m a n who p l a y e d a ead ing role in the Li b e r a l P a r t y from the p r e - w a r perod to the 1 9 3 0 ' s , he then held the pos i t ion of h a n c e l l o r of the D u c h y of Lancaster. He was not at he t ime a Z i on is t but felt it his du ty as a Je w to c q u a i n t h i ms el f with the i r p r o g r a m and do what he ou Id to as si st it. 13 He d r ew up a m e m o r a n d u m in hi ch he e x p r e s s e d the be li ef that P a l e s t i n e sh o u I d be d d e d to the B r i t i s h Em pi re and that J e w i s h c o l o n i z a ion sh ou ld be e n c o u r a g e d t h e r e . He c ir cu la te d this o c u m e n t to a few key C a b i n e n t m i n i s t e r s . ^

C T O O C ^ D r t C J

N o t h i n g came of S a m u e l 1s idea at the time h o w e v e r , e c a u s o of the a t t i t u d e s of As qu it h, the P r im e M i n i s e r , and Earl G r e y , his Fore ig n S e c r e t a r y . A s q u i t h was ot at all a t t r a c t e d to the p r o p o s i t i o n , c o n s i d e r i n g it n u n n e c e s s a r y e x t e n t ion of B r i t i s h r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; he as, in f a c t , a m az ed that a s e n s i b l e m a n such as S a mu el ou ld c o n c e i v e an idea of this t y p e . 1^ G r e y , on the th er h a n d , felt that it was p r e m a t u r e to d i s c u s s the r e a k - u p of the Ot toman Em pi re at this early st ag e of t he w a r . 16 L a ck in g the su pp or t of these two key f i g u r e s , Sa mu el was u n a b l e to g a i n s e r i o u s su p p o r t for h is m e m o .17 B u t t h i s s e t b a c k d id n o t d i s c o u r a g e the Z i o n i s t O r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d its m e m b e r s b e c a m e i n c r e a s i n g l y m o r e a c t i v e as the w a r w e n t o n in t h e i r e f f o r t s to r e c r u i t t h e v a r i o u s p o w e r s to t h e i r c a u s e . T h r o u g h o u t th e y e a r 1 9 1 6 t h e y m a d e i n q u ir ies in P e t r o g r a d , P a r i s a n d Be r1 i n , as w e l l as in L o n d o n . 1^ T h e l e a d i n g Zionist in B r i t a i n was D r . C h a i m We iz m a n n , a Russ ian-born c h e m i s t

12

who had settled in Manchester. He was a man we 11suited for his role, for he was intensely dedicated to Zionism, was we 11-known in Britain for his scientific work, and possessed a temperment which judicious Ly combined firmness and flex ib i1 ity. He had made the acqua intance of Ar thur BaIfour, former Prime Minister, in 1906 and of Lloyd George in 1914, and he had found that both men expressed interest in the Zionist vision. These friendships served Weizmann in good stead in December 1916, when Asquith was maneuvered into resigning his office, and Lloyd George took over as Prime Minister with Ba1four as his Fore ign Secretary. The Governme nt was now interested in the Zionist proposals, and for the next eleven months the two parties engaged in serious bargaining until the final formu la was announced in November 1917. In January 1917 Weizmann submitted a memorandum on Palestine to Sykes, who had just been promoted to Assistant Secretary to the War Cabinet with respons ibility tor Middle Lastern affairs. This memo laid out the Zionist plans tor Palestine: the recogn it ion of Jews in the country as the Jewish nation; the right of free immigration for all Jews ; and the formation of a J ew ish Company to foster colonization.^ The fol­ low ing month, Sykes met tor a discussion of the memo with Weizmann and severa I other prominent Jews, includ­ ing Samuel and two members of the Ro thsch iId fam ily. These men requested a British protectorate over Pales­ tine, but they emphas ized that they were comp 1e te 1y opposed to any form of international control. At the t ime, they were not aware of the Sykes-Picot Agreement; nor did Sir Mark say anything to enlighten them on that subject. We izmann told Sykes that "the Jews who went to Palestine would go to const itu te a Jewish nation f not to become Arabs or Druses or Eng 1ishmen." Thus, he made it clear early on that the Zionists had no intention of assimilating with the Arabs who were a iready in Palestine. This determination to remain separate was to prove a major factor in the strife which developed between the Arab and Jewish communit ies. Sykes responded to We izmann's remark by saying that he understood the Zionist movement and sympathized with it; nonetheless, he was worried about its inter­ national ramif ications. France, he said, would espe­ cially prove troublesome, since she desired most of the Middle East for herself. He also warned of the growing Arab nationalist movement, but he concluded that Arabs 13

and Zi on is ts o f two short th a t s c o r e .

co ul d wo r k in y e a r s , he was

h a r m o n y .21 In to c h an ge his

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Ev e n t s m o v e d r a p i d l y after this m e e t i n g . On Ma rc h 2 2, We i zmann m e t wi th B a l f o u r , w h o informed him of i n q u i r i e s the F o r e i g n Of f ice had m a d e of the Fren ch r e g a r d i n g Z ionism. The Fore ign S e c r e t a r y was not opt ii s t i c , but he s u g g e s t e d that a c o n d o m i n i u m , in vo lv in g ritain, Fr ance and p o s s i b l y the U n i t e d S t at es in P a l ­ e s ti ne , m i g h t win i n t e r n a t i o n a l a p p r o v a l .22

CQ

W e i z m a n n did not like this p o s s i b i 1 ity and theref o re he r e q u e s t e d a m e e t i n g wi t h the Pr i m e M i n i s t e r him self; it was a r r a n g e d by C.P. S c o t t , the e d i t o r of the M a n c h e s t e r G u a r d i a n . At this m e e t i n g , held on Ap ri l 3, L l o y d G e o r g e bega n by e x c l a i m i n g that P a l e s t i n e was to h i m the one i n te re st in g pa rt of the w a r . A f t e r he ar in g W e i z m a n n ‘s a r g u m e n t s , he r e j e c t e d the idea of joint c o n t r o l wi th F r a n c e , but he did impress upon the Z i o n ­ ist leader the p o s s i b l e n e c e s s i t y of a joint administ r a t i o n w i t h the U . S . A . 2 3 Th a t very day the Pr ime M i n i s t e r c o n f e r r e d w i th S y k e s , who was ab ou t to leave for the M i dd le East. L l o y d G e o r g e in st r u c t e d him not to ma ke any c o m m i t m e n t s to the A r a b s wh ic h wo ul d ha rm e ither B r i t i s h or Zi on is t i n t er es t s , since the l a tt er m i g h t p r o v e more usef ul t h a n Sh ar if Hussein. He c o n c l u d e d by emph as i z ing the i m p o r t a n c e of " s ec ur in g the a d d i t i o n of P a l e s t i n e t o the British area. Other s t a t e m e n t s m a de by the P r i m e M i n i s t e r d u r i n g this p e ri od i n di ca te that he had d e f initely ma de up his m i n d to g a i n the Holy Land for H. M.G. ,25 and he and Sykes we r e now to be aeg m the ta s k of re vi si ng that p o r t i o n of the a g r e e m e n t with M . P icot. In typical Lloyd George f a s h i o n , t he F o r e ign O f f i c e s t a f f had not b e e n i n f o r m e d of t h i s i m p o r t a n t p o l i c y r e v i s i o n , and t h e r e f o r e , the Z i o n i s t ins i s t e n c e o n a Br i t i s h - r u l e d P a l e s t i n e s e e m e d to s o m e s t a f f e r s to be quixotic. Ronald Graham, Assistant Under-Seeretary to Balfour, asked in A p r i l ". . .are w e justified in e n c o u r a g ing t h e m [the Z i o n i s t s ] in so g r e a t a m e a s u r e w h e n the p r o s p e c t of P a l e s t i n e be ing i n t e r n a t i o n a l i z e d is d i s t i n e t l y s t r o n g e r t h a n the p r o s p e c t of the c o u n t r y coming under our p r o t e c t i o n ? "25 He was assuming Z i o n i s t i g n o r a n c e of the S y k e s - P i c o t Ag r e e m e n t b u t in f a c t , We i z m a n n h a d b e e n t o l d a b o u t it by C.P. S c o t t a few d a y s e a r l i e r . He t h e n r e f e r r e d to it in a n i n t e r ­

14

view with Robert Cecil, Balfour's Assistant Secretary, on April 25. He informed Cecil that he had no relish for French protection but definitely was in favor of British rule.^ Sharif Hussein had also become aware of the Agree™ men t, a 1thoug h he d id not know its specific clauses. Naturally, he was quite upset to learn of its general intent so to reassure him, Sykes visited the He jaz in May and was followed a few weeks later by Picot. The three men then conducted some tortuous negotiations over Syria, resulting in a loose arrangement for Franco-Arab cooperation in Damascus,^ However, later events proved that neither s ide really had much intention of work ing with the other. By May also, a new problem had come to the fore. For years the British Zionists had been wag ing an ideolog ical battle with certa in elements in British Jewry known as assimilationists. These people believed that Jews were citizens in whatever country they resid­ ed and that Jewishness was no more than a religion; consequently, the idea of found ing a Jewish home in Palestine was frightening to them, because it seemed to make the Jews a separate nation and British Jews for­ eigners in their own country. These assimilationists had formed an organization known as the Conjoint For­ eign Committee, and they had negotiated with the Zion­ ists for several years over their proposed goals in Palestine, but without success. Their disagreements had been kept under wraps for the most part, but when the Conjoint Commi ttee learned in the spring of 1917 about the Zionist negotiations with H.M.G., they decid­ ed to make their own pos it ion public. As a result, they issued a statement to The T imes on May 24 rejecting the Zionist ideal "which regards all the Jewish communities of the world as cons t itut ing one homeless nationa1ity, incapable of complete social identi f icat ion with the nations among whom they dwell. ..and that for this homeless nat ionali ty a political centre and an always available homeland in Palestine are necessary.'. 29 -phis st a tement touched off a fierce debate which raged among British Jewry for the next six months until the BaIfour Declaration was issued. The ass imi lat ionists were greatly outnumbered but they had the advantage of having as one of their leaders a Govern­ ment Minister, Edwin Montagu, the Secretary of State for India. The Zionists could not cla im this d is t inct ion because Samuel had res igned ^with Asquith in Decem­ ber 1916. 15

In J u n e , W e i z m a n n - - h a v i n g be en anno ye d by the o b s t r u c t i o n of the a n t i - Z i o n i s t J e w s - - t o l d B a 1 four that a def inite c o m m i t m e n t was ne ed ed f rom the G o v e r n m e n t , an d the Fo r e i g n S e c r e t a r y in turn as ke d that the Z i o n ­ ists d r a w up a s t a t e m e n t of o b j e c t i v e s for s u b m i s s i o n to the Wa r Cabinent.^Q Th is s t a t e m e n t was then put t o g e t h e r by a c o m m i t t e e of le ad in g Z ionists and was p r e s e n t e d to B a l f o u r on J u l y 18. It read as f o l l o w s : His Majesty's G o v e r n m e n t , after considering t h e a ims of th e Z i o n i s t O r g a n i z a t i o n , a c ­ c e p t th e p r i n c i p l e o f r e c o g n i z ing P a l e s t i n e a s the N a t i o n a l H o m e of t h e J e w i s h p e o p l e a n d th e r i g h t of the J e w i s h p e o p l e to b u i l d u p its n a t i o n a l l i f e in P a l e s t i n e u n d e r a p r o t e c t i o n to be e s t a b l i s h e d at t h e c o n c l u s ion of p e a c e , f o l l o w i n g u p o n t h e s u c ­ cessful i s s u e of t h e war. His M a j e sty's Government regard as essential for the r e a l i z a t i o n of t h i s p r i n c i p l e the g r a n t of i n t e r n a l a u t o n o m y to t h e J e w i s h n a t i o n a l i ty in P a l e s t i n e , f r e e d o m of immigration for Jews, an d the e s t a b l is h m e n t of a J e w i s h National C o l o n i z ing Corporation for the re-establishment and economic development o f the c o u n t r y . The c o n d i t ion a n d forms of the internal a u t o n o m y and a C h a r t e r for t h e J e w i s h N a t i ­ o n a l Co I o n i z i n g C o r p o r a t i o n s h o u l d , in the v i e w of H i s M a j e s t y 's G o v e r n m e n t , be e l a b o ­ rated in d e t a i l and d e t e r m i n e d with the representatives of the Zionist O r g a n i.zat i o n . ^1

In the next few w e e k s , this p a p e r c i r c u l a t e d among the C a b i n e t Mi ni s t e r s , p r e p a r t o r y to a g e n e r a 1 d i s c u s s ion on the t o p i c . In A u g u s t , We i zmann noted in a l e t ­ ter that the Fore ign O f f i c e had ag re ed to the terms of t he p a p e r and that Lloyd G e o r g e had al so g i v e n his a p p r o v a l .3 2 Thus he th o u g h t that the ba t t l e had b e e n w o n , but the issue still had to be taken b e fo re t he C a b i n e t . M o n t a g u t h e r e f o r e g a i n e d an o p p o r t u n i ty to i n fl ue nc e the G o v e r n m e n t 's d e ci si on , and he used it to full a d v a n t a g e .

Montagu's moment arrived at a War Cabinet meeting held on September 3, a meeting from which both Lloyd George and BaIfour were absent. When the subject of the proposed pro-Zionist declaration was ra ised, he 16

a r g u e d p a s s i o n a t e l y a g a i n s t it. He c l a i m e d t h a t t h e J e w s w e r e o n l y a re 1 ig ious c o m m u n i t y a n d t h a t a n a t i o n a 1 h o m e for t h e m w o u l d e n d a n g e r t h e r i g h t s o f J e w i s h c i t i z e n s in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . In c o n c l u s i o n he a s k e d : " H o w w o u l d he n e g o t i a t e w i t h the p e o p l e s of I n d i a o n b e h a l f of Hi s M a j e s t y ' s G o v e r n m e n t if the w o r l d h a d just been told that His Ma j e s t y ' s G o v e r n m e n t r e g a r d e d h i s n a t i o n a 1 h o m e as b e i n g in T u r k i s h t e r r i t o r y ? " W i t h L l o y d G e o r g e an d B a 1 f o u r u n a v a i l a b l e to c o u n t e r t h i s argument, the War Cabinet decided to postpone any decision until all views could be a i r e d .3 3 as a result, a m o n t h 's t ime elapsed before the nex t C a b i n e t l e v e l d i s c u s s i o n on the s u b j e c t . It w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t the W a r C a b i n e t h a d b e e n p e r ­ suaded by M o n t a g u that the Zionist declaration was u n a c c e p t a b l e as it s t o o d , b e c a u s e in the w e e k s t h a t f o 1 l o w e d , a t t e m p t s w e r e m a d e to d r a w up an a l t e r n a t i v e draft that w o u 1d s a t isfy some of his objections, L e o p o l d Arnery, at t he t ime an A s s i s t a n t S e c r e t a r y t he W a r C a b i n e t , n o t e d in h i s m e m o i r s t h a t L o r d M i l n e r , a m e m b e r of t ha t C a b i n e t , s t o p p e d by h i s o f f i c e a b o u t a h a l f an h o u r b e f o r e t h a t b o d y w a s to m e e t o n O c t o b e r 4. G i v i n g A m e r y s e v e r a l s u g g e s t e d v e r s i o n s of the s t a t e ­ ment , Milner asked him: "C o u l d you draft some­ t h i n g w h i c h w o u l d go a r e a s o n a b l e d i s t a n c e to m e e t ing the o b j e c t o r s b o t h J e w i s h and A r a b , w i t h o u t i m p a i r i n g t he substance of the p r o p o s e d d e c l a r a t i o n ? " ^ Amery t h e n p r o d u c e d the fol l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h :

His Majesty's Government view with favor the estallishment in Palestine of a Nat­ ional Home for the Jewish race and will use its best endeavors to facilitate the achievement of this object; it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and relig ious rights of the existing nonJewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and poli t ical status enjoyed in any other country by such Jews who are fully con tented with the ir existing nat­ ional ity and citizenship.^ This draft was an important change from the orig­ inal version in several respects. First, instead of "recogn iz ing Palestine as the Nat ional Home of the Jew­ ish People", it spoke of the "establishment in Pales­ tine of a National Home for the Jewish race" (later changed to "Jewish people" in the final draft) . Th is 17

c h a n g e was a def inite d im i n u t i o n in s c o p e , for the f o r m e r implied the d o n a t i o n of a 11 P a l e s t i n e for e x c l u ­ s i v e J e w i s h u s e , w h i l e the latter m e a n t that J e w s wo ul d h a v e a home in P a l e s t i n e , but not n e c e s s a r i l y in all of the c o u n t r y and not n e c e s s a r i l y on an e x c l u s i v e b a s i s . S e c o n d , the A m e r y d r a f t , w h i c h was a c c e p t e d by the C a b i n e t a l mo st ve rb at im , in st al le d s a f e g u a r d s bo th for J e w s in ot he r c o u n t r i e s and for n o n - J e w s in P a l e st in e, n e i t h e r of wh i c h had be en m e n t i o n e d in the e a r l i e r vers ion. M o nt ag u and his f o l l o w e r s are u n d o u b t e d l y r e ­ s p o n s i b l e for the i n c l u s i o n of the fo rmer but the in­ s p i r a t i o n for the l a tt er is some thing of a m y s t e r y . Mr. F r i e d m a n s p e c u l a t e s that a re po rt f rom G e r t r u d e Bell, A s s i s t a n t Poli t ical O f f i c e r in B a g h d a d , w a r n i n g of the o b j e c t i o n s P a l e s t i n i a n A r a b s wo ul d p r e s e n t to a J e w i s h P a l e s t i n e , had been shown to M i I n e r sh o r t l y b e ­ fo r e the C a b i n e t meeting. 37 A n o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t Lord C u r z o n , the f o rm er V i c e r o y of India w h o was a m e m b e r of the Wa r C a b i n e t , spoke in favor of the A r a b s . He had j o u r n e y e d t h r o u g h the c o u n t r y some ye ar s be fo re a nd he was s u b s e q u e n t l y to b e c o m e , in the year s of the L loyd G e o r g e Coal it i o n , the Leading G o v e r n m e n t s u p p or te r of the rights of the P a l e s t i n e A r a b s . C u r z o n p r e s e n t e d su ch p r o - A r a b vi ew s at the War C a b i n e t m e e t i n g of O c t o b e r 4, w h e n A m e r y 's d r a f t was cons ider ed. B a l f o u r led off the di s c u s s i o n , s p ea ki ng in favo r of the A m e r y draft, and then M o n t a g u o p p o s e d it, ra is in g the same o b j e c t i o n s he had m a d e p r e v i o u s l y . C u r z o n then gave his own c r i t i c i s m s , w h i c h he was later to e n la rg e upon in a Cabinet M e m o ra nd um . ^ He c laimed that P a l e s t i n e was u n f e r t i l e and that it p o s ­ s e s s e d few ri vers or large cities, t h e r e f o r e , it was h a r d l y a go od l o c a t i o n to begin the r e vi va l of the J e wish p e o p l e . He as ke d wh at the future of the e x i s t i n g p o p u l a t i o n wo ul d be and what n u m b e r of Jews wo u l d be w i l 1 ing to e m i g r a t e to the c o u n t r y . Co ns ider ing these p o i n t s , he c o n c l u d e d that the on ly r e a l i s t i c goa 1 of the G o v e r n m e n t was "to se cu re for the J e w s a l r e a d y in P a l e s t i n e equal civil and r e l i g i o u s r i g h t s " . The Z i o n ­ ist idea 1 he re g a r d e d as " s e n t i m e n t a l idealism, w h i c h w o u l d never be real i z e d " . H o w e v e r , a f t e r listening to all p o i n t s of view, his c o l l e a g u e s d e c i d e d that the A m e r y dr a f t (with a few m i n o r c h a n g e s in word i n g ) was the m o s t su i t a b l e c o m p r o m i s e . ^ E a r l i e r in the y e a r , the F o r e i g n O f f i c e had prom i sed the a s s i m i l a t i o n i s t s tha t no d e c l a r a t i o n wo ul d be i ss ue d unti l the o p i n i o n s of some leading B r i t i s h J e ws 18

had be en s a m p l e d . C o n s e q u e n t l y , the pr o p o s e d s t a t e m e n t was sh o w n to four Z i o n i s t s , includ ing We iz ma nn and Nahum S o k o l o w , a Polish-born leader of the Z io ni st O r g a n i z a t i o n , and four n o n - Z i o n i s t s , such as Sir P h i l i p M a g n u s , M.P. and the Chief R a b b i , Dr, J o s e p h H e r t z . W h e n the ir w r i t t e n r e s p o n s e s were rece i v e d , m o s t of t h em we re f a v o r a b l e to the p r o p o s e d d e c l a r a t i o n and only one man, M a g n u s , thought it " . * .n e c e s s a r y to c o n s u l t the e x i s t i n g in h a b i t a n t s of P a l e s t i n e as to the r u l i n g power under w h i c h they d e s i r e to live." Th e r e wa s no o t he r m e n t i o n of the Ar a b p o p u l a t ion in the ir r e m a r k s .40 Once these comments had been rece i v e d , there a p p e a r e d to be no r e a s o n for fu rt he r d e l a y , p a r t i c u l a r ­ ly since in f o r m a t ion had r e a c h e d the F o r e i g n O f f i c e th at the G e r m a n G o v e r n m e n t was hold ing d iscuss ions w i th several continental Z i o n i s t s . 41 Therefore , at the W a r C a b i n e t m e e t i n g of O c t o b e r 31, o n ly Cu r z o n e x p r e s s ­ ed r e s e r v a t i o n s ab o u t the de c l a r a t i o n . Af te r a b r ie f d iscuss ion, the group agreed to the s t a t e m e n t ,4 2 and on N o v e m b e r 2 B a l f o u r sent the fo l l o w i n g l e tt er to Lo rd R o t h s c h i l d : I have m u c h p l e a s u r e in c o n v e y i n g to you on b e h a l f of His M a j e s t y ' s G o v e r n m e n t , the f o l l o w i n g d e c l a r a t i o n of s y m p a t h y w i t h J e w i s h Zi on is t a s p i r a t i o n s w h ic h has b e e n s u b m i t t e d to and ap p r o v e d by the Cabinet: His M a j e s t y 's G o v e r n m e n t v i e w with favor the e s t a b l i s h m e n t in P a l e s t i n e of a n a t ­ ional ho m e for the J e w i s h p e o p l e , and wi ll use the ir best e n d e a v o r s to f a c i l i ­ tate the a c h i e v e m e n t of this o b j e c t , it be i n g c l e a r l y u n d e r s t o o d that no th in g sh al l be d o n e which m a y p r e j u d i c e the ci vi l and r e l i g i o u s r i g h t s of e x i s t i n g n o n - J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s in P a l e s t i n e , or the r i g h t s and p o l i t i c a l st a t u s e n jo ye d b y J e w s in any other co untry. I shall be g r a t e f u l if you wo ul d br i n g this d e c ­ l a r a t i o n to the k n o w l e d g e of the Zi on is t f e d e r a t i o n . 43 Th is f a mo us d e c l a r a t i o n thus g a v e Br itain a comm itment to w o r l d J e w r y to aid the Z i on is ts in the ir as pi r a t i o n s . Bu t ho w gr ea t a c o m m i t m e n t was it? W h a t wa s the ex ac t m e a n i n g of the D e c l a r a t i o n ? T h es e q u e s -

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t ions have been s u b j e c t e d to m u c h d e b a t e , wh i c h has b e e n d i f f i c u l t to r e s o l v e be c a u s e the l a n g ua ge in the D e c l a r a t i o n was so p u r p o s e f u l l y vague. We have a l re ad y s e e n that the G o v e r n m e n t d e l i b e r a t e l y r e v i s e d the Z i o n ­ ist v e r s i o n of the De cl a r a t i o n , w h i c h had stat ed the c o m m i t m e n t in far mo re d e f i n i t e t e r m s . A p p a r e n t l y , the C a b i n e t did not w i sh to be boun d to such a firm a l l i ­ a n c e wi t h Zionism, yet they d id wa nt to m a k e some s t a t e m e n t of intent. The final version, sent to Lord R o t h s c h i l d , stated that the G o v e r n m e n t wo ul d "use their b e s t e n d e a v o r s to fa ci li ta te " the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a J e w i s h N a t i o n a l H o m e , a ph r a s e w h i c h can c e r t a i n l y be o p e n to wi d e l y var ied i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . The te rm " N a t i o n a l H o m e " itself was e x t r e m e l y v a g u e and had no p r e c e d e n t in i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i p l o m a c y . But p e r h a p s the m o s t c r i t i c a l ph r a s e in the D e c l a r a t i o n , and the one which certainly c a us ed the m o s t d if f iculty in the s u c c e e d i n g th ir ty y e a r s , read " . . . n o t h i n g shall be do ne w h i c h m a y p r e j u d i c e the civil and r e l i g i o u s r i g h t s of e x i s t i n g non- J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s in P a l e s t i n e " . Th is p h r a s e m e a n t that a J e w i s h N a t i o n a l H o me was to be established in the c o u n t r y , without v iolat ing the r ights of the p e op le a l r e a d y 1 iving there. The a t t e m p t to a c hi ev e this t w o - s i d e d o b j e c t i v e was to be the c e n t r a l p r o b l e m of the Br itish in P a l e s t i n e t h r o u g h o u t the m a n d a t e per i o d , and in the final r e s u l t , they fa i l e d to r e s o l v e it. W h e n the st at e of Israel was b o r n in 1948 , m o s t of the Ar ab s w i t h i n its b o u n d a r ies d e p a r t e d - - w h e t h e r by ch o i c e or under c o e r c i o n is a m a t t e r of e n o r m o u s c o n t r o v e r s y - -a n d the P a l e s t i n i a n s h a v e s o u g h t the ir i r r e d e n t a r i g h t up to the p r e s e n t mo m e n t . The q u e s t i o n faci ng the h i s t o r i a n is to d e c i d e w h e t h e r this fa ilure could have b e e n a v o i d e d . Did the Balfour Declaration make an Arab-Jewish clas h inevitable? Co ul d the two groups have developed peaceful relations in P a l e s t i n e ? Did the problem e m e r g e d e s p i t e Br itish p o l i c y or b e c a u s e of it? These q u e s t i o n s p r o b a b l y can not be a n s w e r e d wi th any real c e r t a i n t y , but th is wo r k will p e r h a p s go a sh or t wa y t o w a r d focus ing the issues. A p r e r e q u i s i t e for any d i s c u s s i o n of these qu es t ions is the need to e s t a b l i s h the m o t i v e s and intent ions of the m e n r e s p o n s ible for the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n and the ot he r w a r - t i m e c o m m i t m e n t s . In the Wa r C a b i n e t m e e t i n g of O c t o b e r 31, B a l f o u r h i m s e l f s t a t e d , w i t h r e g a r d to the N a t i o n a l H o m e : He u n d e r s t o o d it to m e a n s o m e f o r m of Br i t i s h , A m e r i c a n , or o t h e r p r o t e c t o r a t e ,

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under which full facilities would be g iven to the J e w s to wo r k out the ir own s a l v a t i o n and to build up, by m e a n s of ed uc a t i o n , agr i c u l t u r e , and i n d u s t r y , a r e al c e n t r e of nat ional c u lt ur e and a fo cu s of national life. It d id not n e c e s s a r i l y involve the e a r l y e s t a b l i s h ment of an independent Jewish State, w h i c h was a m a t t e r for g r a d u a l d e v e l o p ­ m e n t in a c c o r d a n c e wi th the o r d i n a r y laws of p o l i t i c a l e v o l u t i o n . 44 Ll oy d G e o r g e , in his book on the Wo rl d Wa r I e r a , e x p r e s s e d a si mi la r opinion. S p e a k i n g of the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n , he s a i d : . . .There co ul d be no d o u b t as to w h at the C a b i n e t th en had in the ir m i n d s . It wa s not their idea that a J e w i s h St at e sh o u l d be set up i m m e d i a t e l y by the Pe ace T r e a t y w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e to the w i s h e s of the m a j o r i t y of the i n h a b i t ­ ants. On the ot he r h a n d , it was c o n t e m ­ p l a t e d that w h e n the t ime arr ived for a c c o r d i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n s t i t u t i o n s to P a l e s t i n e , if the J e w s had m e a n w h i l e r e ­ s p o n d e d to the o p p o r t u n i t y af fo rd ed them b y the idea of the N a t i o n a l H o m e , and had b e c o m e a d e f i n i t e m a j o r ity of the in ha bT ta nt s, then P a l e s t i n e would thus be c o m e a J e w i s h Co mm on we al th . 4 5 S i g n i f i c a n t l y he a d d e d , in a r e f e r e n c e to the fact th a t Br itish a d m i n i s t r a t o r s had found it n e c e s s a r y to r e g u l a t e i m m i g r a t i o n d u ri ng v a r i o u s p e r i o d s of the m a n ­ date: "The n o t i o n that J e w i s h i m m i g r a t i o n would h a ve to be a r t i f i c i a l l y r e s t r i c t e d in o r de r to en s u r e t h at the J e w s should be a p e r m a n e n t m i n o r i t y never e n t e r e d into the heads of a n yo ne e n g a g e d in fr am in g the p o l i c y . T h a t would ha ve be en r e g a r d e d as un ju s t . " 4 o T h e s e r e m a r k s m a d e by the P r i m e M i n i s t e r and his F o r e i g n S e c r e t a r y lead this author to one co nc lu si on : n e i t h e r m a n had a firm idea as to w h a t the r e s u l t s of the ir p r o p o s a l w o ul d b e . T h e y were u n c e r t a i n as to the r e s p o n s e wh i c h i n t e r n a t i o n a l J e w r y wo ul d r e n d e r by wa y of immigration, and a p p a r e n t l y n e it he r had gi v e n m u c h t h o u g h t to the p r o b l e m s wh ic h m i g h t be ca us ed by the e x i s t e n c e of an A r a b p o p u l a t i o n a l re ad y in the c o u n t r y . T h i s la st po i n t is d e n i e d by B a l f o u r 's n i e c e , B l a n c h e D u g d a l e , 4 7 but it is d i f f i c u l t to be li ev e that the

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F o r e i g n S e c r e t a r y woul d ha ve be e n so u n c o n c e r n e d ab ou t the A r a b p r o b l e m had he be en fully aware of it. One p o s s ib il it y is that m o s t m e m b e r s of the G o v e r n m e n t e x p e c t e d li ttle to come of the D e c l a r a t i o n and thus d is mi ss ed it as u n im po rt an t. Th i s e x p l a n a t i o n is give n so m e c r e d e n c e by the fact that M a u r i c e H a n k e y , S e c r e ­ t a r y to the C a b i n e t , m a d e no m e n t i o n of the D e c l a r a t i o n in his diary. T h i s o m is si on , c o m b i n e d w i th The T i m e s 1 f a i l u r e to p r i n t the s t o r y , has led H a n k e y 's b i o g r a ­ p h e r , S t e p h e n R o s k i l l , to b e l i e v e that "very few peop le in high p l ac es r e a l i z e d at the time the m o m e n t o u s i m p l i c a t i o n s of th is d o c u m e n t . "48 Despite this underestimation, or p e rh ap s even b e c a u s e of it, the D e c l a r a t i o n r e c e i v e d a l m o s t u n a n i ­ m o u s a p p r o v a l from p u b l i c f igures in Br itain. Most m a j o r p o l i t i c i a n s spoke in su p p o r t of i t , and all three m a j o r p a r t i e s , e a c h of w h i c h was r e p r e s e n t e d in the War C a b i n e t , g a ve their assent. In P a r l i a m e n t , there were o n l y a few m i n o r q u e s t i o n s put c o n c e r n i n g the D e c l a r a t ion, and the p r e s s r e s p o n d e d to it in a f a v o r a b l e m a n ­ ner . At a d e m o n s t r a t ion held at the L o n d o n O p e r a H o u s e o n D e c e m b e r 2 to c e l e b r a t e B a l f o u r 1s a n n o u n c e m e n t , H e r ­ b e r t S a m u e l , Ma rk Sy ke s and R o b e r t C e c i l ma d e s p e e c h e s , w h i l e te l e g r a m s of c o n g r a t u l a t i o n s w e re r e c e i v e d from s uch w e l l - k n o w n f igures as Earl G r e y , Jo h n R e d m o n d , Arthur Hend er so n, and Walter L o n g . 49 Th us at the o u t s e t , it wo ul d se em that the Z i o n i s t s were r e c e i v i n g o v e r w h e l m i n g s u p p o r t for their N a t i o n a l Home from the Br itish public. S u c h s u p p o r t c o n t i n u e d at a hi gh level until the w i n t e r of 1921-22. By that t i m e , two a n t i - Z i o n i s t r iots in P a l e s t i n e , the d e s i r e of m o s t Br itons for e c o n o m i c r e t r e n c h m e n t , and the p r e s e n c e in L o n d o n of a P a l e s t i n e A r a b D e l e g a t i o n had n o t i c e a b l y co oled e n t h u ­ s i a s m for the N a t i o n a l Home. C e r t a i n s e g m e n t s of the p r e s s , led by Lord N o r t h c l i f f e , b e g a n c l a m o r i n g for a r e v e r s a l of p o li cy and in P a r l i a m e n t too, o p p o n e n t s of the N a t i o n a l Home b e g a n to e m e r g e ; n e v e r t h e l e s s , all the m a j o r p a r t i e s c o n t i n u e d to o f f i c i a l l y favor it throughout this per i o d , and indeed until the late 1 9 30 's , w h e n the C o n s e r v a t i v e s b e g a n to r e a l i z e how d e s p e r a t e l y they need ed A r a b oil to c o u n t e r the g r o w i n g N a z i threat. B u t in N o v e m b e r 1917 few p e o p l e had an in kling of the p o t e n t i a l of the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n , or of the o p p o s i t i o n it m i g h t arouse. Am on g the lead er s of the

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g o v e r n m e n t , there was 1 ittle fear of Ar a b r e a c t i o n : th ey felt that the Ar a b s would be g r a t e f u l for Br itish a s s i s t a n c e , since m o s t of the ir t e r r i t o r y was b e in g freed from T u r k i s h rule, a l t h o u g h on ly in A r a b i a had t h ey fought for t h e m s e l v e s . Lloyd G e o r g e e v e n c l a i m e d t h at "the Palestine A r ab s fo ug ht for Turkish r u l e , " 50 a statement wh i c h is partially true, a l t h o u g h m a ny P a l e s t i n i a n s favored te Allies. Appar­ e n t l y the r e a s o n e d that if they fo ug ht for the e n e m y , they forf ei te d the ir r i g h t to d e t e r m i n e the ir own f u t ­ ure. But if the Br it ish d id not intend to g ive the A r a b s i n d e p e n d e n c e , wh y did they e n c o u r a g e them to wa rd th at goal with the ir pr o m i s e to H u s s e i n ? And why did th ey further c o m p l i c a t e the s i t u a t i o n with the S y k e s Picot Agreement? All these n e g o t i a t i o n s m u s t be p l a c e d w i t h i n the ir c o n t e x t , the horr ible o r de al that was the F irst W o r l d W a r . Th is w a r , wa ge d for four ye ar s and four m o n t h s , took an incred ible nu mb er of 1 ives on the b a t t l e f ield and was fought i n d e c i s i v e l y until 1918, w h e n the A l li es f i na ll y broke t h r o u g h the G e r m a n 1 i n e s . Th is long s t a l e m a t e g r e a t l y sapped the e n t h u s i a s m wi th w h i c h the d e c l a r a t i o n s of war had b e en in it ia ll y g r e e t ­ ed . T h r o u g h o u t the w a r , the A l l i e s so ug ht any ad va ntage they could acquire. The M c M a h o n - H u s s e i n l e t t e r s w e r e intended to o p e n a new front on the T u r k i s h s o u t h ­ e r n flank and so h a r a s s the w e a k e s t m e m b e r of the C e n ­ tral P o w e r s . S y k e s - P i c o t was d e s i g n e d to m a i n t a i n h a r ­ m o n y b e t w e e n the two s t r o n g e s t Al l i e d n a t i o n s , by e l i m ­ in at in g possible so ur ce s of imperialistic conflict b e t w e e n t h e m . As for the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n , its m o t ­ ives are m o re d i f f i c u l t to summarize. T h e y can g e n e r ­ ally be s e p a r a t e d into three ca te go r i e s : r e li gi ou s, m i l i t a r y and i m p e r i a l . B o t h Lloyd G e o r g e and B a l f o u r were d e e p l y to u c h e d by the relig ious s i g n i f i c a n c e of the re t u r n of the J e w s to the P r o m i s e d La nd after n e a r l y 1900 ye a r s of e x i l e , and the latter a l wa ys cl ai me d that th is was his p r i m a r y motive for supporting Zionism.But the Pr ime M i n i s t e r later a c k n o w l e d g e d that the D e c l a r a t i o n was b a s i c a l l y a war m e a s u r e , e x p l a i n i n g that "it was pa r t of our p r o p a g a n d ist st r a t e g y for mobilizing every o p i n i o n and force t h r o u g h o u t the world wh ic h wo ul d w e a k e n the e n e m y and improve the A l 1 ied c h a n c e s . " 5 ^ He m e a n t that the Br itish hoped wi th the D e c l a r a t i o n to win the sympathies of international Jewry for the Allies. T h ey e x p e c t e d that J e w i s h in fl ue nc e m i g h t k e e p the K e r e n s k y G o v e r n m e n t of R u s s i a in the w a r - - a l t h o u g h

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a few d a ys later the B o l s h e v i k s to ok ov er and q u i c k l y d e c l a r e d an a r m i s t i c e — and they ho pe d as well that G e r ­ m a n J e w s wo ul d be t e mp te d to s t o p s u p p o r t i n g the C e n ­ tr al P o w e r s a n d , at the l e a s t , b e c o m e n e u t r a l . Th is e x p l a n a t ion m i g h t se em the m o s t o b v i o u s o n e , but it is v e r y p o s s i b l e that b e hi nd it were m o t i v e s of a d i f f e r e n t sort. B y 1914 , w i t h Canada, A u s t ra li a, N e w Zealand and the U n i o n of South A f r i c a h a vi ng b e en g r a n t e d d o m i n i o n s t a t u s , the m o s t i m p o r t a n t t e r r i t o r y in the Br itish E m p i r e was India. The Suez C a n a l , c o m p l e t e d in 1869 , had come under the fi n a n e i a l c o n t r o l of the cr o w n due t o the e f f o r t s of B e n j a m i n D i s r a e l i , and in the 1 8 8 0 1s Br itain had be gu n to d o m i n a t e E g y p t i a n a f fa ir s to such an e x t e n t t h a t , by the t ime of the o u t b r e a k of the G r e a t W a r , she had a vi rt ua l p r o t e c t o r a t e over the country. The Ca na l had be co me Br i t a i n 's 1 ifeline to India, s ince it o b v i o u s l y ma de the a l l - w a t e r ro ut e i m m e n s e l y shorter than the old v o y a g e around the Cape of Go o d Ho p e had been. T h e r e f o r e , Suez had b e c o m e a s t r a t e g i c a l l y vital 1 ink in the E m p i r e , and its d e f e n s e had as su me d gr ea t p s y c h o l o g i c a l i m p o r t a n c e . P a l e s t i n e , j u s t across the S i na i D e s e r t from the C a n a l , was obvi­ ously of s t r a t e g i c value. Under the T u r k s , such had no t b e en the c a s e , for the O t t o m a n E m pi re had b e e n so w e a k in the late n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y th at it was not c o n s idered a th re at to Br it ish i n t e r e s t s . But the pos­ sibility t h a t , wi th a T u r k i s h d e f e a t , a new p o we r such as F r an ce or R u s s i a m i g h t take ov er in the M i d d l e East m e a n t that P a l e s t i n e had some wo r t h as a bu ffer zone for the C a n a l . T h e r e is a good d e a l of e v i d e n c e that lead ing Br itish s t a t e s m e n fo llowed this 1 ine of r e a s o n i n g and d e s i r e d Br it ish a c q u i s i t i o n of P a l e s t i n e after the w a r . S y k e s , who was cons idered the lead ing G o v e r n m e n t e x p e r t on the Mi d d l e E a s t , had ar gued in D e c e m b e r 1915 for " . .. a belt of E n g l i s h - c o n t r o l l e d c o u n t r y b e t w e e n the S h ar if of M e cc a and the F r e n c h " ,53 a territory w h i c h wo ul d have in cl ud ed P a l e s t i n e ; by O c t o b e r 1917, he was c o u n s e l i n g the F o r e i g n O f f i c e to or de r G o v e r n ­ m e n t pol icy so that Br itain wo ul d be c h os en as the mandatory p o w e r .54 C u r z o n , although he d id not f avor the N a t i o n a l Ho me p o l i c y , d e s i r e d Br it ish co n t r o l o v e r P a l e s t i n e , as well as Me sopo ta mi a, for st r a t e g ic reasons. He e x p r e s e d this de si re in Ma y 1917 w h e n he made a r e p o r t to the I m p e r i a l War C a b i n e t as the C h a i r ­ man of the Committee on Terr itor ial D e s i d e r a t a . 55 An d m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , Lloyd G e o r g e d e m o n s t r a t e d a fas24

c i n a t i o n wi th P a l e s t i n e d u r i n g m o s t of the war period, o f t e n i n d i c a t i n g his de s i r e for B r i t i s h co n t r o l over it. At a War C o u n c i l m e e t i n g under A s q u i t h b a ck in M a r c h 1915, he s u g g e s t e d that r a t h e r than q u a r r e l wi t h the F r e n c h over the t e r r i t o r y of A l e x a n d r e t t a in the O t t o m a n Empire, the B r i t i s h s h ou ld agree to hand it over in r e t u r n for P a l e s t i n e . 56 On l y a few da y s later, A s q u i t h no te d in his d i a r y that Lloyd G e o r g e was the o n ly s u p p o r t e r of S a m u e l ' s p l a n to d e v e l o p a J e w i s h c o l o n y in P a l e s t i n e under B r i t i s h superv is io n. The P r i m e M i n i s t e r adde d that Lloyd G e o r e "does not care a d a m n for the J e w s or their p a s t or their future, but t h i n k s it will be an o u t r a g e to let the Ho l y P l a c e s pass into the possession of 'agnostic, atheistic

France'."57

T h e W e l s h m a n ' s in te re st in the Holy Land by no m e a n s d i m i n i s h e d after he r e p l a c e d Asquith. C.P. S c o t t no t e d in his d i a r y that ". . . w h e n Ne i l Prim ro se , the c h i e f G o v e r n m e n t L i b e r a l whip, asked Lloyd G e o r g e on J a n u a r y 26, 1917, 'What about P a l e s t i n e ? ' , Lloyd G e o r g e r e p l i e d wi th a smile, 'Ohi We m u s t g r a b that? we have made a b e g i n n i n g .'"58 ot he r evidence can be cite d as well. In April, Lord Bertie, the A m b a s s a d o r to Pa ris, was told by the P r i m e M i n i s t e r that the F r e n c h w o u l d have to a c c e p t a B r i t i s h - c o n t r o l l e d Pa le s t i n e , s i n c e Hi s M a j e s t y ' s fo rces wo ul d be there by c o n q u e s t (a r e f e r e n c e to a m i l i t a r y e x p e d i t i o n base d in E g y p t w h i c h had just begun). 59 And at a Wa r C a b i n e t m e e t ­ ing so on a f t e r , Lloyd G e o r g e noted that he had told the F r e n c h G o v e r n m e n t m u c h the same th in g at a r e c e n t c o n ­ f e r e n c e .50 We have al re ad y ma de mention of his instructions to Sy k e s to s e cu re Palestine for the Br it ish area. Th u s it can be seen that a nu mb er of G o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s had a d e f i n i t e d e s i r e to add P a l ­ e s t i n e to their p o s s e s s i o n s after the war for s t r a t e g i c r e a s on s. The p l a n for the J e w i s h N a t i o n a l Ho m e co ul d ea s ily have b e e n an i d ea li st ic c a m o f l a g e to d is guise th is m o r e p r a g m a t i c motive. Of course, it was a c o m b i n a t i o n of a nu mber of th es e m o t i v e s , in v a r y i n g d e g r e e s for d i f f e r e n t men, w h i c h c a us ed the G o v e r n m e n t to issue the D e c l ar at io n. B u t the s t r a t e g i c v a l u e of P a l e s t i n e ba g a n to loom e v e n 1 arger w h en B r i t i s h armi es be g a n the c o n q u e s t of the c o un tr y? the w a r - t i m e a g r e e m e n t s had be en ba se d on the t h e o r y that the fate of the M i d d l e E a s t would be in the h a n d s of the A l l i e s , and this th e o r y now b e g a n to a s s u m e an au ra of reality. It is an o f t e n - o v e r l o o k e d fa c t that the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n wo ul d have be e n m e a n ­ i n g l e s s had not the T u r k s b e en d r i v e n out of P a l e s t i n e

25

by Br itish troops. It was the fact of Br itish o c c u p a t ion of the Ho ly Land wh i c h lent such impo rt an ce to Br itish su p p o r t of Z i o n i s m , a ca us e to wa rd w h i c h the o t h e r E u r o p e a n A l l i e s - - F r a n c e and I t a l y — were to g r o w d e c i d e d l y lu keward in the next se v e r a l y e a r s . Thus the c a m p a i g n t h e r e , w i t h its m o t i v e s and r e s u l t s , m e r i t s at te nt io n. P l a n s for the ca mp ai gn , aimed at c a p t u r i n g J e r u s a ­ lem, were d r a w n up by the Imper ial G e n e r a l Staf f in D e c e m b e r 1916 and ap p r o v e d by the Wa r Ca i n e t the fol­ lowing m o n t h . 61 Meeting in April 1917, the War C a b i n e t d i s c u s s e d the p o s s i b l e b e n e f i t s of an a t t a c k on Palestine. G r e a t im p o r t a n c e was p l a c e d on the "moral and p o l i t i c a l a d v a n t a g e s " to be g a i n e d , since such a c a m p a i g n would be p o p u l a r in Br itain. One sp ea ke r (t h o u g h the m i n u t e s do not s p e c i f y wh o it w a s ) b l u n t l y s u m m e d up the c a s e : "There was e v e r y p r o b a b i l i t y that in the c o u r s e of the ne xt few m o n t h s there would be a v e r y c o n s i d e r a b l e in cr ea se in the s t r a i n on the p e o p l e of this co u n t r y due to the W a r , and it was of the first i m p o r t a n c e that there sh ou ld be m i l i t a r y s u c c e s s e s to c o u n t e r a c t the d e p r e s s i n g i n fl ue nc e of a d iff icult e c o ­ n o m i c situation. N o w h e r e did s u c c e s s a p pe ar ea s i e r to r e a l i z e th an a g a i n s t T u r k e y . "6 2 T h u s d id the P a l e s t i n e c a m p a i g n beg i n , as a s ides h o w to d i v e r t a t t e n t i o n from the u n s u c c e s s f u l h e a d l i n e act. It was n o t , as has be en m e n t i o n e d , w e l c o m e d by the F r e n c h , who feared any p o s s i b i l i t y of a Br it ish i m p e r i a l i s t a d v e n t u r e wh il e they we re tied d o w n on the W e s t e r n Front. At first, h o w e v e r , this c a m p a i g n ga ve t h e m li tt le cause for alarm, for un de r the c o m m a n d of Sir A r c h i b a l d M u r r a y , the army in its ad v a n c e from E g y p t pr ov ed to be very c a u t i o u s and m a d e little h e a d ­ way . Th is s i t u a t i o n was ch an ge d at the end of J u l y 1917 w h e n Sir E d m u n d A l l e n b y was g i v e n c o m m a n d ; he soon m a d e ra p i d a d v a n c e s t h r o u g h the Si na i D e s e r t .6 3 Th e A r a b R e v o l t be g a n to g a t h e r m o m e n t u m ar ou nd this time as w e l l , and The T i m e s r e p o r t e d in J u l y that the Tu r k s had b e e n c l ea re d out of the e n t i r e r e g i o n b e t w e e n Me c c a and the southern b o rd er of P a l e s t i n e , 64 The Holy L a nd itself was r e a c h e d in the autumn, and on N o v e m b e r 2, the same day on w h i c h the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n was a n n o u n c e d , it was r e p o r t e d that A l l e n b y had c a p t u r e d Beersheba, the s o u t h e r n m o s t town in b i b l i c a l P a l e s ­ tine. 65 T h u s it s e em ed that the t ime would not be far off w h e n the Z i o n i s t s could b e g i n to mo ld the ir d r e a m into r e a l i t y .

26

Su c h was the s it ua t i o n in N o v e m b e r 1917. Palest i n e , it a p p e a r e d , m i g h t be one of the few b r i g h t r a y s of su ns h i n e e m a n a t i n g from a g e n e r a l l y o v e r c a s t sky for the Allies, Th e war o v er al l sh owed no sign s of r e a c h ­ ing a co nc lu si on , but at least the c a m p a i g n in P a l e s ti ne was off to an a u s p i c i o u s b e gi nn in g, wh il e the B a l ­ four D e c l a r a t i o n had injected a ne ed ed note of i d e a l i s m in t o the A l li ed cause. For P a l e s t i n e itself, this was a w a t e r s h e d m o n t h , b e c a u s e a per iod of four h u n d r e d y e a r s of T u r k i s h d o m i n a t i o n was ab ou t to be b r o u g h t to an e n d , and an e x p e r i m e n t was to b e g i n w h i c h w o u l d d r a s t i c a l l y al t e r her future. Th e P a l e s t i n i a n s we re to tr a d e one m a s t e r for a n o t h e r , and ye t a third one was to b e g i n a s s e r t i n g hi s presence. O n e could cl a i m that the fate of tw en ti et h c e n t u r y P a l e s t i n e was d e t e r m i n e d dur ing the per iod 1 9 15 -1 7 v i a the th r e e m a j o r a g r e e m e n t s (M c M a h o n - H u s s e i n , Sykes— P i c o t and B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n ) , for it was w i t h i n this c o n t e x t that d ip lo m a t s had to wo rk in the p o s t w a r p e r ­ iod. But these a g r e e m e n t s , as has b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d , we r e in m a n y wa ys c o n t r a d i c t o r y and o v e r l a p p i n g , and in n o ca se were t h ey m o r e so th an in Palestine. 66 T h e S y k e s - P i c o t A g r e e m e n t had p l e d g e d the c o u n t r y to co me un de r i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n t r o l , the l e t t e r s to the S h a r i f h a d — at le as t on a li te ra l r e a d i n g — p l e d g e d it to be p a r t of an A r a b S t a t e , and the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n had m a d e it the l o c a t i o n of the p r o p o s e d J e w i s h N a t i o n a l Home. H o w e x p e r i e n c e d d i p l o m a t s could ha ve d r a w n up s u c h c o n t r a d icto ry a r r a n g e m e n t s m a y seem an o b v i o u s q u e s t i o n , but the a n sw er p r o b a b l y lies in the w a r - t i m e m e n t a l i t y w h i c h was so pr evalent. The war had r a g e d for so long th at d i p l o m a t s we re in clined to m a k e w h a t ­ e v e r a r r a n g e m e n t s we r e n e c e s s a r y to br in g it to an e n d , and any c o n c e r n a b o u t the c o n s e q u e n c e s coul d be p o s t ­ p o n e d to a later date. Su ch r e a s o n i n g m a y se e m h i g h l y i r r e s p o n s i b l e , and in fact it w a s , but m o s t p e o p l e fo u n d it d i f f i c u l t to see b e yo nd the end of a war w h i c h ha d a l r e a d y p r o v e n so d e s t r u c t i v e bu t was yet far fr om its conclusion. H o w e v e r , the v e r y co nt ra d ic to ry n a tu re of th es e v a r i o u s a g r e e m e n t s g a ve B r i t a i n a c e r t a i n flex ib il it y. A l l th re e pa ct s c o u l d not p o s s i b l y be h o n o r e d to the l e t t e r , so some c o m p r o m i s e s wo ul d ha ve to be made. Th e w a y in w h i c h they we r e m a d e w o u l d d e t e r m i n e the f u tu re o f P a l e s t i n e and indeed the M i d d l e East in general. A n d this pe ri od of n e g o t i a t i o n and c o m p r o m i s e o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n 1917, w h e n the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n was issued, and 1922, wh e n the m a n d a t e for the H o l y Land was fina l-

27

ly c o n f e r r e d by the L e a g u e of N a t i o n s o n G r e a t Britain.

FOOTNOTES 1.

2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7.

8.

9.

10.

11. 12. 13.

Th is figure and the f o l l o w i n g m a t e r i a l on p r e - w a r P a l e s t i n e are d e r i v e d from E S C O Fo un d a t i o n , P a l e s ­ tine: a Study of J e w i s h , Arab and British P o l i c i e s (New Haven, 1947), pp. 334-584. L a r g e - s c a l e d e p o r t a t i o n s o r d e r e d by the T u r k s d u r ­ ing the war r e d u c e d the J e w i s h p o p u l a t i o n to 9% in P a l e s t i n e by 1917. N e v i l l e J. Mandel, The A r a b s and Z i o n i s m b e f o r e W o r l d W a r ][ (Be r k e l e y , 1976) , pp. 226-30. W a l t e r L a q u e u r , A H i s t o r y of Z i o n i s m (New York, 1972) , pp. 4 0 -2 05 is the c h i e f so ur ce for the following paragraphs on the ea rl y Zionist movement. R o b e r t W e is bo rd , A f r i c a n Zion (P hi la de lp hi a, 1968) p r e s e n t s the f u l l e s t a c c o u n t of this i n t r i g u i n g story. Th i s to pi c is s u f f i c i e n t l y e x p l o r e d in L e o n a r d Stein, The B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n (London, 1961) and n e ed not be d i s c u s s e d here. This reference and all others pertaining to M c M a h o n - H u s s e i n are found in J.C. H u r e w i t z e d i t o r , The Mi d d l e Ea st and N o r t h A f r i c a in Wo rl d P o l i ­ tics , vol. II (New Haven, Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1979),8. pp. 46-56. T h e m o s t r e c e n t a r g u m e n t s ha ve a p p e a r e d in I s a i a h Fr iedman, The Question of Palestine 1914-1918 (London, 1973), pp. 81 -9 1 and A . L . T i b a w i , A n g l o Arab Relations and the Question of Palestine 1 9 1 4 - 1 9 2 1 (London, 1977), pp. 85-95. M c M a h o n to S h u c k b u r g h , Mar. 12, 1922, Foreign O f f i c e Pa pers, F.O. 3 7 1 / 7 7 9 7 / E 2 8 2 1 . The F o r e i g n O f f i c e P a p e r s are d e p o s i t e d at the P u b l i c R e c o r d s O f f i c e in London. "R e p o r t of a C o m m i t t e e set up to C o n s i d e r C e r t a i n C o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n Sir H e n r y M c M a h o n and the Sh a r if of M e c c a in 19 15 and 1916", C o m m a n d Pa pe r No. 5974 (London, 1939). Davi d Lloyd G e o r g e , The T r u t h A b o u t the P e a c e T r e a t i e s , vol. II (London, 1938) , p. 1022. T h i s r e f e r e n c e and all o t h e r s p e r t a i n i n g to S y k e s P i c o t are found in J.C. H u r e w i t z , M i d d l e Ea st and N o r t h Africa, I I , pp. 60-65. V i s c o u n t S a m u e l , Mem o i r s (London, 1945) , p. 139.

28

14* 15. 16. 17.

18. 19. 20.

21. 22. 23. 24.

25. 26.

29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34.

35. 36. 37. 38.

CM

27. 28.

I b i d * , p. 142. Earl of O x f o r d and A s q u i t h , M e m o r i e s and R e f l e e tion s 18 52 - 1 9 2 7 , vol. II (Boston, 1928), pp. 70-1 (Notes-Jan. 28, 1915). V i s c o u n t Grey, T w e n t y - F i v e Y e a r s (London, 1925), vol. II, p. 230. An e x t r e m e l y t h o r o u g h a c c o u n t of the fate of S a m ­ uel *s memo, and of the e n t i r e co ur se of n e g o t i a t i o n s wh ic h c u l m i n a t e d in the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n , is c o n t a i n e d in F r i e d m a n 1s Q u e s t i o n of P a l e s t i n e , w h i c h I ha v e p r e v i o u s l y citecT C h a i m W e i z m a n n , T r i a l and E r r o r , vol. I (N e w York, H a r p e r and B r o t h e r s , 1949), p. 185. I b i d . , pp. 186-7. M e e t i n g b e t w e e n S y k e s and Z i o n i s t l e a d e r s , Feb. 7, 1917, Sa mu el Papers. T h e S a m u e l P a p e r s are d e p o s ­ ited at the M i d d l e Ea st C e n t r e , St. Antony* s C o l ­ l e ge , O x f o r d . Ibid. We iz ma nn , T r i a l , p. 190. T r e v o r W i l s o n e d i t o r , The P o l i t i c a l D i a r i e s of C.P. Sc ot t 1 9 1 1 - 1 9 2 8 , (London, 1970), p. 274. N o t e s on a C o n f e r e n c e held at 10 D o w n i n g S t . , Apr. 3, 1917, S l e d m e r e P a p e r s . The S l e d m e r e P a p e r s are d e p o s i t e d a the M i dd le Ea st C e n t r e , St. A n t o n y *s Coll eg e, O x f o r d . See pp. 24-5 of this work. G r a h a m to Lo rd H a rd in ge , Apr. 23, 1917, F.O. 3 7 1 / 78324/82982. We izmann, T r i a l , pp. 191-2. S y k e s to F o r e i g n O f f i c e , May 1917, F.O. 3 7 1/ 86526/104269. T h e T i m e s , M a y 24, 1917, p. 5. We izmann, T r i a l , p. 203. I b i d ., p. 204 . Ibid. Lloyd G e o r g e , Pe a c e T r e a t i e s , ii. p. 1117. D i f f e r i n g v e r s i o n s of the p r o p o s e d d e c l a r a t i o n had b e e n d r a w n up by the F o r e i g n O f f i c e s t a f f , W i l l i a m O r m s b y - G o r e (at the time an A s s i s t a n t S e c r e t a r y to the War Cabinet) and Lord Milner. Th e s e s u g g e s t i o n s can be found in the C a b i n e t P a p e r s 21/58. Th e C a b i n e t P a p e r s are d e p o s i t e d at the P u b l i c R e c o r d s O f f i c e in London. L.S. A m e r y , My P o l i t i c a l L i f e , vol. II (London, 1953), p. 116. I b i d . , p p . 116-7. Friedman, Q u e s t i o n s , pp. 266-7. M e m o r a n d u m by Curzon, Oct. 26, 1917, F.O. 37 1/ 143082/207407. Th is m e m o r e s t a t e s the a r g u m e n t s

29

39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 4 7. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 6 2. 6 3. 64. 65. 6 6.

he p r e s e n t e d at the m e e t i n g , bu t in m u c h g r e a t e r detail. War C a b i n e t Me et in g, Oct. 4, 1917, CAB. 23/4/245. R e s p o n s e s of Br itish J e w s , O c t o b e r 1917, CAB. 24/4/164. Friedman, Q u e s t i o n , p. 276. Wa r C a b i n e t Meet in g, Oct. 31, 1917, CAB. 23/4/261. H u r e w i t z , M i d d l e E a s t , I I , p. 106. War C a b i n e t Me et in g, Oct. 31, 1917, CAB. 23/4/261. Lloyd Ge or ge , Pe ac e T r e a t i e s , I I , p. 1138. I b i d . , p. 1139. B l a n c h e D u g d a l e , A r t h u r J a m e s B a l f o u r , v o l . II (N e w York, 1937), p. 159. S t e p h e n R o s k i l l , H a n k e y , Ma n of S e c r e t s , v o l . I (London, 1970), p. 450. The T i m e s , Dec. 3, 1917, p. 2. Lloyd George, P e a c e T r e a t i e s , I I , p. 1119. Ibid. , pp. 1 1 1 4 - 2 2 and D u g d a l e , B a l f o u r , I I , p. 159. Lloyd Ge or ge , Pe a c e T r e a t i e s , I I , p. 1118. War C o m m i t t e e Me et in g, Dec. 16, 1915, C A B . 2 4 /1 / 46. Sy ke s to R o b e r t C e c i l , Oct. 13, 1917 in S h a n e L e s ­ lie, M a rk S y k e s , His Life and L e t t e r s (London, 1923), p. 274. I m pe ri al W a r C a b i n e t Me eting, M a y 1, 1917, C A B . 23/40/13. M a r t i n E. Gi lb er t, W i n s t o n S. C h u r c h i l l , vol. Ill (Boston, 1971), p. 333. A s q u i t h , M e m o r i e s and R e f l e c t i o n s , I I , p. 78 (Mar. 13, 1915). Wils on , C.P. S c o t t , p. 255. Lord B e r t i e , D i a r y of Lord B e r t i e 19 1 4 - 1 9 1 8 , vol. II (London, 1924), pp. 122-3 (Apr. 20, 1917). Wa r C a b i n e t Meet in g, Apr. 25, 1917, CAB. 23 /2 / 126. War C a b i n e t M e e t i n g , Jan. 2, 1917, CAB. 23/1/25. Wa r C a b i n e t M e e t i n g , Apr. 2, 1917 , CAB. 23/2/111. The T i m e s , J u l y 3, 1917, p. 8. The T i m e s , J u l y 13, 1917, p. 6. The T i m e s , Nov. 2, 1917, p. 6. It should be no te d that Fr iedman, in his b o o k , c o m p l e t e l y d is ag re es with th is c l a i m and ar gu es th at the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n was the only b i n d i n g c o m m i t m e n t on P a l e s t i n e ma de by H.M.G.

30

C h a p t e r II The G r e a t Wa r' s Last Ye ar (Nov.

1917-Dec.

1918)

D e s p i t e the p r o c l a m a t i o n of the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a ­ tion, the fate of P a l e s t i n e was still la r g e l y d e p e n d e n t u p o n the war effort, both in the M i d d l e East and in Europe. It was o n l y wi th the a r m i s t i c e in N o v e m b e r 1918 that any r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t e r r i t o r y fr om one n a ­ t i on to a n o t h e r co ul d begin. In the interim, ho wever, a n u m b e r of i m p o r t a n t e v e n t s took p l a c e w h i c h g r e a t l y a f f e c t e d the future of the tiny land w e st of the J o r d a n River. P e r h a p s m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t among these e v e n t s was the fact that G e n e r a l A l l e n b y ' s ca mp ai gn , b e g u n in the s u m m e r of 1917, had pr o v e n to be c o m p l e t e l y su cc es sf ul , liberating not o n ly Palestine fr om the Turks, but T r a n s - J o r d a n i a , S y r i a and the L e b a n o n as well. With the Holy Land in B r i t i s h hands, Z i on is t l e ad er s m a d e th e i r first j o u r n e y there, in an a t t e m p t to get their p r o g r a m u n d e rw ay . St ep s w e re al so taken to e s t a b l i s h p e a c e f u l r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n A r a b s and Zionists; o m i n o u s ­ ly, d e s p i t e su ch en d e a v o r s , si gn s of h o s t i l i t y be g a n to appear. And on the d i p l o m a t i c front, the B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t m a d e an e f f o r t to c l a r i f y the future of P a l ­ e s t i n e from the ta ng le of a g r e e m e n t s w h i c h had a l r e a d y b e e n signed. Fo r A l l e n b y ' s army, the last two m o n t h s of 1917 w i t n e s s e d s p e c t a c u l a r su c c e s s in Pale st in e. It has a l r e a d y be en noted that B e e r s h e b a , at the s o u t h e r n e x t r e m i t y of the co untry, had be en c a p t u r e d on the v e ry d a y the d e c l a r a t i o n was issued. S e ve ra l d a ys later, G a z a was taken, * and by m i d - N o v e m b e r the T u rk s had b e e n d r i v e n d e e p into the country. By the end of the m o n t h , the B r i t i s h army had o c c u p i e d J a f f a on the M e d ­ i t e r r a n e a n c o a s t and were c l o s i n g in on their m a i n goal, Jerusalem.^ in ea rl y De ce mb er , they e n t e r e d the c i t y of H e b r o n and f i na ll y on D e c e m b e r 10, a f te r c u t ­ ting off the e s c a p e route of the T u r k i s h army fr om the H o l y City, th ey a c c e p t e d its su rrender. Th e r e was g r e a t r e j o i c i n g am on g bo th C h r i s t i a n s and J e ws in B r i ­ tain, for this was the first time that J e r u s a l e m had b e e n u n de r C h r i s t i a n c o n t r o l si nc e the time of the Crusades. Most P a l e s t i n i a n s w e re al so qu it e d e li gh te d, s i n c e they w e l c o m e d B r i t i s h troops jo yf u l l y in e v e r y

31

city alon g c o u n t s .^

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A l l e n b y soon issued a p r o c l a m a t i o n d e c l a r i n g the c a p t u r e d t e r r i t o r y to be u n d e r m a r t i a l law, thus s e t ­ ti ng up a m i l i t a r y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n kn o w n as the O c c u p i e d Enemy Territory Administration (OETA). This s e e m i n g l y routine announcement, a norm al e n o u g h p r o c e d u r e for c a p t u r e d enemy t e rr it or y, p r ov ed to be e x t r e m e l y t r o u ­ blesome for the B r i t i s h ov er the ne xt five years. T e c h n i c a l l y , such t e r r i t o r y was to re m a i n under m i l i ­ t a r y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n un ti l d i s p o s e d of by n e g o t i a t i o n s b e t w e e n the two p o w e r s involved. And a trea ty w i th T u r k e y , the r e m n a n t of the O t t o m a n Empire, was not for­ m a l i z e d unti l 1923 at Lausanne. F u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t i n g t h i s p i c t u r e was a rule of i n t e r n a t i o n a l law w h i c h s p e c i f i e d that in c a p t u r e d enemy t e r r i t o r y the status q u o had to be m a i n t a i n e d until the c o u n t r y ’s futu re had b e e n p r o p e r l y decided.^ T h i s rule was to pr ov e d i f f i ­ c u l t to fo ll ow in v i e w of Zi onist a s p i r a t i o n s in P a l e s t ine. But the c a p t u r e of Je ru s a l e m , t h o u g h it was p e r ­ h a p s the m o s t e m o t i o n - l a d e n b a t t l e of the ca mp ai gn , o n l y f o r e s h a d o w e d f u r t h e r s u c c e s s e s for Al lenby. In the first two m o n t h s of 1918, his army o p e r a t e d m a i n l y a l o n g the M e d i t e r r a n e a n coast, p u s h i n g the Turk s from t h a t sector. 5 T h e n at the end of F e b r u a r y the s t r a t e ­ g i c ci ty of J e r i c h o fell to A u s t r a l i a n troops un de r his c o m m a n d , cu t t i n g off d i r e c t lines of c o m m u n i c a t i o n to C o n s t a n t i n o p l e .® . The r e m a i n d e r of the spring and s u m m e r were spent in c l e a r i n g e n e m y troo ps from the n o r t h e r n area s of P a le st in e, a m i s s i o n w h i c h was so s u c c e s s f u l that by S e pt em be r, Th e T i m e s 1 r e p o r t e r could wr ite: "The T u r k i s h m a i n force w e s t of the J o r d a n has b e e n p r a c t i c a l l y w i p e d out. East of the J o r d a n only s m a l l enem y d e t a c h m e n t s are h o l d i n g out. No fewer than 18 , 0 0 0 p r i s o n e r s have b e e n taken, t o g e t h e r w i t h 120 guns , four ae r o p l a n e s , and large b o o t y in m a t e r i e l and r o l l i n g stock."' N o t c o n t e n t w i t h these a c h i e v e m e n t s , A l l e n b y p u s h ­ ed a c r o s s the J o r d a n and, w i t h some A r a b a s s i st an ce , q u i c k l y c l ea re d that ar ea of T u r k i s h so ld ie rs . He then m o v e d no rt h and c a p t u r e d a n o t h e r h i s t o r i c city, D a m a s ­ cus, on S e p t e m b e r 30. The Tu rk s w e re now in c o m p l e t e d i s a r r a y and b e fo re O c t o b e r ended, th ey had been d r i v e n o u t of the e n t i r e ar ea c o m p r i s i n g S y r i a and the L e b a ­ non. ^ T h is m i l i t a r y s u c c e s s had g r e a t s t r a t e g i c as w e l l as p s y c h o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , b e c a u s e it cut c o m ­

32

m u n i c a t i o n s b e t w e e n As i a M i n o r and M e s o p o t a m i a , w h e r e the T u r k s were trying to hold off a n o t h e r B r i t i s h army a d v a n c i n g from India. On N o v e m b e r 1, A 1 l e n b y al l o w e d the Ar a b flag to be raised o v er D a m a s c u s , an a c t i o n w h i c h pr ov ed e x t r e m e l y p o p u l a r in the M i d d l e East but w h i c h met wi t h st ro ng Fr e n c h d i s a p p r o v a l . ^ W i t h this a c t i o n the c a m p a i g n e n d e d , for the a r m i s t i c e was si gn ed la te r that m o n t h . As m e n t i o n e d p r e v i o u s l y , this c a m p a i g n had im p o r ­ tant r e su lt s for the p o s t - w a r s e t t l e m e n t in the A r a b world. The S y k e s - P i c o t Ag r e e m e n t , wh ic h had d i v i d e d B r i t i s h and F r e n c h i n fl ue nc e al m o s t e q u a l l y in the a r e a , now se emed i n a p p r o p r i a t e to the m e n in W h i t e h a l l ; the French, a l t h o u g h u n w i l l i n g to s u r r e n d e r any of the t e rr i tory to w h i c h they we re e n t i t l e d , kn ew that they w e r e d e a l i n g fr om a p o s i t i o n of w e a k n e s s . Of c o u r s e , the A r a b s and the J e w s also had d i r e c t i n te re st s h e r e , so all four p a r t i e s we re bu sy d u r i n g this y e ar p r e p a r i ng t h e m s e l v e s for the post- w a r s e t t l e m e n t . T h e s t r a t e g y of the B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t was d e t e r ­ m i n e d , so it w o u l d a p p e a r , by Lloyd G e o r g e and B a l f o u r , and it se emed r e a s o n a b l y c l e a r . Bo th me n we re m o r e c o m m i t t e d to the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n than to e i t h e r the S y k e s - P i c o t Ag r e e m e n t or a r r a n g e m e n t s based on the M c M a h o n - H u s s e in l e t t e r s . T h u s , they did not d e s i r e A r a b co n t r o l of P a l e s t i n e , w h i c h w o u l d have m a d e it d iff icult for the Zi on i s t s to fu lfill their g o a l s . Ye t ne i ther ma n b e l i e v e d that a J e w i s h Stat e could be i m m e d i a t e l y e s t a b l i s h e d , since the future of Z i o n i s m wa s far from clear. Th er ef or e, they t h ou gh t it wo u l d be n e c e s s a r y for some fo re ig n po we r to g o v e r n P a l e s t i n e for a p e r i o d of y e a r s until s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t coul d be established; a go o d deal of i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i p l o m a c y d u r i n g this y e a r was taken up w i t h d i s c u s s i o n as to w h i c h po w e r w o u l d p e r f o r m this task. Ho we v e r , the G o v e r n m e n t ' s first or de r of b u s i n e s s at the b e g i n n i n g of 1918 was to a s su re their A r ab ally, S h a r i f Husse i n -- wh o had now taken the title King of the H e j a z — that the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n was not a thre at to his p e o p l e . Th e r e f o r e , in J a n u a r y the F o r e i g n O f f i c e i n s t r u c t e d C o m m a n d e r D.G. Ho ga rt h, a m e m b e r of the Ar a b B u r e a u in Cairo, to d e l i v e r a m e s s a g e to the King reaff irming the fact that " the Ar a b race shall be g iven full o p p o r t u n i t y of on ce again fo rm in g a n a t i o n in the w o r l d . " W i t h re ga rd to P a l e s t i n e , it st ated that "no p e o p l e shall be s u b j e c t to a n o t h e r " ; n o n e t h e l e s s , the n u m b e r of Ho ly P l a c e s im po rt an t to bo t h C h r i s t i a n s and

33

J e ws r e q u i r e d that some sp ec ia l r e g i m e be e s t a b l i s h e d . C o n c e r n i n g the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n , the m e s s a g e r e a d : "His M a j e s t y ' s G o v e r n m e n t are d e t e r m i n e d that in so far a s is c o m p a t i b l e wi t h the fr e e d o m of the ex i s t i n g p o p ­ u l a t i o n bo th e c o n o m i c and p o l i t i c a l , no o b s t a c l e should by put in the way of the real i zai ton of this i d e a l . 1,10 T h a t this s o - c a l l e d H o g a r t h M e s s a g e was ac c e p t e d b y H u s s e i n has o f t e n been g iven as e v i d e n c e that the A r a b s a c c e p t e d the N a t i o n a l Home or ig inally on ly to change their minds later.^ H o w e v e r , Hogarth him­ s e lf , in his re p o r t to the F o r e i g n O f f i c e , d o w n g r a d e d the significance of this m e e t i n g , sa yi ng that "he [Hu s s e in] p r o b a b l y kn ow s 1 ittle or no t h i n g of the a c t ­ ual or p o s s i b l e e c o n o m y of P a l e s t i n e and his re ad y a s s e n t to J e w i s h s e t t l e m e n t there is not wo r t h ve ry m u c h ." 1 2 Also, the q u e s t i o n m u s t be raised as to the right of King H u s s e i n to speak for the en t i r e Arab w o r l d - - a n issue wh i c h was to pr o v e a d i f f i c u l t p r o b l e m t h r o u g h o u t this p e r i o d . As the i n s t i g a t o r of the Ar a b R e v o l t and one of the two A r a b r u le rs i n d e p e n d e n t d u r ­ ing the war (ibn Saud be in g the other) , H u s s e i n was p r o b a b l y the p r e e m i n e n t man in the M u s l i m wo rl d af te r the S u l t a n , who was its m o s t p o w e r f u l t e m p or al ru le r as w e l l as C a l i p h of Islam. It is a l s o true that individ u a l l e ad er s did not e m e r g e among the p e o p l e s of S y r i a , M e s o p o t a m i a or P a l e s t i n e d u r i n g the immed iate p o s t - w a r p e r i o d , g i v i n g E u r o p e a n s fu rt he r ca us e to look to the H e j a z for A r a b a u t h o r i t y . But the fact was that the A r a b w o r l d , d e s p i t e a c o m m o n l a n g u a g e and relig i o n , was far from un if ie d at this t i m e , and the A r a b i a n P e n i n ­ su l a , and its i n h a b i t a n t s were c o n s i d e r e d b a c k w a r d by the r e l a t i v e l y se tt le d p o p u l a t i o n s of S y r i a , P a l e s t i n e an d Me s o p o t a m i a . In f a c t , m a n y of the la tt er looked u p o n the rule of H u s s e i n as no m o r e d e s i r a b l e than T u r ­ k i s h s u z e r a i n t y and they had as their g o a l , not a large A r a b St at e u n de r his c o n t r o l , but a c o n f e d e r a t i o n of autonomous st at es w i th a loose fe de ra l structure. Palestinians p a r t i c u l a r l y were d i s s a t i s f i e d when it a p p e a r e d that the King and his son Feisal, who had c o m m a n d e d the A r a b sold iers du r i n g the w a r , se em ed to b e g i v i n g ov er their c o u n t r y to Zi o n i s t c o n t r o l . Of c o u r s e , even if one ac c e p t s the c o n t e n t i o n that H u s s e i n a g r e e d w i th H o g a r t h 's m e s s a g e , it e x p l i c itly st at ed th at the B a 1 four D e c l a r a t i o n had to be c o m p a t i b l e wi th " the f r e e d o m of the e x i s t i n g p o p u l a t i o n both e c o n o m i c an d political". Th is commitment is considerably stronger than that contained in the Declaration " . . . n o t h i n g shall be d o n e wh i c h ma y p r e j u d i c e the civil 34

and relig ious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine" , and it certainly raises serious ques­ tions about the poss ib i1ity of irreconcilable obiigations. To the G o v e r n m e n t 's cred it h o w e v e r , they d id r e f r a i n from m a k i n g m o r e sp e c i f i c p l e d g e s at this time. So on a f te r H o g a r t h 's visit to the Hejaz, the new E g y p ­ tian High C o m m i s s ioner, Sir Reg inald W i n g a t e , asked W h i t e h a l l for p e r m i s s i o n to in fo rm H u s s e i n " . . .that His M a j e s t y 's G o v e r n m e n t will c o u n t e n a n c e no p e r m a n e n t for­ e i g n or E u r o p e a n o c c u p a t i o n of P a l e s t i n e , Irak (except p r o v i n c e of B a s r a h ) , or Syria a f te r the w a r . Th at th es e d i s t r i c t s will be in p o s s e s s i o n of their na t i v e s a nd that fore ign i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h Ar ab c o u n t r i e s will be r e s t r i c t e d to a s s i s t a n c e and p r o t e c t i o n ." But the F o r e i g n O f f i c e re p l i e d that they wo ul d go no f u r t h e r than their e a r l i e r p r o m i s e s .^^ Bu t be f o r e the ye ar was o u t , the B r i t i s h did m a k e m o r e c o m m i t m e n t s to the A r a b s . In J u n e , se ve n S y r i a n s w h o we re 1 iv ing in Ca iro a p p r o a c h e d B r i t i s h r e p r e s e n ­ t a t i v e s there to re c e i v e a c l a r i f i c a t i o n of His M a j e s ­ ty 's G o v e r n m e n t 's i n t e n t i o n s wi th r e ga rd to the M i d d l e E a s t . The r e q u e s t was f o r w ar de d to L o n d o n , and on J u n e 11 the F o r e i g n O f f i c e sent a t e l e g r a m to W i n g a t e , asking hi m to reply to the S y r i a n s . He was in st r u c t e d to say that B r i t a i n r e g a r d e d the area as falling into four c a t e g o r i e s : a r ea s i n d e p e n d e n t b e f o r e the start of the war; ar e a s freed by the A r a b s t h e m s e l v e s d u r i n g the war; ar ea s freed by the A l l i e s d u r i n g the w a r ; and a r e a s still u n d e r T u r k i s h c o n t r o l . Gr e a t B r i t a i n cons idered that ar ea s in the first two c a t e g o r i e s sh ou ld be c o m p l e t e l y i n d e pe nd en t, a g e s t u r e wh i c h was none too m a g n a n i m o u s si nc e th ey were a l r e a d y un d e r Ar ab control. Th e key p h r a s e s in the reply d e a l t wi th those final two c a t e g o r i e s — ar ea s not yet u n d e r A r a b c o nt ro l and m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y , those ar ea s o c c u p i e d by the A 1 l i e s , w h i c h m e a n t in fact G r e a t Britain. At this time (June 1918), the B r i t i s h army had taken all of P a l e s t i n e and a g o od p a r t of T r a n s - J o r d a n i a , that land d i r e c t l y east of the J o r d a n R i ve r e x t e n d i n g to M e s o p o t a m i a . W i t h re ga rd to th es e t e r r i t o r i e s , W i n g a t e was in s t r u c t e d to s a y : "It is the wish and d e s i r e of His M a j e s t y ' s G o v e r n m e n t that the future G o v e r n m e n t of these reg ions should be ba se d u p o n the p r i n c i p l e of the c o n s e n t of the G o v e r n e d and this pol icy has and will c o n t i n u e to have the s u p p o r t of His M a j e s t y 's G o v e r n m e n t ." ^ At

the m e e t i n g

at w h i c h 35

this m e s s a g e

was d e l i v e r ­

e d , one of the S y r i a n s , w h o s e na me s were not r e ve al ed b e c a u s e their c o u n t r y was still in T u r k i s h h a n d s , asked if B r i t a i n wo ul d r e c o g n i z e g o v e r n m e n t s w h i c h the Ar ab s p l a n n e d to e s t a b l i s h in c a p t u r e d t e r r i t o r y . Hogarth, w h o took p a rt in the m e e t i n g , r e p l i e d " . . . y e s ! if p r o ­ p e r l y e s t a b l i s h e d and e f f e c t i v e ," ^ ^ an an swer wh ic h s u p p o s e d l y ga ve B r i t a i n some f l e x i b i l i t y in its d i p l o ­ macy. Yet , at face v a l u e , this c o m m i t m e n t seems to ha ve be en a r e a s o n a b l y firm one for A r a b s e l f - g o v e r n ­ me nt , and it g a ve H.M.G. m a n y p r o b l e m s wh e n they tried to ju s t i f y th ei r s u p p o r t of Zionism. St i l l a f u r t h e r p l e d g e was m a d e to the A r a b s in N o ve mb er . By this time, A 1 l e n b y had taken Sy ri a and the L e b a n o n , and there was a g r e a t d e al of s u s p i c i o n in thes e c o u n t r i e s as to Fr e n c h i n t e n t i o n s af te r the w a r . To p r e v e n t the p o s s i b i l i t y of u n r e s t , H.M.G. p e r s u a d e d the Fr e n c h to agre e to a joint d e c l a r a t i o n to the A r a b s , w h i c h was p r o c l a i m e d in the c a p t u r e d t e r r i t o r i e s o n N o v e m b e r 8, 1918. It c l ai me d in pa rt that the go al s of the F r e n c h and Br itish G o v e r n m e n t s w e re " . . . the c o m ­ p l e t e and d e f i n i t e e m a n c i p a t i o n of the p e o p l e s so long o p p r e s s e d by the T u r k s and the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of n a t i o n ­ al g o v e r n m e n t s and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s d e r i v i n g their a u ­ t h o r i t y fr om the in i t i a t i v e and free c h o i c e of the i nd igenous p o p u l a t i o n s ."16 This Anglo-French Decla­ r a t i o n was n a t u r a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d by m o s t A r a b s as a c h a r t e r for s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t af te r the war and it was w idely d i s t r i b u t e d w i t h i n Pa le st in e. On the o t h e r h a n d , it should be no te d that the D e c l a r a t i o n o n ly m e nt ioned Sy ri a and M e s o p o t a m i a spec if i c a l l y , and H.M.G. had in si st ed on that word i n g , ov e r F r e n c h o b j e c t i o n s , in o r d e r to e x c l u d e P a l e s t i n e .^ ^ M a j o r - G e n e r a l G i l ­ b e r t Cl a y t o n , the Ch ie f P o l i t i c a l Of f icer in A 1 l e n b y 's f o r c e s , was g iven this information in D e c e m b e r , ^ bu t it was not p a s s e d along to the P a l e s t i n i a n s , who w e r e t h er eb y led to b e l i e v e that their land was i n c l u d ­ ed as s o u t h e r n S y r i a . T h u s , a n o t h e r bone of c o n t e n t i o n w a s ad de d to the d e b a t e c o n c e r n i n g B r i t i s h p l e d g e s on the M i d d l e E a s t . O n e could r e a s o n a b l y argue that none of these th r e e s t a t e m e n t s — the H o g a r t h M e s s a g e , the r e m a r k s to the Se v e n S y r i a n s , and the A n g l o - F r e n c h D e c l a r a t i o n - s p e c i f i c a l l y p l e d g e d P a l e s t i n e to the A r a b s , and that all of th em were p r e d a t e d by the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n an d t h e r e f o r e s u p e r c e d e d by it. But true as this ma y b e in a 1 iteral s e n s e , the intent of these s t a t e m e n t s w a s to p e r s u a d e the A r a b s that B r i t a i n was figh ti ng for t h e i r i n d e p e n d e n c e , and H.M.G. m a d e no e f f o r t to let 36

them know that Palestine was e x c l u d e d . T h e r e f o r e , this a u t h o r c o n t e n d s t h a t B r i t a i n d e l i b e r a t e l y m i s l e d the A r a b s about her p o s t - w a r i n t e ntions and that this c o n ­ st i t u t e s a m o r a l , if n o t a l e g a l , b r e a c h o f f a i t h .

In a d d i t i o n to the p r o b l e m s the Br itish we re c r e a t i n g w i t h th ei r c o n t i n u o u s e s c a l a t i o n of c o n t r a d i c to ry p r o m i s e s , the ye ar 1918 w i t n e s s e d the earl iest r u m b l i n g s of o t h e r d i f f i c u l t i e s w h i c h we r e to pl a g u e British Middle Eastern d i p l o m a c y . The problem of F r a n c o - A r a b c o o p e r a t i o n in Sy ri a and the L e b a n o n be ga n to a s s u m e i m p o r t a n c e in the s u m m e r , w h e n it b e c a m e a p p a r e n t that A 1 l e n b y 's army m i g h t c a p t u r e these a r e a s . T h e y we re due to be g iven ov e r to the F r e n c h u n d e r the S y k e s - P i c o t A g r e e m e n t , but it was q u e s t i o n a b l e w h e t h e r the S y r i a n s w o u l d ac c e p t such a transfer. In a lett er to B a 1 f o u r , W i n g a t e su rv e y e d the M i d d l e E a s t e r n s i t u a ­ tion and d i s c u s s e d the p o s s i b l e c o n f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t . He was not u n o p t i m i s t i c ab ou t Z i o n i s t p r o s p e c t s but he f o r e s a w d i f f i c u l t i e s in S y r i a . Its i n h a b i t a n t s , he w r o t e , wanted n e i t h e r the rule of H u s s e i n nor the F r e n c h . He p o i n t e d out the b a s i c d i s l i k e of the ur ba n and p e a s a n t S y r i a n s for the n o m a d i c A r a b s of the He j a z and added that w h i l e the f o rm er m i g h t a c c e p t the rule of Emir Feisal, his g o v e r n m e n t w o u l d have to be s e p a r ­ ated fr om that of his f a t h e r . F r e n c h rule wo ul d be ev en less a c c e p t a b l e ; in fact, he c l a i m e d , "a m a j o r i t y of the M o s l e m s w o u l d p r o b a b l y p r e f e r the T u r k s to the F r e n c h . " 19 This last d i f f i c u l t y was to pr o v e one of the g r e a t e s t s t u m b l i n g bl o c k s to a s e t t l e m e n t of the A r a b q u es ti on . If B r i t a i n was to e x p a n d her own h o l d i n g s in the M i d d l e East, her chief al ly F r an ce had to be c o m ­ pens at ed . Sy ri a was ideal from this p o i n t of view, si nc e the F r e n c h had been h i s t o r i c a l l y i n t e r e s t e d in it, and since it did not ap p e a r v a l u a b l e fr om the B r i ­ tish s t a n d p o i n t . U n f o r t u n a t e l y the S y r i a n s t h e m s e l v e s di d not see the w i s d o m of this st ra te gy , and H.M.G. c o u l d not c o m p l e t e l y ignore her p l e d g e s to the Arabs. W h i t e h a l l ' s a t t e m p t s to e s t a b l i s h a m o d u s v i v e n d i b e ­ twee n the F r e n c h and S y r i a n s we re to pr ov e futile. S e r i o u s d i s c u s s i o n r e g a r d i n g the s e t t l e m e n t in the p o s t - w a r M i d d l e Ea st took p l a c e in the G o v e r n m e n t d u r ­ ing the s u m m e r of 1918. At an I m pe ri al W a r C a b i n e t m e e t i n g in J u n e , Lloyd G e o r g e s t r e s s e d the s t r a t e g ic i m p o r t a n c e of P a l e s t i n e and M e s o p o t a m i a for the d e f e n s e of the B r i t i s h Empire. 20 T h e n in ea rl y July, Sy k e s

37

m e t w i t h P i c o t to d i s c u s s p o s s i b l e r e v i s i o n of their 1916 ag re e m e n t . The F r en ch ma n, of co ur se , was u n w i l l ­ ing to c h a n g e the terms in any way, but Sykes po i n t e d o u t that they had a n t a g o n i z e d the A r a b allies, and that the a g r e e m e n t ran c o n t r a r y to P r e s i d e n t W o o d r o w W i l ­ s o n ' s ideas of o p e n c o v e n a n t s w i t h no a n n e xa ti on , go a l s for w h i c h they we re now fighting. P i c o t fina ll y ag re ed to a joint d e c l a r a t i o n on A l l i e d i n t e n t i o n s to H u s s e i n and as we ll to an A n g l o - F r e n c h a c c o r d on p o l i c y in the A r a b region. The d e c l a r a t i o n to H u s s e i n c o n t a i n e d six po i n t s , the first four of w h i c h we r e i d en ti ca l to the D e c l a r a t i o n to the Se v e n Sy rians. The final two p a r a ­ graphs were g e n e r a l statements to the effect that n e i t h e r G r e a t B r i t a i n nor Fr an ce w a n t e d to annex A r a b t e r r i t o r y but that t h e y did d e s i r e u n i t y for the A r a b world. The A n g l o - F r e n c h a c co rd st a t e d that in A r a b a r e a s not yet i n d e p e n d e n t "...a p e r i o d of t u t e l a g e m u s t s u p e r v e n e b e f o r e the i n h a b i t a n t s of th es e a r ea s are c a p a b l e of c o m p l e t e s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t " , but that such t u t e l a g e w o u l d ab id e by the c o n s e n t of the g o v e r n e d and would be sanctioned by the free nations of the w o r l d .^ 1 negotiated then This by Sykes was agreement b r o u g h t b e f o r e the E a s t e r n C o m m i t t e e of the Wa r C a b i n e t for ap proval. The c o m m i t t e e had be en formed on M a r c h 11 by c o m b i n i n g the M i d d l e Ea stern, R u s s i a n and P e r s i a n Committees. The M i d d l e E a s t e r n C o m m i t t e e had itself b e e n o r g a n i z e d as an e x p a n s i o n of a M e s o p o t a m i a n A d m i n ­ i s t r a t i o n C o m m i t t e e on A u g u s t 2 2, 1917. Curzon chaired the E a s t e r n C o m m i t t e e and its o t h e r m e m b e r s w e re Ja n S m u t s of S o ut h A f r i c a , Balf ou r, Sir H e n r y W i 1 son of the I m p e r i a l G e n e r a l Staff, M a j o r - G e n e r a l G. M. W. M a c D o n o u g h of M i l i t a r y I n t e l 1 i g e n c e , and r o t a t i n g st af f m e m b e r s of the F o r e i g n Of f i c e , India Office, W a r O f f i c e and T r e a ­ s u r y . The fact that such a c o m m i t t e e was ne ed ed ind ic a t e d one of the wo r s t a s p e c t s of B r i t i s h p o l i c y in the A r a b wo r l d up to 1921 — that of d i v i d e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . T h e r e wa s no s i ng le d e p a r t m e n t of st at e w h i c h c o n t r o l l ­ ed p o l i c y in the M i d d l e East; f o r m u l a t i o n of p o l i c y was d ivided at le as t three w a y s . Those territories con­ q u e r e d by A1 l e n b y 's ar my had all b e en put un de r m i l i ­ t a r y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and t h e r e f o r e w e r e un d e r the j u ri sd ic tion of the W a r Of fi ce , w h il e i n d e p e n d e n t n a t i o n s , s u c h as the He jaz and ibn S a u d 's k i n g d o m in c e nt ra l A r a b i a , w e re d e a l t w i t h by the F o r e i g n Of f i c e . Final­ ly , the c a m p a i g n in M e s o p o t a m i a had b e en d irected by the In di a Of fi ce , w h i c h was h a n d l i n g the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n th e r e as w e l l . Such a d i f f i c u l t y was not r e c t i f i e d u n t i l the M i d d l e East D e p a r t m e n t was e s t a b l i shed in

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March 1921 under the Colonial Office. Th e E a s t e r n C o m m i t t e e met se ve ra l times in Ju l y in a t t e m p t to d e v e l o p a pol icy for the M i d d l e E a s t . S y k e s had p r e p a r e d a n ot he r m e m o for the c o m m i t t e e in w h i c h he def ined B r i t a i n ' s g o a l s in the reg ion as " a s t a b l e and p r o g r e s s i v e state of affairs" w h i c h was c o m ­ p a t i b l e wi t h B r i t a i n ' s e c o n o m i c and p o l i t i c a l s e c u r ­ ity, 22 xhis s t a t e m e n t was accepted by the Commit­ tee , but they dec ided to reje ct the f irst four po i n t s o f the p r o p o s e d m e s s a g e to H u s s e i n , d e s p i t e the fact that such a p l e d g e had al r e a d y be en gi ve n to the Se ve n Syrians 23 an

Whi le the E a s t e r n C o m m i t t e e was deal ing wi t h the Arab question in g e n e r a l , the W a r Cabinet devoted s e v e r a l d a y s to a d i s c u s s i o n of the p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m of P a l e s t i n e . On A u g u s t 13, bo th Lloyd G e o r g e and B a l ­ four su g g e s t e d that the G o v e r n m e n t should inte re st the A m e r i c a n s in the s u p e r v i s i o n of P a l e s t i n e . The Pr im e M i n i s t e r e x p l a i n e d that if the U .S . ac c e p t e d co nt ro l of o n e te rr i t o r y , she could not o b j e c t to B r i t a i n do in g 1 ikewise in, s a y , Mesopotamia. He also fel t that A m e r i c a w o u l d p r o v e a strong buf fer in P a l e s t i n e b e ­ tw ee n the Suez Ca na l and the F r e n c h to the no rt h in S y r i a . B a l f o u r e x p r e s s e d the fear h o w e v e r , that if the U.S. we re d r a w n into Pa le st in e, ot he r po w e r s would w i sh to share co n t r o l wi th h e r , a p r o s p e c t w h i c h Lloyd George did not f a v o r . ^4 At a meeting two da ys later, C u r z o n ag re ed that A m e r i c a should be of f e r e d the P a l e s t i n i a n t r u s t e e s h i p , but he e x p r e s s e d g r a v e d o u b t s that she wo u l d a c c e p t . He d id not e x p e c t that W i l s o n w o u l d be w i l l i n g to take on the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of c o n ­ t r o l l i n g an a d m i n i s t r a t i o n so d istant from h o m e , a j u d g m e n t w h i c h p r o v e d to be hi g h l y a c c u r a t e . Curzon th en c o n c l u d e d by s t at in g his p r e f e r e n c e for a B r i t i s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . 2 ~> It is qu i te s u p r i s i n g that the Pr ime M i n i s t e r s h o u l d have a d v o c a t e d an A m e r i c a n m a n d a t e for P a l e s t i n e at this m e e t i n g . He had been i n te re st ed in g a i n i n g the c o u n t r y for B r i t a i n since 1915 and only two m o n t h s prev ious to the m e e t i n g , he had s t re ss ed P a l e s t i n e 's s t r a ­ te gi c value for the E m p i r e . Pe rh ap s the r e as on s he g a v e to the W a r C a b i n e t were l e g i t i m a t e , but less than two m o n t h s l a t e r , H a n k e y noted in his d iary that the P r i m e M i n i s t e r had a scheme for g a i n i n g M i dd le E a st er n t e r r i t o r y , " . . . some subtle d o d g e for asking A m e r i c a to take P a l e s t i n e and Sy ri a in or de r to re nder the F r en ch m o r e an x i o u s to gi v e us P a l e s t i n e so that they m i g h t 39

2 ft ha ve an e x cu se of k e ep in g S y r i a . " 26 At any rate, hi s s u p p o r t for an A m e r i c a n m a n d a t e pr o v e d sh ort-lived, f o r he had ch a n g e d his m i n d b e f o r e the end of the year. The m o s t i m me di at e p r o b l e m fa cing H.M.G. in the M i d d l e East was p r e s s u r e from the F r e n c h r e ga rd in g t h e i r i n te re st s in Sy ri a and the Lebanon. By m i d - s u m ­ mer, A 1 l e n b y 's army was pu s h i n g T u r k s out of Tr a n s J o r d a n i a and was p r e p a r i n g for a d r i v e toward D a m a s c u s ; the Fr e n c h G o v e r n m e n t d id not look f a v o r a b l y on the p r o b a b i 1 ity of their p r o s p e c t i v e c o l o n y bein g o c c u p i e d b y the British. T h e r e f o r e , they c o n t i n u e d to press W h i t e h a l l for an a g r e e m e n t w h i c h w o u l d r e c o g n i z e the preeminent political inte re st of F r an ce in Syria. Sykes wr o t e up a draft of such an agreement in A u g u s t 27 and on September 30 the two countries s igned a s t a t e m e n t w h i c h r e a d : "In the areas of s p e c i a l Fr en ch i n t e r e s t , as d e s c r i b e d in the An g l o F r e n c h A g r e e m e n t of 1916, w h i c h are or ma y be o c c u p i e d by the A l l i e d forces of the E g y p t i a n Expe nd i t ionary Force, the Commander-in-Chief will recognize the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the F r en ch G o v e r n m e n t as his Chie f P o l i t i c a l A d v i s e r . " 2 ® Yet o n ly a few da ys l a t e r , at a W a r C a b i n e t m e e t i n g , Lloyd G e o r g e stated that the S y k e s - Pi co t Ag r e em en t was o u t d a t e d and d id not ap pl y to p r e s e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s . "Having be e n c o n c l u d e d mo r e th a n two ye ar s a g o ," he s a i d , "it e n t i r e l y o v e r l o o k e d the fact that our p o s i t i o n in T u r k e y had been won by very large British f o r c e s , whereas our Al l i e s had c o n t r i b u t e d little to the r e s u l t . " B a l f o u r then re pl ie d th a t any c o n q u e r e d terr i tory sh ould be shared by al 1 the Al l i e s , but this was not a s e n t i m e n t wh ic h m a n y other British officials held to at this t i m e . 2^ L l o y d G e o r g e d id not o b j e c t to F r e n c h rule in S y r i a , bu t he was d e t e r m i n e d to have the o t h e r cl a u s e s of the S y k e s - P icot Ag re em en t re vi se d in Britain's favor. According to H a n k e y , he wan ted to f i n a li ze these re v is ions b e fo re W i l s o n could in t e r f e r e with them, s ince the P r e s i d e n t 's anti - im pe ri al ism was wel 1known. u He soon took a m a j o r step toward this goal b y w i n n i n g c o n c e s s i o n s from the F r e n c h l e a d e r , G e o r g e s Clemenceau. Several week s af te r the a r m i s t i c e was signed, C l e m e n c e a u vi s i t e d L o n d o n , and in p r i v a t e c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h Lloyd G e o r g e on D e c e m b e r 4, he ag re ed to al lo w the B r i t i s h to take ov er P a l e s t i n e and M o s u l , the t e r r i t o r y n o r t h of M e s o p o t a m i a . The Pr im e M i n i s t e r reve al ed the but the agreement was meeting in his m e m o i r s ,31 40

ne ve r put into w r i t i n g and s u b s e q u e n t Fr e n c h g o v e r n ­ m e n t s we r e v e r y r e l u c t a n t to h o n o r i t . Nevertheless, Ll oy d G e o r g e m a d e it the c o r n e r s t o n e of his e f f o r t to s e c u r e B r i t i s h c o n t r o l of the Ho ly L a n d . The o n l y o t h e r record of this i m po rt an t m e e t i n g was m a d e by Hanke y in his diar y. His v e r s i o n was a l mo st i d e n t i c a l , bu t he a d m i t t e d : "T h at was o n ly s e c o n d h a n d fr om Ll.G. for I was not p r e s e n t ."-*2 T w o d a ys af te r this m e e t i n g , the E a s t e r n C o m m i t t e e he ld a long d i s c u s s i o n on P a l e s t i n e , a p p a r e n t l y u n a w a r e th at the P r i m e M i n i s t e r had a l r e a d y g a i n e d it for B r i ­ tain. Curzon, in the chair, sp ok e at l e ng th to star t the m e e t i n g , la yi ng do w n all the p r o b l e m s and a v a i l a b l e options. He b e g a n by r e v i e w i n g pa st commitments, c l a i m i n g i n c i d e n t a l l y , that t h r o u g h the M c M a h o n le tt er s P a l e s t i n e fell into the area of A r a b in de pe nd en ce . No o n e on the c o m m i t t e e , however, se em ed to think that this fact s h ou ld d i s s u a d e them from c o n s i d e r i n g o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s , si nc e d i s c u s s i o n of the l e tt er s was s t o p p e d i m m e d i a t e l y . C u r z o n then c o n t i n u e d by t o uc hi ng b r i e f l y on the A r a b - J e w i s h p r o b l e m and al so on the q u e s t i o n of P a l e s t i n i a n b o u n d a r i e s , w h i c h was to b e c o m e a s u b j e c t of m u c h future n e g o ti at io n. W i t h r e ga rd to P a l e s t i n e 1s futu re a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , he r e j e c t e d the S y k e s - P i c o t terms w h i c h call ed for i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n ­ trol , addi ng " I d o not su pp os e you wi ll find a s i ng le p e r s o n in any c o u n t r y now in f a vo ur of that s o l u t i o n . " He p r o p o s e d that a sing le g o v e r n m e n t be g i v e n r e s p o n ­ s i b i l i t y for the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and s u g g e s t e d F r a n c e , B r i t a i n and the U.S.A. as p o s s i b i l i t i e s . Bu t he q u i c k ­ ly d i s m i s s e d the F r e n c h , since their p r e s e n c e wo ul d be u n a c c e p t a b l e to H . M. G. , to the Z i o n i s t s — w h o m i s t r u s t e d F r e n c h i n t e n t i o n s — and to the Arabs. Curzon mentioned the C a b i n e t 1s s y m p a t h y (e x p r e s s e d at the m e e t i n g in Augu st ) for an A m e r i c a n m a n d a t e , but he r e i t e r a t e d his o w n d o u b t s ab ou t such a plan. His ch ie f fear was that f r i c t i o n m i g h t d e v e l o p amon g the A m e r i c a n s in P a l e s ­ tine , the F r en ch in S y r i a , and the B r i t i s h in Eg yp t and Mesopotamia. Also, he felt that fu rt he r d i v i s i o n of A r a b lands w o u l d h i n d e r their e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t , w h i c h could on ly come from cl os e c o o p e r a t i o n among the v a r i o u s r e g i o n s . Th e s e a r g u m e n t s led him i n e x o r a b l y to support a British administration. T h e r e w o u l d be s e ve ra l a d v a n t a g e s to the l a t t e r , he e x p l a i n e d . P a l e s t i n e co ul d p r o s p e r e c o n o m i c a l l y f r o m c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h E g y p t , and the c o u n t r y wo ul d be s t r a t e g i c a l l y v a l u a b l e for the d e f e n s e of the C a n a l .

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Bo th the A r a b s and the Z i on is ts se e m e d to f a vo r B r i t i s h t u t e l a g e , a f a c t o r w h i c h w o u l d g ive H.M.G. a st ro ng f o u n d a t i o n for its a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . These considera­ ti on s , c o m b i n e d w i t h the d i s a d v a n t a g e s of F r e n c h or A m e r i c a n rule, b r o u g h t him to r e c o m m e n d that B r i t a i n s h o u l d seek to r e t a i n P a l e s t i n e at the f o r t h c o m i n g p e a c e c o n f e r e n c e . ^4 C u r z o n ' s p r o p o s a l s m e t w i t h so me cr it ic is m, but the g e n e r a l te no r of the d i s c u s s i o n wa s f a v o r a b l e ; at a f u r t h e r m e e t i n g a w e ek and a half later, his ideas we re d r a w n up into six r e s o l u t i o n s w h i c h in d i c a t e d that B r i ­ t a i n sh o u l d a c c e p t the m a n d a t e for P a l e s t i n e if it w e re offered. The fifth r e s o l u t i o n r e a d : " The c h o i c e , w h a t e v e r fo rm it m a y take sh o u l d b e , as far as p o s ­ s i b l e , in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the e x p r e s s e d de sires: (a) of the A r a b po pu la ti on , (b) of the Z i o n i s t c o m m u n i t y in P a l e s t i n e ."^ It has b e e n g e n e r a l l y b e l i e v e d that these two m e e t i n g s laid the f o u n d a t i o n for B r i t i s h p o l i c y in P a l ­ e s t i n e for the ne xt se v e r a l y e a r s . Lloyd G e o r g e s t at es in his m e m o i r s that it wa s these d e c i s i o n s w h i c h c a u s e d h i m to s p ea k to C l e m e n c e a u that m o n t h and g a in the Fr en ch ma n* s assent to British control of Pales­ tine. 36 Yet the fact that H a n k e y p l a c e s th ei r m e e t ­ ing on D e c e m b e r 4, the d a y b e f o r e the E a s t e r n C o m m i t t e e h e l d th ei r d i s c u s s i o n , le a d s to the c o n c l u s i o n that the P r i m e M i n i s t e r took m a t t e r s into his o w n h a n d s and s o u g h t j u s t i f i c a t i o n a f t e r the f a c t . W h e n one c o n ­ s i d e r s some of his e a r l i e r s t a t e m e n t s r e g a r d i n g P a l e s ­ t i n e , it s h ou ld not be s u r p r i s i n g that he took the i n i t i a t i v e to e s t a b l i s h a fait a c c o m p l i b e f o r e the the C o m m i t t e e had a ch a n c e to m a k e its deci si on . Of c o u r s e , it is e n t i r e l y p o s s i b l e that he k n ew w h a t Curzon* s p o s i t i o n w o u l d be b e f o r e h a n d , but co ul d he h a v e kn o w n the final d e c i s i o n of the C o m m i t t e e w i t h such certainty? Th is q u e s t i o n is r a i s e d here b e c a u s e it is on e of the e a r l i e s t i n s t a n c e s of a theme w h i c h w a s h e r e a f t e r to recur: t h r o u g h o u t his s t ay at 10 D o w n i n g S t r e e t , Lloyd G e o r g e a p p e a r s to ha ve be en the f i r m e s t G o v e r n m e n t s u p p o r t e r of Z i o n i s m ca rr ie d out under British administration. O t h e r s , e v en B a l f o u r , w a v e r e d from time to t i m e , but the P r i m e M i n i s t e r was a l w a y s a d a m a n t , and w i t h o u t his c o n s e n t , the pro-Z ionist p o l i c y co u l d not be a l t e r e d . T h e r e f o r e , w h e n s e e k ­ ing an a n s w e r to the r e a s o n s wh y B r i t a i n a c c e p t e d the m a n d a t e in 1922 d e s p i t e the o b v i o u s p r o b l e m s it e n t a i l ­ ed , the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the fiery W e l s h m a n m u s t ra nk high. T h is th em e will be fu rt he r d e v e l o p e d in s u b s e ­

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qu e n t chapters. I n t e r t w i n e d w i th the issue of the t r u s t e e s h i p for P a l e s t i n e was that of its in ternal s i t u a t i o n . The c e n ­ tral p r o b l e m h e r e , of c o u r s e , was the fact that the c o u t r y 's e x i s t i n g p o p u l a t i o n was p r e d o m i n a n t l y A r a b , w h i l e the i n t e n t i o n of the G o v e r n m e n t was to c r ea te th er e a J e w i s h N a t i o n a l H o m e . The p o s s i b l e d i m e n s i o n s of such a task w e re taken r a t h e r 1 ightly back in L o n ­ d o n , and Sy ke s wa x e d e l o q u e n t l y ab ou t an A r a b - J e w i s h A r m e n i a n e n t e n t e in the p o s t - w a r M i d d l e East; but the o b s t a c l e s to su ch a v i s i o n w e re far m o r e obv ious to th os e on the s c e n e . M a j o r - G e n e r a l G i l b e r t C l a y t o n , who had been a p p o i n t e d Ch i e f P o l i t i c a l Of f icer for the terr i t o r y c o n q u e r e d by A 1 l e n b y , w r o t e b e f o r e a m o n t h had g o n e by that bo t h C h r i s t i a n s and M u s l i m s in the c a p t u r ­ ed lands we r e u n f a v o r a b l e toward the Zi on is t i d e a .^ In a p r i v a t e le tt er to Sykes in D e c e m b e r 1917, he w a r n e d that "an A r a b - J e w i s h e n t e n t e can o n l y be b r o u g h t ab ou t by ve ry g r a d u a l and c a u t i o u s a c t i o n ," b e c a u s e the P a l e s t i n e A r a b s d is tr us te d the Je ws they had m e t . He c o n c l u d e d by q u e s t i o n i n g " w he th er the si ­ t u a t i o n d e m a n d s out and out su pp or t of Z i on is m at the risk of a l i e n a t ing the Arabs at a critical mo­ ment. S y k e s took heed of C l a y t o n ' s m i s g i v i n g s and he c a u t i o n e d the B r i t i s h Z i on is ts to e m p h a s i z e c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h the A r a b s , e x p e c t i n g that such a c t i o n w o ul d re c ­ ti fy any p o s s i b l e p r o b l e m s . ^9 in the same v e i n , he c o m p o s e d a m e m o r a n d u m in J a n u a r y in w h i c h he d e f i n e d B r i t i s h p o l i c y as in te nd ed "... to keep Z io ni sm on right 1 i n e s , that i s , to avoid the d a n g e r of its being c o n ­ s t r u e d as e i t h e r d a n g e r i o u s to the e x i s t i n g p o p u l a t i o n o r l i ke ly to p r e j u d i c e the safety, of the C h r i s t a i n and M o s l e m ho ly plac es , yet at the same time to g i ve it full f a c i l i t i e s in wa y of r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of e x i s t i n g colonies and institutions."For his pa rt Clayton no t e d in his d i s p a t c h e s of D e c e m b e r and J a n u a r y that the p o p u l a t i o n was so bu sy r e c o v e r i n g from the d e s t r u c ­ tion of the war that they had little time for p o l i t i c a l issues; ther ef or e, he e n v i s i o n e d no imme di at e pro­ b l e m s . 41 By February he was able to re p o r t that A r a b s and J e w s w e re g e t t i n g along r e a s o n a b l y well, a l ­ t h o u g h they w e r e still far fr om being c o rd ia l toward on e another. He was p l e a s e d to add that b o t h g r o u p s fe lt w a r m l y t o wa rd the B r i t i s h and w e l c o m e d the p r o s ­ p e c t of H . M . G . ' s c o n t i n u e d r u l e . But one r e as on for this a p p a r e n t tr a n q u i 1 1 i t y , ap a r t from the one p r e v i ­ o u s l y m e n t i o n e d by the Chief P o l i t i c a l O f f i c e r , was the

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fact that no Zi o n i s t a c t i v i t y had as yet be en u n d e r ­ t a k e n , since the F o r e i g n Of f ice had f o ll ow ed Syke s * a d v i c e to r e s t r i c t a c t i v i t y to the "r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of e x i s t i n g c o l o n i e s and i n s t i t u t i o n s ." C l a y t o n had been i n s t r u c t e d to ca rr y out this p o l i c y , as well as to e n ­ su re relig ious e q u a l i t y , eq ua l t r e a t m e n t for all B r i ­ ti s h all i e s , and the m a i n t e n a n c e of o r d e r in the Holy P l a c e s .43 I n d e e d , such a p r o g r a m of r e c o n s t r u c t i o n was all th a t could be a t t e m p t e d at this j u n c t u r e , because A 1 l e n b y was d e t e r m i n e d to ob e y the t e ne ts of internat ional law w i t h r e ga rd to c a p t u r e d en e m y t e r r i t o r y , w h i c h r e q u i r e d the m a i n t e n a n c e of the st at us quo. In a l e n g t h y do cu me nt , he d e t a i l e d the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n he was o r g a n i z i n g in P a l e s t i n e , b a s i n g it upon such a p r i n ­ c i p l e . 44 T h is ord inance was to ca us e him g r e a t d i f ­ f i c u l t y wi th the Zionists, whose goals ra nged far b e y o n d the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of e x i s t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s . F o l l o w i n g the a n n o u n c e m e n t of the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n , Dr. We i zmann had wa s t e d little time in tr a n s f o r m ing t h eo ry into p r a c t i c e . Soon af te r the B r i t i s h c a p ­ tu re of Je r u s a l e m , he r e q u e s t e d that a Z i on is t C o m m i s s ion be al l o w e d to travel to P a l e s t i n e in o r d e r to begin their w o r k . 43 But C l a y t o n , a n t i c i p a t i n g such a r e q u e s t , had already re j e c t e d the i d e a , on the g roun ds that " to let in r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of one c o m ­ m u n i t y o p e n s d o o r s to o t h e r s " ,43 and W i n g a t e wr ot e f rom Ca iro that such an a c t i o n w o u l d be im p o s s i b l e w h i l e m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s we re still g o i n g on in the country.4^ Nevertheless, We i zmann was invited to m e e t wi t h B a l f o u r in ea rl y J a n u a r y to d r a w up a p r o g r a m fo r a Z i on is t v i s i t to P a l e s t i n e . The two m e n a g re ed t h at the Z i o n i s t s , wo u l d work to r e c o n s t i t u t e e x i s t i n g J e w i s h c o l o n i e s and p e r f o r m re lief o p e r a t i o n s among the J e w i s h p o p u l a t i o n , as we ll as to beg in the c o n s t r u c t i o n of a J e w i s h u n iv er si ty . But We i zmann had to c o n s e n t to a p r o v i s i o n that no land w o u l d be p u r c h a s e d by his f o l l o w e r s , since such a c t i o n wo ul d v i o l a t e the rules of the m i l i t a r y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .43 S o o n afte r this m e e t i n g , the E a s t e r n C o m m i t t e e c o n s i d e r e d the p o s s i b i l i t y of s e nd in g the Z i o n is ts to Palestine. B a l f o u r spoke in favor of the p l a n , as did S y k e s , wh o felt that We izmann wo ul d be able to m o d e r a t e s o m e of the e x t r e m e vi ew s e x p r e s s e d by Jews a l r e a d y in th e c o u n t r y and thus re d u c e A r ab a n x i e t i e s . However, the C o m m i t t e e w a n t e d the Z i o n is ts to be a c c o m p a n i e d by 44

a British political officer, to act as a 1ia ison be­ tween them and Cl ayton's staff. With this prov iso, the Committee gave its approval to the proposed journey. The objects of the mission were to be: to establ ish friendly relations with the existing communities; to form a link between the author it ies and the existing Jewish community; to assist in the work of relief and repatriation; to reorganize the Jewish population; and to report on the possibi1 ities of future Jewish devel­ opment in the country.^ Th e j o u r n e y was a r r a n g e d for late M a r c h , w i th the Z i o n i s t C o m m i s s i o n to land in Eg yp t and re m a i n th er e for a few we e k s be fore c o n t i n u i n g on to P a l e s t i n e . In the i n t e r v e n i n g time b e f o r e the v o y a g e , a n t i - Z i o n i s t s e n t i m e n t b e g a n to r e v i v e in the H o ly L a n d , and this fact wa s d u l y r e p o r t e d by G e n e r a l C l a y t o n in his d i s ­ We iz ma nn was somewhat aw ar e of this p a t c h e s . 50 a n t a g o n i s m but se em ed to think that it was not a s e r ­ ious p r o b l e m . 51 in fact, his correspondence in di­ c a te d that he r e g a r d e d the F r e n c h as the m o s t se r i o u s t h r e a t to his m o v e m e n t , and indeed P i c o t was a focal p o i n t of m u c h a n t i - B r itish and a n t i - Z i o n i s t i n t r i g u e , whether willingly or no. ^ We izmann m e a n w h i l e we n t a b o u t the task of c h o o s i n g the m e m b e r s of his C o m m i s ­ si on , he h a v i n g b e en d e s i g n a t e d its c h a i r m a n . The m e n he se l e c t e d were: Joseph C o w e n , Chairman of the E n g l i s h Zi o n i s t F e d e r a t i o n ; D r . M.D. E d e r , a r e p r e s e n ­ t a t i v e of the J e w i s h T e r r i t o r i a l A s s o c i a t i o n ; L e on S i m o n , a B r i t i s h c i vi l s e r v a n t ; S y l v a i n L e v i , a nonZ io ni st F r e n c h m a n ; C o m m e n d a t o r e B i a n c h i n i , an It al ia n m i l i tary o f f i c e r ; and Israel S i e f f , a yo un g B r i t i s h Zionist. The p o l i t i c a l o f f i c e r c h o s e n to a c c o m p a n y t h e m was M a j o r W i l l i a m O r m s b y - G o r e , a m a n w i t h kn ow n Z i o n i s t s y m p a t h i e s .53 A c c o r d i n g to Seiff, this g r o u p wa s c h o s e n to p r o ­ v i d e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n for bo th Zi o n i s t and n o n - Z i o n i s t J e w s and to a p p e a s e all the A l l i e d c o u n tr ie s; t h e r e ­ fore, b o th F r a n c e and Italy w e r e r e p r e s e n t e d on the Commission. But P r e s i d e n t W i l s o n r e f u s e d to a l l o w A m e r i c a n p a r t i c i p a t i o n , and no R u s s i a n s w e re i n cl ud ed b e c a u s e of the B o l s h e v i k R e v o lu ti on . Even so, the C o m m i s s i o n wa s far from u n a n i m o u s in its o b j e c t i v e s . Se i f f noted that "S y l v a i n Levi for France, or B i a n c h i n i for Italy, k n e w n o th in g at all ab ou t Z i o n i s m . ...M y s e l f and C o w e n we r e e n t h u s i a s t s . Eder wasn't. Le on S i m o n wa s a v e ry g o od Zi on is t but the kind of i n t e l l e c t u a l wh o disliked action."54 T h u s , We izmann had to w o r k w i t h a s o m e w h a t u n w i e l d y group.

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C l a y t o n had high h o pe s that the C o m m i s s i o n w o ul d " . . . put th in gs right by i m p r e s s i n g up on local Je ws a r e a l sense of the Br itish G o v e r n m e n t ' s d e c l a r a t i o n and the n e c e s s i t y for taking up a r e a s o n a b l e and c o n e i 1 iat o r y a t t i t u d e w h i c h wi ll ca lm fears of local Ar a b s and lead to s y m p a t h e t i c c o o p e r a t i o n of the two c o m m u n i ­ ties."^ Ormsby-Gore had much the same idea in mi n d , and on the j o u r n e y from B r i t a i n to Egypt he i m p r e s s e d upon the C o m m i s i o n e r s the i m p o r t a n c e of d i s ­ p e l l i n g the n o t i o n that the Z i on is ts w a n t e d to i m m e d i ­ ately establish a Jewish Government in the Ho ly L a n d . 56 ^i s ad mo n i tions had the d e s i r e d e f f e c t , for t h r o u g h o u t their v i s i t , We izmann and his c o l l e a g u e s w e r e c o n s i s t e n t l y m o d e r a t e in their r e ma rk s b o th to A r a b s and to B r i t i s h o f f i c i a l s . T h e C o m m i s s i o n a r r i v e d at A l e x a n d r i a on Ma r c h 21 an d re c e i v e d a c o rd ia l w e l c o m e from H i g h C o m m i s s i o n e r W i n g a t e . Since Ca iro c o n t a i n e d large n u m b e r s of e x il ed S y r i a n s and P a l e s t i n i a n s , W e i z m a n n q u i c k l y m a d e ef f o r t s t o c o n t a c t them and d i s c o v e r their a t t i t u d e s toward his movement. The m o s t i m po rt an t of these f i gu re s was Dr* F a r is N i m r , a P a l e s t i n i a n who was the e d i t o r of an i n f l u e n t i a l A r ab n e w s p a p e r , M o k a t t e m . A c c o r d ing to O r m s b y - G o r e , the Zi on is t C h a i r m a n was h i g h l y s u c c e s s f u l in q u e l l i n g the fears of these e x i l e s , and Dr. Ni mr and o t h e r s left their m e e t i n g s w i th him qu it e c o n t e n t about Jewish a m b i t i o n s .5 7 W h i l e in Cairo, We izmann also ha d his first m e e t i n g w i t h G e n e r a l C l a y t o n , who e x p r e s ­ sed the be l i e f that the Zi o n i s t s w a n t e d to cr ea te a J e w i s h St at e as soon as the war was o v e r . Cl ay t o n 's e a r l i e r c o r r e s p o n d e n c e wo ul d ind icate that he d id not r e a l l y b e l i e v e this to be the c a s e , but the re ma rk gave W e i z m a n n the o p p o r t u n i t y to reply that "the C o m m i s s i o n was anx ious to see a B r i t i s h Palestine af te r the w a r . "58 The C o m m i s s i o n then tr av el ed to J a f f a , w h i c h they r e a c h e d on Ap r i l 4, and they i m m e d i a t e l y e s t a b l i s h e d a h e a d q u a r t e r s in T e 1 Aviv, the J e w i s h s u bu rb of that a n c i e n t city. Ge n e r a l C l a y t o n was p l e a s e d w i t h W e i z m a n n ' s b e h a v i o r and the C.P.O. wr o t e that he felt that a sound e x p o s i t i o n of Zion is t p o l i c y co ul d r e mo ve the f e a r s of n u m e r o u s A r a b s . In f a c t , in a l e tt er to Sy ke s he we nt so far as to s a y : " I feel c o n v i n c e d that m a n y o f the d i f f i c u l t i e s w h i c h we have e n c o u n t e r e d owing the m u t u a l d i s t r u s t and s u s p i c i o n b e t w e e n A r a b s and Je ws w i l l now d i s a p p e a r . "59 A f t e r s e ve ra l da ys of m a k i n g c o n t a c t s w i t h the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y in the J a f f a vie ini t y , the C o m m i s s i o n then p r o c e e d e d to Je r s u a l e m , wh e r e 46

they were greeted by C o lo ne l Ro na ld S t o r r s , the M i l i t a r y G o v e r n o r of that city. On Ap r i l 11, W e i z m a n n v isited the hous e of Kame l el Hu s s e i n i , the G r a n d Mufti of J e r u s a l e m and t h e r e f o r e the h i g h e s t r a nk in g M u s l i m o f f i c i a l in P a l e s t i n e . The Z i on is t lead er agai n gave a m o d e r a t e ex p o s i t ion of his i n t e n t i o n s , d i s a v o w i n g any immed iate pl an s for a Jewish state or for the e x p r o p r i a t i o n of A r ab l a n d s , wh il e e m p h a s i z i n g the need for J e w i s h - A r a b c o o p e r a t i o n . The Mufti g a ve a g u a r d e d r e p l y but did e x p r e s s a d e s i r e for p e a c e f u l r e l a t i o n s , a nd he late r told C o l o n e l S t or rs that he was h i g h l y i m p r e s s e d wi th Dr. Weizmann.^ Ac ti v i t i e s such as these ma d e a ve ry f a v o r a b l e i m p r e s s i o n on m o s t Br itish o f fi ci al s; as the C o m m i s s ion c o n t i n u e d on their jo ur ne ys in P a l e s t i n e , v i s i t i n g bo t h c i t i e s and a g r i c u l t u r a l c o l o n i e s , favorable r e po rt s f i 1 tered back to L o n d o n . Ormsby-Gore, while recog­ n i z i n g that m u c h s u s p i c i o n re ma i n e d b e t w e e n Je ws and A r a b s , was r e a s o n a b l y o p t i m i s t i c , * ^ and Cl ay to n was ab l e to re po rt that te ns io ns we re l e s s e n i n g , just as he had h o p e d . F r om Co lo ne l Kinahan Cornwallis, D i r e c t o r of the A r a b B u r e a u in Ca i r o , came a m e m o r a n d u m s t a t i n g that P a l e s t i n i a n s we re b e g i n n i n g to reali ze th at Z i on is m was in their c o u n t r y to s t a y ; f u r t h e r , it w a s p r o v i n g to be m u c h mo r e m o d e r a t e then they had be en led to b e l i e v e . He c o n c l u d e d that s u s p i c i o n " . . .will g radually disappear if the C o m m i s s ion c o n t i n u e s its p r e s e n t a t t i t u d e of c o n c i l i a t i o n . " Yet a m id st this c o n s e n s u s of optimism, one man was b i t t e r l y d i s a p p o i n t e d about the re su lt s of the m i s s i o n We i zmann himself. In a letter to O r m s b y - G o r e of Apri l 16, a l t h o u g h a d m i t t i n g that he had e x p e c t e d to e n c o u n t e r o p p o s i t i o n to his program, he e x p r e s s e d s u r ­ p r i s e to ". .. f i n d among the A r a b s and Syri an s, or c e r ­ ta in s e c t i o n s of them, a state of mi nd wh i c h seems to us to ma k e u s e f u l n e g o t i a t i o n s im po s s i b l e at the p r e ­ se n t m o m e n t " , and w o r s e , to d i s c o v e r that "... no o f f i ­ c i al steps have taken to bring home to the A r a b s and S y r i a n s the fact that H.M. G o v e r n m e n t has e x p r e s s e d a d e f i n i t e p o l i c y w i t h regard to the futu re of the J e w s in P a l e s t i n e . " In s u p p o r t of the latter a c cu sa ti on , he m e n t i o n e d a lecture, a t t e n d e d by C o l o n e l Storrs, at w h i c h se ve ra l s p e a k e r s h a r a n g u e d the a u d i e n c e on the n e c e s s i t y of the A r a b s li be r a t i n g t h e m s e l v e s , us in g s u c h e x p r e s s i o n s as "Vive La P a l e s t i n e A r a b e " . Storrs had a p p a r e n t l y do n e no th in g to a d m o n i s h the s p e a k e r s or to ca lm their listeners. We i zmann concluded by expressing his d e s i r e that the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n m a k e

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greater efforts to in fo rm the Arabs of H.M.G i n t e n t i o n to ca rr y out the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n 65

*s

T h i s le tt er was soon sh ow n to C o l o n e l S t o r r s , who w a s as ke d to c o m m e n t on i t . His v e r s i o n of the in ci­ d e n t was c o n s i d e r a b l y d i f fe re nt from that of We i z m a n n , w h o had not a c t u a l l y be en p r e s e n t at the l e c t u r e . The Jerusalem Governor c l ai me d that the " l i be ra ti on " r h e t o r i c had be en d i r e c t e d ag a i n s t the T u r k s , not the Je ws , and that three c h e e r s had been g i v e n to the King as a token of l o y a l t y . He added that he had left the p r o g r a m at 8:30, and that he later be en in formed that s o me i n f l a m m a t o r y s p e e c h e s were g iven af te r his d e p a r ­ t u re ; but he d i s m i s s e d the en t i r e a f f a i r as "an u n i m ­ p o r t a n t a m a t e u r p e r f o r m a n c e in a small Boys S c h o o l ". He then went on to c r i t i c i z e the a c t i o n s of the Zionist C o m m i s s i o n s e v e r e l y , a l t h o u g h c l a i m i n g hi m s e l f to be "a convinced Zionist". He wr ot e that d e s p i t e We i z m a n n 's a w a r e n e s s that his m o v e m e n t was held in g r e a t s u s p i c i o n b y the A r a b s , the Zi on is t leader had as yet m a d e no p u b l i c s t a t e m e n t to di s p e l these fears (which was t r u e , a l t h o u g h W e i z m a n n had ca rr ie d on m a n y p r i v a t e c o n v e r ­ s a t i o n s w i t h Arab n o t a b l e s ). The p o p u l a t i o n , St o r r s c o n t i n u e d , co ul d h a rd ly be e x p e c t e d to w e l c o m e Zi o n i s m w i t h en th u s i a s m , but still the C o m m i s s i o n was upset by the s l i g h t e s t d i s p l a y of n e g a t i v e A r a b r e a c t i o n . He c o n c l u d e d that the Z i on is ts would have to m a k e a g r e a t ­ e r ef f o r t to co me to g r i p s w i th the r e a l i t i e s of the s i t ua ti on in P a l e s t i n e . F r o m that time o n , St or rs was re v i l e d by Z i on is ts a s an en em y of their cause. ' He v i g o r o u s l y d e f e n d ­ ed h i m s e l f from this c h a r g e in his m e m o i r s , c l ai mi ng t h at the Mil itary A d m i n i s t r a t i o n d id m u c h m o r e to aid the Zi o n i s t s than it was e n t i t l e d to do un de r i n t e r ­ national l a w . S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , he w r o t e , the Je ws s h o u l d have been g i ve n the same t r e a t m e n t as all o t he r m i n o r i t i e s (m o s t l y Ch ristian) in the c o u n t r y , yet they w e r e c o n s t a n t l y r e c e i v i n g s p ec ia l p r i v i l e g e s , incl ud in g the be ne f i t of ha vi ng all i m po rt an t n o t i c e s p o st ed in H e b r e w , as well as in En g l i s h and A r a b i c . He qu it e c o r r e c t l y a r t i c u l a t e d the p r o b l e m w h i c h was to ha un t the B r i t i s h t h r o u g h o u t th ei r t e n u r e : Z io ni sm is a d m i t t e d l y a d e p a r t u r e from o r d i n a r y c o l o n i z i n g p r o c e s s e s ; an act of faith. To this e x t e n t , t h e r e f o r e , im­ p a r t i a l i t y " is c o n d e m n e d by Z i o n i s t s as anti-Zionistic: he that is not for me is a g a i n s t m e - - a M r . Facing b o t h - w a y s ,

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- like a n e ut ra l in the W a r . . . . W h a t is less j u s t i f i a b l e (and m u c h less h e lp fu l to the c a u s e ) is the a s s u m p t i o n that the s m a l l e s t c r i t i c i s m of any Zi on is t m e t h o d or p r o p o s a l is e q u i v a l e n t to a n t i - Z i o n ­ ism, even to a n t i - S e m i t i s m . ^8 W e i z m a n n d e a l t wi th these same p r o b l e m s in a l e t ­ ter he wr ot e s h o r t l y af te r the d i s p u t e w i th S t o r r s , a d d r e s s e d to Lo ui s Br a n d e i s , the w e l l - k n o w n A m e r i c a n jurist. We i zmann seemed to indicate that the b i g g e s t o b s t a c l e to his C o m m i s s i o n was the M i l i t a r y Ad m i n istrat ion. Yet he co ul d u n d e r s t a n d their p o s i t i o n , since b e i n g sold i e r s , the i r chief o b j e c t i v e s we re to win the w a r ag a i n s t the T u r k s and to hold their c o n q u e r e d te r ­ r i t o r y un ti l the pe a c e c o n f e r e n c e . As a r e s u l t , he w r o t e , " a n y t h i n g . . .which tends to re nd er the in ternal s i tu a t i o n m o r e d iff icult and w h i c h ra i s e s c o m p l i c a t e d p r o b l e m s m u s t be kept d o w n ." Zionism, n a t u r a l l y , fell into this c a t e g o r y . A 1 s o the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , being new and i n e x p e r i e n c e d , te nd ed to rely on h o l d o v e r T u r k i s h and A r ab o f f i c i a l s for a d v i c e , and these m e n we re not e a g e r to see t h e m s e l v e s d i s p l a c e d by J e w s . T h u s , We i zm a n n c o n c l u d e d , the Z i o n i s t s ' task was not be in g m a d e an y easier, and he was qu it e d i s c o u r a g e d .^9 N e v e r t h e l e s s , We i zmann ne ve r re m a i n e d in a state of d e p r e s s i o n for ve ry l o n g , and he bo u n c e d back o n ly two days l a t e r , w h en Z i o n i s t , M u s l i m and C h r i s t i a n l e a d e r s of J e r u s a l e m we re a s s e m b l e d for a d i n n e r g i v e n by the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . We i zm an n ma de a cone i 1 iatory s p e e c h and he was f o ll ow ed by the G r a n d M u f t i , who did l i ke wi se ; a g e n e r a l aura of m o d e r a t i o n p r e v a i l e d . 7 ^ A s i m i l a r d i n n e r was held in Jaffa, on w h i c h o c c a s i o n W e i z m a n n d i s c l a i m e d any in t e n t i o n to g a i n c o nt ro l of the g o v e r n m e n t or to d e p r i v e any A r a b s of their p o s s e s ­ sions. His g o a l s he d e f i n e d as ". .. to c u l t i v a t e and e n r i c h the lands w h i c h had b e c o m e our p o s s e s s i o n s du ring the T u r k i s h r u l e , to e n l i v e n and an i m a t e s c i e n t i f i c k n o w l e d g e by e s t a b l i s h i n g p u b l i c s c h o o l s for i n s t r u c ­ ti on of all b r a n c h e s of k n o w l e d g e ." He did ex p r e s s the b e l i e f that P a l e s t i n e was the ho me of the Jews, but he m a d e cl e a r his d e s i r e for c o - e x i s t e n c e ; n e v e r t h e l e s s , he r e fu se d to m a k e a p r e d i c t i o n as to the c o u n t r y ' s future. W h e n he finished, Sh e i k R a g h i b Dajani, the l e a d e r of the M u s l i m s of J a f f a , repl ie d that his p e op le w o u l d treat the Je ws as c o m p a t r i o t s , as long as the J e w s r e s p e c t e d th em and their relig i o n , and p r o v i d e d th at B r i t a i n wo u l d treat M u s l i m s , C h r i s t i a n s and J e w s as e q u a l s . 7 -*- s u c h meetings appeared to be ha vi ng

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the d e s i r e d e f f e c t of b r i n g i n g A r a b and J e w c l os er t o g e t h e r , and C l a y t o n 's p o l i t i c a l r e p o r t s d u ri ng this p e r i o d r e c o r d e d a n o t i c e a b l e d e c r e a s e in tension. We i zmann was still far f r om s a ti sf i e d , h o w e v e r , an d at the end of May he laid out the issues in a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d letter to Balfour. He c l ai me d that the p o l i c y of m a i n t a i n i n g the s t at us qu o as d e c r e e d by i n t e r n a t i o n a l law was "...a f o rm ul a w h i c h has been v i o ­ l a t e d by ev e r y b e l l i g e r e n t po we r d u r i n g this w a r , and h a s lost all r e l a t i o n to r e a l i t y ." He s u g g e s t e d that f a i r n e s s and i m p a r t i a l i t y on the p a rt of B r i t i s h o f f i c ­ ials w e re re a l l y a d v a n t a g e o u s to the A r a b s , who we re m o r e f a m i l i a r w i t h the c o u n t r y than the J e w s . He cons idered the a t t e m p t to ha nd le the p o p u l a c e d e m o c r a t i ­ c a l l y to be d i s c r i m i n a t o r y as w e l l , si nc e the A r a b s o u t n u m b e r e d the Je ws five to one (the ac t u a l ratio was c l o s e r to ten to one) . "This s y s t e m , "he w r o t e , "does n o t take into a c c o u n t the fact that there is a f u n d a ­ m e n t a l q u a l i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n J e w and A r a b ," a n d in fact it was te n d i n g to re duce the Je ws to the 1 evel of n a t i v e s . W h a t wo ul d be the r e su lt of this policy? "The p r e s e n t state of a f f a i r s w o u l d n e c e s ­ s a r i l y tend to w a r d s the c r e a t i o n of an A r a b P a l e s t i n e if there w e re an Ar ab p e o p l e in P a l e s t i n e . It will not in fact p r o d u c e that re s u l t b e c a u s e the f e ll ah is at l e a s t four c e n t u r i e s be hi nd the t i m e s , and the e f f e n d i ...is d i s h o n e s t , u n e d u c a t e d , g r e e d y , and as u n p a t r i o t i c as he is i n e f f i c i e n t . " Yet un le ss the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s p o l i c y was c h a n g e d , it wo ul d still be d if f icult to c a r r y out the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n . C o n s e q u e n t l y , We izmann m a d e a n u m b e r of s u gg es t ions for r e v i s i n g this pol i c y . The first was the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a J e w i s h u n i v e r s i t y , a po in t wh i c h had a l r e a d y b e e n a g r e e d u p on in J a n u a r y . N e x t , he asked t h a t the W a i l i n g Wa ll of Je r u s a l e m , c o n s i d e r e d a part o f the old T e m p l e W a l l , be g iven to the J e w s . It was c u r r e n t l y o w n e d , th ou gh not at all v a l u e d , he felt, by a M u s i i m g r o u p , w h o m We i zmann p r o p o s e d to c o m p e n s a t e v e r y 1 i b e r al ly for the p u r c h a s e . F i n a l l y , he r e q u e s t e d t h a t the J e w s be al l o w e d o take over a large tract of 1 and in s o u t h e r n P a l e s t i n e , hi ch wh i l e n o m i n a l l y ow ne d b y a n u m b e r of A r a b s , was l a re ly u n o c c u p i e d . The t ities to this land wo u l d be p u r c h a s e d from all those w h o co ul d d e m o n s t r a t e legal o w n e r s h i p . Such a s c he me h a d been d e c i d e d a g a i n s t by B a l f o u r and We i zmann at t h e i r J a n u a r y mee ting, but the Z i on is t leader now p l e a d e d that a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y could n e ve r be e s t a b l i ­ 50

shed un l e s s an a g r i c u l t u r a l b a si s for it was q u i c k l y b e g u n . T h e r e f o r e , he was as ki ng the F o r e i g n S e c r e t a r y to o v e r r u l e the M i l i t a r y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and g ive the Z io ni st s p r e f e r e n t i a l t r e a t m e n t . In this le t t e r f We izmann re v e a l e d his true o p i n i o n of the A r a b s w i t h w h o m his p e o p l e w e re to 1 i v e . His c o m p l e t e d i s r e s p e c t for them was quite e v i d e n t , p a r t i ­ c u l a r l y in his c o m m e n t ab ou t the q u a l i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n J e w and Arab. Such was not an a t y p i c a l r e ma rk for him either, for in a letter to his wife a few da ys e a r l i e r he had a r g u e d : "The E n g l i s h are t r ea ti ng J e w s and A r a b s wi t h an eq ua l justice, but the A r a b s do n' t u n d e r s t a n d such t r e a t m e n t w i t h o u t the w h i p ."^4 S u c h comments bo de d ill for the p r o s p e c t of harmonious relations between the two g r o u p s . A 1 t h o u g h ta ki ng no note of W e i z m a n n 1s c o n d e s c e n d ing re ma rk s r e g a r d i n g the A r a b s , B a 1 four was p a r t i c u 1 arly c a u t i o u s in his r e p l y , w h i c h he did not send u n ­ til J u l y . The Fore ign S e c r e t a r y a p p r o v e d the J e w i s h u n i v e r s i t y , but that was no real c o n c e s s i o n since it had been a g re ed to already; but he w o ul d not c o n s e n t to the sc h e m e for the W a i l i n g Wall or that for land t a k e ­ over, m a i n t a i n i n g that these issues wo ul d ha ve to be a p p r o a c h e d s l o w l y .^5 Th is le tt er was h i g h l y s i g n i f ­ icant for the fu ture c o n d u c t of the M i l i t a r y Ad m i n istrat i o n . B a l f o u r ' s r e fu sa l to ch a n g e the st an ce of i m p a r t i a l i t y , w h i c h was used as the ba s i s of g o v e r n ­ m e n t , set a p r e c e d e n t w h i c h e n d u r e d u n t i 1 c i v i l i a n rule wa s b e g u n two y e a r s later. W e i z m a n n a d m i t t e d as m u c h w h e n he wr ot e that "any ba si c p o l i t i c a l in i t i a t i v e m u s t c o m e from L o n d o n ; o n l y then wi ll the local m i l i t a r y administration take it s e r i o u s l y ."^ m the in t e r ­ v e n i n g period, the Z i o n is ts had to o p e r a t e w i t h o u t the p r i v i l e g e s w h i c h they had be en expe ct in g, and t h ei r p r o g r e s s was slow; had B a l f o u r c h a n g e d the o f f i c i a l p o l i c y in J u l y 1918, they could have e s t a b l i s h e d t h em­ s e l v e s m o re qu ic kl y. In any event, B a l f o u r ' s l e tt er w a s the first i n d i c a t i o n that B r i t a i n ' s su p p o r t of the N a t i o n a l H o me was limi te d in scope, a p o s s i b i l i t y w h i c h had not o c c u r r e d to m o s t Zi o n i s t s in their e u p h o r i a o v e r the D e c l a r a t i o n . The F o r e i g n S e c r e t a r y ' s d e c i s i o n was m o r e than 1 ikely d e t e r m i n e d by i n f o r m a t i o n g i v e n to hi m by G e n ­ e r a l Cl ay to n, wh o had been a p p r i s e d of W e i z m a n n * s p r o ­ po sa ls . W r i t i n g on June 16, he re ce de d from his e a r l i e r o p t i m i s m by s t at in g that w h i l e W e i z m a n n had s u c c e e d e d in a l l a y i n g the fears of m a n y of the P a l e s ­

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tini an l e ad er s wi t h w h o m he had c o n v e r s e d , the m a s s e s of the A r a b p o p u l a t i o n were still v e r y s u s p i c i o u s and had to be d e a l t w i th c a r e f u l l y . W i t h regard to the te rm s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w , he d id not see any re as on w h y small favo rs could not be g r a n t e d to the Z i o n i s t s , p r o v i d e d that d i s c r e t i o n was u s e d . H o w e v e r , he r e g a r d ­ ed bo th the land sc heme and the t r a n s f e r of the Wa i l i n g W a l l as too d r a m a t i c in scope to be a c c e p t e d by the Arab community. He urge d d e l a y of any land t r an sf er u n t i l it coul d be p r o v e n that it was a f inane ial ly so u n d idea and he to t a l l y r e j e ct ed J e w i s h p u r c h a s e of the W a i l i n g Wall. R a is in g po i n t s w h i c h had been o m i t ­ ted by We i zmann (who was p o s s i b l y u n a w a r e of t h e m ), C l a y t o n m e n t i o n e d that the Wa ll was ve r y close to the M o s q u e of Om ar (the D o me of the R o c k ) , the ho i i e s t M u s ­ l i m shri ne in P a l e s t i n e , and that it was in fact cons idered part of its e n v i r o n s . T h e r e f o r e , it was likely tha J e w i s h p u r c h a s e of this p r o p e r t y woul d raise a s to r m of p r o t e s t . In c o n c l u s i o n , Cl a y t o n rais ed wh at w a s to b e c o m e the ce nt ra l issue in the P a l e s t i n e p r o ­ blem: A n y real d e v e l o p m e n t of the ideas wh ic h Z io nists hold to be at the root of the d e c l a r a t i o n ma de by His M a j e s t y ' G o v e r n ­ m e n t e n t a i l s a m e a s u r e of p r e f e r e n t i a l t r e a t m e n t to J e w s in P a l e s t i n e . This is b o u n d to lead to some fe el in g on the p a r t of ot he r in te re st ed c o m m u n i t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y the local A r a b s , and m a y gi ve ri se to a m e a s u r e of d i s c o n t e n t and u n ­ re st of w h i c h a d v a n t a g e c a n n o t fail to be taken by en em y p r o p a g a n d i s t s . ^ T h u s it can be se en that the c r u c i a l d i lemma in the P a l e s t i n e p r o b l e m was u n d e r s t o o d q u i t e ea rl y on by the ma n w h o was the C h i e f P o l i t i c a l Of f icer in the country. This d i l e m m a was to be c o m e a c o n s t a n t theme in the d i s p a t c h e s of C l a y t o n and m a n y o t h e r local o f f i c i a l s o v er the next se ve ra l y e a r s ; ye t it was not r e a l i z e d in L o n d o n u n t i 1 the 1930's. The r e as on s why it was not will be d e v e l o p e d fu rt he r b e l o w . In the i n t e r i m b e t w e e n We i z m a n n 's letter and B a l ­ f o u r 's r e p l y , the Zi on is t lead er c o n t i n u e d his c a m p a i g n o f m e e t i n g and c o n v e r s i n g wi t h Arab l e a d e r s . In J u n e , A l l e n b y s u g g e s t e d to him that such P a l e s t i n i a n lead er s as he had c o n t a c t e d we re of 1 imited i m p o r t a n c e , and th a t it wo ul d be of m u c h g r e a t e r va lu e to re ac h a g r e e ­ m e n t wi th King H u s s e i n or a m e m b e r of his f a m i l y . The 52

K i n g 's son Fe is al had led the A r a b R e v o l t and thus had a c h i e v e d g r e a t p r e s t i g e in the M u s l i m w o r l d ; he m i g h t b e a lo gi ca l c h o i c e , e s p e c i a l l y since he was c u r r e n t l y in A m m a n , not m a n y m i l e s a c r o s s the J o r d a n River. Weizmann ag re ed and a meeting was arranged in Amman. ^8 It took p l ac e soon af t e r and had s e e m i n g l y good re sults. Fe is al a c k n o w l e d g e d that close c o o p e r a t i on b e t w e e n the two p e o p l e s was n e c e s s a r y but cl a i m e d t h at he w o u l d ha ve to ge t his f a th er 's a p p r o v a l b e f o r e s p e a k i n g on p o l i t i c a l q u e s t i o n s . W e i z m a n n r e pl ie d that the Je ws w e r e p r e p a r e d to s u p p o r t an A r a b K i n g d o m and g ive it f i n a n c i a l a i d , and th at the Zi o n i s t s had no w i s h to e s t a b l i s h a J e w i s h g o v e r n m e n t in P a l e s t i n e . B u t Fe is al d e m u r r e d fr om c o m m i t t i n g h i m s e l f to s u p p o r t Z ionism, b e c a u s e the Tu rk s m i g h t m a k e p r o p a g a n d a f r o m s u c h s u p p o r t ? n e v e r t h e l e s s , he di d a c c e p t the p o s s i b i l ity of fu tu re J e w i s h cl ai ms to t e r r i t o r y in P a l e s t i n e . T h e m e e t i n g e n d e d c o r d i a l l y .^9 A B r i t i s h Of f i c e r , Co l o n e l J o y c e , had b e en p r e s e n t a t the m e e t i n g and C l a y t o n re p o r t e d that he "..g iv es as hi s p r i v a t e o p i n i o n that Feisal re al ly w e l c o m e d J e w i s h c o o p e r a t i o n and c o n s i d e r e d it e s s e n t i a l to future A r a b a m b i t i o n s t h o u g h u n a b l e to e x p r e s s an y ve r y d e f i n i t e v iews in a b s e n c e of his f a t h e r . " He f u rt he r s t at ed t h at "Feisal fu ll y r e al iz es the future p o s s i b i l i t y of a J e w i s h P a l e s t i n e and w o ul d p r o b a b l y ac c e p t it if it a s s i s t e d A r a b e x p a n s i o n fu rt he r n o r t h . " Clayton him­ se lf was quite h a p p y ab ou t the m e e t i n a and e x p e c t e d im p r o v e d r e l a t i o n s to re sult from i t Yet Fe is al ha d r e m a i n e d n o n c o m m i t a l , d e s p i t e his aura of f r i e n d ­ liness, and the Z i on is ts re ally ga i n e d no th in g c o n c r e t e f r o m this m e et in g. However, it did lay the g r o u n d w o r k for s u b s e q u e n t m e e t i n g s b e t w e e n the two me n w h i c h , for a short t i m e , b r o u g h t a m e a s u r e of A r a b - Z i o n i s t c o o p ­ e r at io n, at l e a s t at the l e a d e r s h i p l e v e l . T h e Z i on is t C o m m i s s i o n then r e m a i n e d in P a l e s t i n e until A u g u s t . T h e i r m o s t s p e c t a c u l a r a c h i e v e m e n t in the i n t e r v e n i n g m o n t h s was the f o un di ng of the H e b r e w University. The c e r e m o n y took pl a c e on J u l y 24 o n M o u n t S c op us o v e r l o o k i n g the Old City, w i t h G e n e r a l A 1 l e n b y , al on g w i t h M u s l i m and C h r i s t i a n leaders, l o o k ­ ing on. Su ch a c e r e m o n y had e n o r m o u s s i g n i f i c a n c e for the Z i on is ts and W e i z m a n n re g a r d e d it as the o u t s t a n d ­ ing accomplishment of this first trip to Pales­ tine. Ho wever, on ce B a l f o u r ' s n e g a t i v e re pl y had b e e n r e c e i v e d , at the end of J u l y , th er e was l i tt le m o r e that the C o m m i s s i o n could a c c o m p l i s h for the time being. We iz ma nn was in te re st ed in t r av el in g to

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A m e r i c a for a f u n d - r a i s i n g camp ai gn , so he o t h e r m e m b e r s d e p a r t e d the f o l l ow in g m o n t h .

and

the

T h e ne xt two m o n t h s were qu i e t in P a l e s t i n e , and w i t h We izmann ac r o s s the A t l a n t i c , there was little Z ionist a c t i v i t y in London. However, the first a n n i ­ v e r s a r y of the D e c l a r a t i o n in N o v e m b e r was the o c c a s i o n for a J e w i s h p r o c e s s i o n in Je r u s a l e m , wh i c h led to a m i n o r sc u f f l e w i t h some Arab b y s t a n d e r s . A c c o r d i n g to C o l o n e l S t o r r s , se ve ra l le ad in g A r a b s had informed him t h at they w o ul d at t e m p t to break up the d e m o n s t r a t i o n , bu t he had t h r e a t e n e d them w i t h jail if they did so. He p e r s o n a l l y e s c o r t e d the m a r c h e r s and the p r o c e s s i o n p a s s e d off p e a c e f u l l y , but he noted that af te r his d e ­ p a r t u r e seve ra l A r a b s p o un ce d on one of the d e m o n s t r a ­ to r s and d e a l t him a few bl ow s be f o r e being a r r e st ed by the p o l i c e . Th e M i l i t a r y G o v e r n o r d i s m i s s e d the i n c i ­ d e n t as a m i n o r one and c o n c l u d e d that "there was n o ­ th i n g a n t i - J e w i s h or o r g a n i z e d in this s c u f f l e , th ou gh t h r e r e is c e r t a i n l y a very st ro ng a n t i - Z i o n i s t feeling p r e v a l e n t ." ® 2 H a r m l e s s as this inc ident m a y ha ve a p p e a r e d , it b r o u g h t a revi va l of t e ns io n to P a l e s t i n e , and a flood o f p e s s i m i s t i c d i s p a t c h e s began p o u r i n g in to L o n d o n . S y k e s , w h o was to ur in g the c o u n t r y at the be h e s t of the F o r e i g n Office, wr o t e on N o v e m b e r 15 that "there is a g r e a t deal of e l e c t r i c i t y in the air and . . .p e r h a p s b o t h p a r t i e s think that the m o m e n t wo ul d be p r o p i t i o u s to st ar t a riot in o r d e r to d r a w the a t t e n t i o n of the w o r l d to their v a ry in g c l a i m s ." He ad de d that " the P a l e s t i n i a n Je ws and Zi o n i s t s as a w h o l e lack s o b e r , t a c t f u l , and authoritative l e a d e r s h i p ."® 3 Tw o days l a t e r , he noted that the Zi on i s t s w e re being m u ch too a g r e s s i v e in th ei r d e m a n d s , a fa ct or w h i c h was a l a r m i n g the n o n - J e w i s h po pu la ti on . He had d i s c o v e r e d that the A r a b s we re hi g h l y c o n f u s e d as to the future of their c o u n t r y , s ince m a n y Zi o n i s t s we re ta lk in g o p e n l y of creating a Jewish st at e. Yet d e s p i t e his f o r e b o d i n g s , he still c o n c l u d e d : " I feel p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n a r is es r a t h e r from m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g than p e r m a n e n t i n c o m p a t i ­ b i l i t y of v i e w . "84 C l a y t o n st r u c k a less s a n g u i n e note in his d i s ­ p a t c h e s d u r i n g the final two m o n t h s of the y e a r . He f o un d that the A n g l o - F r e n c h Declaration (i ssued on N o v e m b e r 8) had ex c i t e d the ho pe s of the A r a b s for i n d e p e n d e n c e , an a s p i r a t i o n w h i c h he knew wo ul d not be re a l i z e d ; he a l s o judged that the Z i o n i s t s we re g o in g

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well beyo nd the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n in the i r plan s for the i m me di at e f u t u r e . He s u g g e s t e d that W e i z m a n n and his f o l l o w e r s sh ou ld issue a s t a t e m e n t to the e f f e c t th at P a l e s t i n e wo u l d c o n t i n u e unde r fore ign t u t e l a g e u n t i l bo th Je ws and A r a b s a g re ed to i n d e p e n d e n c e , ho p ing that such a r e ma rk woul d quie t Ar ab f e a r s . I n e a r l y Dece mb er , C l a y t o n d i s p a t c h e d a n u mb er of r e p o r t s f rom se ve ra l P a l e s t i n e m i l i t a r y o f f i c i a l s , wh o w a r n e d of the se r i o u s s i t u a t i o n wh ic h was now d e v e l o p i n g . In his c o v e r i n g l e t t e r , C l a y t o n v e n t u r e d to s u gg es t that Z ionist c o m p l a i n t s about the slow pace of g r o w t h of the N a t i o n a l Ho m e we r e ha vi ng a n e g a t i v e e f f e c t on p e a c e f u l r e l a t i o n s in the c o u n t r y . He added that "it is p o s ­ sible, t h o u g h not p r o b a b l e , that ant i - Je wi sh a c t i o n m i g h t be in it ia te d by the A r a b s in o r d e r to show an o p p o s i t i o n to Z i o n i s m w h i c h they do not feel able to e x p r e s s by any o t h e r m e a n s ," and he c o n c l u d e d that " it is e s s e n t i a l that the Zi o n i s t s shou ld avoid f u r t h e r arousing a p p r e h e n s i o n by in d i s c r e e t d e c l a r a t i o n s of pol icy and e x a g g e r a t e d demands. Th e p a p e r s e n c l o s e d in this d i s p a t c h incl ud ed r e ­ p o r t s from C o l o n e l S t o r r s and M a j r o - G e n e r a l A .W. Money, the Ch ie f A d m i n i s t r a t o r of P a l e s t i n e . M o n e y 's le t t e r w a r n e d that p r e f e r e n t i a l t r e a t m e n t for the Z i o n i s t s m i g h t pr ov e d i s a s t r o u s for pe ac e in the c o u n t r y , and he s u g g e s t e d that the G o v e r n m e n t should issue a d e f i n i t e s t a t e m e n t to r e li ev e the fears of the A r ab i n h a b i t a n t s . S t o r r s wr o t e m u c h the same and he noted that the Z i o n ­ ist p r o b l e m was c a u s i n g M u s l i m s and C h r i s t i a n s , t r ad it ional a n t a g o n i s t s , to unite in o p p o s i t i o n , a m o s t unusual circumstance.^ Thus, the general opinion of those in P a l e s t i n e was not opt imist ic as the y e a r 1918 d r e w to a close. Yet these r e p o r t s a p p a r e n t l y had li ttle impact in London, for r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n the Z i o n i s t s and the G o v e r n m e n t c o n t i n u e d on the same c o u r s e . In No v e m b e r , W e i zmann and his c o l l e a g u e s s u b m i t t e d their p r o p o s a l s for P a l e s t i n e to the F o r e i g n Of fi ce , a s ki ng that B r i ­ t a in sh ould take the m a n d a t e , that the e v e n t u a l o b j e c t s h o u l d be a J e w i s h C o m m o n w e a l t h , and that b o u n d a r i e s , as yet n e bu lo us , shou ld be c a r e f u l l y d e l i n e a t e d .8 ' T h e te rm "J e w i s h C o m m o n w e a l t h " was not a c c e p t a b l e to the Fore ign Of fi ce , and a few d a ys l a t e r , B a l f o u r c a l ­ led in We izmann for an interview. The Fore ign S e c r e ­ ta r y asked hi m if such a form of g o v e r n m e n t would be c o m p a t i b 1e wi t h the g u a r a n t e e s in the D e c l a r a t i o n for the n o n - J e w i s h po pu la ti on . We izmann re p l i e d that a l ­ t h o u g h the p r e d o m i n a n t c u lt ur e in the U n it ed K i n g d o m

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was Br it is h, n o n - B r i t o n s were not su b j e c t to d i s c r i m i ­ n a t i o n and w e re free to d e v e l o p their own c o m m u n i t i e s . L i k e w i s e , he a d d e d , "in a J e w i s h C o m m o n w e a l t h , there w o u l d be m a n y n o n - J e w i s h c i t i z e n s wh o would en jo y all the ri gh ts and p r i v i l e g e s of c i t i z e n s h i p , but the p r e ­ p o n d e r a n t i n fl ue nc e wo ul d be J e w i s h ." B a lf ou r, appar­ e n t l y eas ily p e r s u a d e d , then a g re ed that A r a b - J e w i s h relations wo ul d probably not be a se ri ou s pro­

blem. A few days l a t e r , a n o t h e r interv iew took p l a c e , th is time b e t w e e n W e i z m a n n and Em ir Feisal. The latter ha d come to Eu r o p e to r e p r e s e n t his f a th er at the V e r ­ s a i l l e s C o n f e r e n c e , a n d he was v i s i t i n g va r i o u s E u r o ­ p e a n c a p i t a l s in the interim. He me t We izmann on D e c ­ e m b e r 11 in L o n d o n , and they talked o v er their respect ive p r o b l e m s . The Zi on is t le ad er e x p l a i n e d that he e x p e c t e d the A l l i e s to r e c o g n i z e the "n a t i o n a l and h i s ­ to ri c r i gh ts of Je ws to P a l e s t i n e " and that he w a nt ed B r i t a i n as the m a n d a t o r y p o w e r . Fe is al repl ie d that he fe lt that there was no re as on for f r i c t i o n b e t w e e n the two p e o p l e s , and "he as su re d us on his word of ho no r th at he w o u l d do e v e r y t h i n g to s u p p o r t J e w i s h d e m a n d s , and wo ul d d e c l a r e at the Pe a c e C o n f e r e n c e that Zi on is m and the A r a b m o v e m e n t we re fe l l o w m o v e m e n t s , and that c o m p l e t e h a r m o n y p r e v a i l e d b e t w e e n t h e m . "90 In yet a n o t h e r i n t e r v i e w , We izmann and Samuel t a l k e d w i t h Lloyd G e o r g e w h o , a c c o r d i n g to the Zi on is t C h a i r m a n , ga ve th em st ro ng e n c o u r a g e m e n t . He talked w i t h them for an hour and a half, s u p p o r t i n g their v iews on the e x t e n t of J e w i s h a c t i v i t i e s in P a l e s t i n e an d the n e c e s s i t y to re j e c t m a j o r i t y rule in the c o u n ­ tr y . We izmann was e x t r e m e l y p l e a s e d wi th the r e ­ sults . T h u s , the y e a r 1918 e n de d w i t h a m i x e d reord in P a l e s t i n i a n a f f a i r s . The two m a j o r issues had been the r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n the A r a b s and the Z i o n i s t s , and the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the s u p e r v i s i n g p o w e r in the c o u n t r y . W i t h re ga rd to the l a t t e r , B r i t a i n - - a f t e r in it i a l l y c o n s i d e r i n g the idea of as ki ng A m e r i c a to take the m a n ­ d a t e - h a d dec ided that her be st in t e r e s t s would be s e r v e d by h a n d l i n g it h e r s e l f . A p p a r e n t l y , those in­ t e r e s t s we re the s t r a t e g i c p o s i t i o n of the c o u n t r y near the Suez Ca na l and the value of p r e v e n t i n g the F r en ch f ro m o b t a i n i n g too large a share of the M i d d l e E a s t . A l s o , the p s y c h o l o g ical value of P a l e s t i n e to C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n m e a n t that the na t i o n w h i c h ruled her w o ul d 56

ga i n a c e r t a i n p r e s t i g e , wh i l e the G o v e r n m e n t felt c o m ­ m i t t e d to m a ke some e f f o r t to wa rd f u l f i l l i n g the B a l ­ fo ur D e c l a r a t i o n . For these m a n y r e a s o n s , the E a s t e r n C o m m i t t e e had dec ided by D e c e m b e r that the G o v e r n m e n t s h o u l d a t t e m p t to take the m a n d a t e for P a l e s t i n e , and Ll oy d G e o r g e had al r e a d y a t t a i n e d C l e m e n c e a u 's c o n s e n t for that very t h i n g . T h u s , the d e c i s i v e steps w e r e ta k e n in the c r u c u a l d e c i s i o n to s e cu re Br itish c o n ­ trol. The ye ar al so had been vital in the d e v e l o p m e n t of A r a b - J e w i s h r e l a t i o n s . T h es e r e l a t i o n s we nt on at two l e v e l s but u n f o r t u n a t e l y , the c u r r e n t s ran in o p p o s i t e d irections. Zion is t l e ad er s d e v e l o p e d go od c o n t a c t s w i t h their A r ab c o u n t e r p a r t s , and l e ad er s d e v e l o p e d g o o d c o n t a c t s w i t h th ei r A r a b c o u n t e r p a r t s , and t h e y w o n the g o o d w i l l of the M i dd le E a s t - - E m i r Feisal. In his two m e e t i n g s w i th We i z m a n n , Fe is al had been q u i t e f r i e n d l y , and w h i l e he had m a d e no d e f i n i t e c o m m i t ­ m e n t s , he had se em ed a m e n a b l e to J e w i s h i m m i g r a t i o n . In an i n t e r v e i w at the end of the y e a r he had s t a t e d : "A r a b s are not jeal ou s of the Zi on is t J e w s , and intend to gi ve them fair p l a y , an the Zi on is t Jews have a s s u r ­ ed the N a t i o n a l i s t Ar a b s of th ei r i n te nt io n to see that th ey too ha ve fair play, in their respective a r e a s . " ^2 But on the level of e v e r y d a y c o n t a c t w i t h i n P a l e s ­ tine, the p i c t u r e was not the s a m e . Far too m a n y Z i o n ­ ists were un de r the i m p r e s s i o n that P a l e s t i n e was to be h a n d e d ov e r to them, and that the A r a b s wo u l d e i t h e r d i s ap pe ar or b e c o m e s e c o n d - c l a s s c i t i z e n s . T h e i r r h e t ­ o r i c r e g a r d i n g the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a J e w i s h st a t e a l a r m e d m a n y of the A r a b s , wh o n a t u r a l l y had no d e s i r e to see t h e m s e l v e s s u b j u g a t e d again. Thus arose the A r a b a n t i p a t h y for the Z i o n is ts w h i c h was d e s c r i b e d in m a n y of G e n e r a l C l a y t o n 1s d i s p a t c h e s , and w h i c h e v e n W e i z m a n n had noted in some of his l e t t e r s . THe o r i g i n s of this a n t a g o n i s m are the s u b j e c t of so me di s p u t e . S i r Mark S y k e s , and m o s t of the m i l i t a r y o f f i c i a l s in P a l e s t i n e , b l a m e d the Z i o n is ts be c a u s e of th ei r a g g r e s s iveness in pushing their program too q u i c k l y .^ B u t the Z i o n i s t s , on the o t h e r h a n d , p l a c e d the b l a m e in two q u a r t e r s : the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i t s l e f , for f a i 1ing to e n f o r c e the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n ; and the e f f e n d i c lass of the na t i v e p o p u la ti on . In an a r g u m e n t to be o f t e n r e p e a t e d in the next t w en ty y e a r s , O r m s b y - G o r e c o m p l a i n e d that these up pe r cl as s l e a d e r s , wh o had b e e n a l l o w e d to g o v e r n the c o u n t r y un de r the T u r k s , fe ar ed th at the Z i o n i s t s would r e pl ac e them at the top of the

57

s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e and t h e r e f o r e t h e m a s s e s to r e v o l t .^5

we re

trying

to

ar ou se

T h e r e is a c e r t a i n am o u n t of tr ut h to both of these a r g u me nt s. We wi ll d i s c u s s the c o n d u c t of the M i 1 itary A d m i n i s t r a t i o n w h en we deal w i t h the c o mp le t ion of its t e n u r e , but s u f f i c e it to say now that t h e r e we re some ca se s of a n t i - Z i o n i s t b i a s , and the v e r y fact that the Ar my e n f o r c e d the st atus quo was a g r e a t h i n d r a n c e to the Z i o n i s t s . The second po in t b e a r s a m o r e d e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t i o n at this time. The e x t e n t of a n t i - Z i o n i s t fe el in g among the P a l e s t i n i a n p o p u l a c e was a m a t t e r of g r e a t d i s p u t e . Jews c l ai me d t h a t it was 1 imited to the ef f end i ; it was th ei r high d e g r e e of v i s i b i l i t y that m a d e such s e n t i m e n t a p pe ar m o r e w i d e s p r e a d than it a c t u a l l y w a s . But m o s t B r i t i s h a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , b o th d u r i n g O E T A and later un de r Sir He rbert S a m u e l , r e j e c t e d this claim, e x p r e s s i n g the b e l i e f that a n t i - Z i o n i s m was qu i t e c o m m o n am on g all s e c t i o n s of the p e o p l e . An a c c u r a t e e v a l u a t i o n p r o ­ b a b l y falls s o m e w h e r e in b e t w e e n these two v i e w p o i n t s . The J e w i s h c l a i m that the m a s s e s of the fe l l a h i n w e r e not a n t i - Z i o n i s t is m o r e than li k e l y t r u e , at l e a s t at this e a r l y d a t e . But the r e a s o n is that the f e l l a h i n w e re l a r g e l y a p o l i t i c a l and took little i n t e r ­ e s t in m a t t e r s such as t h e s e . The c i t i e s and towns w e r e the c e n t e r s of A r a b pol i t i c s , e v en th ou gh less t h a n o n e - t h i r d of the P a l e s t i n e p o p u l a c e lived t h e r e . T h e r e f o r e , in judg in g A r a b s e n t i m e n t it was ar ea s such as Haifa, J a f f a , Na b l u s and J e r u s a l e m w h i c h had to be cons idered. In such cities, the ef f end i had gr e a t i n f l u e n c e ov er p o l i t i c a l o p i n i o n , e m a n a t i n g fr om their p o s i t i o n s in the ur ba n social s t r u c t u r e . And the eff end i as a wh o l e were s t r o n g l y a n t i - Z i o n i s t , for se v ­ eral r e as on s. First, they were the o n ly gr o u p in the c o u n t r y w h i c h had any c o n t a c t w i t h W e s t e r n ideas and w i t h the e m b r y o n i c A r a b n a t i o n a l i s t m o v e m e n t . Thus, t h e y se ns ed w h a t the Zi on is t m o v e m e n t m e a n t to their ow n nationalist as p i r a t i o n s . S e c o n d , they p e r c e i v e d th e impact that Zi on is t i m m i g r a t i o n wo ul d have on them as a social c l a s s . Un d e r the T u r k s , the ef fe nd i were th e u n c h a l l e n g e d lead er s of P a l e s t i n i a n soc i e t y , but th e Z i o n i s t s , b o t h t h ro ug h their d i l i g e n c e and ability, an d by th e i r pl an s for the c o u n t r y , m i g h t e f f e c t such c h a n g e s so as to t h r e a t e n this c o m f o r t a b l e pos i t i o n . I n d e e d , m a n y Zi o n i s t s ho pe d to im pr ov e the lot of the f e l l a h i n and th er eb y win them ov er to their c a u s e ; su ch a s t ep co ul d only be a c c o m p l i s h e d at the e x p e n s e of the 58

ef fend i , who ow n e d m u c h of P a l e s t i n e 1s a g r i c u l t u r a l 1 a n d . T h u s , n a t i o n a l ism and the inst in ct for s e l f - p r e ­ s e r v a t i o n c o m b i n e d to m a k e the ef f e n d i the le ad er s of the a n t i - Z i o n i s t m o v e m e n t . Such a p r o n o u n c e m e n t sh ou ld h a r d l y be cause for s u r p r i s e , since in this c e n t u r y all nationalist movements in n o n - W e s t e r n co un tr ies h a v e b e e n led by m e m b e r s of the e d u c a t e d c l a s s e s . Be that as it m a y , a n t i - Z i o n i s m q u i c k l y spread to the Ar ab m i d d l e and w o r k i n g cl a s s e s in the citi es and towns. This r e s u l t was due b o th to the p r o p a g a n d a of the ef f end i and to the impact of Zi on is t i m m i g r a t i o n u p o n the ur ba n p o pu la ti on . Jewish immigrants competed w i t h A r a b s in all types of o c c u p a t i o n s , from the p r o ­ f e s s i o n s to unski lied labor. This c o m p e t i t i o n wa s n a t u r a l l y i r r i t a t i n g , e s p e c i a l l y for the u n e m p l o y e d . E x a c e r b a t i n g the s i t u a t i o n was the p o l i c y of m a n y J e w ish e m p l o y e r s to hire only th ei r c o m p a t r i o t s for w o r k . T h e m o t i v e b e h i n d such a p o l i c y was o f t e n l a u d a t o r y , in th at Je ws did not wa nt the A r a b s to be c o m e the m a n u a l l a b o r e r s in a J e w i s h society, but instead w a nt ed J e w s to p e r f o r m e v en the m o s t m e n i a l t a s k s . But to the A r a b s , such a p r a c t i c e a p p e a r e d d i s c r i m i n a t o r y , and it nu ll if ied one p o t e n Zion is t a r g u m e n t . Z i on is ts w e r e t r yi ng to c o n v i n c e the Ar a b s that J e w i s h m o n e y and i n g e n u i t y wo ul d ma k e the c o u n t r y p r o s p e r o u s , but this d i s c r i m i n a t i o n in hiri ng n a t u r a l l y m a d e the Ar ab w o r k ­ e r s b e l i e v e that only the Je w s would b e n e f i t from this prosperity. Th is e c o n o m i c a n t a g o n i s m s u p p l e m e n t e d the p o l i t i c a l feel in g w h i c h was g e n e r a t e d by the b o a s t f u l ­ ne ss of m a n y Zi on i s t s in urban a r e a s . T h u s , the Z i on is t cl a i m that the m a j o r i t y of the p o p u l a c e was not a g a i n s t t h em was p r o b a b l y t r u e ; b u t the mo s t im p o r t a n t m i n o r i t y , w h i c h was p o l i t i c a l l y ac tive, was d e f i n i t e l y an t i - Z i o n i s t . T h er ef or e, B r i ­ ti sh o f f i c i a l s we re c o r r e c t in the i r c o n c l u s i o n that s e n t i m e n t a g a i n s t the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n was w i d e ­ sp r e a d , among those wh o m a t t e r e d p o l i t i c a l l y . The Z i o n i s t intent was to m a r s h a l the m a s s e s of the fe l l a hi n to their side, b a s i n g their appeal on the im pr ov ed s t a n d a r d of li ving that their p r e s e n c e wo ul d en g e n d e r . A n d sinc e the f e l l a h i n had n e i t h e r strong n a t i o n a l i s t feelings against Z i on is m nor p o w e r f u l class hatred a g a i n s t the e f f e n d i , the p o s s i b i l i t y mi g h t have e x i s t ­ ed . But it is h i g h l y u n l i k e l y , since o v er the last h u n d r e d ye ar s na t i o n a l ism has pr o v e n to be a m u c h s t r o n g e r ra ll y i n g po in t for the m a s s e s than so ci al is m, b o t h in the W e s t and in the E a s t . T h u s , the Z i o n i s t ho pe of w i n n i n g ov er the P a l e s t i n e A r a b s was p r o b a b l y

59

d o o m e d to f a i l u r e . A n t i - Z i o n i s t s e n t i m e n t had a l re ad y r e a c h e d a t r o u b l e s o m e level at this ea rl y d a t e , and its r i s i n g tide was not to be r e v e r s e d .

FOOTNOTES Th e Ti m e s , Nov. 8, 1917, p. 8. The T i m e s , Nov. 19, 1917, p . 8. Th e T i m e s , N o v . 21, 1917, p . 9

1. 3.

10.

4. lo

ro o a\ m

11.

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20

.

21 . 22. 23. 24.

and

Dec.

17,

p.

Hague C o n f e r e n c e of 1 9 0 7 — R e g u l a t i o n s R e s p e c t i n g the Laws and C u s t o m s of Wa r on Land (Articles 43-46). Th e T i m e s , Feb. 21, 1918, p. 6. The T i m e s , Feb. 23, 1918, p. 6. The T i m e s , Sept. 23, 1918, p. 8. The T i m e s , Oct. 28, 1918, p. 6. Th e T i m e s , N o v . 1, 1918, p . 8. :z, M iddle E a s t , Te xt of H o g a r t h M e s s a g e in Hure II, p. 111. e.g., Lloyd G e o r g e , Pe ac e Treatj , H r p. 11 42. H o g a r t h to Fore ign Office, Jai 15, 1918, F.O. 371/675/25577. and 22, 1918 Wingate to Fore ign Office, J 1918, F.O. Fore ign O f f i c e to W i n g a t e , Fe 4f 371/3380/146. 1918, F.O. Fo r e i g n Of f ice to W i n g a t e , Jui Hr 371/146/117108. F.O 3 7 1/ 14 6/ W i n g a t e to B a l f o u r , June 25, 1918, F.O. 126/861. Text in H u r e w i t z , Mi d d l e E a s t , I I , PPp p . 111-2. araion, Oc tober N e g o t i a t i o n s on A n g l o - F r e n c h D 1918, F.O. 3 7 1 / 33 81 /1 46 . 1918, F.O. Fore ign O f f i c e to C l a y t o n , De 4, 371/3385/457. W i n g a t e to Balfour, June 25, 1918, F.O. 3 7 1 / 14 6/ 123863. Im pe ri al W a r C a b i n e t M e e t i n g , Ju ne 11, 1918, C A B . 23/43/58. M e m o r a n d u m by S y k e s , Ju ly 3, 1918, F.O. 3 7 1 / 14 6/ 117108. M e m o r a n d u m by S y k e s , Ju ly 6, 1918, C A B . 27/2 4/21 (A p p ) . Ea s t e r n C o m m i t t e e Meeting, Ju ly 18, 1918, C A B . 2 7 /2 4/ 21 (4). Impe ri al Wa r C a b i n e t M e e t i n g , A u g . 13, 1918, C A B . 2 3 / 4 3 / 3 0 and CAB. 23/4 3/ IW C3 0. 60

25.

Impe ri al W a r C a b i n e t 23/43/32

26, 27,

28 . 29. 30. 31. 32. 33.

34. 35.

and

CAB .

M e e t i n g , A u g . 15,

1918,

CAB.

23/43/IWC32.

R o s k i 11, H a n k e y , I, p . 6 09 (d i a r y - - O c t . 6, 1918 3'.... 71/747/ M e m o r a n d u m by S y k e s , A u g . 3, 1918, F . O 113873. Minutes of Anglo-French C o n f e r e n c e , Sept. 30, 1918, CAB. 2 7 / 2 4 / 3 4 (App. A). War C a b i n e t M e e t i n g , Oct. 3, 1918, C A B . 23/8/4 82. R o s k i 11, H a n k e y , I , p . 6 09 (d i a r y — Oct. 6, 1918). Lloyd G e o r g e , Peac e T r e a t i e s , I I , p . 1038. R o s k i 11, H a n k e y , 1 1 , p p . 28-9 . see my a r t i c l e " A n g l o - F r e n c h N e g o t i a t i o n s over the B o u n d a r i e s of P a l e s t i n e , 19 19-1920", Jo u r n a l of v o l . X I , no. 2 ( W i n t e r , 1982), Palestine Studies pp. 100-12. 1918 , CAB. Meeting, Dec. 5 1 E a s t e r n Committee 2 7/2 4/41 ( A n n e x ). 1918 , CAB. M e e t i n g , D e c . 16, E a s t e r n Comm it te e 27/24/43.

36. 37. 38. 39.

40. 41. 42. 43.

44.

46 . 4 7. 48. 49. 50 . 51. 52.

Lloyd G e o r g e , Peac e T r e a t i e s , I I , p . 1155. C l a y t o n to S y k e s , N o v . 28, 1917, F.O. 371/86526/ 227658. C l a y t o n to Sy k e s , D e c . 1 5 , 1917, S l e d m e r e P a p e r s . Sykes to P i c o t , D e c . 12, 1917, F.O. 371/86526/ 235780. M e m o r a n d u m by S y k e s , J a n . 19, 1918, F.O. 37 11612. C l a y t o n to Fore ign Of f i c e , D e c . 30, 1917, F. 37 1/ 2 1 4 3 5 a nd J a n . 14, 1918, F.O. 3 7 1 / 4 0 9 7 / 9 3 3 2. C l a y t o n to S y k e s , Feb. 4, 19]L8 , F .O. 371/3398. F o re ig n Of jE:ice to Win g a t e , J a n . 24, 1918, F.< 37 1/ 2 0 7 0 . A l l e n b y to W a r Office,r Mar. 2, 1917, F.O. 37 20 70 /7 71 41 . 371/ W e izmann to Graham, D e c . 17 , 1917 , F.O. 84173/239129. C l a y t o n to Fore ign Of f i c e , D e c . 14 , 1917, F.O. 371/84173/237384. 1917, F.O. W i n g a t e to Fore ign Office, D e c . 1, 371/84173/239946. 371/ We izmann to S y k e s , Jan. 16, 1918, F.O. 11 05 3 / 8 5 1 6 9 . F.O. JJan. a n . 19, 1918, E a s t e r n C o m m i t t e e Meeting, 371/7664/19932. e.g . , C l a y t o n to F o re ig n Of 1 i c e , Feb. 25, Mar • 5, Mar. 9, 1918, F.O. 371/4079. 371/ W e i z m a n n to B r an de is , Jan. 14, 1918, F.O. 11 05 3 / 2 1 9 3 1 . C l a y t o n to Foreign Office, Mar Mar.. 14, 14, 1918, F.O. 371/4079/48032. '

61

53. 54. 55. 56. 57.

58. 59.

61. 62. 63. 64.

65.

66. 67.

68

.

69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74„ 75.

Israel S i e f f , M e m o i r s (London, 1970), pp. 98-9. I b i d ., pp. 130-1. C l a y t o n to F o r e i g n Of fi ce , Mar. 14, 1918, F.O. 371/3391. Jon Kimche, P a l e s t i n e or Is ra el (London, 1973), p. 133. O r m s b y - G o r e to F o r e i g n Office, Apr. 7, 1918, F.O. 3 7 1 / 1 1 0 5 3 / 8 3 6 9 1 and R e p o r t by W e i z ma nn , Mar. 27, 1918, C e n t r a l Zi on is t A r ch iv es , C Z A L4/290. The C e n t r a l Zi o n i s t A r c h i v e s are lo ca te d in J e r u s a ­ lem. Z i on is t C o m m i s s i o n Meeting, Mar. 25, 1918, CZ A L4/293. C l a y t o n to Sykes, Apr. 4, 1918, F.O. 37 1 / 4 0 7 9 / 76678. 60. The a c c o u n t of this m e e t i n g is d e r i v ­ ed f r o m O r m s b y - G o r e to F o r e i g n Office, Apr. 19, 1918, F.O. 3 7 1 / 1 1 0 5 3 / 2 1 9 3 1 . Ibid. C l a y t o n to F o r e i g n Office, Apr. 18, 1918, F.O. 371/11053/85908. C o r n w a l l i s to F o re ig n Office, Apr. 18, 1918, F.O. 371/11053/11053. W e i z m a n n to V e r a W e iz ma nn , Mar. 24, 1918; W e i z m a n n to O r m s b y - G o r e , Apr. 7, 1918; W e i z m a n n to So kolow, Apr. 19, 1918 in M e y e r W e i s g a l ed. , The L e t t e r s and P a p e r s of C h a i m W e i z m a n n , Se r i e s A, vol. VIII (New B r u n s w i c k , N.J. , 1977), pp. 106-9; 121-2; 148-50. W e i z m a n n to F o r e i g n Office, Apr. 16, 1918, F.O. 371/27647/92392. St or rs to A l le nb y, Apr. 22, 1918, F.O. 371/2 7 64 7/ 92 39 2. W e iz ma nn , T r i a l and H o r a c e Samuel, U n h o l y M e m o r i e s of the H o l y Land (London, 1930), passim. Ro na ld Storrs, The M e m o i r s of Si r Ro n a l d S t o r r s (New York, 1937), pp. 316-7,, 408. W e i z m a n n to Br an de is , Aj 371/ 25, 1918, F.O. 11 05 3 / 9 8 4 6 9 . Clayton to Fo r e i g n Off May 1, 1918, F.O. 371/11053/78018. C l a y t o n to F o r e i g n Off: , May 27, 1918, F.O. 371/747/110425. 1918, Clayton to F o r e i g n Off i, A p r - M a y F.O. 371/4079. 1918, 371/ W e i z m a n n to Ba lf ou r, May 30, F.O. 11 0 5 3 / 1 2 5 4 7 5 . W e i z m a n n to V e r a W e i z m a n Ma y 20, 1918, We i s g a l , J±££W, Viii, pp. 189-92. B a l f o u r to We iz m a n n , Ju l y 26, 1918, F.O. 371/ H053/125475.

62

76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95.

We iz ma nn to V e r a We i z m a n n , Ma y 20, 1918, Wei s g a l , LPCW, VIII, pp. 189-92. C l a y t o n to F o r e i g n Office, r June 16, 1918, F.O. 371/11053/130342. We i z m a n n , T r i a l , p . 2 32. C l a y t o n to Fore ign Of f i c e ,, June 12, 1918, F.O. 371/27647/105824. Ibid. We i z m a n n , T r i a l , p p . 236-7. 4, 1918, Israel Stae Storrs to C l a y t o n , Nov. St at e Israel Archives, ISA 2/140/2 8 B . Th e A r c h i v e s are lo ca te d in J e r u sa le m. 1918, F.O. N o v . 15, Sy ke s to F o r e i g n Office, 37 1/ 2 1 3 4 0 3 . Sy ke s to O r m s b y - G o r e , Nov. 17, 1918, F.O. 371/ 27647/190447. C l a y t o n to F o r e i g n O f f i c e , N o v - D e c . 1918, F.O. 37 1/747. 1918, F.O. C l a y t o n to F o r e i g n O f f i c e , Dec. 6, 37 1/ 31 24 03 . Ibid., enclosures. Z i on is t Proposals for N a t i o n a l H o m e , Nov. 20, 1918, F.O. 3 7 1 / 7 4 7 / 1 9 1 8 2 8 . B a l f o u r ' s I n t e r v i e w w i t h W e i z m a n n , D e c . 4, 1918, F.O. 3 7 1 / 7 4 7 / 2 0 3 0 9 1 . We i z m a n n 's R e c o r d of I n t e r v i e w w i t h Feisal, D e c . 11, 1918, F.O. 3 7 1 / 2 0 7 3 7 2 / 2 0 7 4 7 2 . We izmann to A a r o n A a r o n s o h n , D e c . 22, 1918, We isg a l , L P C W , VIII, pp. 78-80. The T i m e s , D e c . 31, 1918, p . 6. C l a y t o n to F o r e i g n O f f i c e , Dec. 6, 1918 and S y k e s to F o r e i g n Of f i c e , Nov. 15, 1918, F.O. 371/ 213403. W e i z m a n , T r i a l , p . 217. R e p o r t on P a l e s t i n e by O r m s b y - G o r e , A u g . 22, 1918, F.O. 3 7 1 / 1 1 0 5 3 / 1 5 2 2 6 6 .

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64

C h a p t e r III The Pe riod of P o s t - W a r D e c i s i o n s (Jan.

1 9 1 9 - J u n e 1920)

T h i s period, from the o p e n i n g of the V e r s a i l l e s C o n f e r e n c e to the end of the M i l i t a r y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , s a w d e c i s i v e st ep s take n to shape P a l e s t i n e 1s f u t u r e . It was a time of c o u n t i n u o u s Al li ed c o n f e r e n c e s and the P a l e s t i n e q u e s t i o n , first ta ke n up at V e r s a i l l e s , was not f i na ll y d e c i d e d until A p r i l 1920 at the San R e m o C o n f e r e n c e , wh e n B r i t a i n was ch o s e n as the m a n d a t o r y power. In the inter i m , the s i t u a t i o n with in P a l e s t i n e c o n t i n u e d to w o r s e n until it e x p l o d e d , s h o r t l y b e fo re San Remo, in an ant i-Z ionist ri ot wh i c h took a nu mber of 1 i v e s . Th is r iot br ou gh t a n e w u r g e n c y to the p r o b l e m and s o on a f t e r w a r d , h a v i n g be en as su re d of the m a n d a t e , Br itain r e p l a c e d the M i l i t a r y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w h i c h had b e e n g o v e r n i n g since D e c e m b e r 1917, w i th c l v i l i a n rule. In the first m o n t h s of 1919, all eyes were fo cu se d on V e r s a i l l e s , wh er e the he ad s of the v i c t o r i o u s g o v ­ e r n m e n t s we r e m e e t i n g to d r a w up a pe ac e tr e a t y and r e o r g a n i z e the w a r - t o r n w o r l d . B o th Ar ab s and Z io nists e x p e c t e d to be c a ll ed to p r e s e n t their c a s e s , since it a p p e a r e d that the A l l i e s wo ul d ha v e the power to do w h a t they w i s h e d in the terr itor ies of the d e f e a t e d O t t o m a n E m p i r e . Since the m e e t i n g b e t w e e n W e i z m a n n and F e i s a l in D e c e m b e r , their r e p r e s e n t a t ives L a w r e n c e and Sieff had be e n c o n f e r r i n g for the p u r p o s e of d r a w i n g up an Ar a b - Z i o ni st a g r e e m e n t . ^ It was r e a d y in e a r l y J a n u a r y , and so the two le ad er s m e t in L o n d o n to f i n a l ­ ize i t . The d o c u m e n t a c k n o w l e d g e d the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t ion and a s s e n t e d to the i m m i g r a t i o n and s e t t l e m e n t of J e w s on the land, p r o v i d e d the r i g h t s of the f e l l a h i n w e r e s a f e g u a r d e d . 2 Fe i s a l ag reed to affix his s ignature to the a g r e e m e n t , but he added an im po rt an t c o n d i ­ tion, w h i c h he wr o t e in A r a b i c at the b o t t o m of the paper: P r o v i d e d the Ar ab s o b t a i n their i n d e ­ p e n d e n c e as d e m a n d e d in my M e m o r a n d u m d ated the 4 th of J an u a r y 1919, to the F o r e i g n O f f i c e of the G o v e r n m e n t of G r e a t Br itain, I shal l c o n c u r in the ab ov e a r t i c l e s . But if the s i i g h t e s t mo d if icat ion or d e p a r t u r e we re to be 65

made, I sh al l not then be bound by a s i n g l e wo rd of the p r e s e n t Ag r e e m e n t , w h i c h sh al l be d e e m e d void and of no a c c o u n t or va li di ty , and I shall not be a n s w e r a b l e in any wa y w h a t s o e v e r . 3 T h i s m e m o r a n d u m , wh i c h he s u b m i t t e d the f o l l o w i n g d a y to the S u p r e m e C o u n c i l of the Pe ac e C o n f er en ce , c a l l e d the i n d e p e n d e n c e of the A r a b world, ex c e p t for a f e w sp e c i a l cases. M e s o p o t a m i a and its s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a s were c o n s i d e r e d s u i t a b l e for a E u r o p e a n m a nd at e, b u t the c h a r a c t e r of the g o v e r n m e n t was to be m a i n l y Ar ab ; Syria, the Hejaz, and o t h e r A r a b i a n p e n i n s u l a r a r e a s were to be c o m p l e t e l y in de pe nd en t. In Pa le s t i n e , his m e m o st a t e d that the gr ea t m a j o r i t y of the p o p u l a ­ t i o n was Arab, but that there sh o u l d be no p r o b l e m with J e w s in the c o u n t r y . H o w e v e r , in v i e w of the c o u n t r y ’s i n t e r n a t i o n a l i m p o r t a n c e , he w r o t e : "They [the Arabs] w o u l d wish for the e f f e c t i v e s u p e r - i m p o s i t i o n of a g r e a t t r u s t e e , so long as a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e local a d m i n ­ i s t r a t i o n c o m m e n d e d itself by a c t i v e l y p r o m o t i n g the m a t e r i a l p r o s p e r i t y of the c o u n t r y . "4 T h u s , the le ad er of the A r a b D e l e g a t i o n to the P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e m a d e c o m m i t m e n t s for J e w i s h im mi gr at i o n into P a l e s t i n e and for E u r o p e a n co n t r o l over the country. H o w e v e r , the f irst of these was s t r i c t l y b a s e d on the f u l f i l l m e n t of the sc h e m e of Arab i n d e p e n ­ d e n c e as e s t a b l i s h his memo. This s c h e m e was not carr i e d o u t , m o s t n o t a b l y in Sy r i a w h er e Fe is al h i m s e l f wa s dr iven fr om D a m a s c u s in 1920 by the F r e n c h . Thus, he co ul d not be held to his a g r e e m e n t wi th W e i z m a n n . T h e a g r e e m e n t for a s u p e r v i s o r y po w e r in P a l e s t i n e was 1 i k ew is e c o n d i t i o n e d on f u l f i l l m e n t of the ot he r parts of his p r o p o s a l , w h i c h in cl ud ed an i n d e p e n d e n t Syria. T h e r e f o r e , it can not be cl a i m e d that Fe is al ag re ed to h a n d over P a l e s t i n e to B r i t a i n and to the Z i o n i s t s . Bu t this F r e n c h at t a c k in Syria, w h i c h was to d e s t r o y bas is of these a g r e e m e n t s and g r e a t l y we a k e n A r a b fa it h in the E u r o p e a n p o w e r s , was m o r e than a year in the f u t u r e , so a feel ing of gr e a t opt im ism with r e g a r d to A r a b - Z i o n i s t r e l a t i o n s r e i g n e d ea rl y in 1919. I n f a c t , w h en F e i s a l a p pe ar ed in p e r s o n b e fo re the C o u n c i l , on F e b r u a r y 6, he a n n o u n c e d that " P a l e s t i n e , in c o n s e q u e n c e of its u n i v e r s a l c h a r a c t e r , he left on on e side for the c o n s i d e r a t i o n of all pa r t i e s i n t e re st ed. "5 the ir

S e v e r a l days p r e v i o u s , the Zi o n i s t s had s u b m i t t e d own m e m o r a n d u m with the ir pl an s for P a l e s t i n e . 66

It asked the P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e to r e c o g n i z e the h i s t o r i c ti tl e of the Je w s to the c o u n t r y and the ir ri gh t to r e c o n s t i t u t e it as the ir n a t i o n a l h o m e . It \ ished sovereignty to be vested in the soon-to-be-formed L e a g u e of N a t i o n s , wi th Br itain as the m a n d a t o r y under c e r t a i n cond it i o n s . Th es e cond it ions were that the m a n d a t o r y c a r r y out a p o l i c y to e s t a b l i s h a J e w i s h N a t i o n a l Ho me and " u l t i m a t e l y re n d e r p o s s i b l e the c r e a ­ t i on of an a u t o n o m o u s C o m m o n w e a l t h " . Thus the g o v e r n ­ m e n t was to p r o m o t e J e w i s h im migrat ion and s e t t l e m e n t , a c c e p t the c o o p e r a t i o n of a Co u n c i l " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the J e w s of P a l e s t i n e and of the w o r l d ", gi ve that C o u n c i l p r i o r i t y for any p u b l i c wo rk c o n c e s s i o n s in the c o u n t r y , al l o w a r e a s o n a b l e amount of s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t , and e s t a b l i s h full f r e e d o m of re li gi on . Ot he r s t i p u l a t ions incl ud ed the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of H e b r e w as an off ici al l a n g u a g e and the r e c o g n i t i o n of the J e w i s h S a b b a t h and H o l y D a y s .6 As was u s u a l l y the case at V e r s a i l l e s , the Z i o n ­ ists we re asked to f o ll ow up the ir m e m o r a n d u m wi th a p e r s o n a l a p p e a r a n c e b e fo re the S u p r e m e council. On F e b r u a r y 23, they we re b r o u g h t be f o r e the C o u n c i l of Ten, includ ing B a l f o u r and Lord M i l n e r for Br itain. N a h u m S o k o l o w led off by s p e a k i n g of the a n ci en t ties of the J e w i s h pe o p l e to P a l e s t i n e and the gr ea t m e a n ing the c o u n t r y held for J e w s t h r o u g h o u t the w o r l d . Weizm a n n then e x p o u n d e d on the cond it ion of p r e s e n t - d a y J e w r y and the need for a so ur ce of r e j u v e n a t i o n , w h i l e s e v e r a l othe r Zi on i s t s spoke in the same v e i n . Th e n the F r en ch r e p r e s e n t a t i v e for the Zionists, Sylvain L e v i , m a d e the final speech, b e g i n n i n g with a g l o w i n g d e s c r ipt ion of new J e w i s h co lo n i e s in the c o u n t r y and o t h e r J e w i s h w o rk that had al re ad y be e n d o n e . H o w e v e r , he then s h i f t e d g r o u n d by a r gu in g that P a l e s t i n e was v e r y sm al l and a l r e a d y had a large p o pu la ti on , that m o s t J e w i s h im m i g r a n t s would be R u s s i a n (w h i c h implied th at B o l s h e v i k ideas would be i m pl an te d in the Ho l y L a n d ), and that a J e w i s h N a t i o n a l H o m e would c r ea te a q u e s t ion of dual r i g h t s for those wh o went t h e r e . Th is s t a t e m e n t took e v e r y o n e by s u r p r i s e , m o s t of all the o t h e r Z i o n i s t s , who ne ve r d r e a m e d that Le vi would utter s u c h r e m a r k s . We iz mann feared that the ir case had be en all but des t r o y e d , but he d id not wish to be gi n an a r g u m e n t in fron t of the C o u n c i l , w h i c h would ha ve a p p e a r e d e x t r e m e l y und ignif i e d . L u c k i l y , Ro b e r t Lans i n g , the A m e r ican S e c r e t a r y of S t a t e , then turn ed to W e iz ma nn and a s k e d : "What do you m e a n by a J e w i s h N a t i o n a l H o m e ? " The Z i on is t L e ad er r e p l i e d that he d id not wa n t an a u t o n o m o u s J e w i s h G o v e r n m e n t but that his 67

p e o p l e would "Build up g r a d u a l l y a n a t i o n a l i t y , and so m a k e P a l e s t i n e as J e w i s h as A m e r i c a is A m e r i c a n or E n g l a n d English. Later on, w h e n the J e w s fo rm ed the l a r g e m a j o r i t y , th ey would be ri p e to e s t a b l i s h such a G o v e r n m e n t as would answer to the st at e of the d e v e l o p ­ m e n t of the c o u n t r y and to their id eals." He then went o n to r e f u t e Le v i ' s r e m a r k s and w h e n he finished, the m e e t i n g was b r o u g h t to a c l o s e . 7 Subsequent commentary regarded this appearance b e f o r e C o u n c i l as a gr ea t s u cc es s, and the c o r r e s p o n ­ d e n t for The Ti me s was so im p r e s s e d by W e i z m a n n ' s o p t i ­ m i s m that he wr ot e that the r e c o n c i l i a t i o n of A r a b and J e w i s h inte re st s "...s h ou ld not be d i f f i c u l t task to an enlightened Government, free f r o m r a c i a l pr e j u d i c e s , w h i c h e v e r of the En te nt e P o w e r s m a y be c h o s e n as the M a n d a t o r y P o w e r . "8 But W e i z m a n n ' s wo rd s "make P a l e s ­ tine as J e w i s h as A m e r i c a is A m e r i c a n or En gl an d E n g l i s h " we re to come back to h a u n t him, for the P a l e s ­ t i ne Ar a b s th r e w th em in his face time and again when he tried to argue that his i n t e n t i o n s toward t h em were benevolent. B u t in the sh o r t term, the Z i o n i s t s had sc or ed a s u c c e s s and they f o l l ow ed it up a few da ys later when F e i s a l m e t wi th Fe li x F r a n k f u r t e r , a l e ad in g A m e r i c a n Jew, in Paris. T h e y s t ru ck up a c o r d i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , and s h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d the Emir se nt F r a n k f u r t e r a le t ­ ter w h i c h em p h a s i ze the close ances try sh a r e d by the A r a b s and the Jews. He c l ai me d full a c q u a i n t a n c e with the Z i o n i s t p r o p o s a l s and d e e p s y m p a t h y for the m o v e ­ me nt . For e x a m p l e , he w r o t e : "We will do our b e s t , in s o far as we are c o n c e r n e d , to h e l p them t h r o u g h ; we w i l l wish the J e w s a m o st h e a r t y w e l c o m e h o m e . " F u r ­ t h er , he we nt on to write that there was r o o m for both r aces in Sy r i a (as m e n t ioned a b o v e , m o s t Ar ab s cons id er ed P a l e s t i n e to be pa rt of s o u t h e r n S y r i a ), and t h at ne i t h e r could be a real su cc es s w i t h o u t the o t h e r . He c o n c l u d e d by wr it i n g : "I look f o r w a r d , and my p e o p l e with me look f o r w a r d , to a future in w h i c h we w i l l h e l p yo u and you will h e l p u s , so that the c o u n t r i e s in w h i c h we are m u t u a l l y i n t e re st ed m a y once a g a i n take the ir pl ac e in the c o m m u n i t y of c i v i l i z e d p e o p l e s of the w o r l d ."9 N e v e r again did Fe is al come so close to e n d o r s i n g the N a t i o n a l H o m e , and th is le tt er went a good deal f u r t h e r than had h is p r ev io us s t a t e m e n t s . One A r ab s c h o l a r of the We izmann-Fe isal n e g o t i a t i o n s has qu e s t ioned the a u t h e n t i c i t y of the l e t t e r , be ca us e its text wa s wr itten in E n g l i s h , a l a n g u a g e with wh i c h the Emir 68

was b a re ly c o n v e r s a n t . 10 Indeed, Co l o n e l Richard Me i n e r t z h a g e n , wh o was to r e p l a c e C l a y t o n as C h ie f P o l i t i c a l O f f i c e r later in the y e a r , a d mi tt ed that he (as a m e m b e r of the B r i t i s h D e l e g a t ion at V e r s a i l l e s ) , L a w r e n c e , We izmann and F r a n k f u r t e r had all fad a hand in d r a f t i n g the letter.H T h e r e f o r e , it is h i g h l y 1 ikely that Fe is al ag re ed to sign the letter on L a w r e n c e 's r e c o m m e n d a t i o n , a l t h o u g h such a s i t u a t i o n do es not r e l i e v e him of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . So if we c o n ­ c e de that he d id s ign the l e t t e r , wh ic h he ne ve r d e n i e d , we need to inquire as to why he d id so. The d id so. The an sw er seems o b v i o u s - - t h e same r e a s o n s w h i c h had m o t i v a t e d him p r e v i o u s l y to be s y m p a t h e t i c to this m o v e m e n t - - t h e d e s i r e to gain fr ie nd s in his q u e s t for A r a b inde pe nd en ce . Sy ri a and Iraq were the m o s t i m p o r t a n t terr itor ies wh i c h the Ar ab s w a n t e d to s e c u r e , and they t h o u g h t the Z ionists could h e l p them a c ­ c o m p l i s h th is g o a l . Also, it is d o u b t f u l if F e is al r e a l l y e x p e c t e d the Z i on is ts to be s u c c e s s f u l ? r a t h e r he i m ag in ed that P a l e s t i n e would r e v e r t to his S y r i a n K i n g d o m after a br ie f pe ri od of m a n d a t o r y r u l e . Be that as it m a y , this letter — al on g wi th the s u c c e s s f u l Z io ni st p r e s e n t a t i o n be f o r e the Peace C o n ­ f e r e n c e - - s e e m e d to ind icate that We izmann and his f o l ­ lo w e r s were m a k i n g g r e a t st r i d e s to wa rd the a c h i e v e m e n t of the ir goal. H o w e v e r , the ir s u c c e s s e s in Par is were b e i n g p a r t i a l l y n e g a t e d by less t a ct fu l c o n d u c t in P a l ­ e s t i n e , and news of this b e h a v i o r was not w e l l - r e c e i v e d in London. Th e Z ioni st s had a l re ad y s u b m i t t e d the ir p r o p o s a l s for P a l e s t i n e to H.M.G. in D e c e m b e r ; the provis ion for e v e n t u a l l y c r e a t i n g a J e w i s h C o m m o n w e a l t h had met with a p p r o v a l on ly after We izmann had p e r s o n a l l y won over B a l f o u r in an interview. But once the P e ac e C o n f e r e n c e b e g a n , the Fore ign S e c r e t a r y m o v e d to Par is and Lord C u r z o n took over m u c h of the wo rk in W h i t e h a l l . He had b e e n one of the e a r l i e s t B r i t i s h M i n i s t e r s to o b j e c t to the N a t i o n a l H o me c o n c e p t (in O c t o b e r 1917) , and his r e s e r v a t i o n s had not been r e m o v e d in the i n t e r v e n i n g y e a r . jn J a n u a r y , he w r ot e to B a l f o u r , e x p l a i n i n g that he had just s p o k e n wi th G e n e r a l Money, wh o had w a r n e d him to be ve ry ca u t i o u s wi th the Z ionist p r o ­ g r a m , especially wi th regard to a Jewish govern­ ment. 12 Balfour quickly replied that We izmann had ne v e r asked for a J e w i s h g o v e r n m e n t (a s t a t e m e n t wh ic h w o u l d be true only if m e a n t for the immed iate f u t u r e ) , and that such an idea was u n a c c e p t a b l e . He c o n c l u d e d : " I d o not th ink we sh ou ld go f u rt he r than the o r i g i n a l 69

declaration which I made to Lord R o t h s c h i l d ."14 A p p a r e n t l y , C u r z o n and the ot he r m e m b e r s of the F o r e i g n O f f i c e s t af f were unaw ar e of W e i z m a n n ' s i n t e r ­ v i e w wi th Ba lf ou r, for they c o n t i n u e d to d e b a t e the i s s u e of a J e w i s h Co mm o n w e a l t h . In late Ja n u a r y , the Z i o n i s t le ad er v i s i t e d the F o r e i g n O f f i c e and sp ok e w i t h G e o r g e K i ds to n, a m e m b e r of the D i p l o m a t i c S e r v i c e w h o had be en p o s t e d to the F o r e i g n o f f i c e in 1916; K i d s t o n c o m p l a i n e d that J e w i s h i m p a t i e n c e in P a l e s t i n e w a s c a u s i n g the M i l i t a r y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n some d i f f i ­ cu lt y. Cu r z o n wr ot e some notes on K i d s t o n ' s r e po rt of the m e e t in g; j u d g i n g by their tone, he was a p p a r e n t l y l o s i n g p a t i e n c e with the Z i o n i s t s . R e f e r r i n g to their r e q u e s t for a " C o m m o n w e a l t h " , he q u o t e d the d i c t i o n a r y d e f i n i t i o n of the te rm as be in g "a state", "a body p o l ­ itic", "an i n d e p e n d e n t co mm u n i t y " , "a r e p u b l i c a n " . He c o n c l u d e d by asking: "What then is the good of s h u t t ­ ing our eyes to the fact that th is is wh at the he was a p p a r e n t l y losing p a t i e n c e wi th the Z i o n i s t s . R e f e r r i n g to their r e q u e s t for a " C o m m o n w e a l t h " , he q u o t e d the d ict ionary def in it ion of the term as be in g "a s t a t e ", "a body po li t i c ", "an i n d e p e n d e n t c o m m u ­ ni t y " , "a r e p u b l i c ". He c o n c l u d e d by a s k i n g : "What t h e n is the good of s h u t t i n g our eyes to the fact that th is is what the Z io ni st s are a f t e r , and that the B r i ­ t i sh T r u s t e e s h i is a me re s c r e e n oe ni na wn i c n to worK for th is e n d ? " 1 T h u s it can be seen that by J a n u a r y 1919 Cu r z o n ha d be c o m e d is e n c h a n t e d wi th the Z ion ist p r o g r a m , if in de ed he had ever been a b e l i e v e r in i t . He r e m a i n e d o n e of its s t a u n c h e s t o p p o n e n t s t h r o u g h o u t this per i o d ; and s ince he b e c a m e F o r e i g n S e c r e t a r y later in the y e a r , su cc ee d ing B a l f o u r , he was in a s t r o n g p o s i t i o n to s a b o t a g e the N a t i o n a l Home. But the B a l f o u r D e c l a ­ r a t i o n r e m a i n e d the avowed p o l i c y of the G o v e r n m e n t , and so he carr ied it out l o y a l l y , th ou gh c o n t i n u a l l y ar gu ing ag a i n s t i t . He never s u c c e e d e d in c o n v i n c i n g the two key m e n , Lloyd G e o r g e and Ra lf o u r , that his p r e m o n i t i o n s were c o r r e c t ; the m o s t he was able to a c c o m p l i s h was to m o d e r a t e what he cons idered to be the Z i o n i s t s ' most extreme d e m a n d s . O t h e r s bes ide C u r z o n were worr ied about the P a l e ­ s t i n e s ituat ion h o w e v e r . K i d s t o n wrote a very pess im is tic m e m o r a n d u m in F e b r u a r y ; he e x p r e s s e d his do ub ts a b o u t the w i s d o m of a Br it ish mand ate and cl a i m e d that " J e w i s h a s p i r a t i o n s . . .are u n i i m i t e d , and the J e w will c o n t r o l his c o n t r o l l e r no only in P a l e s t i n e , but in

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ev er y q u a r t e r of the g l o b e . " H o w e v e r , he did not s u g ­ g e s t a Br it ish s u r r e n d e r of the m a n d a t e , for in that event " we shall be accused of b e in g false to our p r o m i s e s , a n d .. .the whole i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a c h i n e r y of Z ionism will be set work ing a g ai ns t us." Th es e r e ma rk s so u n d d a n g e r o u s l y si mi la r to the a n t i - s e m i t i c fabr icat ions p r i n t e d in the P r o t o c o l s of the El de rs of Z i o n , which was c i r c u l a t ing at the time. Kidston then e x p r e s s e d r e g r e t that Br itain had not e n c o u r a g e d ot he r n a t i o n s to take P a l e s t i n e , but he feared that it was too late to i n te re st them at that po i n t in t i m e . In a h a n d - w r itten c o m m e n t on this memo, Ro na ld Graham, who had by then be c o m e a P e r m a n e n t U n d e r - S e c r e t a r y , al so e x p r e s s e d r e s e r v a t ions about a Br it ish m a n d a t e , but he c o m m e n t e d , in wh at was p e rh ap s a k e y s t a t e m e n t r e g a r d ­ ing Br itish p o l i c y : "I u n d e r s t a n d that the P r im e M i n i ­ s t er is s t r o n g l y in favour of it and that H.M. Go v t are p r a t i c a l l y c o m m i t t e d to i t . "16 But ar ou nd this time ev en the Pr ime M i n i s t e r b e c a m e c o n c e r n e d , as ru m o r s of o v e r z e a l o u s Zi on is t a c t ­ iv it y and the plans for a J e w i s h C o m m o n w e a l t h r e a c h e d him. He had been p a r t i c u l a r l y upset by a letter he had r e c e i v e d from C a r d i n a l B o u r n e , the C a t h o l i c B i s h o p of Jerusalem. This le tt er accu se d the Z ion ists of boas ting th at th ey wo ul d d o m i n a t e the Holy Land under a Br it ish P r o t e c t o r a t e , and of m a k i n g d e m a n d s for g o v e r n ­ m e n t p o s i t i o n s and s p e c i a l f a v o r s . On hear ing th is n e w s , the Pr ime M i n i s t e r w r o t e : "If the Zi onists c l ai m t h at the J e ws are to have d o m i n a t i o n of the Holy Land un d e r a Br it ish P r o t e c t o r a t e , then they are c e r t a i n l y p u t t i n g the ir claims too h i g h . "17 Th e p r o b l e m w a s , h o w e v e r , that this was very s i m i ­ lar to what Lloyd G e o r g e and B a l f o u r had a p p a r e n t l y m e a n t by the De c l a r at ion. We ha ve se en that both of th em s t at ed that th ey f o r e s a w the p o s i b l e e v o l u t i o n of a J e w i s h st at e s o m e w h e r e in the f u t u r e , th ou gh not i m m e d i a t e l y . The Z ion ists were ask ing them to r e i t e r ­ ate this e x p e c t a t i o n o f f i c i a l l y by c o n s e n t i n g to a J e w ­ ish C o m m o n w e a l t h , Yet the G o v e r n m e n t d id not wish to do so, si nc e they did not want to p r ej ud ice the r e s u l t s of the Z i o n i s t e x p e r i m e n t , w h ic h m i gh t still f a i l . Bu t it was only n a t u r a l that We izmann and his s u p p o r t e r s w a n t e d to r e c e ive some a s s u r a n c e that the ir e v e n t u a l go al would be a c h i e v e d . The per iod of el ap se d time b e f o r e this C o m m o n w e a l t h was to be es tabl ished was e x t r e m e l y n e b u l o u s , and it was th e r e f o r e open to v a r y ing i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , accord ing to o n e 's po ih t of view. 71

Thus, it mu s t be said that m u c h of the p r o b l e m in P a l e ­ s t i n e in these y e a r s was a r e s u l t of the v a g u e n e s s of the B a l f o u r De cl a r a t i o n , and the fa il ur e of the G o v e r n ­ m e n t to c l a r i f y it. As a result, d i f f e r e n t p o l i ci es c o u l d be e s p o u s e d by the Z i o n i s t s , by W h i t e h a l l off icials, and by the M i l i t a r y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , all in the na m e of the D e c l ar at io n. On e of these i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s was g i v e n by Ph i l i p K e r r , the head of the Pr im e M i n i s t e r 's S e c r e t a r i a t , as he a t t e m p t e d to answer his c h ie f' s c o m p l a i n t . In doing so, he s p el le d out the d ilemma w h i c h the G o v e r n m e n t faced: We have p r o m i s e d that P a l e s t i n e sh ould be tr ea te d as the n a t i o n a l home of the J e w s and that if the Je w s m i g r a t e there in s u f f i c i e n t n u mb er s th e y will e v e n ­ t u a l l y b e co me the p r e d o m i n a n t po we r in the country. The opposition, Arab, R o m a n Ca th ol ic , e t c . , claim that the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the c o u n t r y shou ld be b a s e d on the p r i n c i p l e of s e l f - d e t e r m i n ­ a t i o n w h i c h me a n s that as the Je w s are no w only o n e - t e n t h of the p o p u l a t i o n th ey will never get a look in at a l l . W e i z m a n n does not c l a i m to do a n y t h i n g w h i c h i n t e rf er es with the r i g h t of the A r a b or the C h r i s t i a n p o p u l a t i o n , but he does say that if the B r i t i s h D e c l a r a t i o n m e a n s a n y t h i n g at all it m e a n s that the Je w s of the rest of the world t h r o u g h some kind of Zi on is t C o u n c i l . . .should h ave some r e c o g n i z e d position in the governmental m a c h i n e r y . ™ He r e of c o u r s e , was the crux of the d i l e m m a . If the Z i on is ts were to be gi ve n eq ua l t r e a t m e n t , their s m a l l nu mb er s wo ul d p r e v e n t th em from buiId ing up a National H o m e . Yet if they v/ere gi ve n sp ec ia l p r i v i ­ le ge s , the Ar a b s woul d feel that they were be in g d i s ­ c r i m i n a t e d against. B a l f o u r a p p a r e n t l y had an ins ight into this p r o b l e m at the t i m e , but his c o m m i t m e n t to Z ion ism was so s t r o n g that it s e e m i n g l y did not trouble him. Wr it ing to the Pr ime M i n i s t e r , he ad m i t t e d that the P a l e s t inians would p r o b a b l y r e j e c t Z ion ist imm igrat ion if g iven a c h o i c e , but he c o u n t e r e d that selfd e t e r m i n a t i o n d id not apply to the Holy L a n d : "Our j u s t i f i c a t i o n for our p o li cy is that we rega rd P a l e s t ine as being a b s o l u t e l y e x ce pt i o n a l ; that we c o ns id er the qu es t ion of the J e ws outs ide Pale st ine as one of 72

w o rl d i m p o r t a n c e , and that we c o n c e i v e the J e ws to have an historic cl ai m to a home in their an c i e n t 1 a n d ."19 But d e s p i t e this clear e x p l a n a t i o n of his own p o i n t of v i e w , it m u s t be noted that the F o r e i g n S e c r e ­ ta ry did not ha ve a f irm g r a s p of the nature of the p r o b l e m , as was c l e a r l y ind icated soon af ter he wr o t e the ab ov e w o r d s . In m i d - F e b r u a r y he had r e c e i v e d a d e l e g a t i o n of f o r e i g n Z i o n i s t s , who later cl ai me d that he had p r o m i s e d to " r e c o n s t i t u t e P a l e s t i n e as the J e w ­ ish N a t i o n a l H o m e ." W h e n this cl ai m was br o u g h t to his at t e n t i o n , he re pl ie d: "I f ind it very d if f icul t to see the d i s t i n c t i o n , w h ic h to yo u seems so i m p o r t a n t , b e t w e e n that ph r a s e and the ph ra se a u t h o r i z e d by the C a b i ne t, n a m e l y 'e s t a b l i s h i n q in P a l e s t i n e a n a t i o n a l ho me for the J e w i s h p e o p l e . '""20 For the ma n wh os e name is af fi xe d to the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n to m a k e su ch a s t a t e m e n t was s h o c k i n g to s ay the least. The d if f er e n c e was that the fo rm er p h r a s e impl ied that all of P a l e s t i n e would be g i v e n o v er to the Jews, wh il e the latter one m e a n t that th ey c o u l d set up a home s o m e w h e r e in the c o u n t r y . More­ o v er , the f i rs t ph r a s e had been s u b m i t t e d to the C a b i ­ ne t by the Z ionists in the su mm er of 1917, and it had b e e n d e l i b e r a t e l y c h a n g e d by the G o v e r n m e n t in the c o u r s e of ne go ti a t i o n . P e rh ap s the e x p l a n a t i o n for this lapse of i n f o r m a t i o n lies in an o f t - m e n t i o n e d c h a r a c t e r tr ai t of B a l f o u r 's--his f a il ur e to i n te re st h imself in p r a c t i c a l d a y - t o - d a y a f f a i r s . He a l wa ys s e e m e d to focus his a t t e n t i o n on s w e e p i n g issues and i d e a s ; the d e t a i l s he left to o t h e r s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , ev en he was fo rc ed to take some n o ­ tice of the b u d d i n g p r o b l e m s wh i c h Zi o n i s m was c a u s i n g , and a the end of M a r c h he ad d r e s s e d a wo rr ie d letter to H e r b e r t S a m u e l , who had b e co me mo re involved with the m o v e m e n t since le a v i n g the G o v e r n m e n t with A s q u i t h in D e c e m b e r 1916. B a l f o u r r e p o r t e d that un b i a s e d so u r c e s w e re a d v i s i n g him that the Zi on is ts were a l i e n a t i n g the r e m a i n d e r of the po pu l a t i o n , and that he feared the c o n s e q u e n c e s of such action. This was to be one of the fe w o c c a s i o n s that the Fo r e i g n S e c r e t a r y took note of the p r o b l e m s w h i c h Z i o n i s m was br i n g ing to the H o l y L a n d .21 It was no c o i n c i d e n c e G e o r g e and F o r e i g n Of f ice

that C u r z o n , B a l f o u r , Lloyd s t a f f e r s in W h i t e h a l l were 73

d i s m a y e d over the fu tu re of P a l e st in e. W i t h the V e r ­ s a i l l e s C o n f e r e n c e in prog re ss , th ey w a n t e d to m a k e a f i n a l d e c i s i o n on the c o u n t r y ' s future, and the co ur se of a c t i o n they w a n t e d to choose was c o m i n g under h e av y c r i t i c i s m from their r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s in P a le st in e. The l e t t e r from C a r d i n a l B o u r n e has a l r e a d y be en me nt i o n e d , and this m e s s a g e was r e e n f o r c e d by a w e a l t h of s u p p o r t ­ ing e v i d e n c e s u b m i t t e d by the m i l i t a r y au th or it ie s. G e n e r a l C l a y t o n ' s r e p o r t s were all e x t r e m e l y p e s s i m i s ­ ti c d u r i n g the fi r s t three m o n t h s of the year, and he ha d no h e s i t a t i o n as to p l a c i n g the blame: "...publi­ c a t i o n s in Zi o n i s t j o ur na ls and u t t e r a n c e s of leading Z i o n i s t s [speak] of a far r e a c h i n g p r o g r a m m e g r e a t l y in a d v a n c e of that f o r e s h a d o w e d by Do c t o r W e i z m a n n in his d i s c u s s i o n s wi th C h r i s t i a n s and M o s l e m s he re ." He a d d e d that W e i z m a n n ' s pr op o s a l s , t h ou gh by no m e an s w e l c o m e d , would h a ve been a c c e p t e d g r u d g i n g l y by m o s t A r a b s , but that there was g r e a t a l a r m ov er the more extreme v i e w s .22 In an ot he r l e t t e r , Clayton wa rn ed t h a t the task of g o v e r n i n g P a l e s t i n e w o ul d be very d iff icult, and that it would " . ..ta ke y e ar s of wise and i m p a r t i a l g o v e r n m e n t to al la y the fears wh i c h have been a r o u s e d ."23 T h i s v i e w was s u p p o r t e d by M a r k S y k e s , wh o had o n c e be en an e n t h u s i a s t i c s u p p o r t e r of Zionism. Ha v i n g r e c e n t l y r e t u r n e d fr om the H o ly L a n d , he wr ot e B a l f o u r t h a t the s i t u a t i o n was "far from s a t i s f a c t o r y " . He b l a m e d both the Zi o n i s t s and the m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s , w h o m he th ou gh t were not fully aware of the intent of the D e c l ar at io n. Sykes c o n c l u d e d , n e v e r t h e l e s s , by r e c o m m e n d ing that the present policy be contin­ ued . 24 A m u c h d i f f e r e n t c o n c l u s i o n was d r a w n by C a p t a i n J.N. C a m p , a M i l i t a r y I n t e l l i g e n c e O f f i c e r who had been a s s i g n e d to o b s e r v e a c o n f e r e n c e of P a l e s t i n e M u s l i m C h r i s t i a n S o c i e t i e s held in J e r u s a l e m from J a n u a r y 27 to F e b r u a r y 10, 1919. Th is c o n f e r e n c e was the f irst a t t e m p t on the part of the P a l e s t i n e Ar ab s to o r g a n i z e t h e m s e l v e s into a p o l i t i c a l b o d y , an ef fo rt w h ic h bore f r u i t two y e ar s later in the f o r m a t i o n of the P a l e s t i n e A r a b C o n g r e s s . W h i l e Ca mp found th is first c o n f e r e n c e d i s o r g a n i z e d and its r e s o l u t i o n s c o n f l i c t i n g , he a d d e d : "One t h in g is c l e a r , and that is the u n a l t e r a b l e op po s i t io n of all n o n - J e w i s h e l e m e n t s in P a l e s t i n e to Zionism. " B e yo nd t h a t , h o w e v e r , there was 1 ittle a g r e e m e n t a m o n g the d e l e g a t e s , some w i s h i n g for a B r i t i s h a d m i n ­ istration without Z i o n i s m , some wanting unification w i t h an i n d e p e n d e n t Syria, and st il l ot h e r s des ir ing

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c o m p l e t e i n d e p e n d e n c e for the country. C a m p 's s u g g e s ­ t i on was that the G o v e r n m e n t should set up an im p a r t i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and p e r m i t P a l e s t i n e to join a f e d e r a t ion of A r a b s t a t e s . 25 H o w e v e r , it sh ou ld be no te d that C a p t a i n C a m p 's p r o p o s a l d o v e t a i l e d qu it e c l o s e l y w i t h the hopes of m a n y m e m b e r s of OE TA at the time. In f a c t , M i l i t a r y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f f i c i a l s lobbied the d e ­ l e g a t e s to the C o n g r e s s to pass a r e s o l u t i o n d e m a n d i n g a semi-autonomous government under Br itish supervis ion. 26 But as C a m p had n o t e d , su ch a resolution d id not p a s s , b e c a u s e the d e l e g a t e s were ba dl y d i v i d e d as to their u l t i m a t e g o a l s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , the o p p o s i t ion to the N a t i o n a l Ho me was u n q u e s t i o n a b l y g e n u i n e , b e y o n d the c o n t r o l of the m i l i t a r y author i t i e s . F u r t h e r t e s t i m o n y to the ill feel ing in the c o u n ­ try can be found in a letter fr om a Z i on is t 1 iving in P a l e s t i n e at the t i m e , N o r m a n B e n t w i c h . A m a n wh o was l a te r to join the P a l e s t i n e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n under H e r ­ b e r t S a mu el and who sp en t a p p r o x i m a t e l y th i r t y ye ar s in the H o l y L a n d , B e n t w i c h wrote back to E n gl an d in J a n u ary 1919 th at Ar a b s and J e w s were not at all on good terms: "Those p e o p l e at home wh o talk so g l i b l y of th em lying d o w n t o g e t h e r 1 ike 1 ions and lambs are ig­ n o r a n t of the re al fe e l i n g h e r e . "27 Of c o u r s e , to those at the Pe a c e C o n f e r e n c e , P a l ­ e s t i n e was on ly one of m y r i a d p r o b l e m s wh ic h r e q u i r e d atte nt io n. The c o n s t r u c t i o n of a peace t r e a t y wi t h G e r m a n y was the c h ie f t a s k , and it was the so u r c e of a l m o s t i n s u r m o u n t a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s of o p i n i o n am on g the A l l i e s ? the c r e a t i o n of new st at es out of the old A u s ­ t r o - H u n g a r i a n E m p i r e was ne ar ly as d iff i c u l t . Even w i t h i n the A r a b w o r l d , P a l e s t i n e s e em ed less t r o u b l e ­ so me than Syria, wh e r e the i n h a b i t a n t s were u n w i l l i n g to a c c e p t F r e n c h s u z e r a i n t y , wh il e Fr an ce was t h r e a t e n ­ ing not to agree to any t e r r i t o r i a l c o m p e n s a t i o n un le ss she r e c e i v e d the S y r i a n m a n d a t e . This issue was ta ke n up at a m e e t i n g of the Big Four (Wilson, Lloyd G e o r g e , C l e m e n c e a u and O r l a n d o ) on M a r c h 20. Foreign Minister P i c h o n , s p e a k i n g for his P r e m i e r , cl a i m e d that F r an ce was e n t i t l e d to the S y r i a n m a n d a t e , but Lloyd G e o r g e r e p l i e d that the c o u n t r y had been p r o m i s e d to K i n g H u s ­ s e i n in 1915. P i c h o n c o u n t e r e d that this pr o m i s e had b e e n m a d e ’by Br itain, not by F r a n c e , but the W e l s h m a n r e t o r t e d that it had be en B r i t a i n wh i c h had c o n q u e r e d S y r i a fr om the Tu r k s in the first place. G e n e r a l Al ~ l e n b y , wh o had be en asked to attend the s e s s i o n be c a u s e h is troops we re s t a t i o n e d in Syria, was asked his o p i n ­

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ion of the S y r i a n r e a c t i o n to a F r e n c h takeover. He a n s w e r e d that F r e n c h rule wo ul d be s t r o n g l y o p p o s e d by m o s t of the i n h a bi ta nt s, im plying that an ar me d re v o l t m i g h t take place. P r e s i d e n t W i l s o n then s u g g e s t e d that a n I n t e r - A l l i e d C o m m i s s i o n be e s t a b l i s h e d to tr av el to S y r i a and d i s c o v e r the w i s h e s of the p e o p l e as to th ei r f u t u r e go v e r n m e n t . The F r e n c h agreed, but on ly if the o t h e r m a n d a t e s in f o r m e r T u r k i s h t e r r i t o r y — Pa l e s t i n e , I r a q and A r m e n i a — w e re incl ud ed in the st u d y of the Commission. Lloyd G e o r g e and W i l s o n w e re a m e n a b l e to t h i s sugg es ti on , and the P r e s i d e n t was g i v e n r e s p o n s i ­ b i l i t y for o r g a n i z i n g the C o m m is si on . ^8 Balf ou r, w h o had e x p r e s s e d his m i s g i v i n g s ab ou t the C o m m i s s i o n at the me et in g, r e p e a t e d t h em in a l e t ­ t e r to C u r z o n a few da ys later. He noted that the C o m ­ m i s s i o n e r s we re to s o l i c i t the o p i n i o n s of the e x i s t i n g p o p u l a t i o n s of the c o u n t r i e s they visited, and he e x ­ p e c t e d that the r e s u l t wo ul d be an a n t i - Z i o n i s t v e r ­ dict. But he ad d e d that H.M.G. had c o m m i t t e d t h e m ­ s e l v e s to the N a t i o n a l H o me policy, and "it ca n n o t now be a b a n d o n e d w i t h o u t g i v i n g a sh oc k to J e w i s h o p i n i o n t h r o u g h o u t the w o r l d , w h i c h c a n n o t but ha ve m o s t u n ­ h a p p y r e s u l t s ."29 pQ r some r e a s o n , this m a t t e r did n o t tr ou bl e Ll oy d G e o r g e , so pl an s w e n t on for the o r ­ g a n i z a t i o n and s e l e c t i o n of the C o m m i s s i o n . Si n c e each n a t i o n was al l o w e d two r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , W i I s o n n o m i n a t e d H e n r y King and C h a r l e s C r a n e ; the B r i ­ t i s h s e l e c t e d Si r H e n r y M c M a h o n , w h o had c a r r i e d on the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h Hussein, and D.G. H o g a r t h , who had i n t e r v i e w e d the K i ng of the He ja z in J a n u a r y 1918 and ha d w o r k e d for the A r a b Bu r e a u in Cairo. The F r e n c h , h o w e v e r , were r e l u c t a n t to c h o o s e their r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , since th ey e x p e c t e d that the C o m m i s s i o n wo ul d u n c o v e r st rong a n t i - F r e n c h s e n t i m e n t in S y r i a . Their f e a r s w e r e , in f a c t , j u s t i f i e d . Fe is al had r e t u r n e d to D a m a s c u s and he and his f o l l o w e r s had be en g r e a t l y e x ­ c i t e d by the news of the C o m m i s s i o n , e x p e c t i n g that the A l l i e s wo u l d abide by its d e c i s i o n s . As the Fr e n c h c o n t i n u e d to d e l a y d u r i n g the m o n t h of May, the Emir b e c a m e ve ry i m p a t i e n t and t h r e a t e n e d to r e vo lt if the C o m m i s s i o n was not s e n t . ^0 Th e d e c i s i o n came on May 31 at a m e e t i n g of the Big Fo ur in P a r i s . Clemenceau b e g a n by ar gu in g that it was u s e l e s s for hi m to send C o m m i s s i o n e r s w h i l e B r i t i s h tr oo ps c o n t r o l l e d S y r i a , p r e s u m a b l y b e c a u s e they wo ul d m a k e sure that a p r o - B r i t ish v e r d i c t was d e l i v e r e d . As soon as F r e n c h troops w e r e a l lo we d to re p l a c e B r i t i s h o n e s , he wo ul d send Commissioners. Lloyd George re pl ie d that Fr e n c h

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tr oo ps could not be sent at that mo me nt , be ca us e s u ch a c t i o n woul d lead to an A r a b ris ing. T h e r e f o r e , Cl em e n c e a u d e c l i n e d to send his r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s and Ll o y d G e o r g e d e c i d e d to do the s a m e , until the F r e n c h c h a n g e d the ir m i n d s . S i gn or O r l a n d o f o ll ow ed their l e a d , l e a v ­ ing on l y the A m e r i c a n s to man the Co mm is si on . Wilson d e c i d e d to send th em a n y w a y . 31 Th is dec is ion by C l e m e n c e a u and Lloy d G e o r g e m e a n t a g r e a t c h a n g e in the Co mmission. In its o r i g i n a l in­ t e n t , it was s u p p o s e d to have been a d e c i s i v e factor in the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the future of the c a p t ur ed O t t o m a n t e r r i t o r i e s . W i t h all the m a j o r p o we rs p a r t i c i p a t i n g , none of them could ve ry well r e j e c t its findings. Now, w i t h on l y A m e r i c a r e p r e s e n t e d , B r i t a i n and F r a n c e could c l a i m that they were not bound to c a r r y out the C o m m i s s i o n 's r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s . It is true that B a l f o u r t e l e ­ g r a p h e d a m e s s a g e to A l l e n b y that "the B r i t i s h G o v e r n ­ m e n t will g i ve the f u ll es t w e i g h t to the advice w h i c h the Council. ..will r e c e i v e fr om the Am er ican C o m m i s ­ sioners,"^ but there is a certain ambiguity in that st at e m e n t , and in f a c t , the C o m m i s s i o n 's find ings , w h i c h were a n t i - F r e n c h and a n t i - Z i o n i s t , were c o m p l e ­ tely i g n o r e d . 11 seems a bit s t r a n g e that Lloyd G e o r g e and C l e m e n c e a u a c c e p t e d W i l s o n 's idea o r ig in al ly , since any p o ll of the p o p u l a r will in the M i d d l e East could on l y h a ve do ne them harm. But they m o s t 1 ikely s a w the C o m m i s s i o n as a wa y to get A m e r i c a i n te re st ed in the former Ottoman te rr it or ie s. Bo th the British and F r e n c h le a d e r s a p p a r e n t l y hoped that if they could conv i n c e W i I s o n to a c ce pt a m a n d a t e , p e r h a p s in A r m e n i a , t h en the Amer ican P r e s i d e n t would be unab le to o b j e c t to Br itish and French territorial acquisitions in Syria, P a l e s t i n e and M e s o po ta mi a. But C l e m e n c e a u was at no t ime terr ibly s y m p a t h e t i c to the idea of the C o m i s s i o n , and he e v e n t u a l l y d e c i d e d that Fr a n c e had m o r e to lose than to ga in from i t . His deci si on , f o l ­ l o w e d by that of Lloyd G e o r g e , e f f e c t i v e l y foiled the C o m m i s s i o n 's i n t e nd ed p u r p o s e . The Br itish and F r e n c h l e a d e r s had 1 ittle s y m p a t h y for W i l s o n 's ideas r e g a r d ­ ing s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t ion w h en those ideas cl as he d wi th the ir own c o l o n i a l ambi t i o n s . K i n g and C r a n e set out for the M i d d l e East in m i d J u n e and r e m a i n e d there for ne a r l y two m o n t h s , t r a v e l ­ ing t h r o u g h Syria, the L e b a n o n and P a l e s t i n e . Bal­ four 's m e s s a g e to A l l e n b y , t r a n s m i t t e d to the A r a b s ,

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ha d r a i s e d gr e a t hopes among them, and Fe i s a l r e q u e s t e d t h e G e n e r a l to d i s c o v e r w h et he r H.M.G. wo ul d acce pt the m a n d a t e for S y r i a if that were the wish of the i n h a b i ­ tants.-^ His r e q u e s t was a lo g i c a l one, ba s e d on th e s t a t e d p u r p o s e o c the C o m m i s s i o n , but it was a b s o ­ l u t e l y out of the q u e s t i o n if B r i t a i n wi s h e d to r e t a i n f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s wi th France. H . M . G . 1s cl ai m to M e s o ­ potamia and Palestine was already galling to the Fr en ch , and it was on ly be in g a c c e p t e d b e c a u s e Pari s u n d e r s t o o d that she would be c o m p e n s a t e d with Syria. T h e r e f o r e , B a l f o u r r e p l i e d to A l l e n b y ' s in qu ir y that B r i t a i n woul d under no c i r c u m s t a n c e s a c ce pt the S y r i a n m a n d a t e . 34 F e i s a l was still d e t e r m i n e d to press the B r i t i s h w i t h the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y however, and in ea rl y J u ne he p e r s o n a l l y m e t w i th K i n g and Crane. W h i l e m o s t of the d i s c u s s i o n c e n t e r e d ar ound his f r i e n d s h i p w i th B r i t a i n and fear of France, he r e n e w e d his a c c e p t a n c e of a l i m i t e d form of Zi o n i s m ("a c e r t a i n am ount of i m m i g r a ­ t i o n and e x t e n s i o n of e x i s t i n g J e w i s h co l o n i e s " ) , but he w a r n e d that m o s t Ar ab s were w h o l e h e a r t e d l y o p po se d t o it in any f o r m . 35 The C o m m i s s i o n c o m p l e t e d its task in a few mo r e w e e k s and d r e w up a r e p o r t in A u g u s t , w h i c h they p r e ­ s e n t e d to P r e s i d e n t Wilson. T h e y found a d e e p - r o o t e d d isli ke for F r an ce am on g the S y r i a n p o p u l a t i o n and they c l a i m e d that it woul d be d i s a s t r o u s for the F r e n c h to a t t e m p t to rule that c o u n t r y . T h e y al so d i s c o v e r e d , s u r p r i s i n g l y , that the U n i t e d S t a t e s was the m o s t popu l a r ch oi ce as m a n d a t o r y p o w e r , wi th B r i t a i n f o l l o w i n g second. Sinc e they felt that the S y r i a - L e b a n o n - P a l e s t ine r e g i o n was one e c o n o m i c u n i t , th ey r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t A m e r i c a be g i v e n a s i ng le m a n d a t e for the e n ti re re g i o n , wi th Br itain to r e c e i v e it if the U. S .A. refused. W i t h r e g a r d to Z ionism, th ey r e c o m m e n d e d a s e v e r e m o d i f i c a t i o n of the p r o g r a m for the N a t i o n a l H o m e , if the g u a r a n t e e s to the n a ti ve population, s t a t e d in the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n , were to be ad he re d to. They co nc lu de d: "The fact came out r e p e a t e d l y in the C o m m i s s i o n 's conference wi th Jewish represent­ a t i v e s , that the Z i o n i s t s looked fo rw ar d to a p r a c t i ­ c a l l y c o m p l e t e d i s p o s s e s s i o n of the p r e s e n t n o n - J e w i s h i n h a b i t a n t s of P a l e s t i n e , by var ious forms of p u r ­ c h a s e ." T h e y also found that the e n t i r e n o n - J e w i s h p o p ­ u l a t i o n was ag a i n s t Z i o n i s m , and that this same s e n t i ­ m e n t was w i d e s p r e a d in Sy ri a as w e l l . The r e s i s t a n c e wa s so d e t e r m i n e d that "no B r i t i s h o f f i c e r . . .bel ie ve d t h a t the Zi on is t p r o g r a m could be c a r r i e d out e x c e p t by

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forc e of a r m s ." Th ei r final r e c o m m e n d a t i o n was that J e w i s h i m m i g r a t i o n s h ou ld be 1 imited and that the idea of an e v e n t u a l J e w i s h C o m m o n w e a l t h sh ou ld be a b a n d o n ed. 36 Th e K i n g - C r ane r e p o r t has been c r i t i c i z e d from m a n y q u a r t e r s for be in g i n a c cu ra te and b i a s e d . Horace S a m u e l , a Z i o n i s t 1 iving in P a l e s t i n e at the t i m e , fo u n d it qu i t e a c o i n c i d e n c e that the views of the n a ­ ti ve s c o r r e s p o n d e d to those of the M i l i t a r y A d m i n i s t r a ­ tion^? ancfj it is now clear that some m i l i t a r y me n e n c o u r a g e d A r a b l e ad er s to ask for f o r e i g n t u t e l a g e as opposed to i n d e p e n d e n c e . 38 But on the other hand, G e n e r a l M o n e y w a r n e d the C o m m i s s i o n e r s that the P a l e s t inians th ey sp o k e wi th r e p r e s e n t e d on ly the e f f e n d i c l a s s , ". . .wh os e i n c l i n a t i o n wo ul d be to any form of m a n d a t e 1 ikely to p r o v i d e them with the la rg es t shar e in government a p p o i n t m e n t s ,"39 and one member of the C o m m i s s i o n was under the impress ion that the m i l i ­ ta ry was supporting the Arab independence move­ ment. 40 T h u s , it wo ul d be d i f f i c u l t to s u p p o r t the c o n t e n t i o n that the P a l e s t i n i a n s w h o t e s t i f i e d b e fo re the C o m m i s s i o n we re m e r e l y p a r r o t i n g the ideas w h i c h the M i l i t a r y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n had s u g g e s t e d . The m o s t i m p o r t a n t h i s t o r i a n of the C o mm is si on , H a r r y N. H o w a r d , fe el s that the K i n g - C r a n e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s on P a l e s t i n e w e r e a true r e f l e c t i o n of the s e n t i m e n t in the c o u n ­ try ; 41 at least as far as the N a t i o n a l Home is c o n ­ c e r n e d , h is co nc lu s ion is s u p p o r t e d by arch iv al m a t e r ­ ial and the mo s t r e c e n t study of the P a l e s t i n i a n m o v e ­ ment. 4 2 To some e x t e n t , d i s c u s s i o n of this r e p o r t is a c a ­ demic, for it was not o f f i c i a l l y r e l e a s e d by W i l s o n , and its r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s were not acted upon. A c c o r d ing to Lloy d G e o r g e , the P r e s i d e n t ke pt the re p o r t s e cr et s o as not to o f f e n d the French, who came in for some h e a v y c r i t i c i s m in its p a g e s . 43 The g e n e r a l c o n t e n t of the r e p o r t was k n o w n to Br itish and F r en ch off icials? bu t s ince the f indings were c o n t r a r y to their p l a n n e d po li ci es , they found it e x p e d i e n t to feign ig­ norance . T h u s , they carr ied on as if the K ing-Cr ane C o m m i s s i o n had never e x i s t e d . Th e C o m m i s s i o n was not u n i m p o r t a n t , n o n e t h e l e s s , for it m a d e a c o n t r i b u t i o n to the A r a b s ' se n s e of di si l l u s i o n m e n t to ward the W e s t e r n P o w e r s . The tr av el s of K i n g , C r a n e , and the ir e n t o u r a g e rece ived m u c h p u b l i ­ c i t y in the M i d d l e East, and the g r o u p spok e to large 79

n u m b e r s of p e o p l e f r o m all s e g m e n t s of the co mm un it y. T h e C o m m i s s i o n , of course, g a v e the A r a b s of the r e g i o n th e i m p r e s s i o n that their p o l i t i c a l o p i n i o n s were h o n ­ e s t l y be in g so li ci te d; wh en the r e a l s i t u a t i o n b e c a m e o b v i o u s w i t h i n the next se v e r a l ye ar s, b i t t e r n e s s was th e n a t u r a l re ac ti on . The e n t i r e e f f o r t was wasted, a n d indeed ev en c o u n t e r - p r o d u c t i v e . W h i l e the A l l i e s were c o n f e r r i n g at V e r s a i l l e s and th e K i n g - C r a n e e n t o u r a g e was j o u r n e y i n g t h r o u g h the M i d d l e East, im p o r t a n t d e v e l o p m e n t s were t a ki ng place o n a m o r e m u n d a n e l e v e l — d a y - t o - d a y c o n t a c t in P a l e s ­ t i n e b e t w e e n Z i o n i s t lead er s and the m e m b e r s of O E T A . In 1918, while the G r e a t War was st il l r a g i n g — bo th in E u r o p e and the L e v a n t — Z ionists had a c c e p t e d , th ou gh r e l u c t a n t l y , the fa ct that li tt le could be do ne to b u i l d the N a t i o n a l H o m e . But once the a r m i s t i c e had b e e n s i g n e d and the f ight in g b r o u g h t to an e n d , they c o u l d see no fu r t h e r r e a s o n for d e l a y and their impatience mounted r a p i d l y . The M i l i t a r y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , h o w e v e r , c o n t i n u e d to en f o r c e the s t at us qu o be c a u s e t h e y r e g a r d e d t h e m s e l v e s as the o c c u p i e r s of en e m y terr itory. T h e r e f o r e co nflict, w h i c h had b u b b l e d just beneath the s u r f a c e in the last ye ar of the w a r , e m e r g e d into full v i e w once it was o v e r . O n l y a m o n t h after the c e s s a t i o n of h o s t i l i t i e s , W e i z ma nn c o m p l a i n e d to L e op ol d A m e r y that si nc e the Z i o n i s t C o m m i s s i o n had left the Ho l y Land the m i l i t a r y ha d s t o p p e d aid ing the Je ws and "cond it ions are once m o r e w h e r e they w e re in the m o n t h of M a r c h 1918. " It is ironic that in this same l e t t e r , the ma n who was to r e g u l a r l y ac cu se the sold iers of p r e j u d i c e , c o m m e n t e d t h a t "it is e s s e n t i a l that the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n sh ou ld t a k e a c c o u n t of the wi de m o r a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l gu lf w h i c h e x i s t s b e t w e e n the A r a b and J e w i s h p o p u l a t i o n s of P a l e s t i n e . "44 Bu t a we ek l a t e r , wh en he addressed G e n e r a l M o n e y w i t h the same pr oblem, he wa xe d s y m p a t h e t i c by c l a i m i n g that "... on the wh ol e the B r i t i s h a d ­ m i n i s t r a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y in the lo we r r a n k s , p r e f e r s the n a t i v e to the J e w not out of any r e a s o n *of u n f a i r ­ n e s s or a n t i s e m i t i s m , but s i m p l y b e c a u s e the n a t i v e is a m u c h s i mp le r p r o p o s i t i o n than the J e w in P a l e s t i n e . "45 D u r i n g the p r e v i o u s y e a r , Z i on is ts had ra i s e d f r e ­ q u e n t c o m p l a i n t s about the c o n d u c t of L i e u t e n a n t - C o l ­ o n e l J o h n H u b b a r d , the M i l i t a r y G o v e r n o r of J a f f a , who wa s o u t s p o k e n in his o p p o s i t i o n to Z i o n i s m . 46 T h e y

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d e m a n d e d his r e m o v a l but i n s t e a d , M o n e y t r a n s f e r e d hi m to N a b l u s , a town with v e ry few J e w i s h r e s i d e n t s ^ and a r e p u t a t i o n for an ti -s em it is m. Soon a f t e r w a r d s , ne ws be g a n to s p r e a d that Je ws were being a t t a c k e d t h e r e , and J e w i s h I n t e l l i g e n c e r e p o r t e d that "the M i l i tary G o v e r n o r of the town d id not take any st ep s a g a i n s t this game. . .n e i t h e r d id he t h r e a t e n the A r a b s w i t h p u n i s h m e n t of any kind for this b a r b a r i s m . "48 F i n a l l y in J u l y , O E T A or de re d H u b b a r d to take a c t i o n a g a i n s t the o f f e n d e r s , and the in cidents came to a h a l t . 49 A m o n g the nat ive p o p u l a c e , the first P a l e s t i n i a n A r a b C o n g r e s s in J a n u a r y and F e b r u a r y had s t i m u l a t e d n a t i o n a l i s t s e n t i m e n t , and J ew is h I n t e l l i g e n c e ag e n t s r e p o r t e d that some type of o u t b r e a k m i g h t oc c u r d u r i n g the s p r i n g N e b i M u s a f e s t i v a l , an an nu al m a r c h to the s u p p o s e d tomb of Mo s e s on the Jer icho ro ad o u t s i d e Jerusalem.Consequently, they informed General M o n e y , w h o then c a ll ed se ve ra l A r a b n o t a b l e s to w a r n t h em a g a i n s t a t t e m p t i n g any v i o l e n t ac t i o n d u r i n g the festival. The army then ke pt a close wa t c h on the m a r c h e r s , and the o c c a s i o n p a s s e d off w i t h o u t inc i~ d e n t . 51 Z io ni st le a d e r s were pl ea se d by the Ch ie f A d m i n i s ­ t r a t o r 1s f irm ha nd l ing of this s ituat ion but w i t h i n a m a t t e r of days , H a r r y Fr i e d e n w a l d , an A m e r i c a n who was a c t i n g C h a i r m a n of the Z ionist C o m m i s s i o n , c o m p l a i n e d th at the fa ct or w h i c h had c o n t r i b u t e d the most to their p r o b l e m s was the a t t i t u d e of B r i t i s h o f f i c i a l s , who he c l a i m e d "had a p e r f e c t l y free hand in f o l l o w i n g the ir p r e j u d ices and the path of least res i s t a n c e . "52 Bu t the d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n by no m e a n s r e s t e d all on one s ide. In May, Clayton forwarded a report by G e n e r a l M o n e y w h i c h noted that the A r a b s would r e j e c t a Br it ish m a n d a t e (in the ir d i sc us s ions with the K i n g C r a n e C o m m i s s i o n ) if it e n t a i l e d the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of the Z i o n i s t p r o g r a m , e v en in its m o s t m o d e r a t e form. M inc ing no w o r d s , M o n e y a d d e d : "The P a l e s t i n i a n s d e ­ si r e the ir c o u n t r y for th e m s e l v e s and will res ist any g e n e r a l i m m i g r a t i o n of J e w s , h o w e v e r g r a d u a l , by e v e r y means in the ir po we r includ ing a c ti ve h o s t i l i t i e s ." C l a y t o n added that he agreed with M o n e y 's c o n c l u s i o n s and that no a m ou nt of p e rs ua s ion would be able to al l a y A r a b fears of the Z i o n i s t s . He c o n c l u d e d that the cont i n u a t i o n of the p r e s e n t p o l i c y would re q u i r e the p r e ­ sence of a la rg e military force to keep the p e a c e . 53 81

T h e s e r e m a r k s ra i s e the q u e s t i o n as to wh e t h e r t h e s e two m e n we re m e r e l y v e n t i n g their own a n t i - Z i o n ­ ist p r e j ud ic es . But the m o s t c o m p l e t e study of C l a y ­ t o n ' s vi ew s d u r i n g this time has not u n e a r t h e d a si ng le remark which might be considered bi as ed ,^4 and W e i z m a n n in his m e m o i r s had kind w o r d s to say about the Chief Political O f f i c e r . 55 In addition, Norman B e n t w i c h , a B r i t i s h Z i on is t wh o k n e w both me n well at th e time, b e l i e v e d that C l a y t o n l o y a l l y c a rr ie d out the G o v e r n m e n t ' s policy, a l t h o u g h he did not c o n s i d e r him an a r d e n t s u p p o r t e r of the N a t i o n a l H o m e . 5^ Bu t u n f o r t u n a t e l y , we can not cl ea r G e n e r a l M o n ­ e y ' s name wi th the same d e gr ee of ce rt ai nt y. Much can be said in his favor, such as the fi rm m a n n e r in wh ic h he h a n d l e d the p o t e n t i a l d i s t u r b a n c e s in the s p r i n g of 1919, but se v e r a l of his w r i t t e n r e m a r k s would indicate an a n t i - J e w i s h p r e j ud ic e. In N o v e m b e r 1918 he wr ot e t h a t the J e w s " . .. we re as a class in ferior m o r a l l y and i n t e l l e c t u a l l y to the bulk of the M u s l i m and C h r i s t i a n i n h a b i t a n t s of the c o u n t r y , " 5 ^ and in the f o l l o w i n g y e a r he wrote to C l a y t o n : . . .many of the s o - c a l l e d g r i e v a n c e s are d u e to the sp e c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the Zi o n i s t J e w s t h e m s e l v e s , p a r t i c u l a r ­ ly to the ir ex cl us i v e n e s s , and to the fa ct that w h i l e ot he r c o m m u n i t i e s are r e a d y to act for the c o m m o n w e a l , the J e w i s h v i e w is i n v a r i a b l y to their own a d v a n t a g e , and their manner wherever t h ey are g i v e n a u t h o r i t y is o f t e n d o m i n ­ eering and objectionable to others.5^ Of c o u r s e , a few re ma rk s ta ke n out of c o n t e x t can e a s i l y give a false i m p r e s s i o n of a p e r s o n 's v i e w s , and B e n t w i c h has d e f e n d e d him by c l a i m i n g "I was c o n v i n c e d of his u p r i g h t n e s s and fair ne ss of m i n d . " 5^ But the f a c t that these s t a t e m e n t s were put into w r i t i n g indic a t e s that they we re not "off the cuff" wo r d s s p o k e n in anger. T h e r e f o r e , he mu st be held r e s p o n s i b l e for them. W h e n B a l f o u r sa w the C l a y t o n - M o n e y d i s p a t c h , he m u s t ha ve been s o m e w h a t s t a r t l e d , for he i n s t ru ct ed C u r z o n to r e pl y that there would be no ch an ge of p o l i c y in P a l e s t i n e ; the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n had been e n d o r s e d by the U n i t e d S t a t e s , Fr an ce and Italy, and t h e r e f o r e an y p o s s i b l e m a n d a t o r y power wo ul d c a rr y out the same

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policy.Clayton then r e s p o n d e d : "Unity of o p i n ­ ion am on g the A l l i e d G o v e r n m e n t s on the sub j ect of P a l e s t i n e , h o w e v e r , is not a factor which tends to a l l e v i a t e the dis 1 ike of n o n - J e w i s h P a l e s t i n i a n s to the Z ionist p o l i c y . "^1 T h is e x c h a n g e d e m o n s t r a t e d

the w i d e l y v a r y i n g per­ in P a l e s t ine from the pol i c ym ak er s in W h i t e h a l l . The men a c ­ t u a l l y in the c o u n t r y were faced da il y with the r e a l i t y of the A r a b p o p u l a t i o n and the p r o b l e m s in volved in i m p o r t i n g a f o r e i g n pe o p l e into the ir m i d s t . This r e a l i t y was not so e v i d e n t to those in L o n d o n , and th ey d i s pl ay ed a t e n d e n c y to think m o re of the r o m a n t i c n a ­ ture of the J e w i s h r e t u r n and its poss ible va lu e to the Br it ish Empire. T h u s , there arose the di s p a r ity of o p i n i o n w h i c h ca u s e d such gr ea t d i f f i c u l t y in the de­ t e r m i n a t i o n of p o l i c y ; it was never r e s o l v e d du r i n g the te n u r e of the M i l i t a r y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

spectives wh i c h s e p a r a t e d the a d m i n i s t r a t o r s

B a l f o u r , wh o al on g with the Pr i m e M i n i s t e r was a k e y s u p p o r t e r of the N a t i o n a l H o m e , d id m a k e s e v e r a l a t t e m p t s to c l a r i f y p o l i c y , but m o re o f te n than not he c o n t r a d i c t e d h i m s e l f , ther eb y c r e a t i n g further c o n f u ­ sion. In May he wr ot e to Cu r z o n that the views c o ul d not e x p e c t any r e l i g i o u s p r i v i l e g e s ; s ince the p o p u l a t i on was so h o s t i l e , p o l i t i c a l p r i v i l e g e s would have to be d e l a y e d and the p r e s e n t p r o g r a m wo ul d have to li mi t itself to an i n cr ea se in nu mb er s and some c o l o n i z a ­ tion. 62 yet only tv/o m o n t h s l a t e r , in an i n t e r v i e w wi t h C o l o n e l Richard Me i n e r t z h a g e n , he said that the G o v e r n m e n t 's p o l i c y m e a n t that "all d e v e l o p m e n t , in du strial s c h e m e s of all k i n d s , and fi n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e m u s t be ba se d on the p r i n c i p l e that the Z ionists are the m o s t - f a v o u r e d - n a t i o n in P a l e s t i n e . All p r e p a r a t o r y w o r k done b e fo re the final d e s t i n y of P a l e s t i n e is s e t ­ tled m u s t be s im i l a r l y based on the same princi­ ple. "63 T h u s , it is ea sy to see why both the Z i o n ­ ists and the M i l i t a r y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n could cl a i m that they had G o v e r n m e n t s u p p o r t . M e a n w h i l e , over the summer the Z ionists be g a n to l a u n c h what m i g h t be cons idered a c o u n t e r - o f f e n s i v e a g a i n s t the r e p o r t s c o mi ng from the m i l i t r y me n in P a l ­ estine. H e r b e r t S a mu el sent off a letter to the B r i ­ tish d e l e g a t i o n in Par i s , c l a i m i n g that the M i l i t a r y A d m i n i s t r a t ion was not c a r r y i n g out the B a l f o u r D e c l a ­ r a ti on ; on the c o n t r a r y , the ir c o n d u c t was e n c o u r a g i n g the A r a b s to th in k that the De cl ar at ion mi g h t not be the final w o r d . S a m u e l asked the G o v e r n m e n t to or d e r 83

Allenby's staff W h i t e h a l l . 64

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On Ju ly 2, S a m u e l fo ll ow ed up this le tt er by a c c o m p a n y i n g W e i z m a n n on a vi s i t to the F o r e i g n Of fi ce , w h e r e they ta l k e d with Ronald Graham. Sa mu el sp ok e m o d e r a t e l y , l a r g e l y e m p h a s i z i n g the same p o in ts as in h i s letter, but W e i z m a n n was far m o re d e m o n s t r a t i v e . He ac c u s e d the m i l i t a r y of d e l i b e r a t e l y sabotaging Z i o n i s t ef fo rt s and of i g no ri ng the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a ­ tion. He found A l l e n b y too p r e o c c u p i e d wi th larger d u t i e s , wh il e he c o n s i d e r e d C l a y t o n too we ak and St o r r s b l a t a n t l y an ti -Z io ni st . W e i z m a n n p r e d i c t e d that the p r e s e n t J e w i s h g r a t i t u d e toward H.M.G. would c h a n g e to o u t r i g h t h o s t i l i t y on ce these o b s t r u c t i o n s b e c a m e w i d e ­ ly known. G r a h a m r e p l i e d s t e r n l y that the G o v e r n m e n t w o u l d r e t a i n the p r e r o g a t i v e to d e c i d e ho w best to c a r r y out the Z i o n i s t policy, and that h a s t y a c t i o n w o u l d ha ve on ly a n e g a t i v e result. W h e n C u r z o n read the notes of this me et in g, he co mm e n t e d : "To a large e x t e n t the Zi o n i s t s are r e a p i n g the h a r v e s t w h ic h they t h e m s e l v e s s o w e d . " 65 He was l a r g e l y c o r r e c t in this assertion, because Zion is t overaggressiveness was exacerbating the p r o b l e m of trying to d e v e l o p the N a t i o n a l Ho me pe ac ef ul ly . But m a n y Z i o n i s t s were blind to this fact, b e c a u s e of their c o n v i c t i o n that the H o l y L a n d was r i g h t f u l l y theirs. To o m a n y of them failed to u n d e r s t a n d the n e c e s s i t y of c o o p e r a t i n g with the A r a b population. S o o n afte rw ar d, G e n e r a l C l a y t o n took a leave in L o n d o n and a m e e t i n g was a r r a ng ed b e t w e e n him and the Z i on is ts . W h il e one m i g h t e x p e c t that such an e n c o u n t ­ er w o ul d have b e e n stormy, the m i n u t e s m a k e it appear to ha ve be en q u i t e st at es m a n l i k e . Dr. We i z m a n n , wh o c h a i r e d the me e t i n g , r a i s e d q u e s t i o n s on a n u mb er of points i n c l ud in g im migration, land transactions, s p e c i a l c o n c e s s i o n s , the use of Hebrew, and a g r i c u l t u r ­ al loans. R e g a r d i n g im migration, he c o n c e d e d that a m a s s i v e influx was out of the q u e s t i o n at the p r e s e n t t i m e , but he did wish to see a st e a d y flow of small g r o u p s of J e w s . He also ra is ed the issue of a n t i - Z i o n ist a c t i v i t y on the part of the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . Clay­ to n b e g a n his r e pl y by c o m m e n t i n g that his a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ". . . were not pl a c e d there in or de r to c a r r y out an y p a r t i c u l a r p o l i c y , but to m a i n t a i n s e c u r i t y in the c o u n t r y ." He e x p l a i n e d that until P a l e s t i n e 's fate was d e c i d e d , no c h an ge s could be m a d e , a cl ai m w h i c h the Z io ni st s had he ar d n u m e ro us times b e f o r e . He f e a r e d ,

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he s a i d , that the d e l a y in s e t t l i n g the c o u n t r y 's fate was h a v i n g an u n f o r t u n a t e e f f e c t on the p o p u l a c e , but th en he added that "a clear s t a t e m e n t of p o l i c y and the d e c l a r a t i o n of the fait a c c o m p l i would p r o b a b l y be a c c e p t e d p e a c e a b l y by 75% of the po pu la ti on . " He then we n t on to deal wi th the othe r p o in ts r a i s e d by the Z i o n i s t s , and the m e e t i n g e n d e d , ra t h e r a g r e e a b l y , wi th bo t h sides co n c u r r ing in the be li ef that the real p r o ­ b l e m was the fact that the M i l i t a r y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n had not been gi ve n clear i n s t r u c t i o n s . ^ Th i s c o m b i n a t i o n of p e r s o n a l m e e t i n g s with G o v e r n ­ m e n t off ic ials and letters of c o m p l a i n t d id have the des ired e f f e c t , for in the f o l l o w i n g two m o n t h s the Z ionis ts were able to score two n o t a b l e a c h i e v e m e n t s . First, they s u c c e e d e d in ha vi ng W h i t e h a l l ca ncel a pl an d e v e l o p e d by the M i l i t a r y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , whic h th ey t h o u g h t was c o n t r a r y to the ir i n t e r e s t s , and p e r h a p s m o r e i m p o r t a n t , they p e r s u a d e d the G o v e r n m e n t to r e ­ li ev e C l a y t o n of his p o s i t i o n and to r e p l a c e him wi t h a m a n mo r e s y m p a t h e t i c to the ir o b j e c t i v e s . In A p r i 1, G e n e r a l Mo ne y had p r o p o s e d a s c he me to e x t e n d loans to c u l t i v a t o r s in P a l e s t i n e for the p u r ­ po s e of im pr o v i n g a g r i c u l t u r e in the c o u n t r y . In J u l y , We izma nn hard of the plan and wrot e to the F o r e i g n Of f i c e , c r i t i c i z i n g it as a v i o l a t i o n of the st a t u s quo. W h i l e not w i s h i n g to appear to be op p o s e d to any plan to improve the lot of the fellahin, he c o n s i d e r e d th at the sche me as w r i t t e n called for the e x t e n s i o n of ar ea s unde r cult ivat ion via g o v e r n m e n t l o a n s . Sinc e m o s t fa rm er s we re Arabs, the pl a n woul d r e s u l t in a la rg e incr ea se in the amount of r u r a l land owne d by A r a b s , and a c o r r e s p o n d ing d e c r e a s e in the land a v a i l ­ ab le for J e w i s h a g r i c u l t u r a l c o l o n i e s . T h e r e f o r e , he requested that the pl an be temporarily suspende d . 67 S h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d , the F o r e i g n Offi ce in fo rm ed A l l e n b y 1s h e a d q u a r t e r s that the s c h e m e v i o l a t e d the s t a t u s q u o and was to be p o s t p o n e d until it could be s tud ied f u r t h e r . ^8 Allenby, obviously an ge re d by th is d irect ive r e p l i e d that the sc h e m e would do m u c h for a g r i c u l t u r e in P a l e s t i n e and that J e w i s h f a rm er s w o u l d have the same chance to p a r t i c i p a t e as would the fell ah in . Fie c o n c l u d e d by e x p l a i n i n g that since he was d j.rectly r e s p o n s i b l e only to the War O f f i c e , he need not act on o r de rs from the F o r e i g n O f f i c e ; t h e r e f o r e , he w o u l d c o n t i n u e to implement the p l a n . ^9 H o w e v e r , 85

a m o n t h later o r d e r s came from the War Of fice, o b v i o u s ­ ly due to F o r e i g n O f f i c e p r es su re , to su s p e n d any a g r i c u l t u r a l loans. Thus, W e i z m a n n p r e v a i l e d . '0 Additionally, the Z i on is ts succeeded in h a v i n g b o t h C l a y t o n and M o n e y r e m o v e d fr om their p o s i t i o n s in th e m o n t h of August. In a se co nd i n t e r v i e w with Ronald G r a h a m on Ju l y 10, W e i z m a n n was in fo rm ed of this p o s ­ s i b i l i t y , and he s t r o n g l y r e c o m m e n d e d Co l o n e l Ri c h a r d Meinertzhagen as new Chief Political Officer and C o l o n e l W y n d h a m De e d e s for the C h i e f A d m i n i s t r a t o r ’s post. 73- a s it worked out, H.M.G. took Weizmann's a d v i c e on the form er but not on the latter. T h e y soon a n n o u n c e d that C l a y t o n , who was stil l home on l e a v e , would not r e t u r n but instead woul d be r e p l a c e d by M e in er tz ha ge n. We ha ve se en mo r e than e n o u g h e v i d e n c e in the way of d i s p a t c h e s to be aware of C l a y t o n ' s vi ew s on the G o v e r n m e n t ' s policy. W h a t were M e i n e r t z h a g e n 's o p i n ­ io ns ? His own diary, for the firs t half of 1919, l e a v e s litt le d o u b t as to where he stood. In Fe br ua ry , he was in Pa ri s ur g i n g W e i z m a n n to ask for J e w i s h s o v ­ e r e i g n t y in Pa le st in e, since the Zi on i s t s m i g h t not o b t a i n it at a later date. In March, he wr ot e Lloyd G e o r g e that the J e w s and Ar a b s woul d d e f i n i t e l y clash in the future, b e c a u s e J e w i s h g r o w t h wo ul d i n e v i t a b l y i n f r i n g e upon the natives. "We c a n n o t b e f r i e n d both J e w and Ar a b , " he wrote. "My p r o p o s a l is based on b e ­ f r i e n d i n g the p e o p l e wh o are m o r e li ke ly to be loyal f r i e n d s - - t h e Je w s . " And in June, he wr ot e that the u n s t a b l e s i t u a t i o n in P a l e s t i n e was due to the lack of a cl ea r po l i c y s u p p o r t i n g the B a l f o u r De cl a r a t i o n . He a d d e d that "the P a l e s t i n e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n mu s t be purg ed of those elements hostile to Z i o n i s m . "72 Thus, in C o l o n e l M e i n e r t z h a g e n the Zi on i s t s had an arde nt s u p ­ po rt er . Howe ve r, w i th r e g a r d to the ne w Chief A d m i n i s t r a ­ tor, they did not have their way. As we h a ve seen, t h e y r e c o m m e n d e d D e e d e s as G e n e r a l M o n e y ' s r e p l a c e m e n t , b u t r u m o r s in J e r u s a l e m had C o l o n e l S t o r r s — w h o m the Zionists regarded as anathema— gaining the p o s t .73 C o n s e q u e n t l y , th ey b r e a t h e d a c o l l e c t i v e sigh of re l i e f w h e n it was a n n o u n c e d that M a j o r - G e n e r a l H.D. W a t s o n , a m a n with no p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e in P a l e s t i n e , would be appointed. The o p p o r t u n i t y s e e m e d r ipe for a fresh s t a r t in r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n the Z i o n i s t s and the B r i t i s h military authorities.

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But W a t s o n was on ly at his post for three da ys w h e n he found h i m s e l f in d i s a g r e e m e n t with We i z m a n n . In Ju n e the Zi o n i s t C h a i r m a n had w r i t t e n to Sir Lo u i s Mallett in an ot he r at te mp t to g a in Foreign Of f ice a p p r o v a l for s p e c i f i c pr oj e c t s to d e v e l o p the N a t i o n a l Home. A m o n g the o p e r a t i o n s he w a nt ed s a n c t i o n e d were these: the p u r c h a s e of the J a f f a - J e r u s a l e m ra il wa y; the p u r c h a s e of G e r m a n s e t t l e m e n t s in the country; the p u r c h a s e of the A u g u s t a V i c t o r i a H o s p i c e , a m a g n i f i c e n t bu i l d ing w h i c h sat at the peak of the Mount of 0 1 i v e s ; i n c r e a s e d J e w i s h i m m i g r a t i o n ; and the tran sf er to the Z io nist O r g a n i z a t i o n of all unoccupied lands. He a r g u e d , as he had in the p a s t , that such ac tions w e re n e c e s s a r y if the N a t i o n a l H o m e ^ w a s ever to b e co me s o m e ­ th in g mo r e than an idle d r e a m . 77 H o w e v e r , no ac t i o n was taken on W e i z m a n n 's r e q u e s t for some t i m e , and a decis ion was still pend ing w h e n W a t s o n as s u m e d his du t i e s on A u g u s t 1. T h e r e f o r e , he was asked to gi v e his own o p i n i o n s on the p r o p o s a l , b a s e d on his br ie f t e nu re in the c o u n t r y . He be g a n d e ­ c l a r i n g that "Mr. W e i z m a n n 's letter e n t i r e l y o v e r l o o k s the n a t i o n a l s e n t i m e n t wh ic h has g r o w n up in this c o u n ­ try ...ou t of m e r e o p p o s i t i o n to Z i o n i s t a c t i v i t y w h i c h is i n s t i n c t i v e l y m i s t r u s t e d . " It fo ll ow ed fr om this s e n t i m e n t that any n e w Zi on is t p r o j e c t s m i g h t a r o u s e A r a b h o s t i l i t y , and t h er ef or e he was h e s i t a n t to a p ­ p r o v e them. D i s c u s s i n g W e i z m a n n *s s u g g e s t i o n s s e r i a t i m , he p r o c e e d e d to r e j e c t th em a l l , la rg el y on the g r o u n d s that th ey v i o l a t e d the stat us quo. As a r e ­ sult, We izmann was once more th w a r t e d in his e f fo rt s to g a i n s p ec ia l c o n c e s s i o n s to be g i n d e v e l o p i n g the Na t i o n a l H o m e .75 Tw o weeks l a t e r , W a t s o n had fu rt he r oc ca s ion to c o m m e n t on the s i t u a t i o n in P a l e s t i n e , havi ng found it s o m e w h a t mo r e d a n g e r o u s than he had o r i g i n a l l y s u s p e c t ­ ed : "The a n t a g o n i s m to Zion is m of the m a j o r i t y of the p o p u l a t i o n is d e e p - r o o t e d - - i t is fast lead ing to ha t r e d of the Br it ish— and will r e s u l t , if the Zi on is t p r o ­ g r a m m e is forc ed upon them, in an o u t b r e a k of a v e r y serious c h a r a c t e r ." He warned that unless the c u r r e n t p o l i c y was r e v i s e d , wh o e v e r ruled P a l e s t i n e " . . .will lose m a n y of her sons in a war w h i c h will be f o u g h t , a g a i n s t the pr inc iple of the L e ag ue of Nat i o n s , in f o r c i n g upon a small c o u n t r y a p o p u l a t i o n of a l ie ns ." His s o l u t i o n was "p ea ce fu l p e n e t r a t ion over a long p e r ­ iod of y e a r s . "76 A

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Ca mp , wh o had u n d e r t a k e n a s t ud y of the le a d i n g antiZ i o n i s t g r ou ps and i n d i vi du al s in the country. Af te r a l e n g t h y r e p o r t s i n g l i n g out four o r g a n i z a t i o n s as the m o s t important, he added: " P r a c t i c a l l y all M o s l e m s and C h r i s t i a n s of any i m p o rt an ce in P a l e s t i n e are antiZ i o n i s t s , and b i t t e r l y so.... if we m e a n to c a r r y out a n y sort of Zi o n i s t p o l i c y we m u s t do so with m i l i t a r y f o r c e and adopt a s t r o n g po l i c y a g a i n s t all the a g i t a ­ t o rs in the co u n t r y . " He then o f f e r e d an a l t e r n a t i v e s o l u t i o n , one w h i c h was never ta ke n up, but wh i c h had a c e r t a i n merit. He s u g g e s t e d that B r i t a i n ac ce pt a m a n ­ d a t e w i t h o u t Z i o n i s m , and that a pol icy of immigr at ion w i t h o u t f a v o r i t i s m be followed. The J e w s would r e c e i v e n o s p e c i a l f avors but wo ul d be g iven equal t r e a t m e n t w i t h all other g r o u p s . "Then if the J e w with an open f i e l d and no fa vo ur s at ta in s a p o s i t i o n of s u p r e m a c y t w e n t y or t h i r t y ye ar s h e n c e , the A r a b should have no reasonable grounds for o b j e c t i o n . "77 Earlier, the I n t e l l i g e n c e Of f icer had e x p r e s s e d these same s e n t i ­ m e n t s in a mo re o f f h a n d m a n n e r w h en he informed G e n e r a l M o n e y that one of the m e m b e r s of the K i n g - C r a n e C o m m i s s ion th o u g h t that the A r a b i n d e p e n d e n c e m o v e m e n t was b e i n g s p o n s o r e d by OE T A in or de r to o v e r t u r n the B a l ­ f o u r De cl ar at io n. Camp expressed surprise at this p o s s ibil i t y , but added "if so, may there be suc­ c e s s . "78 H o w e v e r , there was no ch an ce that W h i t e h a l l would s u p p o r t such a 1 ine of action, si nc e we have just seen t h a t H.M.G. was m a k i n g gr ea te r c o n c e s s i o n s to the Zioni s t s - - n o t r e d u c i n g the ir i n f l u e n c e . B a l f o u r w r ot e a " M e m o r a n d u m r e s p e c t i n g S y r i a , P a l e s t i n e , and M e s o p o ­ t a m i a " in A u g u s t , in w h ic h he b o l d l y a c k n o w l e d g e d the q u a g m i r e into w h i c h the G o v e r n m e n t had fallen. His s t a t e m e n t of p o l i c y on P a l e s t i n e was so frank that it is wo r t h q u o t i n g at some l e n g t h : Th e co n t r a d iction b e t w e e n the letter of the C o v e n a n t and the pol icy of the A l l ­ ies is ev en mo re fl a g r a n t in the case of the "independent nation" of Palestine t h a n in that of the "i n d e p e n d e n t nation" of Syria. For in P a l e s t i n e we do not e v e n p r o p o s e to go t h r o u g h the form of c o n s u l t i n g the wi sh es of the p r e s e n t in­ habitants of the c o u n t r y , th ou gh the A m e r ican Commission has b e en g o in g t h r o u g h the form of as ki ng wh at they a r e . Th e four G r e a t Po we rs are c o m m i t t e d to Z ionism. And Z i o n i s m , be it r i gh t or 88

wrong, good or bad, is r o o t e d in a g e ­ lo ng trad i t i o n s , in p r e s e n t n e e d s , in fu t u r e h o p e s , of far p r o f o u n d e r import t h an the des ires and pre jud ices of the 70 0 , 0 0 0 Ar a b s who n o w inhabit that ancient l a n d .In my o p i n i o n that is right. W h a t I have never b e e n able to u n d e r s t a n d is how it can be h a r m o n i s e d w i t h the d e c l a r a t i o n , the C o v e n a n t , or the i n s t r u c t i o n s to the Co m m i s s ion of E n q u i r y . ... In s h o r t , so far as P a l e s t i n e is c o n c e r n e d , the Po we rs h a ve ma d e no s t a t e m e n t of fact w h i c h is not a d m i t ­ te dl y w r o n g , and no d e c l a r a t i o n of p o l i c y w h i c h , at least in the l e t t e r , they have not a l wa ys inte nd ed to v i o l a t e .79 T h u s , B a l f o u r seem ed to be sayi ng that the G o v e r n ­ m e n t had m a d e a c o m m i t m e n t to the N a t i o n a l H o m e , w h i c h t h ey were g o i n g to k e e p r e g a r d l e s s . It m i g h t ha ve be en m a d e in poor j u d g m e n t , w i t h o u t suf f ic ient r e f l e c t i o n , but it had be en ma d e and would be k e p t . In ot he r w o r d s , the m o s t i m p o r t a n t factor was the m a i n t e n a n c e of Br it ish h o n o r ; th e y would k e ep the ir p r om is e r e g a r d l e s s of the consequences. The Military Administration s e e m e d to take a d if f er en t v i e w p o i n t , n a m e l y that an e r r o n e o u s c o m m i t m e n t should be re ct if ied befo re i r r e ­ p a r a b l e da m a g e had be e n done. But this line of r e a s o n ­ ing was never able to implant itself in the m i n d s of thos e i n f l u e n t i a l in Whit eh al l. A we e k after B a l f o u r 's m e m o had been c i r c u l a t e d , P a l e s t i n e was d i s c u s s e d at a C a b i n e t meeting. The Fore ign S e c r e t a r y was a b s e n t , but C u r z o n f ilied him in on the proceedings. H e , C u r z o n , had ar gued against a c c e p t i n g the m a n d a t e , since it would caus e t r o u b l e wi t h F r e n c h S y r i a and since the A r a b - J e w i s h p r o b l e m seemed insoluble. H o w e v e r , he n o t e d : "The P r i m e M i n ­ ister cl in gs to P a l e s t i n e for its s e n t i m e n t a l and tr ad it io na l v a l u e , and talks about J e r u s a l e m with a l mo st the same e n t h u s i a s m as about his n a ti ve hills. Others . . . t h i n k t h a t , ir ks om e as will be the b u r d e n , we ca nn ot now r e f u s e it w i t h o u t in ce ns in g the Z ionist w o rl d. " A f t e r a l e n g t h y d iscuss ion over di vi s ion of the m a n ­ dates. the meeting was adjourned w i th ou t a decis ion. M e a n w h i l e , Me i n e r t z h a g e n had take n his post in P a l e s t i n e , and thou gh he had e a r l i e r r e c o m m e n d e d that 89

H.M.G. in fo rm the Ar ab s in no u n c e r t a i n terms of the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n , by S e p t e m b e r he was of a d i f f e r e n t mind. He wrote to C u r z o n that there was st r o n g o p p o s i ­ t i o n to Zionism, a l t h o u g h he t r ac ed it to " m i s u n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g of the J e w and e v e r y t h i n g J e w i s h . " He felt c e r t a i n that Zi on is m wo ul d be s u c c e s s f u l if its g r o w t h w e r e s l o w and m e t h o d i c a l . N o n e t h e l e s s , he co mm en te d: "The p e o p l e of P a l e s t i n e are not at p r e s e n t in a fit s t a t e to be told o p e n l y that the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of Z i o n ­ ism in P a l e s t i n e is the p o li cy to w h i c h H . M . G . , A m e r i c a and France are co mm it te d. They certainly do not r e a l i z e this fact." Th e r e f o r e , he s u g g e s t e d that he, M a j o r - G e n e r a l Wa ts on , and W e i z m a n n d r a w up a m o d e r a t e s t a t e m e n t of the go al s of the Z i o n i s t m o v e m e n t for p u b ­ li c d i s t r i b u t i o n , be f o r e any a n n o u n c e m e n t of the G o v ­ e r n m e n t ' s in t e n t i o n s be given. The former s t a t e m e n t w o u l d be se nt to L o n d o n for a p p r o v a l be fo re be in g p r o ­ m u l g a t e d . SI T h i s course of a c ti on was a c c e p t e d by the F o r e i g n O f f i c e , and in m i d - O c t o b e r a dr af t d e c l a r a t i o n on Z i o n ­ ism was sent to C u r z o n by Me inert z h a g e n . Th is dr af t s t a t e d that the f o u n d i n g of the N a t i o n a l Ho me was a G o v e r n m e n t p o l i c y and that r e s i s t a n c e to it wo ul d be futile. It e x p l a i n e d that Zi o n i s m did not e n ta il J e w ­ ish c o n t r o l of C h r i s t i a n and M u s l i m H o l y Places, nor the co n t r o l of the m a j o r i t y by the m i n o r i t y ; yet s t e a d y , t h ou gh limited, i m m i g r a t i o n and sp e c i a l land c o n c e s s i o n s wo ul d be n e c e s s a r y for the s u cc es s of the p r o g r a m . 82 curzon and G e o r g e Kidston found the d r a f t too pro-Z io ni st in t o n e , h o w e v e r , and th ey r e ­ j e c t e d i t , c o m p o s i n g a ne w one in its p l a c e . Th is vers i o n s t a t e d in less d i r e c t terms the intent of H.M.G. and e m p h a s i z e d th os e things the Z i o n i s t s would not d o , i g n o r i n g any m e n t i o n of n e c e s s a r y i m m i g r a t i o n or land to the publicac o n c e s s i o n s .83 Me i n e r t z h a g e n ag r e e d t io n of th is d r a f t , 84 but he co ul d not c o n v i n c e the m e m b e r s of the M i l i t a r y A d m i n i s t r a t ion to p u b l i s h i t . In D e c e m b e r he t e l e g r a p h e d that the s t a t e m e n t had not b e e n p r o m u l g a t e d , b e c a u s e the "s ituat ion has im proved and it m a y poss ibly be undes irable to do so but will report furt he r at ea rl y d a t e . »«8 5 He was m o re than 1 ik el y e c h o i n g the s e n t i m e n t s of the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w h i c h had no d e s i r e to a n t a g o n i z e the A r a b s by any r e f ­ e r e n c e to Z ionism w h a t s o e v e r . Me i n e r t z h a g e n h i m s e l f had no a u t h o r i t y to pu b l i s h the statement without a p p r o v a l from Watson. Bu t Zion is t lead er s seemed r e a s o n a b l y pl e a s e d with the Ch i e f A d m i n i s t r a t o r , for W e i z m a n n wr ot e in S e p t e m ­

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ber that his ta k e o v e r had p r o d u c e d "a ve ry b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t on the o f f i c i a l a t m o s p h e r e . The o f f i c i a l c o n ­ duct, instead of be i n g cold and u n s y m p a t h e t i c , is b e ­ coming appreciative of the Jewish des tiny in the country."®* Tw o months later he reiterated this j u d g e m e n t by r e f e r r i n g to W a t s o n as "a ve ry a m i a b l e g e n t l e m a n p r o m i s i n g to do his b e s t " , but he was not so c o m p l i m e n t a r y ab ou t W a t s o n 's s u bo rd i n a t e s , once m o r e a l l e g i n g "a c e r t a i n prej ud ice of some of the B r i t i s h off icials a g a i n s t the J e w and a lack of u n d e r s t a n d ing of the J e w i s h p r o b l e m s . " He c o n f e s s e d that "the o p en h o s t i l i t y wh ic h e x i s t e d before is d y i n g out now" but he st i l l bel ieved that "these men will accept the Z i o n i s t p o l i c y only gr ud g ingly and we c a nn ot e x pe ct th em to s y m p a t h i z e wi t h us and with our needs. But t h e n , o n l y two weeks l a t e r , the Z i on is t C h a i r m a n c o n t r a d i c t e d this r e m a r k by c l a i m i n g that "on the w h o l e , there is a ve r y a p p r e c i a b l e c h a n g e for the be tt er in the at t i t u d e of the Ad m i n is tr at ion to wards Zionism."^ Th es e s t a t e m e n t s only m a k e sense if one r e m e m b e r s that Wei zmann, a c co rd ing to his c o l l e a g u e s , had a m e r c u r i a l t e m ­ p e r a m e n t , and was g i v e n to s u d d e n fits of e l a t i o n and despair. N a t u r a l l y , his v o l u m i n o u s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e r e ­ f l e c t e d these v a r y i n g m o o d s , and t h e r e f o r e his a s s e s s ­ m e n t s of gi ve n s i t u a t i o n s o f t e n c h a n g e d from un b o u n d e d o p t i m i s m to f o r l o r n p e s s i m i s m in a m a t t e r of d a y s . W e i z m a n n s c a r c e l y had time to get a c q u a i n t e d wi th G e n e r a l W a t s o n wh en the Chie f A d m i n i s t r a t o r was r e ­ p l a c e d by G e n e r a l L.J. Bols in D e c e m b e r . ^9 The new m a n be ga n his t e nu re on a note of u n a b a s h e d (and as was late r seen, u n w a r r a n t e d ) c o n f i d e n c e by w r i t i n g the War O f f i c e that "...I ca n pr om is e you a c o u n t r y of m i l k and h o n e y in ten y e a r s , and can p r o m i s e you will not be bothered by anti-Z ionist d i f f i c u l t i e s . "90 Weizmann had not b e en ve r y h a p p y about the a p p o i n t m e n t o r g i n a l l y ,93- bu t in their f irst m e e t i n g he was p l e a s a n t l y s u r p r i s e d to h e ar that Bols "was pr e p a r e d to d i s r e g a r d , w h e r e v e r p o s s i b l e , the strict a d h e r e n c e to the laws and u s ag es of w a r " and "was incl ined to beg in wo r k o n a large s c a l e . "92 W i t h a new Chie f A d m i n i s t r a t o r fr es hl y i n s t a l l e d , Me i n e r t z h a g e n r e n e w e d h i s e f f o r t s to p u bl is h the Cu r z o n m e m o r a n d u m , c o m p l a i n i n g that B r i t i s h officials we re d is play ing an " u n s y m p a t h e t i c a t t i t u d e " to the N a t i o n a l Ho m e c o n c e p t . 92 But B o l s , clearly retreating from his p r o m i s e s to We iz ma nn , r e s p o n d e d that " p u b l i c a t i o n of the po l i c y of H.M.G. can do no g o o d ...and such pub1 icat ion is 1 ikely ra th er to c r ea te a n t a g o n i s m than to

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r e d u c e f r ic ti on ." He also d i s a g r e e d with his Ch ie f P o l i t i c a l O f f i c e r on the at t i t u d e of m e m b e r s of O E T A , c l a i m i n g that w h en W e i z m a n n bad been asked to s p e c i f y n a m e s and incidents he had m e n t i o n e d o n ly two, one of which had been disproven.94 Although he had only b e e n in the c o u n t r y for a m o n t h and a half, B o l s ' e a r l i e r o p t i m i s m was a l re ad y on the d e c l i n e and he was b e g i n n i n g to form the same o p i n i o n s that his p r e d e c e s ­ s o r s M o n e y and W a t s o n had held. In fact, there was s c a r c e l y a man in the en ti re M i l i t a r y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n w h o b e l i e v e d that the N a t i o n a l H o m e could be e s t a b l i s h ­ ed as e a s i l y as m o s t Zi on is ts had expected. E v e n M e i n e r t z h a g e n , c o m m i t t e d as he was to Z i o n ­ ism, had b e co me m u c h mo r e c a u t io us since his ar ri va l in Palestine. In a letter to C u r z o n in Ja nu a r y , he s u r ­ v e y e d the s i t u a t i o n and gave c r e d i t to W e i z m a n n for r e d u c i n g f r i c t i o n wi th the Ar ab s and the m i l i t a r y over the p r e v i o u s se v e r a l m o n t h s . He noted that the p o li tical s i t u a t i o n had im proved s o m e w h a t since his own a r r i v a l but he ad de d that the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of r e n e w e d d i s c o r d we re by no m e a n s e l i m i n a t e d . 95 This was a far less bold ind ividual than the one who h a d , less t h a n a year e a r l i e r , be e n u r gi ng that the N a t i o n a l Ho m e be r a p i d l y in st al le d in P a l e s t i n e . W e i z m a n n , as was his custom, s u b m i t t e d his own o b s e r v a t i o n s to the G o v e r n m e n t up on his r e tu rn to L o n ­ do n in F e b r u a r y . In a letter to C u r z o n , he 1 isted the c a u s e s of a n t i - Z i o n i s t feel in g among the P a l e s t i n i a n s : i g n o r a n c e of the re al Z ionist p r o g r a m ; the r e s e n t m e n t of the ef f end i wh o were being d ispl ac ed from the ir e l i t e po si ti on ; and the intr igue of fo r e i g n agents (c h i e f l y I t al ia n and Fr e n c h o n e s ) w h o w i sh ed to s a b o ­ ta g e the N a t i o n a l H o m e . W e i z m a n n then of f e r e d a list of m e a s u r e s whic h he p r o p o s e d s h ou ld be e n ac te d to aid the Zi o n i s t s in s e t t l i n g the country. These m e a s u r e s i n c l u d e d a land ord inance law to al l o w small t r a n s f e r s of l a n d , the a p p o i n t m e n t of a land co mm is s ion to a r r a n g e for g r e a t e r Z i on is t p u r c h a s e of un used l a n d s , i n c r e a s e d im migration, and re f o r m s in the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n to br in g mo r e Je w s into the lower stra ta of G o v ­ e r n m e n t e m p l o y m e n t .96 M e a n w h i l e , the Fore ign Of f ice had asked H e r b e r t S a m u e l to go to P a l e s t i n e to r e p o r t on fi na n c i a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o n d i t i o n s and as well to ma k e s u g g e s ­ ti on s for p o s s i b l e B r i t i s h m a n d a t o r y ru le in the fu ­ t ure . S a mu el was not then a m e m b e r of the Z ionist 92

O r g a n i z a t i o n , but he a d mi tt ed in his m e m o i r s to b e i n g in cl os e c o o p e r a t i o n with t h e m . 97 T h e r e f o r e , he was h a p p y to ac ce pt the t a s k , and he arri ve d in P a l e s t i n e at the end of J a n u a r y , just about the time W e i z m a n n was leaving. Samuel remained there for approximately two m o n t h s , d i v i d i n g his time b e t w e e n J e r u s a l e m and the c o u n t r y s i d e . A l t h o u g h his m a i n a s s i g n m e n t had be en to c o m m e n t on the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s i t u a t i o n , he was n a t u r ­ al ly i n t e r e s t e d in p o l i t i c a l m a t t e r s , and soon after his arr ival he wr ot e to C u r z o n that "...one is d r i v e n to the c o n c l u s i o n that the h o s t i 1 ity to Jews and J e w i s h a ims is a r t i f i c i a l . . .Pal es ti ne will as the Jewish N a t i o n a l Ho me p r o v e a source of s t r e n g t h and sat is fa ct ion to its m a n d a t o r y ..." 98 nis final r e p o r t at the end of M a r c h was c o m p o s e d in m u c h the same t o n e . He found that the c o u n t r y was u n d e r - p o p u l a t e d and u n d e r ­ d e v e l o p e d , w i t h r o o m for a gr ea t m a n y more p e o p l e , p r o ­ vi d e d there were e c o n o m i c i m p r o v e m e n t s . Sa mu el cl a i m e d that the g e n e r a l r e v e n u e of the c o u n t r y was s t e a d i l y increas i n g , and he judged that it wo ul d not be d i f f i ­ c u lt to f i na nc e n e c e s s a r y r e f o r m s , in such areas as t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and education. Pol i t i c a l l y , he b e l i e v e d that ant i-Z ion ist a c t i v i t y was not se rious, b e c a u s e it was ba se d on the m i s a p p r e h e n s i o n that the J e w s wer$ to d o m i n a t e the o t he r el e m e n t s of the popu la ti on . Sa mu el was c e r t a i n that w h en the A r ab s d isco ve re d the true p i c t u r e , their fears would v a n i s h . He c o n c l u d e d that for the Z i on is t m o v e m e n t to s u c c e e d , it wo ul d ha ve to show that it had benef itted the en ti re populat i o n . 99 Ye t S a m u e l 1s ot h e r c o r r e s p o n d e n c e du r i n g his vi si t i n d i c a t e d a far less o p t i m i s t i c v i e w p o i n t . Two we ek s b e f o r e send ing the memo, he had wa r n e d We izmann that they had u n d e r e s t i m a t e d the p r o b l e m with the local A r a b s , and he we nt so far as to claim: "I fear it is too late now to get the confidence of the A r a b s . "100 ^nd on the day the Ne bi M u sa festival b e g a n , he w r ot e C u r z o n that the Ar a b s were not co n t e n t w i t h the e x p l a n a t i o n s of lead ing Z ionists about the ir plans for the f u t u r e , c o nc lu d ing that "it is ve r y p r o b a b l e that a m e r e l y ne g a t i v e a t ti tu de on the pa rt of the P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e [the u p c o m i n g Sa n Re mo C o n f er en ce ] w o u l d be met b e f o r e long by some ki nd of armed a c ti on on the pa rt of the A r a b s . w e re

Th e o p i n i o n s Sa m u e l e x p r e s s e d in these two le tt er s far m o re p e r c e p t i v e than those co n t a i n e d in his 93

memo, for by the end of Marc h s e v e r a l se ri ou s in ci de nt s h a d t a k e n place, wh ic h gave ample e v i d e n c e that A r a b r e s i s t a n c e to the N a t i o n a l Ho me was e n t e r i n g a new and m o r e d a n g e r o u s phase. This b e ca me a p p a r e n t to e v e r y o n e d u r i n g the first we e k of April, wh e n an a n t i - J e w i s h r i o t r o c k e d J e r u s a l e m , s h o c k i n g Z i o n i s t s and B r i t i s h o f f i c i a l s alike. The e a r l i e s t of these inci de nt s o c c u r r e d in F e b r u ­ a r y and Ma r c h in the n o r t h e r n m o s t pa rt of b i b l i c a l Galilee, wh ic h in fact was in t e r r i t o r y w i t h i n the F r e n c h zone of o c c u pa ti on . A c c o r d i n g to the r e p o r t of the M i l i t a r y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , one J e w i s h c o l o n i s t was k i l l e d by Ar ab s near the town of M e t u l l a h on F e b r u a r y 6. On the f o l l o w i n g d a y about fi ft y B e d o u i n looted t h a t t o w n , on the p r e t e x t that the na ti ve s were proFr en ch . Th er e we r e no further c l as he s until M a r c h 1, w h e n a B e d o u i n s h e i k led about two h u n d r e d m e n to a J e w i s h c o l o n y near M e t u l l a h , in an e f f o r t to ca rr y out a s e a r c h for F r e n c h sold i e r s . W h e n the c o l o n i s t s res is t e d , a fight en s u e d and the inva de rs were dr iven o f f , s u f f e r i n g f ive c a s u a l t i e s . The c o l o n i s t s lost fo u r m e n , i n cl ud in g the l e g e n d a r y p i o n e e r J o s e p h Tr um p e l d o r , w h o had led the d e fe ns e of the town. The o f f i c i a l re p o r t c l a i m e d that no ac t i o n was taken since the F r e n c h were r e s p o n s i b l e for the a r e a . 10 2 But these d i s t u r b a n c e s very q u i c k l y took on a mo re nationwide character. On F e b r u a r y 27, d e m o n s t r a t i o n s t o o k p l a c e in J e r u s a l e m , Ja ff a and H a i f a , d u r i n g wh ic h shops we re c l os ed and petitions, p r e s e n t e d to the a u t h o r it i e s ; h o w e v e r , order was m a i n t a i n e d and no v i o ­ lence brok e o u t . 103 But a se c o n d demonstration in J e r u s a l e m , held on M a r c h 8, did not pass off so p e a c e ­ fully. The crowd m a r c h e d from the Old Ci ty to the A u g u s t a V i c t o r i a H o s p i c e on the Mo u n t of 0 1 i v e s , then b a c k do w n into the J e w i s h s e c t i o n outs ide the w a l l s , w h e r e they n a t u r a l l y e n c o u n t e r e d m a n y J e w s . The crowd a t t a c k e d the b y s t a n d e r s wound ing ap pr ox imately five of t h e m b e fo re be ing d i s p e r s e d .1^4 D r . M.D. E d e r , stand ing in for the abse nt W e i z ma nn , i m m e d i a t e l y wr ot e to Stor rs ins isting that all f u r t h e r ac tions of th is k ind be forbidden. He c o m ­ p l a i n e d that the pol ice had acted with too little u r ­ g e n c y in b r e a k i n g up the d e m o n s t r a t i o n w h en it turned v i o l e n t , and that A r a b m e m b e r s of the m u n i c i p a l g o v e r n ­ m e n t had p a r t i c i p a t e d in i t . R e s p o n d ing to a point w h i c h Bo ls had m a d e e a r l i e r , he c o m m e n t e d that "though

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I qu i t e a p p r e c i a t e the p o li cy wh ic h s a n c t i o n e d these d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , I m u s t point out that events have s h o w n th at they c a n n o t be r e g a r d e d m e r e l y as a va l v e for pent-up f e e l i n g s ."105 He received a ve ry cu rt r e p l y fr om C o l o n e l Popham, S t o r r s ' a s s i s t a n t , who b e g a n p l e a s a n t l y e n o u g h by compl iment ing the Je ws on the ir b e h a v i o r d u r i n g the i n c i d e n t , but then p o u n c e d up on E d e r 1s c r i t i c i s m of the p o l i c e : Y o u will be good enou gh to lose no time in re pr imand ing those who informed you of g e n e r a l m i s b e h a v i o r on the part of the P o l i c e . Yo ur i n f o r m a t i o n is both 1 ib el lo us and d a n g e r o u s in that it is 1 ikely to u n d e r m i n e c o n f i d e n c e in the Civil p o w e r . The Po l i c e F o r c e , p l ac ed in d iff icult circumstances for wh ic h th ey are in no wise to b l a m e , sp ared no p a i d s and s u c c e e d e d in ge n e r a l in k e e p ­ ing or de r in a way wh ic h is w o r t h y of yo u r a p p r e c i a t i o n ra t h e r than your illf o u n d e d co mp la in t. P o p h a m c o n c l u d e d by n o t i n g that the r e q u e s t that all demonstrations be cancelled was being consid­ er e d . ^ 6 This caustic response was far out of p r o p o r t i o n to the m i l d tone of E d e r 's letter , and was not at all n e c e s s a r y . P o ph am se emed c o m p l e t e l y insens itive to E d e r 1s n a t u r a l c o n c e r n for the s a f e t y of the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y . H o w e v e r , BoIs did agree to p r o h i b i t all f u rt he r d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , and he wa rned A r a b l e ad er s th at they could m a k e their po in t just as e f f e c t i v e l y through peaceful means . T h e s e two d e m o n s t r a t i o n s (F e b r u a r y 27 and M a r c h 8) c o m b i n e d w i th e v e n t s in S y r i a were c r e a t i n g a m o r e e x p l o s i v e p o l i t i c a l c l im at e in the Midd le E a s t . Ever s ince A l l e n b y *s army had c o n q u e r e d Syria, in the A u t u m of 1918, the B r i t i s h had be en w a l k i n g a d i p l o m a t i c t i g h t r o p e b e t w e e n the Fren ch d e si re to annex the c o u n ­ try and the nat ive s e n t i m e n t for i n d e p e n d e n c e , w i th H .M .G . loos el y c o m m i t t e d to both sche me s by her w a r ­ time agreements. Fr e n c h troops had oc cu p i e d the L e b a ­ non in N o v e m b e r 1919 but Syria* s fate was still in d o u b t , and the San R e m o C o n f e r e n c e , s c h e d u l e d for A p r i l 1920 , was e x p e c t e d to bring the final decis i o n . The S y r i a n s h o w e v e r , were u n w i l l i n g to leave the ir fate to the E u r o p e a n P o w e r s ; in M a r c h a Da ma sc us Congress, c l a i m i n g to r e p r e s e n t Syria, P a l e s t i n e and M e s o p o t a m i a , was a s s e m b l e d , On M a r c h 8, this Co n g r e s s d e c l a r e d 95

F e i s a l as Ki ng of Sy ri a and P a l e s t i n e and his br ot he r Abdullah as Ki ng of Me so po ta mi a. -^8 This acti on im me d iately sec d ip lomat ic wh e e l s in Europe turning. P a u l Cambon, the F r e n c h a m b a s s a d o r in L o n d o n , r e q u e s t e d H .M .G . to issue a s t a t e m e n t r e j e c t i n g the ac tions of the Da ma s c u s C o n g r e s s ,109 but from Cairo, Allenby w r o t e s u g g e s t i n g that F e is al 's k i n g s h i p be a c k n o w l e d g e d w i t h the p r o v i s o that B r i t a i n and Fr an ce r e t a i n ma n dates for their respective areas of i n t e r e s t .H O C u r z o n d i s a p p r o v e d of this latter s u g g e s t i o n , since he b e l i e v e d that it al lo we d the Ar ab s to p r e d e t e r m i n e the s e t t l e m e n t which would be r e n d e r e d at San Remo. There­ fo r e , with Fren ch c o n c u r r e n c e , he a n n o u n c e d that r e c o g ­ n i t i o n of Feisal woul d be w i t h h e l d by both g o v e r n m e n t s b u t that the Emir would be al lowed to come to San Re mo to d iscuss the future of the Mi d d l e E a s t .H I When th is news r e a c h e d P a l e s t i n e , it caus ed a gr ea t deal of e x c i t e m e n t among n a t i o n a l i s t s y m p a t h i z e r s . W e i z m a n n was q u i c k to d i s c e r n this mo re d a n g e r o u s m o o d w h e n he r e t u r n e d to P a l e s t i n e in late M a r c h . W r iting to the Z i on is t E x e c u t i v e O f f i c e in L o n d o n , he n o t e d that the s i t u a t i o n had c h a n g e d r a d i c a l l y in the f e w m o n t h s he had been a b s e n t . F i r s t , he had come to the c o n c l u s ion that "the o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y of the o f f i c e r s in the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n are our op en or secr et enemies." He cite d r e po rt s from Je w s e m p l o y e d by the G o v e r n m e n t wh o had be en s u b j e c t e d to d iscr i m i n a t i o n , and reports from Br it ish so ur ce s that anti-Jewish r e m a r k s were quite c o m m o n l y ma de by the sold i e r s . He f e l t that the Ar ab s were r e c e i v i n g gr e a t e n c o u r a g e m e n t f r o m these d i s p l a y s , w h e r e a s the troops should ha ve b e e n i n s t r u c t i n g them to c o o p e r a t e wi th the ir J e w i s h n e i g h b o r s . ^ He w r o t e an g r i l y that if the Ar ab s s u c c e e d ed in o u s t i n g the Zi on i s t s from P a l e s t i n e , they would s o o n turn the ir a n t a g o n i s m on the B r i t i s h , who would n o t r e c e i v e the g r a t i t u d e they were c o u r t i n g . But he c o n c l u d e d by r e s t a t i n g his faith that all these o b s t a ­ cl e s could be overcome if the Zion is ts held f i r m . 112 S i m i l a r pess imism was e x p r e s s e d by Me i n e r t z h a g e n in his r e p o r t to the F o r e i g n O f f i c e at the end of M a r c h . N o t i n g the incr ea se d tens ion in the c o u n t r y , he 1 is ted a number of ca uses in e x p l a n a t i o n . He m e n t i o n e d f irst the p u b l i c a t i o n of the C u r z o n d o c u m e n t on Z i o n i s m w h i c h a l t h o u g h m o d e r a t e , was c o r r e c t l y in t e r p r e t e d by the Ar a b s as an ind icat ion that the Z ionists were to b e c o m e a p e r m a n e n t part of the c o mm un it y. This re ac t ion he d id not find s u r p r i s i n g , b e c a u s e he th ou gh t

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that the Arabs had a p e r f e c t ri g h t to be f e a r f u l . "The v e r y f a c t o r s ," he w r o t e , "w hi ch c o n s t i t u t e that H o m e and the m e t h o d s w h i c h His M a j e s t y 's G o v e r n m e n t will be c o m p e l l e d to g r a n t for its s u c c e s s f u l e s ta bl is hr ne nt, ca n o n ly lead to p r e d o m i n a n t J e w i s h infl ue nc e and p o s ­ s e s s i o n in P a l e s t i n e if not t h r o u g h o u t the N e a r Ea st ." Was Me i n e r t z h a g e n s u d d e n l y l o si ng his s y m p a t h y for Z ionism in the face of its e f f e c t on the A r a b s ? No, not at a l l , for in his next s e n t e n c e he a s k e d : 'VShould the A r a b , as is i n e v i t a b l e , fail to c o mp et e w i th a s u p e r i o r c i v i l i z a t i o n , and from his nature it is p r o b ­ able he will not at t e m p t to c o m p e t e , is it fair that P a l e s t i n e wi th its u n d e v e l o p e d r e s o u r c e s , s h ou ld be r e f u s e d p r o g r e s s b e c a u s e its in h a b i t a n t s are i n c a pa bl e of i t ? " One can e a s i l y de du ce his a t t i t u d e toward this r h e t o r i c a l qu es ti on . D i s c u s s i n g fu rt he r causes of u n r e s t , he listed the D a m a s c u s C o n g r e s s and the lack of a. peace tr e a t y wi th Turkey (l e a v i n g P a l e s t i n e 's future still u n d e c i d e d ) . H o w e v e r , he m a i n t a i n e d that this un re st was l a r g e l y ar t i f i c i a l , as he th o u g h t all A r a b n a t i o n a l i s t s e n t i ­ m e n t was at this t i m e . This bel ief pr ov ed to be a sad m isj u d g e m e n t , but one wh ic h was qu it e c o m m o n am on g E u r o p e a n s in the immed iate p o s t - w a r per i o d . Is la m p l a y e d such a large role in the 1 ives of the A r a b s that it was n a t u r a l for outs iders to attr ibute r e l i g i o u s motivation to all the ir a c t i o n s . Th e y failed to r e a l i z e that si nc e the en ti re Ar ab world was Musl im , r e l i g ious and n a t i o n a l i s t i c m o t i v e s tended to ru n in harness. And in g e n e r a l , W e s t e r n e r s were s l o w to recognize the fact that nat io n a l i s m was s p r e a d ing t h r o u g h o u t the n o n - W e s t e r n w o rl d in the early t w e n t i e t h century. T h u s , th ey tended to b e l i t t l e ap p e a l s for n a t i o n a l i n d e p e n d e n c e from p e op le s wh o had not d e m o n s t r at ed the c h a r a c t e r istics of n a t i o n a l u n i t y as th ey had m a n i f e s t e d t h e m s e l v e s in E u r o p e . Th e Ch ief Pol it ical Of f icer c o n c l u d e d his letter by n o t i n g that there would p r o b a b l y be a c o n t i n u a t i o n of m i n o r i n c i d e n t s , su ch as had o c c u r r e d e a rl ie r in the m o n t h , but he d o u b t e d that there wo ul d be "any immed iate t r o u b l e n . H 3 He p r ov ed to be a poor p r o p h e t . Th e w e e k e n d of A p ri l 2-4 w a s , by u n us ua l c o i n c i ­ d e n c e , a r e l i g ious h o i i d a y for all three m a jo r faiths in P a le st in e. In the C h r i s t i a n c a l e n d a r , it was Easter w e e k e n d ; for J e w s the P a s s o v e r was c e l e b r a t e d ; and for M u s l i m s it was the time of the Ne b i Musa f e s t i v a l , w h i c h had c a u s e d such al ar m the p r e v io us year. Thus, 97

J e r u s a l e m was c r o w d e d with p i l g r i m s fr om all three f a i t h s , and an a t m o s p h e r e of tens ion ex i s t e d . Muslims h e l d p r o c e s s i o n s on F r i d a y and S a t u r d a y w i t h o u t incin­ d e n t , but on S u n d a y an e x p l o s i o n took p l a c e . Pi lg r i m s f r o m H e b r o n were par ad ing into the Old Ci ty via the J a f f a G a t e , as a large crowd of b y s t a n d e r s w a t c h e d . A p p a r e n t l y , some words were exchanged and fighting b r o k e out b e t w e e n the pi lg r i m s and the c r o w d . Pol ice a t t e m p t e d to s e p a r a t e them but th ey pr o v e d to be t e r ­ r i b l y i n e f f e c t i v e , and after an hour and a half, troops w e r e c a ll ed in to rel ie ve them. Ml t r af fi c to and f r o m the Old C i t y was then h a l t e d , and with in two hours c a l m had be en r e s t o r e d . A nu mb er of Arab s and J e ws w e r e a r r e s t e d , but m o s t were r e l e a s e d the f o l l o w i n g m o r n i n g and a new m e l e e b e g a n , w h i c h again had to be s q u e l c h e d by Br itish t r o o p s . T h e r e were no m o re in c i ­ d e n t s after that d a t e , but the total c a s u a l t i e s r e a d : J e w s — f i ve k i l l e d and two hu n d r e d e l e v e n i n j u r e d ; Mu s1 i m s - - f o u r k illed and t w e n t y - t w o i n j u r e d .114 This Jerusalem R i o t , as it came to be k n o w n , t o u c h e d off an im me di at e ser ies of ch a r g e s and c o u n t e r ­ c h a r g e s , and b e yo nd the d e f i n i t e facts of the actual f ight ing and the c a s u a l t i e s , it is d i f f i c u l t to find an y consensus of o p i n i o n on its immed iate causes. Z io ni st s , of c o u r s e , bl a m e d the A r a b s . W e i z m a n n , who wa s in H a i f a at the time but r e t u r n e d the ne xt d a y , c l a i m e d that s p e a k e r s had h a r a n g u e d the crowd b e fo re the p r oc es si on , w h i p p i n g t h em into a volatile m o o d . 1^-5 H o ra ce Samuel, a P a l e s t i n e res i d e n t , a l s o noted that i n f l a m m a t o r y sp e e c h e s had been m a d e ; he c l a i m e d that shou ts of "Long 1 ive K i n g F e is al " had been h e a r d just befo re the v i o l e n c e br ok e o u t . He also m e nt ioned the fact that m o s t of the pol ice at the scene w e r e Ar a b s who d id n o t h i n g to s t o p the ir b r e t h r e n from a t t a c k ing the J e w s .116 Jewish Intelligence Off icers p r o d u c e d t e s t i m o n y from n u m e r o u s Je ws wh o swore t h e y had been f o r e w a r n e d of tr ouble by A r ab friends, an ind icat ion that the r iot could h a ve been p r em ed itated.117 Of c o u r s e , there were other v e r s i o n s of the s t o r y as w e l l . F r an ce s Newton, for e x a m p l e , was a B r i t i s h n u r s e 1 iving in P a l e s t i n e who had b e c o m e s t r o n g l y proA r a b in s y m p a t h y . She clai me d that d u r i n g the pr o c e s s ion a J e w in the crowd of s p e c t a t o r s had ma de "a d i s ­ p a r a g i n g re mark" and that "some say he a c t u a l l y spat t o w a r d s one of the s a cr ed b a n n e r s " ; this a c ti on had i n c i t e d the Ar ab s to r e t a l i a t e . She thou gh t that the m a r c h up to that po in t had b e en fa ir ly o r d e r l y , at

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leas t by Arab s t a n d a r d s . 118 The reporter for T i m e s laid bl a m e on a small numb er of A r ab r o w d i e s h a d incited the re s t of their f e l l o w s .119

The wh o

T h e r e was al so m u c h d i s p u t e over the c o n d u c t of the police. As W e i z m a n n w r o t e : "That su ch a th in g c o u l d h a p p e n in P a l e s t i n e , two ye ar s after the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n , unde r B r i t i s h r u l e . . .was i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e . . . "1 2 ° Even Curzon, cr itic of Zi o n i s m that he w a s , a d m o n i s h e d A l l e n b y that the ri ot should never ha v e been a l lo we d to happen in a Br itish administra­ tion. 121 In his memoirs, We iz ma nn s t at ed that s e v e r a l days b e f o r e the tragic ev en t he had sp o k e n wi t h A l l e n b y and Bo l s in Je r u s a l e m , w a r n i n g them that there was a s t r o n g p o t e n t i a l for v i o l e n c e at the f o r t h c o m i n g ho li d a y ; they had r e p l i e d that t h ey had s u f f i c i e n t t r oo ps for any e m e r g e n c y .122 Ho ra ce Samuel c l a i m e d that J e w i s h po l i c y had be en d e l i b e r a t e l y r e ­ m o v e d fr o m the ar ea b e f o r e h a n d , le a v i n g on ly A r a b s in u n i f or m; s u b s e q u e n t l y , the troops had be en too s l o w in arri vi ng . He p l a c e d m u c h of the o v er al l bl am e on C o l o n e l S t o r r s , si nc e as the ci t y *s M i l i t a r y G o v e r n o r , he had been in c h a r g e of s e c u r i t y . 128 St or rs had b e e n in c h ur ch at the time of the r i ot but cl a i m e d that a s u b o r d i n a t e had be e n i n s t ru ct ed to warn him b e f o r e the p r o c e s s i o n had r e a c h e d the J a f f a G a t e , so that he might go there in person to dispel any possible trouble. H o w e v e r , he a d d e d , the s u b o r d i n a t e fo rg ot to do so.12^ Th e Zi on i s t s w e re q u i c k to br i n g their a c c u s a t i o n s to the a t t e n t i o n of the F o r e i g n Office. The w e e k afte r the riot, two of the le a d i n g Z i o n i s t s in L o n d o n at the time, Dr. Eder and H a r r y S a c h e r , a r e p o r t e r for the M a n c h e s t e r G u a r d i a n , had an i n t e r v i e w with Sir J o h n Ti l l e y , an assistant to Curzon; th ey emphatically b l a m e d the M i l i t a r y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y B o l s , for the uprising. Eder and Sa c h e r were p a r t i c u l a r l y i n c e n s e d over the fact that f i g h t i n g had b r o k e n out on the m o r n i n g of A p r i l 5, after the p r e v i o u s d a y 's r i o t ­ ing had be en s t o p p e d . 125 W e i z m a n n made a similar ch arge, in a lett er to the L o n d o n o f f i c e of his o r g a n ­ ization. 128 B o ls th en countered by r e c o m m e n d ing th a t the Z i on is t C o m m i s s i o n be d i s s o l v e d in P a l e s t i n e , as a so u r c e of i r r i t a t i o n to the n a ti ve po pu la ti on . He a r g u e d that it had in fact g r o w n into a q u a s i - g o v e r n ­ m e n t , w i t h d i v i s i o n s m a t c h i n g e v e r y d e p a r t m e n t in the M i l i t a r y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and thus po s e d a th re at to Br itish rule.12^ A we ek later, he wr ot e in an 99

e x a s p e r a t e d tone that the Arab s could no longer b e l i e v e B r itish s t a t e m e n t s r e g a r d i n g the m a i n t e n a n c e of the s t a t u s quo, b e c a u s e the Je w s had b e en gi ve n too m a n y privileges. Yet far fr o m be in g c o n t e n t w i th these p r i v i l e g e s , the Z i o n i s t s were a c t u a l l y a t t a c k i n g hi m as t h e i r e n e m y . This s i t u a t i o n led B o l s to c o n c l u d e : "It is m a n i f e s t l y im p o s s i b l e to p l ea se p a r t i s a n s wh o of f i c i a l l y c l a i m n o t h i n g m o r e than a N a t i o n a l H o m e but in r e a l i t y will be s a t i s f i e d with n o t h i n g less than a J e w ­ ish State and all that it i m p l i e s ."128 Th is was t h e sa me m a n wh o five m o n t h s e a r l i e r had p r o m i s e d a la n d of m i l k and honey, peac e and harmony. His d i s i l ­ l u s i o n m e n t had be e n swift. B o l s 1 c h an ge d a t t i t u d e m a n i f e s t e d itself a few d a y s after the r i o t , w h e n s e ve ra l l e a d i n g A r a b s al le ge d t h a t some Je ws had tried to a t t a c k the home of the G r a n d M u f t i on A p r i l 9, but had be en d r i v e n off. The C h i e f A d m i n i s t r a t o r , ta k i n g the accusation at face v a l u e , th en asked the Z i on is t C o m m i s s i o n to h e l p hi m fi n d these men, but th ey took u m b r a g e at such a r e ­ qu e s t . T h e y r e p l i e d that the a c c u s a t i o n was r i d i c u l o u s and that they wo ul d do nothing of the kind. O b v i o u s l y , r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n the m i l i t a r y and the Z i o n ­ is ts had r e a c h e d the b r e a k i n g point. Meanwhile in London, the Zionist Organization b e g a n d i s c u s s i n g p o s s i b l e s t r a t e g i e s in r e s p o n s e to the riot. T h e y c o n s i d e r e d the o p t i o n of r e q u e s t i n g a ne w m a n d a t o r y power to r e p l a c e B r i t a i n but r e j e c t e d the idea, d e c i d i n g to pl a c e the b l a m e not on H.M.G. as a whole but solely on the Military Administra­ tion. 130 They concluded that wi t h the San Re m o C o n f e r e n c e r e ga rd ing former T u r k i s h t e r r i t o r y o p e n i n g soon, th er e was a e x c e l l e n t p o s s i b i l i t y that B r i t a i n w o u l d be a s s i g n e d the P a l e s t i n e m a n d at e. Therefore, t h e y felt that their best s t r a t e g y wo ul d be to pu sh for t h e r e p l a c e m e n t of the m i l i t a r y by a c i v i l i a n r e g i m e , r a t h e r than to a t t e m p t to weed out those o f f i c e r s who were obstructing them.^l Their efforts w e re to b e a r fruit b e fo re the m o n t h was comp le te d. In the F o r e i g n O f f i c e , the r e s p o n s e to the ri ot a n d its a f t e r m a t h was s o m e w h a t a m bi va le nt . Commenting o n W e i z m a n n * s a c c u s a t i o n s , T i l l e y w r o t e "...if Gen. B o l s or a n yo ne e l se was to blame, de a l wi th t h em as i n e f f i c i e n t and not admit that t h e y we r e a n t i - J e w u n ­ le s s it be co me s too apparent. If we m a k e out that th ey w e r e a n t i - J e w and p r o - A r a b and th en p u n i s h t h e m we shall excite the A r a b s . ”132 a staff meeting

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w i t h the Wa r Of fi ce , with w h om they s h ar ed r e s p o n s i b i l ­ ity for Pa l e s t i n e , m e m b e r s of the F o r e i g n O f f i c e s u g ­ g e s t e d that the b a s i c p r o b l e m s t e m m e d fr om d i f f e r i n g i n t e r p r e t a t ions of the Balfour De cl ar a t i o n . They d e c i d e d that a d e f i n i t e s t a t e m e n t of po l i c y on the pa rt of the Government wo ul d be n e e d e d .333 Finally, a C o m m i s s i o n of I n q u i r y was a p p o i n t e d to in v e s t i g a t e the c a u s e s of the riot. Th r e e m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s s e r v i n g in E g y p t we re s e l e c t e d for the in ve st ig at io n: Major-Gen­ e r a l P.C. Palin, the Ch airman; B r i g a d i e r - G e n e r a l G.H. W i l d b l o o d ; and L i e u t e n a n t - C o l o n e l C. V a u g h n E d w a r d s . Judge A.L. McBarnet was appointed as their legal adviser. T h e Z i o n i s t O r g a n i z a t i o n was d i s c o n c e r t e d by the c o m p o s i t i o n of this c o m m is si on , p r e f e r r i n g a c i v i l i a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n ; bu t they were in fo rm ed that such co u l d not be done un de r a military r e g i m e . 334 During the in ve s t i g a t i o n , M e i n e r t z h a g e n told W e i z m a n n that the c o m m i s s ioners s e e m e d to have a p r o - O E T A a t t i t u d e and t h at th ei r find ings wo ul d p r o b a b l y be b i as ed a g a i n s t Z i o n i s m ; 335 Eder sa id much the sa me thing, argu­ ing that "it is no use p r et en d ing that the i n qu ir y is an i m p a rt ia l one. It c o n s i s t s of g e n e r a l s and a ju d g e sent out under the Egyptian High C o m m i s s ione r ."136 But two we e k s later he had c h an ge d his m i n d and was t e l l i n g W e i z m a n n that the i n v e s t i g a t i o n w o u l d v e r y c a r e f u l l y look into the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n 's b e h a v i o r . 3^7 Eder himself attempted to convince the co m m i s s io ne rs that the r i o t had been p r e p l a n n e d , u s i n g m a t e r i a l s g a t h e r e d by J e w i s h I n t e l l i g e n c e a g e n t s . H o we ve r, he p r o v e d to be s i n g u l a r l y u n s u c c e s s f u l in this effort, as can be s e e n by p e r u s i n g the re­ port. 338 T h i s C o m m i s s i o n set out in e a r l y M a y and fi le d th e i r r e p o r t on J u l y 1, the da y af te r the M i l i t a r y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ca me to a close. Th e i r fi n d i n g s w e re no t r e s t r i c t e d to the riot and its im me di at e ca us es but d e a l t wi th the s i t u a t i o n in P a l e s t i n e as a whole. They 1 isted as c a u s e s of un r e s t in the c o u n t r y B r i t i s h p r o ­ m i s e s to the A r a b s d u r i n g the w a r , the c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n th e s e p r o m i s e s and the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n , fear of Jewish domination, Z i on is t overaggressiveness, and f o r e i g n p r op ag an da . T h e y c o n s i d e r e d that the Z i o n i s t C o m m i s s ion "... by the ir i m p a t i e n c e , ind is c r e t i o n and a t t e m p t s to f o rc e the hands of the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , are l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e for the p r e s e n t c r i s i s ." T h e y a l so d i s m i s s e d c h a r g e s that the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n as a w h o l e wa s b i a s e d on e i t h e r side; t h ey w e r e , h o w e v e r , c r i t i c a l 101

of the h a n d l i n g of the riot. T h e y c o n c l u d e d that C o l ­ o n e l S t o r r s had not m a d e ad e q u a t e p r e p a r a t i o n s for the N e b i M u s a f e s t i v a l , and that he had not i n st ru ct ed the p o l i c e to s t o p i n f l a m m a t o r y s p e e c h e s , as he s h ou ld have, si nc e there was a g e n e r a l ban on such activity. T h e C o m i s s i o n a l s o found fa ul t wi th the p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e s o l d i e r s d u r i n g the riot, c l a i m i n g that th ey were s l o w to r e s t o r e o r d e r on S u n d a y and n e g l i g e n t in p e r ­ m i t t i n g r e n e w e d f i g h t i n g the f o l l o w i n g day. In g e n e r a l , t h ey w a r n e d that the s i t u a t i o n in P a l ­ e s t i n e was e x t r e m e l y grave, b e c a u s e both J e w s and A r a b s w e r e n e a r i n g the end of their p a t i e n c e with the A d m i n ­ i s t r a t i o n 's pol i c y . H o w e v e r , th ey we re m u c h m o r e s y m ­ p a t h e t i c to the A r a b s than to the Zionists. In f a c t , t h e y w e re h i g h y c r i t i c a l of the p e r f o r m a n c e of the Je w s in P a l e s t i n e , c o m m e n t i n g that "the Z i o n i s t s * a t t i t u d e j u s t i f ies the d e s c r i p t i o n . . .as a r r o g a n t , in so le nt and p r o v o c a t i v e . " The C o m m i s s i o n w a r n e d : "If not c a r e f u l ­ ly c h e c k e d they m a y e a s i l y p r e c i p i t a t e a c a t a s t r o p h e , t h e end of w h i c h it is d i f f i c u l t to f o r e c a s t . " V i e w i n g t h e 1 ist of a d v a n t a g e s w h ic h the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n had g iven the Z i o n i s t s , they n o t e d : "It is not to be w o n ­ d e r e d at that the A r a b p o p u l a t i o n c o m p l a i n e d of bias on th e pa rt of the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n in favor of the J e w s ..." H o w e v e r , their c o n c l u s i o n was that B r i t a i n wo ul d ha ve t o r u l e w i th a f i rm h a n d , d e m o n s t r a t i n g to the A r a b s t h a t the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a t i o n wo ul d not be r e v e r s e d , but at the same time s h o w i n g them that th ey would be t r e a t ­ ed w i t h s t r i c t f a i r n e s s . 139 Th e f ind ings of this C o mm is s ion were never pu b1 ished. Th e Z i o n i s t s , gi v e n an i n t i m a t i o n of their c o n c l u s i o n s , c r i t i c i z e d the C o m m i s s i o n as b i a s e d , and in the e n d , the r e p o r t was kept f r om the public, p r o ­ b a b l y because, as C l a y t o n noted, it " . ..wo ul d tend to r e v i v e a n t i - Z i o n i s t feeling, and r e f l e c t i o n s on the Z io ni st s are to some e x t e n t r e f l e c t i o n s on the p o l i c y o f His M a j e s t y ' s G o v e r n m e n t . ”140 T h i s d e c i s i o n a p p e a r s to h a v e been a m i st ak e. P u b l i c a t i o n of the C o m m i s s i o n 's r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s , w h i c h w e r e s t r o n g l y a n t i - Z i o n i s t , would h a v e p r o v i d e d a good o p p o r t u n i t y for the G o v e r n m e n t to t i g h t e n the r e in s on W e i z m a n n and his fo llowers. An i m p a r t i a l c o m m i s s i o n h a d d e c i d e d that it was the Z i o n i s t s , not the A r a b s , w h o we re the m a i n s o u r c e of d i s t u r b a n c e in the country, w h i c h wo ul d have be e n a good a r g u m e n t to force th em to

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r e d u c e their p r o g r a m and to d i s c i p l i n e their mo re f a n a ­ ti c a l me mb er s. Yet by p i g e o n - h o l i n g the r e p o r t , H.M.G. lo st any c h a n c e to c h a n g e Zi o n i s t conduct. But this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as s u m e s that the G o v e r n m e n t w a n t e d to p r e s s u r e the Zi on is ts ; w h i l e this a s s u m p t i o n m a y h a v e b e e n tr ue of the M i l i t a r y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and c e r t a i n F o r e i g n O f f i c e st a f f m e m b e r s in c l u d i n g Curzon, it di d n o t at all ap p l y to the ke y f i g u r e — Lloyd George. In the i n te ri m b e t w e e n the o u t b r e a k of the r i o t and the presentation of the Commission's fi nd in gs , he had a c c e p t e d the P a l e s t i n e m a n d a t e for B r i t a i n and had a p p o i n t e d H e r b e r t S a m u e l as the c o u n t r y ' s first H i g h Commissioner. Thus, the G o v e r n m e n t was fi r m l y c o m m i t ­ ted to s u p p o r t the Zi on is t pr ogram; this r e p o r t q u e s ­ t i o n e d the b e n e f i c i a l r e s u l t s w h i c h that p r o g r a m w o u l d b r i n g to the Brit is h. T h er ef or e, one can e a s i l y u n d e r ­ s t a n d w h y H.M.G. did not want the r e p o r t to r e a c h the public. In j u d g i n g this report, it wo ul d se em n a t u r a l to q u e s t i o n the v a l i d i t y of s o l d i e r s e v a l u a t i n g the p e r ­ f o r m a n c e of o t h e r s o l d i e r s in their d e a l i n g s wi th c i v i ­ lians. Th is d o u b t wo ul d seem to g r o w s t r o n g e r in v i e w of the C o m m i s s i o n ' s p r o - m i l i t a r y and a n t i - Z i o n i s t c o n ­ cl u s i o n s . H o w e ve r, it m u s t be borne in mi nd that th es e c o n c l u s i o n s are r e m a r k a b l y s i m i l a r to the r e p o r t s of m o s t o t h e r o b s e r v e r s of the P a l e s t i n e scene from 19 18 to 1920. Bo th m i l i t a r y me n and c i v i l i a n s w a r n e d that the N a t i o n a l H o m e was c r e a t i n g a s e ri ou s s i t u a t i o n in P a l e s t i n e , while the famous King-Crane C o m m i s s ion r e p o r t , c o m p l e t e d in 1919 but never p u b l is he d, e c h o e d th e s e same s e n t i m e n t s . W h e n one puts all of th es e reports t o g e t h e r , it is d iff icult to c o n c l u d e that the ir au t h o r s w e re all ant i-Z ionists or that the ir i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of the s ituat ion w e re all e r r o n e o u s . F u r t h e r m o r e , the C o m m i s s ion d id not try to w h i t e w a s h the m i l i t a r y , a l t h o u g h they did ab so lv e th e m of any m a l i c i o u s intent. T h e y had no h e s i t a t i o n in c r i t i c i z ­ ing the p r e p a r a t i o n s for the f e s t i v a l or the p e r f o r ­ m a n c e of the pol ice and sold ier s d u r i n g the riot. T r u e , they did not accept Zi on is t e v i d e n c e that A r a b l e a d e r s had p l a n n e d the o u t b r e a k , but su ch e v i d e n c e i t se lf could not ha v e been c o n s i d e r e d u n b i a s e d . T h e r e ­ fo re , an i m p a r t i a l o b s e r v e r would have to ra t e the c o m m i s s i o n 's r e p o r t as r e a s o n a b l y o b j e c t i v e . In any e v e n t , the J e r u s a l e m R i o t was fresh in the m inds of Br it ish s t a t e s m e n w h e n th ey met with r e p r e ­ s e n t a t i v e s f r o m the ot he r A l l i e d na ti on s at San Remo, I t al y fr om A p r i l 18 to 26. This c o n f e r e n c e had a large

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a g e n d a of topi cs for d i s c u s s i o n , and P a l e s t i n e was not t a k e n up un ti l the fi f e e n t h m e e t i n g on A p r i l 24. Pre­ s e n t at this m e e t i n g we re three he a d s of g o v e r n m e n t — L l o y d G e o r g e for Brit ai n, M i l l e r a n d for France, and S i g n o r N i t t i for I t a l y — whil e A m e r i c a and J a p a n were r e p r e s e n t e d by l e ss er statesmen. Lord C u r z o n o p e n e d th e d i s c u s s i o n by s u g g e s t i n g that the B a l f o u r D e c l a r a ­ t i o n s h ou ld be i n cl ud ed in the u p c o m i n g tr e a t y with T u r k e y in r e f e r e n c e to its its s u r r e n d e r of Pa le s t i n e . T h e French, ho wever, q u e s t i o n e d w h e t h e r the D e c l a r a t i o n h a d b e e n a c c e p t e d by all the Al li es , m o s t p a r t i c u l a r l y by them se lv es. C u r z o n th en p r o d u c e d a letter from M. Pi c h o n , w h o had be en F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r in 1918, wh ic h h a d g i v e n his a p p r o v a l to the De cl a r a t i o n . Philippe B e r t h e l o t , wh o was p r e s e n t i n g the F r e n c h c a s e , then s h i f t e d his gr o u n d and asked for a c l a r i f i c a t i o n of the phrase in the D e c l a r a t i o n r e g a r d ing the ci vi l and r e l i g ious ri g h t s of non-Jewish communities, since France was deeply i n te re st ed in the protection of C a t h o l i c hold ings in the Ho ly P l a c e s . Nitti p r o p o s e d t h a t the q u e s t i o n of r e l i g i o u s r i g h t s of the C h r i s t a i n n a t i o n s in P a l e s t i n e be s u b m i t t e d to a s p ec ia l c o m m i s s ion of the L e a g u e of N a t i o n s . M i l l e r a n d r e j e c t e d this idea, b e c a u s e it c o n t a i n e d a p h r a s e s t a t i n g that all r e l i g ious p r i v i l e g e s would come to an e n d ; this p h ra se w o u l d end F r a n c e 's h i s t o r i c role as p r o t e c t o r of C a t h ­ o l i c i s m in the Levant. Lloyd G e o r g e h o w e v e r r e f u s e d to a l l o w F r an ce to r e t a i n sp ec ia l p r i v i l e g e s , c l a i m i n g t h a t su ch p r i v i l e g e s wo ul d r e s u l t in a dual m a n d a t o r y in P a le st in e, a condition he could never accept. M i l l e r a n d then asked wh a t p r o v i s i o n s would be m a d e for s a f e g u a r d ing the politial r ights of the French c o m m u n i t y in P a l e s t i n e , to wh ic h C u r z o n r e p l i e d that t h e s e were in cl u d e d in the "civil r i g h t s " p r o t e c t e d by the B a l f o u r De cl ar a t i o n . At this p o i n t , M i l l e r a n d a g r e e d to a c ce pt N i t t i 's s u g g e s t i o n for a c o m m i s s i o n on r e l i g ious i s s u e s , p r o v i d e d the r i g h t s of all n o n - J e w i s h communities we re formally guaranteed. Br itain c o n s e n t e d to a r e s o l u t i o n em b o d y ing this a g r e e m e n t , as l o n g as the Fr e n c h r e n o u n c e d any s p e c i a l p r i v i l e g e s as the p r o t e c t o r s of C a t h o l i c i s m . T h e P o w e r s had stil l not d e c i d e d f o r m a l l y to offer Br it ai n the P a l e s t i n e m a n d a t e , but t h ey d id so on the f o l l o w i n g d a y . The Ap r i l 25 s e s s i o n of the C o n f e r e n c e b e g a n w i th a d i s c u s s i o n of b o u n d a r ies b e t w e e n S y r i a , M e s o p o t a m i a and P a l e s t i n e , but see ing that these p r o ­ b l e m s could not be immed iately r e s o l v e d , the d e l e g a t e s m o v e d on to d e t e r m i n e the m a n d a t o r y powe rs for the r e s p e c t i v e terr itor ies in qu estion. Th is d ivis ion of

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the sp o i l s had be en l a rg el y agreed to be fo re ha nd , and so it was no s u r p r i s e that Br itain was g i ve n the m a n ­ dates for Mesopotamia and Palestine w h il e France r e c e i v e d S y r i a and the Lebanon, A few da ys p r e v i o u s , an im po rt an t letter had r e a c h e d Lloyd G e o r g e at San Remo. A n g e r e d over the J e r u s a l e m R i o t , C o l o n e l Me i n e r t z h a g e n had w r i t t e n a s c a t h i n g letter a t t a c k i n g the c o n d u c t of the M i l i t a r y Administration. He be g a n by a l l e g i n g that "the o f f i ­ ce rs of the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , al mo st w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n , are a n t i - Z i o n i s t in their v i e w s ." He b e l i e v e d that the A r a b s had be en g r e a t l y e n c o u r a g e d by this a t t i t u d e , w h i c h had bred e x a s p e r a t i o n and m i s t r u s t among the Z i o n i s t s . W h i l e d i s c l a i m i n g any a c c u s a t i o n of B r i t i s h c o l l u s ion wi th the A r a b r i o t e r s , he felt that the ir n e g l i g e n c e had be en a gr ea t factor in the s e r i o u s n e s s of the d is t u r b a n c e . His co nc lu s ion was that if the m i l i t a r y had c a r r i e d out the G o v e r n m e n t 's p o l i c y as it s h o u l d h a v e , the p o s i b i l i t y of a n t i - J e w i s h ri ot s s u ch as had ta ke n pl a c e wo ul d ha ve be en g r e a t l y r e d u c e d , if no t e l i m i n a t e d . 1 ^ 2 On A p r i l 24, the da y on wh i c h the P a l e s t i n e issue wa s fi rs t ta ke n u p , the Pr im e M i n i s t e r c a ll ed on H e r ­ b e r t S a m u e l , w h o had s t op pe d at San Re mo on his w a y ho m e f r o m P a l e s t i n e . Lloyd G e o r g e told him that the Me i n e r t z h a g e n l e tt er had c o n v i n c e d him that the m i l i ­ t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s had to be r e p l a c e d by c i v i l i a n s in P a l e s t i n e , and that h e , S a m u e l , was the best m a n to h e a d s u c h an a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . S a mu el r e p l i e d that he wa s p e r f e c t l y w i l l i n g to take on such a task, a l t h o u g h he fe ar ed that a J e w would not be able to win the s u p ­ p o r t of the A r a b po pu la ti on . The Pr i m e M i n i s t e r g a v e h i m some time to c o n s i d e r the s u gg es ti on , g r a n t i n g h i m p e r m i s s ion to c o n s u l t W e iz ma nn , wh o was a l so at San Remo. Af t e r d o i n g so, Sa mu el wr ot e back a c c e p t i n g the offer. He had d e c i d e d , he w r o t e , that if his a d m i n i s ­ tration was m o d e r a t e and r e a s o n a b l e , it wo ul d wi n a c c e p t a n c e w i t h o u t m u c h d i f f i c u l t y ? the Zi o n i s t s t h e m ­ s e l v e s wo u l d be e n c o u r a g e d to ward m o d e r a t i o n k n o w i n g t h at th ey wo ul d not need to fight an a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a l r e a d y s y m p a t h e t i c to the ir g o a l s . It was d e c i d e d t h a t Sa mu el and a c i v i l i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n would take o v e r on J u l y l . 1 ^ 1 T h i s a p p o i n t m e n t had a p p a r e n t l y been in the wo rk s for q u i t e some t i m e , for r e f e r e n c e was ma de to the p o s ­ s i b i l i t y m a n y m o n t h s p r e v i o u s . In O c t o b e r 1919, Sa m u e l ha d told the Z i o n i s t C o m m i s s i o n that he was w i l l i n g to 105

assume an i m po rt an t post in the administrat ion,144 and General Watson had obviously heard s u c h r u m o r s , for he w a r n e d in N o v e m b e r that no J e w o u g h t to be gi ve n the ci vi l g o v e r n o r s h i p of the c o u n ­ t r y .145 A n