Idea Transcript
-
.
,
.
,
2014
1
.
811.111 81.2 14
: .
, .
. .,
, ; .
, . . ., »
,
.,
«
.,
-
. :
14 .
, . , 2014. – 76 .
,
.
/ :
. –
, . . . 6.
.: 8
.
811.111 81.2
©
., ., 2014
© , 2014
2
.,
-
,
........ 4 ................................................................ 7 (
)
.................... 8 ............................................... 11 ...................................................... 17
.................................................................... 21 : ,
,
,
,
) ............................................. 23
....................................................................... 34 ................................................................................... 36 ........................................................................ 49 ,
.............. 73 ........................................................... 75
3
, -
, ,
-
. -
, ,
,
,
-
. . ,
, . , -
, . .
:
, .
,
.
:
,
. .
,
70 %
.
-
. :
,
4
,
,
-
. :
(
)
,
. –
-
,
-
. , ,
,
,
, ( .)
,
,
.
:
– 600
70 % – 500 – 1000 . . .
.
.
,
; ;
-
. , ,
,
,
,
,
,
, (
,
,
)
. .). :
– ( ,
-
,
);
–
,
-
, . . , ,
.
. . . ,
5
, (
-
,
), . . , 600000–750000
.
, 240–300
(
6
.).
-
(30–35 .) (21–23 .)
(500 (500
. .)
.). -
. . 4
: 1.
, .
. 2. .
– 45–60 ( – 1000–1600 . –
– 2500–3000
) .
.
. .
-
.
3. 2000
.
.
– 10
.
2–3 . 1500– – -
. 4.
, , .
7
-
(
1. 2. 3.
)
. . , .
4. . 5. , 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
, (30–35
). .).
. (500 ( 7.1-2003).
8
( .).
).
«
»
« «___»______________20 _ .
;
;
»
)
,«
» )
: ) )
.( ) .
(
,
) : , .(
) )
) (
-
) , .(
) )
20__
9
)
(
)
.(
)
,
(
,
-
). . .
-
. :
,
.
). . : ,
)
,
)
.(
)
.(
) )
10
)
,
-
,
,
.
(
) . .
,
, .
, . –
—
,
,
,
. -
, ,
,
. ,
. , :
,
,
;
,
,
;
-
,
,
,
;
-
. .
:
,
,
. ,
, .
), ).
(
)
( ( ).
, ( ,
, . –
, . .
.
– 500
,
– 1000, –
2500
.
.
11
. -
, 2000
.
,
. ,
( . . ,
). . :
1) 2) 3) 4)
,
(
),
;
; ; . –
-
, . : )
(
),
; ) )
; – , ( . .;
–
, ),
,
,
, -
,
,
)
. ,
,
,
-
, . (
)
,
.
-
, – 500
.
. .
. ,
,
-
: Present Perfect Passive Present Indefinite Passive ; , , , ,
Present Perfect;
Present Perfect, –
12
-
«
».
Pre-
sent Indefinite
, (
. -
Past Indefinite), ,
, .
«
»
,
-
,
-
, .
1.
«
»
,
. 2.
,
-
, ,
(
)
,
. « 3.
, -
»
. : ,
, ,
, , . .
, ,
-
, .
-
: : 1) (
) ... . The theory of... is extended in order to include the case of... 2) ... , ... theoretical calculation of… has been carried out under the assumption that... 3) ... A consistent interpretation of the data is obtained by employing a model...
13
4) late… 5) such that... 6) been studied.
... The model is used to calcu...
...
... correction is proposed,
... The effect of irradiation on... has it:
7) , … It is concluded that the method is capable of producing... 8) ... It is worth while testing this procedure for... there , , : 9) … There is no need to postulate... 10) , ... There are reasons to believe that... , , ,
:
11) ... The cooling agent has been liquid helium... 12) ... The thermocouples have been calibrated by means of... 13) ... ... The pressure range investigated has covered from... to.... 14) , , , . The disagreement appears to be due to a large instrumental error inherent to the latter technique. 4. , . , . , , Present Perfect (Passive) ( . 2, 6, 11, 12, 13), , , Present Indefinite (Passive) ( . 1, 4, 5, 7). ( ), ,
Past Indefinite
(Passive):
14
15)
, ... In an earlier paper a method was described whereby... may be derived from experimental data. 16) ... , , ... Detailed numerical calculation for... were performed by employing a model in which the radiation was assumed to interact... , , , . , , . , , . 17) ... ... . The energies... computed from... and are found to agree with the results of recent experiments. 18) ... ... , ... The calculated value of... is significantly smaller than the experimental value... it is felt this may be due to the neglect of... , , , , , would: 19) . Under these conditions the reacton would proceed to completion. , , n , , could: 20) , ... , , ... ... It is found that with this system... can be added at least up to... before a change... results. -
, ,
, ,
,
, 18,
, might.
:
15
may . -
21)
-
. … Na, , ... A comparison of calculated values with experimental results... has revealed satisfactory quantitive agreement and enabled us to suggest the operative mechanism of diffusion in a number of cases. In particular... Na may diffuse... by... 22) , , , Ved , : ... At (with) increased temperatures... ... With reduced loads... . . 23) .
,
-
: )
there... V1... N , V1 – , , : to be, to exist, to occur, to develop, to happen, to appear, to seem, to come, to live . . He , . , : There is found evidence, : Evidence is found; ) it . : It has been found evidence; ) one , , , , , . . , , , : One never knows what to expect; : One observed a temperature rise, : A temperature rise has been observed...; ) . , , , , , which, : , . Temperature increased, which resulted in unwanted by-effects.
16
.
-
, , .
, . , ,
, -
.
. , .
,
,
,
. : 1. 2. 3.
, ,
. . ,
. . ,
-
. (
. 1). 1
/TAGOUT
LOCKOUT/TAGOUT CONTROL OF ALL ENERGY SOURCES
«
» When maintenance and servicing are required on equipment and machines, the energy sources must be isolated and lockout/ tagout procedures implemented. Energy isolation is the term Tabcon will use to describe machines with all energy sources neutralised. Energy sources can be, but are not limited to elec-
-
,
,
-
-
/ tagout. Tabcon -
17
. » Tabcon
,
.
trical, pneumatic, steam, hydraulic, chemical, thermal, and others. Energy is also the potential energy from suspended parts or springs.
. ,
-
,
, , ,
-
,
,
,
-
,
,
,
. .
-
. -
.
.
: The power of color There was a time when most railroads had standard color schemes for their structures and equipment, and many still adhere to this practice. In recent years, however, recognizing the shortcomings of this policy, some railroads have permitted more flexibility in the choice of colors. The scientists working with color have built up an entirely new body of knowledge regarding its effect on people, which promises to bring further, and even more fundamental changes in the policy of the railroads regarding the choice of color schemes. Briefly, the new science teaches that all people are deeply affected emotionally and physically by the colors surrounding them. The railroads do want their customers to be pleased and happy, and their employees to be safe, dependable, efficient workers. Properly used, color can be a powerful ally in helping the railroads to achieve these ends. A passenger waiting in a station or riding in a train may feel at peace with himself and the world without knowing that the colors in his surroundings have helped materially to induce this effect, whereas the same person, surrounded by a poorly designed color scheme, could easily be dejected or otherwise ill at ease. Again, the color scheme and lighting in his office may be the most important single factor in determining whether a ticket agent greets patrons with a smile or a scowl. These hypothetical examples of the effect of color on railroad patrons and employees could be multiplied many times. To some, perhaps, they may seem farfetched, but actually they are based on the results of scientific observations that have been made and reported by researchers in color.
,
, 18
.
,
, .
,
,
, -
. ,
,
.
,
,
,
, . . ,
, ,
-
, . ,
. ,
, .
, ,
.
,
, ,
-
. – .
,
,
-
, . «
»
«
»
-
. , ,
-
. ,
, .
(
, -
),
,
. ,
.
, ,
-
.
. , .
–
, ,
19
,
.
,
, . ,
,
-
,
-
. ,
, . , ,
,
. , ,
. .
, : 1. 2.
-
. .
. . . .
3. 4. 5. 6.
.
20
–
.
,
, ,
, ,
. : . ,
. ,
,
-
. : In the early days of the telephone / operators working in the exchanges / made all the connections between callers / by hand. – “operators working in the exchanges”; – “made all the connections between callers”, : “by hand” “in the early days of the telephone”. – ( ). , “It is said, one can say, “it” “one” – . , , , , . , , , , , . . “to be, to have, shall, will” (can, may, must, should, ought to), , , “to write – wrote, written”. , “ed” . , , “to get – got, got”. , . , , . . , “the field of computer science”. , “field” – , “computer science” – , . : “The telephone repeaters or amplifiers / are an essential factor in the present long distance telephone communication system” ( “system” ). , , “ed” , – -
21
,
– : “The railway constructed carried
, ,
. large volume of traffic” ( ). . ,
,
.
-
-
, “a” “the”: To ensure safety of passengers and the staff / the transport authorities / added more police officers to the Underground system. .
, , , : “For improved channel separation matrix systems / use complicated electronic logic circuitry”. , . , : 1. . 2. , , that, which, who, when, after, before, since, until, unless ; 3. ; 4. . , “Thus although the human voice does contain higher frequencies / very satisfactory communication can be achieved over a telephone channel / that handles frequencies only up to, say, four thousand hertz» ( – , – ). , .
22
: , ,
(
, ,
,
) ,
-
, .
-
), . ,
, : 1) 2) 3)
( (
); );
(
).
1. dismiscountersubreautovice2. )
disbelief ( ) misbehavior ( copilot ( counteraction ( subway ( ) re-count ( ) autobiography ( vice-president (
: teenager londoner ( -ess actress lioness ( -hood childhood ( boyhood ( -ship friendship ( leadership (
) ,
) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) 23
) )
) )
)
) )
-(e)ry machinery ( chemistry ( booklet ( -let -ette kitchenette (
)
usherette ( ) muscovite ( , -ite , ) -(i)an russian ( librarian ( ) ) -ese chinese ( burmese ( ) dramatist ( ) -ist violinist ( ) ) -ism heroism ( americanism ( ) )
)
: -ness happiness ( kindness ( -ty property ( safety -dom freedom ( wisdom (
) ) ) )
+
) ) )
: rainbow ( headache (
)
) )
: ) -er(or) worker ( actor ( ) , -ant(ent) assistant ( correspondent ( -(a)tion organization ( ) pronunciation ( driving ) -ing building ) -ment development ( ) movement ( ) -al refusal ( ) withdrawal ( , ) addressee ( )
3. )
)
+
) ) :
blackboard ( blackberry (
) )
24
) )
+
: afternoon (
+
)
: flashlight ( knitwear (
)
+
, ,
: handshake (
) )
) :
: sunlight ( dressmaker ( : record-player ( passer-by ( : fountain pen ( oak tree ( )
) ) ) ) )
: 1) 2) 3)
( (
); );
(
).
1. un-
unfair (
)
unfavourable ( imdis-
)
impossible (
)
impolite (
)
dishonest (
)
disgraceful (
)
super-
supernatural (
)
sub-
subconscious (
)
ultra-
ultra-violet (
)
25
hyper-
hypercritical (
anti-
antifascist (
inter-
international (
post-
post-war (
uni-
unilateral (
bi-
bilingual (
multi-
multilateral (
)
poly-
polysyllabic (
(
2. )
, ) ) ) ) )
)
: -ful useful
)
beautiful (
)
-less helpless ( -ly
)
)
)
friendly
)
lively (
)
: -able readable ( agreeable (
, ,
-y
sleepy (
-ive
attractive ( affirmative (
)
)
) ) )
3. )
)
+
+
-ing (participle I): heart-breaking ( breath-taking ( ) -ing (participle I):
26
)
good-looking ( easy-going ( )
)
+
,
)
,
)
II (participle II): hand-made ( ) paper-covered (
+
)
: brick-red ( jet-black ( sea-green (
) ,
) ) 2
ly wards
slowly towards 3
ate en fy ish ize
translate lengthen, shorten electrify establish centralize, organize 4 13
teen ty th
19) nineteen ) twenty, thirty ) fourth, seventh 5
antiexextraforeinteroverpostpreresemisub-
antifrictional – ex-president – extra-modern – to foresee – interdependence – overheat – postgraduate – prehistoric – to reread – semicircle – subtropical –
supertrans-
supernatural – to transpose –
27
, substation –
ultraunder-
ultra-sound – to underestimate –
, undersell –
6 illegal impossible incorrect uncommon
iliminun-
.
,
( ,
).
-
. ,
; («gauge» – , , «operation» – 1. -
, ). . ; 2.
; 3.
; 4.
. ,
,
-
,
,
,
. , . :
1. sure gauge –
(antenna gain – ).
, pres-
2.
(short circuit –
,
remote control system – 3. 4.
). (alternating current – ). (unattended automatic ex). (directly fed antenna –
, change –
5.
, ).
6.
, ter ionospheric sounding – ). 7. , , ).
,
,
(back scat-
(long-welded rails –
28
-
8.
,
, ).
(pre-assembled lengths –
.
,
). . « wealth of». :«
,
,
-
».
,
.
:
– a wealth of established theory – . – a great wealth of expertise – »
. . « great wealth of». :
e.g. 1) a wealth of new material – 2) with a wealth of peripheral chips –
; -
; 3) ...to yield a wealth of new insights into the problem – ; 4) there is not a wealth of concrete information in the literature – .
-
«bottleneck». : ) )
.
, ,
, ,
. . -
, , : 1. Moreover, there have been no serious bottlenecks or deficiencies.... … , 2. If registers are not fast enough, they can be a bottleneck. – , . 3. The memory bandwidth is the performance bottleneck. – a . «bottleneck» 4. ...the power-down and data-transfer bottleneck – .
. -
.
29
, -
, , e.g. The parent of these methods is the frequency modulation equation... – ... «
,
»,
-
. ,
-
. ...is the new and brightest star in the bipolar sky. – ... ( , Star – Sky: 1) .
,
: star
,
,
sky).
.
,
; 2)
,
«star» – « ,
,
», «sky»,
-
. , . , . .
-
, , .
,
.
-
. : 1) 2) 3)
( , ( ,
); ); (
),
).
: Optical data processing, spacial filtering, optical pattern recognition, optical analog computing, or whatever other phrase you would like to pick has for many years been the bridesmaid but never the bride. , , , , , . «optical data processing» – , «the bridesmaid but never the bride» – , : , , . . . , -
30
– . ,
, ,
:«
-
,
». « ».
«bridesmaid»
-
«bride» ,
,
.
: Data-encryption devices are the hot new rookies of the communication and computer industries ( , ). «rookie» :« , , ». «data-encryption devices» «rookies», , , , . «rookie» . , , , .
. .
«
»
.
,
,
. , –
«
», «
–
– ».
», «
-
. dustry».
: 1)
«in; 2) -
,
.
,
. .
.
-
«industry»
,
,
. «industry»
31
:
1. Industry looks at the expense of a large-scale system for testing microprocessors and says it's too costly. , . 2. The automobile industry has been working with the electronics industry. . 3. Semiconductor industry – . 4. The industry has been and still is looking hard at ways of avoiding the need for large scale brute-force simulations. , , , .
. ,
. ( ,
)
such as, as if, seem ,
). ,
. . .
,
like, as, , -
. 1) ...popping up like mushrooms after a spring shower – . 2) A microprocessor without development tools is like a fish cut of water – dead. – , ,– . 3) An exchange functions somewhat like a mailbox in that messages are deposited there by one task and collected by another. : , . 4) Like weary marathon runners slowing down as they agonize up a long, hilly stretch, the countries can't maintain the pace. , , . 5) A variety of microprocessor design and manufacture with different characteristics and architecture spread in the semiconductor industry like fashionable women's clothing styles.
32
, ,
. . ,
,
. «
(«like, as») , ».
,
-
. ,
-
. , The output-feedback stabilization problem has been used as a peg on which to hang the ideas. . .
.
« ,
»
-
. , . ,
-
, ,
. , ,
-
. . ,
. . .
-
, .
33
,
-
. 1 1. With the fuel being burnt inside the cylinders, the engine has an increased efficiency. 2. After the test runs the locomotive was found to have some serious drawbacks in its design. 3. The data to be obtained in the course of the experimental runs are to be used later for improving the passenger rolling stock. 4. Today, signaling, brakes and track are all being improved at the same time as the motive power. 5. The tunnel had to be built some years ago. 6. Many problems of maintenance and safety are to be solved. 7. Super-high speeds were not heard of many years ago. 8. The railway being electrified will connect two large industrial cities. 9. The locomotives hauling trains on mountainous railway usually operate on electric energy. 10. Having demonstrated his locomotive the inventor was asked a large number of questions. 11. Being unloaded, some of the equipment was damaged. 12. The first freight cars were followed by platform cars. 13. The locomotive drivers expect remote control to find application for operating industrial locomotives. 14. Processing the data the computer doesn't make errors. 15. The very first freight cars are known to have been used in coal mines in England. 16. Having been tested, the electrified line was opened for public service. 17. Goods were to be loaded in containers and carried on specially-built multiple-unit trains. 18. Had they received all the necessary information, the experiment data would have been obtained in time 19. The railway constructed carried a large volume of traffic. 20. There will have to be a considerable rebuilding of main lines. 21. The traffic was stopped because of the power supply system having been damaged. 22. Less personnel is required in case of substations being operated by remote control. 23. Mounted on a frame is a generator which produces electric current to drive traction motors. 24. At automated power plants a warning device gives a sound signal should any fault occur. 2 1. The very first freight cars were pulled by horses along wooden rails. 2. Having applied the radio and telephone for sorting trains the railways improved the turnover of railway cars. 3. Despite its high speed the gas-turbine locomotive is unlikely to find a wide application because of producing much smoke and noise. 4. The equipment tested proved reliable in operation. 5. Railways are expected to compete with other modes of transport. 6. There had to be much experimentation before some of the problems of construction and operation could be solved. 7.
34
The original signaling system is soon to be replaced with solid state interlocking. 8. Burning organic fuel the thermal power stations cause air pollution. 9. One of the most important railroad inventions is sure to be a sleeping car. 10. The newly designed locomotive is intended for passenger service. 11. Many innovations have been introduced in car construction. 12. To remain a vital means of communication the railway will have to increase its speed. 13. The world learnt a record speed to have been attained by the electric locomotive. 14. Experts believe the Atom-power plants to compete successfully with the conventional power stations. 15. Having been introduced on railways, electric traction provided higher speeds. 16. Had the driver been more skillful, the accident wouldn't have happened. 17. The passengers waiting for the train could watch the track being renewed. 18. Were longer rails used everywhere, the comfort of passengers would be increased. 19. The computer made the plan of the station's work, having processed the data on the freight trains. 20. The higher efficiency of fluorescent tubes has resulted in their being widely applied to lighting carriages. 21. Our having solved that complicated problem is due to the high speed electronic computer being used. 22. I was told of the machine having been repaired. 23. Connected to the water tank is a small water pump which is to add water to the engine cooling system.
35
Test One 5
,
-
. :«
» – 26 » – 20–25 »
. . » – 15–24 15
–
1. I could ... pretty well when I was five. a. to read b. read . reading
d. reads
2. The heavy snow made them ... home for the day. a. stay b. to stay . staying d. stays 3. She didn't want ... late, so she had to take a taxi. a. to be b. be c. been d. being 4. Ask him ... tomorrow around 5. a. come b. to come c. coming
d. comes
5. He ... her face carefully looking for any signs of anger. a. study b. to study . studyed d. studied 6. She can't help you, she's busy. She is ... a letter. a. written b. wrote c. writing d. writes 7. She has already ... crying. a. stopped b. to stop
. stopping
8. Ann accidentally ... her glasses yesterday. a. to break b. breaking . breaks
d. stops
d. broke
9. He will ... for Oregon in a month if nothing happens. a. left b. leave . leaving d. to leave 10. She ... very upset when he went away. a. is b. was c. were
d. are
11. They will ... ready to talk with you in a moment. a. be b. been c. are d. being
36
. .
12. You may not ... out after nine o'clock. a. go b. going c. to go
d. gone
13. Fred likes ... big cars. a. drives b. drive
d. to drive
c. drove
14. You ought ... more English books. a. read b. reads c. to read 15. Just look! They are ... with their hands! a. eaten b. to eat c. ate
d. reading
d. eating
16. Look! The sun's already … above Spencer Butte. a. to rise b. rose . rising d. risen 17. He ... a cold shower every day. a. gets b. gotten . getting
d. get
18. Last year Johnnie and Tino ... a very high mountain. a. climbing b. climbed c. climb d. to climb 19. Is she hungry? – Yes, 1 think she ... . a. does b. did c. are
d. is
20. Will you call her today? – No, we ... . a. don't b. aren't c. didn't
d. won't
21. Who speaks good English in your class? – Tom ... . a. is b. was c. does d. did 22. Who wanted to see me? – I … . a. did b. do . am
d. was
23. We didn't ... to the football game yesterday. a. went b. to go c. gone d. go 24. Do you ... on a quiet street? a. live b. lived c. lives
d. living
25. You ... waste a lot of time! a. does b. did
d . had
c. doesn't
37
26. She ... ride a horse like a jockey. a. has b. do c. does
d. don't
27. ... they come to the party tonight? a. doesn't b. aren't c. weren't
d. won't
28. He ... smokes on an empty stomach. a. isn't b. never . not
d. doesn't
29. Let's ... a vacation next month. a. took b. taken c. take
d. to take
30. ... I order some fish for dinner? a. shall b. do . Am
d. don't
Test Two ,
:5 .
12
,8
, 4
. :
: 100. «
» – 90–100 » – 80–89 » – 70–79
«
»–
70 1 (Time limit: 5 min.)
1. When I went out it ... . a. rained b. was raining . has rained d. rains 2. Professor Lester's lecture ... at 1.30. a. is started b. starts . has started d. has been starting 3. By the time Bob finally got home his wife ... to bed. a. is gone b. went c. was going d. had gone
38
4. I hope, she ... the test. a. will pass b. be passing . have passed d. passes 5. He ... on the car all day and was very tired. a. was working b. has worked . was worked d. had been working 6. I ... English for many years. a. study b. has been studying c. have been studying d. have been studied 7. He ... four miles when he heard a strange noise in the engine. a. drove b. had driven c. was driving d. had been driving 8. They did everything in no time. Bob ... while Linda made coffee. a. cleaned up b. had cleaned up . was cleaning up d. had been cleaning 9. He was furious. He ... a way to get even with them! a. will find b. found . was finding d. would find 10. Phil said he ... to Chicago before the Vietnam war started. a. moved b. had moved . would move d. was moved 11. Bill Knox reminds me of a cow, he ... always ... something. a. will chew b. have chewed . is chewing d. was chewed 12. He ... of natural causes during the last war. a. died b. was dying . had died d. had been dying 13. Come on, Kim, you ... very silly! Stop it right now! a. are b. are being . were d. have been 14. Come and see me tomorrow. I ... somebody new with all this hair gone. a. will be b. will have been . would be d. will be being
39
15. If it isn't old sport Alec! What a surprise! Pete, look who ...! a. comes b. is coming . has come d. came 16. Go rest a little, Sue. You ... too long. a. work b. has worked . are working d. have been working 17. I ... all the lessons and I'm sure I'm quite ready for the test. a. reviewed b. am reviewing . have reviewed d. have been reviewing 18. Sharon calmed down only after the girl ... to sleep. a. were gone b. went . would go d. had gone 19. Anne told mom that she ... her driver's license. a. had lost b. lost . would lose d. has lost 20. I want to tell you something. – Excuse me? – I said I ... to tell you something. a. wanted b. want . will want d. was wanting 21. Bill ... his son that he would teach him to drive a car. a. said b. spoke . talked d. told 22. Dorothy said she ... busy all day and couldn't call. a. was b. was being . had been d. would be 23. I don't know why he's so late. I saw him in the morning and he said he a. would come b. will come . had come d. comes 24. Everybody knew the taxes ... the next year. a. would be raising . would be raised b. were raising d. had been raised 25. Don't worry, he ... on by midday tomorrow. a. is operated . will be operated
40
b. would operate
d. will have been operated
26. You can't use the car, it ... in the auto repair shop. a. is fixed c. is being fixed b. was fixed d. has been fixed 27. When they moved there the Empire State Building ... already. a. was finished . was being finished b. had been finished d. had finished 28. The new English class ... quite popular. a. get b. are got . is getting d. is gotten 29. After an hour's hesitation he finally ... and went to the party. a. got dressed . was dressed b. has gotten dressed d. had been dressed 30. Did he ... in the war? a. was killed c. be killed
b. got killed d. get killed 2 ,
-
(Time limit: 8 min.) 1. Three years ago he had been a student at Berkeley. 2. I have been in Mexico during the summer of 1992. 3. Mary had already made dinner when I arrived, so we were able to eat immediately. 4. We took the bus downtown, did a few errands, and had gone to lunch. 5. He is studying English for the last five months. 6. Bob has been traveling around Europe since he graduated last year. 7. I have played a couple of sets with John when Stuart arrived. 8. He visited a lot of museums in Spain. 9. He said he had hurt his leg. 10. The demonstrators were stopped by the police. 11. Clara got very upset when we saw her yesterday. 12. Everything's all right. The windows are closed, the stove is switched off. 13. When the rain stopped, the kids were allowed to go out. 14. There was a storm last night, and two windows were broken. 15. He didn't start to work until he was 20. 16. We arrived late – the house was full of guests and everyone danced.
41
17. I've done everything. All the reports have been read and all the letters have been answered. 18. He promised to come again, but he never showed up. 19. I saw her a long time ago. Let me see. It was the 2nd of October and she said she would see Paul tomorrow. 20. Watch out while driving a car. 21. We relied on you and you deceive us. 22. He was flattering so expertly that she couldn't help smiling. 23. She told she had not made dinner yet. 24. I was very surprised by his words. 25. He was sure he will see the girl at the party. 26. What did you just say? – I said I'll help you. 27. When has Shakespeare written Romeo and Juliet? 28. She lived in Ohio from 1994 to 1996. 29. She does speak English very fluently. 30. They never took their vacations in winter, did they? 3 (Time limit: 12 min.) 1. he, know, to, did, boss, how, his, please. ________________________________________________________________ 2. ever, do, their, you, homework, help, your, with, friends? ________________________________________________________________ 3. to, go, of, and, for, the, map, down, ask, library, the, Wyoming. ________________________________________________________________ 4. seen, not, she, those, yet, photographs, has. ________________________________________________________________ 5. a, Sharon, been, now, a, than, has, month, for, student, more. ________________________________________________________________ 6. is, look, how, dancing, she, beautifully! ________________________________________________________________ 7. weeks, for, working, several, been, the, not, refrigerator, has. ________________________________________________________________ 8. public, when, the, opened, building, for, was? ________________________________________________________________ 9. what, driving, of, was, kind, he, car? ________________________________________________________________ 10. in, ready, be, your, minute, not, coffee, a, will. ________________________________________________________________
42
Test Three –
,
,
. . , : «
35 . , – 70. » – 60–70 » – 50–59
-
» – 40–49 »–
40 1
1. eat 2. see 3. leave 4. speak 5. make 6. buy 7. drive 8. lose 9. give 10. bring 11. ring 12. swim 13. cast 14. hit 15. hurt
. Time limit: 5 min. She had_____________ her breakfast long before dawn. Peter has never___________ snow before. She said he had just___________ town. The film is much_____________ about. She admitted she had_____________ a mistake. The car had been_________ long before they moved to Chicago. Have you ever_________________ a Corvette? He discovered that he had___________ his wallet. I was______________ a free brochure at the mall. Such questions are usually_____ up before the Board of Directors. How long has the bell been_________? Has he ever__________ across the Amazon? The figure is___________ in bronze. He was___________ in bronze. Stanley had been_________ by their criticisms. 2 :
a) Time limit: 8 min. 1. tear What a pity! I__________ one of my best shirts on that nail! 2. steal Her car________ 3 times before she decided to get rid of it. 3. dig The phone company_________ a big hole in the street yesterday. 4. shine Mr. Brown______________ his shoes when I entered the room. 5. shrink My favorite shirt____________ in the last wash. 6. blow Look! The wind___________ down the old pear tree. 7. wake Dora asked the nurse if the baby_____________ up. 8. lead Many people in South Africa_______________ a miserable existence.
43
9. bear 10. leave 11. swing 12. kneel 13. ride 14. grow 15. sing 16. shed 17. fly 18. split 19. light 20. quit 21. rise 22. sink 23. win
When they were on holidays in Egypt, it was Mr. Gore who__________ all the expenses. I told the detective that she________________ the store. A dog ran into the room and the door_________________ shut. Lucy came into the room and________________ on the floor. They steadily_________________ for five days before they reached the mountains. My grandfather_____________ strawberries for over 10 years. She had a lovely voice and often_______________ for us. Some trees________________ their leaves in autumn. The Concords____________ by British pilots for over 20 years now. A few years ago the National Liberal Party__________ in two factions. Our streets_____________ by electricity. I remember how it happened. That day we__________ work earlier than usual... After that he___________ from his seat and left without saying a word. Wood doesn't___________________ in water, it floats. Our team_________________ all the games this season.
b) Time limit: 15 min. (1) keep Mrs. Meachem _______________a little bakery. (2) come (3) Two or three times a week a customer _________, and she bcgin (4) speak ___________to take interest in him. He _______________ (5) be English with strong German accent. His clothes _________old and worn, (6) have but he looked neat and _______________very good manners. He al(7) buy (8) cost ways ______________two loaves of stale bread. Fresh bread (9) be __________________five cents a loaf. Stale ones _____________two for five. (10) see (11) Once she _________a red and brown spot on his fingers. She be (12) be ______________ sure that he _________an a artist and very poor. (13) keep (14) The customer _______________ on buying stale bread. She know ______________ he began to look thinner and was discouraged. She wanted (15) to add something good to his bread. But she dared not. She know _____________ the pride of artists. (16) come One day the customer ____________ in for his stale loaves. While (17) get (18) Mrs. Meachem ____________ them for him, a fire-engine come (19) run ____________ past. He __________ to the door to look. (20) Mrs. Meachem seized the opportunity. With a knife she make (21) put _____________ a deep cut in each of the stale loaves, ___________ a great deal of butter inside and pressed them together.
44
She imagined his surprise and pleasure when he discovered the butter in the loaves. (22) The next day she was full of anticipation. Suddenly the front door bell ring (23) see _____________ furiously. She __________ two men come in. (24) be (25) One __________ a young man she had never seen before. The other be (26) shake ____________ her artist. He ________ his fist at her shouting, “You, fool! You have ruined me!” (27) take The young man ____________ him by the arm. “I think you ought to (28) be told, ma'am,” he said, “what it's all about. This gentleman be (29) draw (30) ____________ an artist. He _________ a plan for a new city-hall. It be ___________ a prize competition. He finished inking the lines, yesterday. You (31) make know, an architect always _____________ his drawing in pencil first. (32) do When it's ______________, he rubs out the pencil lines with stale bread. Well, today... you know, that butter isn't... well, the plan isn’t good for anything now, except to cut up into sandwiches.” Test Four I.
:
1. The locomotive is being repaired. a) b) c) 2. The locomotive has been repaired. a) b) c) 3. This locomotives works was built. a) b) c) d) 4. The traffic carried on the line... a) b) , c) 5. The developments introduced. a) b) c) d) 45
II.
:
1. ? a) Calculations have shown a sharp increase in car production. b) It has been estimated that automobile burns about 2 tons of fuel per year. c) For many years the system described was being used on steam railroads quite successfully. d) The drivers cab was provided with air conditioning. 2. ? a) This locomotive is designed to speed up the sorting operations. b) Automatic train control is being introduced on electrified railways. c) Conditions have been provided to complete the experiment in time. 3. ? a) This fact should be mentioned at the conference. b) The monorail railroads will be built to link cities with their airports. c) Computers perform calculations quickly and efficiently. d) Modem TV sets are filled with different electronic devices. III.
“to be”
a) b) c) d)
Battery electric cars are practically noiseless in operation. The real solution is to bring freight trains up to passenger standards. Goods were to be loaded in containers. The alternative is to have one route for passenger trains and another for freight trains. e) Today, signaling, brakes and track are all being improved. f) Train control is achieved through line-side cables. g) The designers are working to improve metro escalators. IV.
“to have”
a) Railways have introduced a new type of freight car for transporting cement. b) Today, more powerful machines have to be developed to speed up the process of building railroads. c) Powerful machines have been developed for building railroads. d) Horses had been used as tractive power long before the steam locomotive was invented. e) More powerful locomotives had to be used to draw long trains. f) Before the steam locomotive began to run on railways the passengers had travelled in carriages drawn by horses. V.
:
1. Goods were to be loaded in containers. What ... goods to be loaded in?
46
a) did b) is c) was
d) do e) were f) am
2. The speeds on railways have increased so greatly. Where ... the speeds increased so greatly? a) has d) was b) were e) does c) have 3. Motor cars, planes and locomotives pollute the air. ... motor cars, planes and locomotives pollute the air? a) is d) do b) were e) did c) have f) are 4. The first industrial robots appeared in our country more than a decade ago. When ... the first industrial robots appear in our country? a) was d) do g) have b) am e) were c) does f) did VI.
:
to remain means vital of communication have the railway to increase will speed its VII.
is to be what of the role in railways the future
II
«
»
1. Some of the houses have been built by these engineers. 2. This car is being built at our plant. 3. The railway built connected Moscow with the Far East. 4. The locomotive is to be built in the shortest time possible. 5. Most modern cars are built at the car building plants.
47
VIII. a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c) a) b) c)
:
1. I want the students to describe this picture. . , . , . 2. The writer is reported to have published his new book. , , , 3. I've got a lot of things to do. . . . 4. She didn't appear to have heard the report. . , . , .
. . .
IX. a) b) c) d)
:
Having been shown the picture we expressed our opinion. When showing him my poems I always want to know his opinion. Having shown my poem to the professor I was eager to listen to his opinion. The article having been discussed we decided to publish it. X.
I
:
a) (to attend) art exhibitions we improve and develop our artistic taste. b) (to attend) the exhibition we decided to arrange a discussion. c) The meeting (to attend) by many people. d) The exhibition (to attend) we organized a discussion. XI.
:
a) She wanted to be introduced to me. b) She wanted him to be introduced to her. c) We expect everybody to be ready at seven. d) is considered to be a good designer. e) I knew him to be a clever man. f) She was the last to come. g) It is important for them to read this article. h) Our teacher is heard by everybody.
48
1.
, . ,
.
,
,
,
-
. .
–
, ,
. . -
? ? ?
,
, ?
-
? definite science politics is needed, if the development of science is to favour the best interests of the country. Thus, another problem must be added to the multitude of unresolved organizational problems that so complicate life in modern society. Scientific research needs organization and control. We need not be aghast at the words. In and of themselves they do not mean that science must be choked in bureaucratic red tape or that the scholar will be deprived of the freedom to choose his own projects. Several simple questions must be put forward: What should be the level of government spending on science? Should it be one or five per cent of the general budget? How should this investment be distributed among the various fields of scientific research? Which branches of industry serving the instrumental needs of science should be given priority? How is the volume of their production to be planned? How many scientists, in which specialties will be required by in nation the next few years? How shall cruitment for the universities scheduled? 2. -
. ,
, .
To smoke or not to smoke? The problem of smoking is much under discussion. Some people smoke, some don't. At present little is known for certain about the tobacco effect on the
49
human organism. The amount of nicotine absorbed by a heavy smoker per day is capable of killing a horse. Yet it does no visible harm to the smoker. At least no immediate harm. As to long-range effects much of what is attributed to tobacco can be caused by different factors. Quite a number of studies are carried on in order to establish cause-effect relationship between smoking and some dangerous diseases. The number of theories advanced is increasing, but the many papers dealing with the problem have to admit that most evidence is ambiguous and that there is a little confusion and a lot of controversy concerning the results obtained. However, the little evidence that is conclusive makes all doctors say that the practice is harmful. Most of those smoking wish to give it up, and it is a matter of record that a great many heavy smokers often make several attempts before they give up... either smoking or the attempts. It requires not a little will power and a great deal of determination. So only few succeed. And those few say that they have felt so much better ever since. Fill in the blanks with it or its, they or their. 1. ... follows that mathematics in ... pure sense will not enter into this frame … object of study being not nature itself. 2. We see that astronomy is still at the very opening of ... existence. 3. Many seek after knowledge for … own sake. 4. The number of elements which make up organic compounds is quite restricted, although the number of combinations into which ... can enter is great indeed. 5. In ... deductions the authors assumed that the third-order elastic constants varied linearly with temperature. A.
Give Russian equivalents of the italicized words. 1. When it is said that a man weighs 160 lbs it means that he is exerting a force of 160 lbs on the floor. 2. It is likely that the reserves of oil and coal will be exhausted in less than a century, 3. Lack of figures may make it difficult to produce accurate statistics. 4. In any case it is not difficult to devise a suitable computational scheme. 5. We found it more convenient to describe the structure in terms of bond angles and bond distances. Identify the function of one and give Russian equivalents of the italicized words. 1. Reading books enlarges one horizons. 2. It takes one much time and effort to carry out calculation of this kind. 3. Your definition is somewhat different from the one mentioned above. 4. The choice of the critical concentration is an arbitrary one. 5. One accepts standards which are specifically biological. 6. The technique does not allow one to isolate each individual component. 7. One cannot be surprised if one is not accustomed to the situation which is nullified by the surprise. Identify the function of this (these) and give Russian equivalents of the italicized words. 1. These outstanding discoveries were made by Russian scientists at the beginning of this century. 2. Usually a second alloy-layer appears between the outer B.
50
coating and the base metal, and it is probable that this consists of different compounds. 3. Two basic schemes of replica are possible, these are illustrated in Fig. 1. 4. The definition does not make any mention of the rates of adsorption. These may be quite different for different materials. 5. I do not remember who was the first at this laboratory to use this term. Identify the function of that (those) and give Russian equivalents of the italicized words. 1. It will be better to say that fundamental research is that which may have no immediate practical value. 2. The task of theory is to enable one to calculate the result of an experiment in a shorter time than that required to perform the experiment. 4. Those interested in the problem are referred to a more recent and complete work by Dr. N. 5. The experimental results indicated the presence of some foreign species and that confirmed an earlier idea concerning the reaction mechanism. Substitute the proper nouns for the italicized pronouns. 1. Physicists may also be mentioned in this connection but without distinguishing between the practical and theoretical ones. 2. A great deal of attention has been devoted to problems generated by the “information explosion” as it has been popularly termed. 3. One famous question was already raised: that of the “mathematical dream”. 4. The telescope admitted a hundred times as much light as the unaided human eye, and according to Galileo, it showed an object at fifty miles as clearly as if it was only five miles away. 5. The most wonderful instincts, those of the hive-bee and of the ant, cannot be explained in this way. 6. There are men to whom nothing seems great but reason. For men of this class it is a cosmos so admirable that to penetrate to its ways seems to them the only thing that makes life worth living. 7. Electrolysis of sulphate and chloride solution gave about the same type of deposit. This was composed of both the amorphous and compact metal. 3. Science and Technology 1. Science problems can be roughly classified as analytic and synthetic. In analytic problems we seek the principles of the most profound natural processes, the scientist working always at the edge of the unknown. This is the situation today, for instance, within the two extremes of research in physics – elementary particle physics and astrophysics – both concerned with the properties of matter, one on the smallest, the other on the grandest scale. Research objectives in these fields are determined by the internal logic of the development of the field itself. Revolutionary shocks to the foundations of scientific ideas can be anticipated from these very areas. 2. As to synthetic problems, they are more often studied because of the possibilities which they hold for practical applications, immediate and distant, than
51
because their solution is called for by the logic of science. This kind of motivation strongly influences the nature of scientific thinking and the methods employed in solving problems. Instead of the traditional scientific question: “How is this to be explained?” the question behind the research becomes “How is this to be done?” The doing involves the production of a new substance or a new process with certain predetermined characteristics. In many areas of science, the division between science and technology is being erased and the chain of research gradually becomes the sequence of technological and engineering stages involved in working out a problem. 3. In this sense, science is a Janus-headed figure. On the one hand, it is pure science, striving to teach the essence of the laws of the material world. On the other hand, it is the basis of a new technology, the workshop of bold technical ideas, and the driving force behind continuous technical progress. 4. In popular books and journals we often read that science is making greater strides every year, that in various fields of science discovery is followed by discovery in at steady stream of increasing significance and that one daring theory opens the way to the next. Such may be the impression with research becoming a collective doing and scientific data exchange a much faster process. Every new idea should immediately be taken up and developed further, forming the initial point of an avalanche-like process. 5. Things are, in fact, much more complex than that. Every year scientists are faced with the problems of working through thicker and tougher material, phenomena at or near the surface having long been explored, researched, and understood. The new relations that we study, say, in the world of elementary -13 particles at dimensions of the order of 10 cm or in the world of superstellar objects at distances of billions of light years from us, demand extremely intense efforts on the part of physicists and astrophysicists, the continuous modernization of laboratories with experimental facilities becoming more and more grandiose and costing enormous sums. Moreover, it should be stressed that scientific equipment rapidly becomes obsolete. Consequently, the pace of scientific development in the areas of greatest theoretical significance is drastically limited by the rate of building new research facilities, the latter depending on a number of economic and technological factors not directly linked to the aims of the research. It may take, for example, more than 10 years from the initial decision to build a 100–200 billion electron volt accelerator to its completion. It should be borne in mind, too, that few measurements and readings given by these great facilities push science forward, results of any great significance being very rare. For instance, tens of thousands of pictures taken during the operation of an accelerator will have to be scrutinized in the hope of finding, among typically trite processes, signs of a new interaction or of a new event whose presence or absence may confirm a theoretical idea.
52
4. What Science Is 1. It can be said that science is a cumulative body of knowledge about the natural world, obtained by the application of a peculiar method practised by the scientist. It is known that the word science itself is derived from the Latin “scire”, to know, to have knowledge of, to experience. Fundamental and applied sciences are commonly distinguished, the former being concerned with fundamental laws of nature, the latter engaged in application of the knowledge obtained. Technology is the fruit of applied science, being the concrete practical expression of research done in the laboratory and applied to manufacturing commodities to meet human needs. 2. The word “scientist” was introduced only in 1840 by a Cambridge professor of philosophy who wrote: “We need a name for describing a cultivator of science in general. I should be inclined to call him a scientist”. “The cultivators of science" before that time were known as "natural philosophers”. They were curious, often eccentric, persons who poked inquiring fingers at nature. In the process of doing so they started a technique of inquiry which is now referred to as the “scientific method”. 3. Briefly, the following steps can be distinguished in this method. First comes the thought that initiates the inquiry. It is known, for example, that in 1896 the physicist Henri Becquerel, in his communication to the French Academy of Sciences, reported that he had discovered rays of an unknown nature emitted spontaneously by uranium salts. His discovery excited Marie Curie, and together with her husband Pierre Curie she tried to obtain more knowledge about the radiation. What was it exactly? Where did it come from? 4. Second comes the collecting of facts: the techniques of doing this will differ according to the problem which is to be solved. But it is based on the experiment in which anything may be used to gather the essential data – from a test-tube to an Earth-satellite. It is known that the Curies encountered great difficulties in gathering their facts, as they investigated the mysterious uranium rays. 5. This leads to step three: organizing the facts and studying the relationships that emerge. It was already noted that the above rays were different from anything known. How to explain this? Did this radiation come from the atom itself? It might be expected that other materials also have the property of emitting radiation. Some investigations made by Mme Curie proved that this was so. The discovery was followed by further experiments with “active” radioelements only. 6. Step four consists in stating a hypothesis or theory: that is, framing a general truth that has emerged, and that may be modified as new facts emerge. In July 1898, the Curies announced the probable presence in pitchblende ores of a new element possessing powerful radioactivity. This was the beginning of the discovery of radium.
53
7. Then follows the clearer statement of the theory. In December 1898, the Curies reported to the Academy of Sciences: “The various reasons enumerated lead us to believe that the new radioactive substance contains a new element to which we propose to give the name of Radium. The new radioactive substance certainly contains a great amount of barium, and still its radioactivity is considerable. It can be suggested therefore that the radioactivity of radium must be enormous”. 8. And the final step is the practical test of the theory, i. e. the prediction of new facts. This is essential, because from this flows the possibility of control by man of the forces of nature that are newly revealed. 9. Note should be taken of how Marie Curie used deductive reasoning in order to proceed with her research, this kind of “detective work” being basic to the methodology of science. It should be stressed further that she dealt with probability – and not with certainty – in her investigation. Also, although the Curies were doing the basic research work at great expense to themselves in hard physical toil, they knew that they were part of an international group of people all concerned with their search for truth. Their reports were published and immediately examined by scientists all over the world. Any defects in their arguments would be pointed out to them immediately. I. Read paragraph 1. 1. Follow the dominant noun and the words related to it in meaning through the paragraph and state the main idea. 2. Give Russian equivalents of: a cumulative body of knowledge, a peculiar method practised by the scientist, manufacturing commodities to meet human needs. II. Read paragraph 2. 1. Follow the dominant noun and its equivalents through the paragraph. Identify the sentence which repeats the idea expressed in the first sentence of the text. 2. Identify the words used by the author as equivalent to: … 3. Identify the words used by the author as equivalent to doing so, a technique of inquiry. III. Read paragraph 3. 1. Identify the topic sentence and the illustrating sentences. Among the latter identify the dominant noun and follow it through its transformations into its equivalents and pronouns. 2. Give a Russian equivalent of initiates. IV. Read paragraph 4. 1. Identify the topic sentence. Follow the words the collecting of facts through their transformations into their equivalents and pronouns. 2. Identify the words equivalent to: , , . V. Read paragraph 5. 1. Identify the topic sentence and the illustrating sentences. Find the sentence describing the first step on the way to a hypothesis (What modal verb is
54
used to show that it is only the first step?). 2. Identify the words used by the author as equivalent to this was so. 3. Give a Russian equivalent of emerge. Translate the last sentence of the paragraph into Russian. VI. Read paragraph 6. I. Identify the topic sentence and the illustrating sentences. Find the sentence describing the next step in the development of the hypothesis (What word shows that it is a hypothesis?). State the function of that is and give its Russian equivalent. 2. Translate the first sentence into Russian. VII. Read paragraphs 7 and 8. 1. Identify the topic sentence and the illustrating sentences. Find the sentence describing the final step in the development of the hypothesis. 2. Find the guide words to the author's thought equivalent to: , , . 3. Try to explain the author's choice of the modal verbs. 4. Find the English equivalent of i. e. in paragraph 6. VIII. Read paragraph 9. 1. State the role of deductive reasoning in science. Indicate the words characterizing the conditions under which the Curies worked. 2. Translate paragraph 9 into Russian. IX. Read the whole text again and see if any corrections should be made in your original outline. Write an abstract of the text in three sentences. 5.
“WOULD YOU LIKE YOUR SON OR DAUGHTER TO BECOME A SCIENTIST? IF SO, IN WHAT FIELD?” The questions were asked by the Literary Gazette and a British scientist was reported to answer as follows. I would not like my son or daughter to become a scientist of the kind typical in the world today. The development of science has already led to many undesirable consequences and is likely to lead to many more unless great effort is made to control the application of scientific discoveries. If, however, science could be developed in a new way to become a meaningful social activity, I would be glad to see my son or daughter doing science. So far as the field is concerned, I think there will be a growing tendency for scientists to occupy themselves with problems which affect fairly directly the lives of people. There seems to exist a great need to develop science which deals specially with the problems of how the applications of science affect man. To cite but a few examples, there are such problems as urban development, education and, of course, the prevention of war. If the new knowledge about the world is used for the benefit of man, rather than for death and destruction, the human race cart continue to benefit from science for centuries to come.
55
6.
, Physics: Its Recent, Past and the Lessons to Be Learned
1. What sort of physics are we to do between now and the end of the century? I will try to look at the next 30 years of physics not avoiding speculation but mainly concentrating on practical questions to face us today. My remarks are sure to have a personal and Princeton flavour, but principles should apply to anyone, anywhere. I will begin with an example from the past, which proves a forecast for 30 years to be sometimes possible and fruitful. 2. When I came as a graduate student to the English Cambridge 24 years ago, I found most of my physicist friends cursing the name of Sir Lawrence Bragg, who had become director in 1938, the year after the death of Rutherford. By that time the younger men thought to be brilliant physicists and known to be establishing schools of their own had left the place. The leadership in highenergy physics had passed to Berkeley. But Bragg made no effort to rebuild. He did not appear to be interested in plans for a new accelerator to be developed. He said: “We have taught the world very successfully how to do nuclear physics. Now let us teach them how to do something else.” 3. The people whom Bragg was interested in supporting were thought to be a strange bunch, doing things which the high energy people would hardly consider to be physics. There was Martin Ryle, who was known to be looking for radio sources in the sky. There was Max Perutz, who was said to have spent 10 years on X-ray analysis of the structure of the haemoglobin molecule and to remark very cheerfully that in another 15 years he would have it. There was a crazy character called Francis Crick, who seemed to have lost interest in, and given up, physics altogether. The place which Bragg was to leave in 7 years had become a centre of first-class international standing in two fields of research that nowadays appear as important as high energy physics: radio astronomy and molecular biology. 4. This history of the last 30 years in Cambridge may seem to be a little oversimplified. Nevertheless we can appreciate it if we think of the important lessons which it can give us today. What are the lessons? What enabled Bragg to do so well with what looked in 1938 like a disastrous situation? Broadly speaking, he may be said to have followed three rules. The rules are: 1. Don't try to revive past glories. 2. Don't do things just because they are fashionable. 3. Don't be afraid of the scorn of the theoreticians. 5. The last 30 years have shown us, Princeton people, to be doing not so well as Bragg did. As for the 1st rule I can say with confidence that we score high on it. We have not since 1946 had a professor working in the field of general relativity. It seemed unreasonable to expect to find anybody in this particular field as good as Einstein. On the second rule we score middling. We have always had room for some unfashionable people, but a very high percentage of our
56
output of papers turns out to be in the fashionable part of particle physics and seems to be quite indistinguishable from the papers produced by 20 other institutes of theoretical physics. On the third rule we score extremely bad. The most original, unfashionable and worthwhile thing done by the Institute after Einstein was the design and construction of Von Neumann's prototype electronic computer, the Maniac. In the ten years after World War II the group around Von Neumann was to lead the world in ideas concerning the development and use of computers. But the snobs at our Institute could not tolerate electrical engineers walking around with their dirty hands and spoiling the purity of our scholarly atmosphere. Von Neumann was strong enough to override the opposition. But when he tragically died, they took advantage of the opportunity, and the project was given up. 6. I always thought the failure of our computer group to be a disaster not only for Princeton but for science as a whole. It meant that at that time no academic centre existed for computer people of all kinds to get together at the highest intellectual level. The field that was abandoned was to be taken over by IBM*. Although it is a fine organization in many ways it cannot be expected to provide the atmosphere of intellectual fertility which Von Neumann managed to create here, at Princeton. We had the opportunity to do it, and we threw the opportunity away. 7. So much for the past. What about the future? Because our computer project appeared unique and ahead of its time, I was sorry at the news of its abandonment. But I am not equally sorry at the news that our accelerators to be abandoned next year. I believe the loss of the accelerator is likely to put Princeton into a position similar, in some respects, to that of Cambridge in 1938. We shall have an opportunity to do something different. I. Read paragraph 1. 1. Identify the sentence which serves as an introduction to the text below. Identify the sentences which contain the author's characterization of the talk which he is going to give. Translate them into Russian. II. Read paragraph 2. 1. State the topic of the paragraph. 2. What is meant by the place and them? 3. Characterize the situation in Cambridge after the death of Rutherford. Characterize the people who had left Cambridge by 1946 (use simple sentences). III. Read paragraph 3. 1. State the main idea of the paragraph. Identify it with the noun which it stands for. 2. Characterize the people whom Bragg supported in Cambridge in 1938 (use simple sentences). 3. Give a Russian equivalent of a centre of firstclass international standing.
57
IV. Read paragraph 4. 1. State the topic of the paragraph. 2. Find the words equivalent to: no ; , ; . 3. Translate the end of the paragraph into Russian beginning with “What enabled...” V. Read paragraph 5. 1. Copy out the topic sentence and the three sentences expressing the author's assessment of the situation in Princeton according to the above rules. Translate the latter sentences into Russian. 2. Copy out the words implied by the opposition and the opportunity. 3. Give Russian equivalents of: we have always had room for…; the most original unfashionable and worthwhile thing, the purity of our scholarly atmosphere. VI. Read paragraphs 6 and 7. 1. Copy out the topic sentence of paragraph 6 and state the main idea of paragraph 7. 2. Identify the pronoun it with the nouns which it stands for and copy them out. VII. Translate paragraphs 6 and 7 into Russian. VIII. Look through the text again and say whether the author answers his opening question. * International Business Machines – a U.S. computer making company.
7.
.
-
Physics in the Next 30 Years Read the text without consulting the dictionary, pencil-mark the words that you do not understand. Make up a list of problems which the author expects physicists to be primarily concerned with in the nearest future. I. 1. I begin my prognostications of the future by taking a look at what might be expected to happen in high-energy physics in the next 30 years. There are two main ways of doing research in this field. The rich man's way is to build accelerators, which give high, accurately controlled energy. The poor man's way is to use cosmic rays, which are known to come down upon poor and rich alike like the rain, but have very low intensity and completely uncontrolled energy. I think there is a better-than-even chance that the major discoveries of the next 30 years in high-energy physics may be expected to be made with cosmic rays. That is why I venture to say that it may be good for us, scientifically speaking, to be poor. I may easily happen to be wrong about the promise of cosmic rays physics. Going into any field of research is always a gamble. Only in this case I believe this gamble to be a reasonable one. I have heard some accelerator enthusiasts talk as if they seriously expect, by building one more machine and measuring a few more cross sections, to solve all the outstanding riddles of nature. Our experience in high- energy physics so far has taught us that 58
there are new problems and new complexities to be disentangled every time that we extend the range of our observations. I would be disappointed if no surprises were found to remain in the vast range of energies beyond the reach of the accelerators. I hope and believe that the universe of high energies will prove to be as inexhaustible as the universe of astronomy and the universe of pure mathematics. 2. Apart from studying cosmic rays, what else is there for physicists to do? An individual physicist working in close collaboration with engineers and chemists and biologists is likely to be able to make some important contributions. However, he is not to expect things which he does to be mainly physics. If he is any good, he will use his physics only as a cultural background to think about problems primarily chemical, biological or economical in nature. Accordingly, I think it would be a mistake for a physics department of a university to become heavily involved in a fashionable environmental problem, for instance, as it is violation of the 2nd of Bragg's rules. I take it as self-evident that physics will not flourish in isolation from the rest of science. In particular, it is essential for physics to keep in close touch with biology, as biology rather than physics is likely to be the central ground of scientific advance during the remainder of our century. Bragg understood this in 1946 when he put his money on Perutz and the X-ray analysis of haemoglobin in preference to a new accelerator. 3. I think there exists a tremendous opportunity for major advances in molecular biology to be made by means of physical techniques. But will it be good physics? I have every reason to expect you to object to this style of research saying that it may be good biology, but it is not physics. That is what many of us were saying about Bragg and Perutz in 1946. I believe we were profoundly mistaken. The idea of physics having to be pure in order to be good was wrong in 1946 and is still wrong today. William Spohn's recent article called “Can Mathematics Be Saved?” turned out to be a kind of sensation in the mathematical world. Spohn's thesis is that the purists who dominate the mathematical establishment have alienated mathematics from the rest of human culture to bring it to the danger of becoming sterile. Much of what he says is equally true if you change the title of his article to “Can Physics Be Saved?” and substitute “highenergy physics” for his “modern mathematics”. In my opinion the surest way to save physics is to keep young physicists working on the frontiers where physics overlaps other sciences, such as astronomy and biology. It is easy to give examples. One possibility known to have been much discussed by molecular biologists is the development of electron-microscope technology to the point at which the structure of individual molecules becomes directly visible. It might be possible in this way to achieve a non-destructive and rapid analysis of large molecules... 4. It would be pointless for me to try to make a complete list of the important things which physicists will find interesting to do in the coming decades. Inevitably the most exciting things are certain to be those that I haven't thought of.
59
I myself find that the most exciting part of physics at the present moment lies on the astronomical frontier, where we have had an unparalleled piece of luck in discovering the pulsars. Pulsars turn out to be laboratories in which the properties of matter and radiation can be studied under conditions millions of time more extreme than we had previously had available to us. We do not yet understand how pulsars work, but there are good reasons to believe that they are accelerators in which Nature makes cosmic rays. Besides providing cosmic rays for the particle physicists to be able to do “cheap” physics, the pulsars are sure to provide crucial tests of theory in many parts of physics ranging from superfluidity to general relativity... II. I have tried to give here an honest evaluation of those tendencies in physics that I find to be good and bad. I am not gloomy about the future of physics. To my mind there are only two things that can be considered to be disastrous for the future of physics. One is to solve all the major unsolved problems. That would indeed be a disaster, but I do not expect it to happen in the foreseeable future. The other disastrous thing would be if we became too pure and isolated from the practical problems of life for any of the brightest and most dedicated students to want to study physics at all. This second danger seems to me to be a real one. It will not happen if we stay diversified, if we emphasize work that has important applications outside physics, and above all, if we follow Bragg's third rule: “Do not be afraid of the scorn of theoreticians”. I. Read paragraph 1. 1. Follow the words cosmic rays and accelerator through the text and state the main idea of the paragraph, either in English or in Russian. 2. Copy out the words equivalent to: ; ; ; . 3. Give Russian equivalents of: to come down upon poor and rich alike like the rain; a better-than-even chance; a reasonable gamble; beyond the reach of; inexhaustible. II. Read paragraphs 2 and 3. 1. Follow the words “physicist” and “physics” through the paragraphs and make up a summary of the paragraphs in three sentences, either in English or in Russian. 2. Copy out the words equivalent to: , ; ; ; ; ...; ; . 3. Give Russian equivalents of: if he is any good; as a cultural background; to become heavily involved in a problem; to be the central ground of scientific advance; (they) have alienated mathematics from the rest of human culture to bring it to…; much of what he says; to develop to the point at which… III. Read paragraph 4. 1. Copy out the sentence in which the author assesses the future development of physics. Follow the word pulsars through the paragraph and copy out their characteristics given by the author.
60
IV. Read paragraph 5. 1. Copy out the characteristics of the two dangerous situations which physicists may face in the future. V. Translate paragraphs 4 and 5 into Russian. VI. Make up a list of words that you have looked up in the dictionary and give their contextual Russian equivalents. 8.
, Search for Extraterrestrial Life LIFE ON OTHER WORLDS
1. Man has always been fascinated by the possibility of life on other worlds. As long ago as the second century, science fiction writers were peopling the universe with bizarre creatures. When scientists began to develop instruments capable of analyzing distant planets, they generally dismissed the possibility of extraterrestrial life. It was suggested that the atmospheres and temperature ranges of those planets should be different from those of the Earth, which is still the only known life-supporting planet. In recent years, however, scientists have begun to change their minds. They understand how life might have originated under conditions that would appear alien to us now. At the dawn of life on Earth, its atmosphere must have resembled that of such apparently hostile planet as Jupiter. Accepting the possibility of life is one thing. Proving it is another. It should be emphasized that great interplanetary distance is still the major obstacle to exploration. But scientists are developing machines and techniques for finding life, preparing for the inevitable day when those distances would be spanned – and man would make his first contact with living beings on another world. INTELLIGENT LIFE ON OTHER PLANETS 2. The question of whether alien planets have intelligent beings on them is a still more tangled one. It is by no means certain that intelligence of human quality is the normal culmination of evolution. Some conditions may be favourable to life but not to high intelligence. The Earth's oceans, for instance, have no appreciably intelligent creatures, except for mammals such as dolphins and seals. To judge by this analogy, which is risky, an alien planet that is completely covered by water will probably have no animals more intelligent than the Earth's fish. The human combination of a large brain and a tool-holding hand is even more fortuitous. It would be expected that a long series of special circumstances was necessary to develop it. If any of them had been lacking, the Earth would have continued for billions of years more, perhaps for the life of the solar system, without achieving really high intelligence. 3. On the other hand, intelligence undoubtedly has important survival value. Evolution on the Earth has generally moved in the direction of more highly
61
developed brains. Fish have better brains than the man worms from which they evolved, and amphibians, reptiles and mammals have successively better ones. If man had not developed his large brain some other mammal, perhaps, the racoon, might have done so in few tens of millions of years. Evolutionists suggest that intelligence should be in the cards for any planet where conditions are reasonably favourable for it. 4. But does intelligence imply that civilization exists? Here is another question hedged with unknowns. In the case of the Earth, more than 200,000 years must have passed between the appearance of the first men with really large brains and the first human society that could be called civilized. But with only one example to judge by, this incubation period cannot be called standard for all inhabited planets. It may be unusually short or long. In any case, there should be plenty of time. The Earth produced creatures capable of technical civilization in about five billion years, less than half of the 13 billion years that the sun would be expected to shine steadily. Since smaller stars of the sun's type are extremely numerous and shine even longer, their planetary systems might have an even better chance – so far as time is concerned – to develop civilization. 5. Even when civilization has begun, a high technical civilization is by no means certain. The first civilized human communities were agricultural villages in the Middle East about 10,000 years ago. Since that time, human civilization has experienced many ups and downs. For many long periods, it must have seemed that civilization was a self-limiting process that could never rise above the handicraft level. CIVILIZATION IN OUTER SPACE 6. At present human culture is in an unprecedented state of rapid development. For the first time it has become technical and scientific, and has found ways to unlock an apparently limitless storehouse of new powers. Its progress grows faster and faster, all its curves rise upward, and the limit is nowhere in sight. It is tempting to assume that civilizations on other planets would normally reach the same take-off point and become as progressive and powerful as the Earth's. Another step is to expect that if they are a thousand or a million years older, they must be vastly more advanced than the Earth's civilization. 7. Neither of these assumptions can be justified by studying the single example of advanced civilization that we possess – that is, our own. Alien civilizations may not develop in the same way as the Earth's. They may exhaust totally the ready resources of their planets and return to a more primitive condition. Their individuals and societies may be repelled by change and make sure that it should not take place. They may destroy themselves with all-too-effective weapons. 8. It can be argued, however, that high civilization has survival value and will therefore be favoured by cultural evolution. A civilized group would generally prove stronger than a primitive one, and a high technical civilization would
62
overcome a culture that clings to pretechnical ways. It must be mentioned that this has happened so often on the Earth that it seems to be a law of nature. It is happening now and therefore, say the optimists, it is safe to assume that some of the planets that developed intelligent life far in the past would have achieved technical civilization and would be far beyond the Earth in knowledge and power. I. Read paragraph 1. 1. Follow the dominant noun through its transformations into its equivalents and pronouns and state the topic of the paragraph. Identify three periods in the history of the problem. Characterize the ideas prevalent in each period. Find the sentences which provide arguments for or against the possibility of life on other planets. 2. Give Russian equivalents of: (they) were peopling the universe with; they dismissed the possibility; to change their minds; alien conditions. II. Read paragraphs 2, 3, 4, 5. 1. Divide the text into three parts, copy out the dominant noun for each part and write down a title for each part. 2. Give Russian equivalents of: a still more tanked question; it is by no means certain; to judge by this analogy; survival value; here is another question hedged with the unknowns; so far as time is concerned; (it) has experienced many ups and downs; the handicraft level. III. Read paragraphs 6, 7, 8. Find the words expressing the author's attitude and state the main idea of this part, either in English or in Russian. IV.Translate paragraphs 6, 7, 8 into Russian. 9. 200-Year Trip in 20 Years 1. If wonderful civilizations exist among the stars, it is only natural that human beings would want to visit them or at least to communicate with them. Both these enterprises are fantastically difficult. 2. Even the nearest stars are so enormously far away that to reach them one is to overcome not only space but also time. If a spaceship set out for nearby Barnard's star, about six light years away, at the speed of 100,000 miles per hour, the voyage would take 40,000 years, and before it was fairly begun the crew would die of old age. Travel at greater speed, even at a major fraction of the speed of light, would not help much, especially for journeys to more distant and more interesting stars. 3. Besides the unattractive resources of putting the crew in deep freeze for thousands of years, the only known way out of this impasse is to travel close to the speed of light itself, the ultimate speed limit of the Universe. If this could be accomplished an extraordinary thing would happen. As one of the strange con-
63
sequences of relativity, time would slow down in the spaceship and the men would reach their destination in what for them would be a few years. Suppose, for instance, that a spaceship set out for a star 100-light-years away and accelerated steadily at the rate of a falling object on the Earth. After the ship passed the midpoint of its journey it would decelerate at the same rate. During most of the trip it would be moving at close to the speed of light. For members of the crew, time would now slow down. But on the Earth more than 200 years will have passed before the ship returns, and the great-grandchildren of the crew will be dead. 4. Even the most hopeful would-be travellers of interstellar space do not believe it possible that such a relativistic journey should take place in the immediate future. But they are confident that some day the trip will be made. They rely on the ever-increasing speed of human technical and scientific progress. Three hundred years ago no one on the Earth had even seen the crudest working steam engine. Now the Earth has spacecrafts that voyage to Mars. Three hundred years hence the men of the future may well have discovered some unsuspected way to travel to the stars. 5. Until that time approaches, the most promising way to make contacts with high civilization on alien planetary systems is to listen to radio messages from them. Though difficult, this is by no means impossible. Radio telescopes no bigger than those existing today on the Earth could communicate with similar telescopes on planets tens of light-years away. Within that distance there are thousands of stars, many of which are sure to have planets, and it is quite possible that radio message from civilizations on some of them should reach the Earth. The first sign that life exists among the stars may be radio signals that mark meaningful pulses on the recording tape of an earthly radio telescope. I. Read paragraph 1. Say what is meant by these enterprises and which one is easier to accomplish (indicate the word which shows it). II. Read paragraph 2. 1. Identify the two dominant nouns of the paragraph and find the words associated with them in meaning. 2. Give Russian equivalents of: a major fraction of the speed of light; before it was fairly begun. III. Read paragraph 3. 1. Identify the topic sentence and the illustrating sentences. Say what is meant by this impasse. How does the principle of relativity operate in space travel? 2. Translate the sentence, beginning with the men would reach. . . IV. Read paragraph 4. 1. Identify the dominant noun and follow it through its transformations into its equivalents. State the main idea of the paragraph. Find the words that express the author's attitude towards the possibility of interstellar flights at present and in
64
the future. 2. Give Russian equivalents of: the most hopeful would-be travellers; they are confident; they rely on; the men of the future may well have discovered. V. Read paragraph 5. 1. Identify the topic sentence and say if it is possible to communicate with other civilizations with present-day technology. 2. Compare the following predicates to see how the degree of certainty is reduced: there are thousands of stars...; many of which are sure to have planets...; radio messages... should reach the Earth...; the first sign... may be radio signals... VI. Read the text again and find the sentence that reveals the idea of the title. 10. Flights of Fancy: Science Fact and Science Fiction 1. A fascinating by-product of space exploration is the conversion of science fiction into science fact. Thirty or so years ago an imaginative author could have described an instrumental flight to Mars, and the subsequent radiocontrolled photography. He might have held the polite interest of a scientific audience by sticking to instrumentation, but he would have been ridiculed for bringing in the human element. Yet today, as we know, scientists and technicians engaged in space projects are actually working on problems that would sound fantastic in comparison with a mere Mars probe. 2. In fact it would be difficult to draw an accurate line of division between intelligent scientific forecasting and the best scientific fiction. It may be thought that the idea of a frozen man being thawed out and reintroduced to society was good science fiction reading about sixty years ago. But twenty years later it was noticed that little fish which had been caught up by icy wind and water, and frozen solid, swam away quite happily when it was subsequently thawed. Now, after another quarter of a century, the legend of the little frozen fishes is being adopted by scientists and considered as another tool for future space travel. 3. In the light of our present-day knowledge there can be only two alternative ways for man to leave this Earth and arrive at some other habitable planet in some incredibly far distant solar system. First, a team of selected men and women could set out in a suitably large and plentifully equipped spacecraft, prepared to live, breed, and die in space, leaving their children to do the same, until at some unspecified date in the far future they would complete the journey. Second, a similar team might be put aboard a spacecraft in deep freeze. Again, at some far distant point in time, activated by automatic control as a result of electronic information, a thawing out process might recondition them so that they could step out and resume life on a new world. It is to be assumed that the first is a horrible idea in terms of loneliness and desolation. The second is comparatively more exciting. Both are quite fantastic, measured by today's standards.
65
4. There is another alternative for man to go off into space which was brought up once after a meeting on plasma physics during an after-dinner talk. This shows how far scientists can be carried away by flights of their fancy when they look at very distant horizons and treat their problems with humour. On that occasion an American physicist Darol Froman suggested that, if would-be astronauts would not wish to go off into interstellar space where the quarters and food are likely to be miserable, the Earth itself should be used as a mancontrolled spaceship. This is how he came to this idea. 5. To get anywhere and back in a lifetime the speed would have to be very high so as to take advantage of the relativistic change in clock rates. It can be inferred that the speed is to be 99 % of the velocity of light. To attain this is not too hard on the pilot and crew. It would take only about a year at an acceleration of g to reach such a speed. But it occurred to me that for most of us the most comfortable spaceship imaginable would be the Earth itself. We will not have to worry about all the usual hardships of space travel. For example, the radiation problem would disappear because of the atmosphere and because we would be going at a low speed. 6. One could ask how we are equipped energy-wise to handle this job. First of all, what about heat and light? We would have to be a long time away from the sun or other near stars. The ocean deuterium could supply 10 ergs. So it can be expected that this deuterium could supply our heat and light (away from the sun) for three million years. There must be no problem here. 7. But how about getting away from the sun? The energy required for the 40 Earth to escape from the sun's gravitational field is about 2,4 × 10 ergs. This would be much more than all that our deuterium could give us, so we shall have to seek some other energy source. There is clearly no point in using antimatter for this purpose because, as we shall see, the specific impulse is much too high and the conversion of energy into enough antimatter would be difficult. It would take much too long to collect the energy from sunlight. If we collected all the sunshine falling on the Earth it would take about fifteen times the remaining life of the sun to accumulate sufficient energy to accomplish the escape of the Earth 4 from the solar system. I believe that we shall have to use the 4p–He reaction. 4 With this reaction, all the protons in all the oceans can give us about 10 times as 42 much energy as all the deuterium, i. e., about 10 ergs. This would give us forty times as much energy as we need to get away from the sun. 9 8. We can then travel this way for 8 × 10 years which is at least four or five times longer than we are allowed if we stay here. In this time if, for example, we accelerate half the way and slow down the other half, we can go about 1,300 light years. In this time and distance we should be able to figure out how to refuel (i. ., fill an ocean or two) from some handy planet and keep the Earth operating indefinitely.
66
9. We had better begin to learn how to combine protons before long. Time is running out. We have already passed two thirds of the useful life of the sun. I predict a pleasant existence in space – we would get away from the daily routine. Perhaps we shall not wish to join another star – life in space may be more desirable. There are really only two problems to solve. One is scientific, namely learning how to make four protons combine into an alpha particle. The plasma physicists present here could easily tackle this problem. The second problem is just engineering, although on a fantastically large scale. And I am sure that some experienced group of engineers could develop and manufacture the engines, nozzles and feed systems that we would need for propulsion of the Earth. I. Read paragraphs 1 and 2. 1. State the main idea of the paragraphs and make up a list of examples which illustrate it. 2. Copy out the words equivalent to: , ; ; . .. 3. Give Russian equivalents of: an imaginative author; bringing in the human element; to draw an accurate line of division; the idea of a frozen man being thawed out and reintroduced to society; which had been caught up by icy wind and water. II. Read paragraph 3. 1. Copy out the topic sentence. By comparing the modal verbs used, state which of the two possibilities discussed is considered by the author to be more realistic. 2. Copy out the words equivalent to: , ; ; . 3. Give Russian equivalents of: a team…could set out; a suitably large and plentifully equipped spacecraft; they could step out and resume life. III. Read paragraphs 4 through 9. 1. Enumerate the advantages of using the Earth as a spaceship. State the main problem which would arise in connection with such a project. 2. Copy out the words equivalent to: , , ; ; ; . 3. Give Russian equivalents of: which was brought up; to go off into space; so as to take advantage of; to handle the job; what about heat and light. 4. Give your reasons for the author's choice of modal verbs in the following sentences: a) D. Froman suggested that... if would-be astronauts would not wish to go off into interstellar space... the Earth itself should be used as a man-controlled spaceship; b) ... it occurred to me that for most of us the most comfortable spaceship imaginable would be the Earth itself. IV. Translate paragraphs 7, 8, 9 into Russian. Make up a list of words that you have looked up in the dictionary and give their contextual Russian equivalents.
67
11.
.
-
. PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION:
HORSECAR
Placing the omnibus on iron rails was the next major innovation. Initially developed by John Mason on regular railroad tracks between Prince and Fourteenth streets in Manhattan in 1832, the horse-drawn streetcar, popularly known as the horsecar, combined the low cost, flexibility, and safety of animal power with the efficiency, smoothness, and all-weather capability of a rail right-ofway. The great expansion of horse-drawn railways came after 1852, when Alphonse Loubat developed a grooved rail that lay flush with the pavement. This was an essential improvement because the earliest horsecars had used rails that protruded six inches or more above street level, seriously interfering with coach and wagon traffic. By 1855, the horsecar had forced the omnibus off the major thoroughfares and onto secondary routes in New York; by 1860, the same process was taking place in Baltimore, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Chicago, Montreal, and Boston. The great advantage of the horsecar obviously lay in its use of rails, which made possible a much smoother ride at a speed (six to eight miles per hour) almost twice as fast as the omnibus, an important consideration if one lived at a distance from work. Moreover, the reduced friction enabled a single horse to pull a thirty- to forty-passenger vehicle that had more inside room, an easier exit, and more effective brakes than the typical omnibus. All these advantages lowered operating costs, ultimately reducing the average fare for a single ride from fifteen cents on the omnibus to ten cents on the horsecar. The only person whose ride was not noticeably improved was the driver, who sat unprotected from the weather on an open platform. It was thought that if the platform were enclosed, the driver's attention and alertness might be compromised. By the mid-1880s, there were 415 street railway companies in the United States operating over six thousand miles of track and carrying 188 million passengers per year, or about twelve rides for every man, woman, and child who lived in a city of at least twenty-five hundred persons. Horsecar railways were built much more slowly in Europe. As late as 1875, the total ridership of Paris, London, Vienna, and Berlin combined was much less than that of New York City alone. In Tokyo, the largest city in Asia, the horsecar was not even introduced until 1882. 12.
, .
,
.
68
PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION:
CABLE CAR
In 1867, a maverick New York City inventor, Charles T. Harvey, developed an overhead vehicle connected by a releasable grip to a constantly moving cable and installed a primitive prototype over a three-block run in Greenwich Village. The effort ultimately failed, however, and it was left to Andrew Smith Hallidie, a Scottish immigrant who had found wealth in San Francisco as a wirerope manufacturer, to attempt an urban duplication of the English mining technique of hauling cars by large cables. Passenger vehicles ran along tracks similar to those of the horse railways, but the power came from giant steam engines that moved the cable. Easily adaptable to the broad, straight avenues of American cities, as opposed to the narrow, sinuous streets of European urban centers, the cable car was particularly suited to Nob Hill and other perilous inclines of the City by the Bay. Chicago, however, quickly developed the world's most extensive cable system, particularly to its South Side, and by 1894, the city boasted more than fifteen hundred grip and trailer cars operating on eighty-six miles of track. Philadelphia opened its first cable line in 1883, followed by New York and Oakland in 1887. By 1890, when cable transportation reached its peak, there were five hundred miles of track in twenty-three cities carrying 373 million passengers per year. But since cable car construction costs were several times those of the horsecar, cable operations had to be restricted to the most heavily traveled routes where passenger revenues would be sufficient to recover the investment. Not surprisingly, the popularity of cable systems soon waned, and most cities remained with the horsecar. Only San Francisco retains Hallidie's invention, primarily for nostalgia and tourism. 13. , «Steam engines had no disadvatages in comparison with other types of transportation» . PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION:
STEAM RAILROAD
The first American railroads were designed for long distance rather than local travel. But they sought ridership wherever they could find it and very early on built stations whenever their lines passed through rural villages on the outskirts of the larger cities. In the nation's largest metropolis, rudimentary commuter travel by steam railroad began in 1832, and by 1837 the New York and Harlem Railroad was offering regular service to 125th Street. Meanwhile, the New York and New Haven Railroad along Long Island Sound reached New Haven in 1843, and the Harlem River line toward Albany reached Peekskill in 1849. Similarly, the Long Island Railroad and the New York and Flushing Railroad enabled former Manhattanites to commute from the east. Over the next half century population growth along these tracks was substantial, and by 1898 the three major passenger lines to the north of the city were alone disgorging
69
118,000 daily commuters into Grand Central Terminal. This pattern was duplicated elsewhere, and by 1900 railroad commuting was well established in Philadelphia, Boston, and Chicago. Relative to other forms of public transportation, however, railroad travel was both expensive and time consuming. Steam engines were difficult to start and stop; unlike the horsecar or the electric streetcar, the steam engine generated speed slowly. The practical result of this limitation was that railroad suburbs were usually discontinuous and located at least a mile or two from each other. Typically, they developed like beads on a string; the towns were connected by the railroad line but were not initially contiguous either to each other or to the central city. 14.
.
PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION: THE ELECTRIC STREETCAR The trolley – called a tram in Europe – was born in the United States. The first practical applications were by Leo Daft in Baltimore in 1885, Charles J. Van Depoele in Montgomery, Alabama, in 1886, and Frank Julian Sprague in Richmond in 1887. Sprague in particular demonstrated the feasibility of moving many cars simultaneously by means of an overhead electric wire. By the turn of the century, half the streetcar systems in the United States were equipped by him, and 90 percent were using his patents. The typical trolley resembled a nineteenth-century railroad car. It had metal wheels, open platforms front and rear, and large windows all around. About half the size of a modern bus, it swayed and clanged down the small railroad tracks that were especially designed for its use. With its constantly humming motor controlled by a driver in a glassed-in cubicle, the vehicle ordinarily had no front or back because it could not be turned around at the end of the line. Pollution-free electric traction possessed many advantages. Faster than either the cable car or the horse-drawn streetcar, it raised the potential speed of city travel to twenty miles per hour (the average was ten to fifteen miles per hour) and was capable of additional acceleration in low-density areas. Similarly, it achieved substantial economies over other forms of transit. It required neither the extensive underground paraphernalia of the cable car nor the heavy investment in animals, feed, and stables of the horsecar. Because trolleys tended to be larger than horsecars, the cost per passenger mile was reduced by at least half. The average fare dropped from a dime to a nickel. The American people embraced the trolley with extraordinary rapidity and enthusiasm. In 1890, when the federal government first canvassed the nation's rail systems, it enumerated 5,700 miles of horsecar track, 500 miles for cable cars, and 1,260 for the trolley. By 1893, only six years after Sprague's successful Richmond experiment, more than 250 electric railways had been incorporated in
70
the United States, and more than 60 percent of the nation's 12,000 miles of track had been electrified. By the end of 1903 America's 30,000 miles of street railway were 98 percent electrified. It was one of the most rapidly accepted innovations in the history of technology. By comparison, the automobile, which was invented at about the same time, was a late bloomer. The rapidity of the American adoption of the trolley was especially striking in comparison with Europe. In 1890, for example, the number of passengers carried on American street railways (including cable and elevated systems) was over 2 billion per year, or more than twice that of the rest of the world combined. In cities of more than 100,000 inhabitants, the average number of rides per person each year was 172, a figure that included children and other persons who rarely traveled. Berlin, which then had the best system in Europe, would have ranked no higher than twenty-second in the United States. At the turn of the century, when the horsecar had virtually disappeared from American streets, it was still the dominant form of urban transport in Britain. In Tokyo, the electric streetcar did not appear until 1903, and in 1911 its system was less than onetenth as large as that of New York City. 15.
, The story of the channel
On Friday 6 May 1994, Queen Elizabeth II of Britain and President Mitterrand of France traveled ceremonially under the sea that separates their two countries and opened the Channel tunnel (often known as ‘the Chunnel’) between Calais and Folkston. For the first time ever, people were able to travel between Britain and the continent without taking their feet off solid ground. The Chunnel was by far the biggest building project in which Britain was involved in the twentieth century. The history of this project, however, was not a happy one. Several workers were killed during construction, the price of construction turned out to be more than double the 14.5 billion first estimated and the start of regular services was repeatedly postponed, the last time even after tickets had gone on sale. On top of all that, the public showed little enthusiasm. On the day that tickets went on sale, only 138 were sold in Britain (and in France, only 12!). On the next day, an informal telephone poll found that only 5 % of those calling said that they would use the Chunnel. There were several reasons for this lack of enthusiasm. At first the Chunnel was open only to those with private transport. For them, the small saving in travel time did not compensate for the comparative discomfort of traveling on a train with no windows and no facilities other than toilets on board, especially as the competing ferry companies had made their ships cleaner and more luxurious. In addition, some people felt it was unnatural and frightening to travel under all that water. There were also fears about terrorist attacks. However unreal-
71
istic such fears were, they certainly interested Hollywood. Every major studio was soon planning a Chunnel disaster movie! At the time of writing, the public attitude is becoming more positive, although very slowly. The direct train services between Paris and London and Brussels and London seem to offer a significant reduction of travel time when compared to travel over the sea and this enterprise has been more of a success. It will not be until the next century, however, that there is a high-speed train to take passengers between the British end of the Chunnel and London. 1. : )
; )
«People who feel seasick can travel by train» ; ) .
-
2. , : 1) This construction is one of the most incredible pieces of engineering connected with some unusual events. 2) Many people did not want to travel by train because of some reasons. 3. : ) The story of the channel is closely connected with the interests of people in different countries; ) Channel tunnel is used to give the possibility to travel, between Britain and France; ) The construction of the tunnel saves much money and time; ) People who feel seasick can travel by train. 4. : What was the purpose of the channel construction? ) People were able to travel between Calais and Folkston; ) People could travel between Britain and the continent; ) People could travel between British end and London; ) People could travel between France and Britain and capital of England.
72
,
Abbreviations a. o. (alternating current) A. D. (Anno domine) a. f. (as follows) a. m. (above mentioned) a. m. (ante meridiem) Appx (appendix) a/c (account) amt (amount) App (appendix) asp (as soon as possible) at (atomic) av (average) . C. (before Christ) b. h. p. (1. British Horse Power, 2. brake horse power) B. R. (British Railways) Cf (compare) cm (centimetre) Co (company) c. to c. (center to center) c/s (cycle per second) Cur. (currency) CV (curriculum vitae) (century) (cirka) d. c. (direct current) dd (dated) dd (delivered) deg. (degree) doc., dct (document) (docs) dia (diameter) el. loc. (electric locomotive) e. g. (example) em. f (electromotive force) etc (et cetera), and so on fig (figure) Ft (foot, feet) Frt (freight)
1. 2.
(1,014 . .)
; ,
73
ga (gauge) Gal. (gallon) (4,5
)
gm (gram) GRP (glass reinforced plastics) hi (half) h. p. (horse power) h. s. (high school) hr (hour) HSLT (high speed land transport)
-
hv (high voltage) hz (hertz) ie (id est) in (inch) kg/m (kilogramme per metre) km km (kilometre) K km/h (kilometre per hour) kw (kilowatt) kv (kilovolt) lb. (libra), pound loc. loc. (locomotive) max (maximum) min (minute) m. (mile) R&D (Research and Development)
(25,4
)
(453,6 )
,
P. S. (post scriptum) ref (reference) R. J. (road junction) R/R (railroad) R-w, Rwy, Ry, rl (railway) p. mi (per mile) r. p. m. (revolution per minute) $ (dollar) sq (square) sq. in (square inch) T (ton) V (volt) viz (vide licet) v. v. (vice versa) van (wagon) V (velocity)
74
,
,
V, v (volume) VIP (very important person) w. g. (weight guaranteed) w. h. (watt hour) y. d (yard) & (and)
1.
. : . :
3.
)
:
.
/
.
. – . I. –
:
.
/
.
. – . II. –
, 2004. – 75 .
2.
, 2006. – 96 . .
/ 4.
: . .
.–
.: 5.
(91,4
.:
, 2010. – 159 . : .
/
.
.
.–
, 2007. – 224 . .,
.
:
./ . . .– : , 1997. – 275 . 6. Learn to Read Science. : . . . . – 10-e .– .: : , 2010. – 360 . 7. ., ., . / . , . , . .– « », 1994. – 288 . 8. . : . / . : , 2009. – 256 .
75
: /
-
:
-
.–
-
. .
13.05.2014. 1 60×84 /16. . . . 4,75. 2014 .
76